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storm strength . Passing south of the Baja California Peninsula , the storm rapidly moved over cooler waters . Howard weakened into a tropical depression at 0600 UTC August 18 . Transversing 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) water , Howard dissipated . Rainfall along the southern coast reached 1 in ( 25 mm ) in some places , with totals in excess of 5 in ( 130 mm ) in isolated locations . Further north , rainfall was more scattered . The maximum rainfall was 9 @.@ 25 in ( 235 mm ) in Reforma , near the southern part of the country .
= = = Tropical Storm Isis = = =
A tropical disturbance developed 265 mi ( 426 km ) south of Socorro Island at 1800 UTC August 18 . Twenty @-@ four hours later the disturbance was upgraded into a tropical depression on August 19 . The depression intensified into Tropical Storm Isis the next day . After peaking as a moderate tropical storm at 1200 UTC August 23 , Isis weakened into a depression over 74 ° F ( 23 ° C ) waters early on August 24 . While located some 1 @,@ 500 mi ( 2 @,@ 400 km ) west of the Mexican coast , the tropical cyclone dissipated later that day .
= = = Hurricane Javier = = =
On August 19 , a tropical disturbance formed 460 mi ( 740 km ) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec and 319 mi ( 513 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas . Satellite imagery began to show signs of developing a circulation , and the disturbance became a tropical depression on August 20 and intensified into Tropical Storm Javier hours later . Southwest of a ridge , Javier began to turn towards the west @-@ northwest . Despite an increase in forward speed , Tropical Storm Javier underwent rapid intensification , reaching hurricane intensity at 0900 UTC August 21 . About three hours later , Javier reached Category 2 strength , and briefly became a major hurricane on August 22 , only to rapidly weaken back to a Category 1 hurricane late on August 23 . Hurricane Javier sharply turned towards the north and eventually towards the northwest . Early on August 24 , Javier resumed intensification , regaining Category 3 intensity at 0600 UTC . Passing midway between Socorro Island and Clarion Island , the storm reached its peak intensity of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . Moving beneath the ridge , Hurricane Javier turned to the west and subsequently weakened back into a Category 3 hurricane .
After briefly re @-@ intensifying into a Category 4 , the storm resumed weakening due to increasing wind shear , and by late on August 25 , Hurricane Javier had weakened directly into a Category 2 hurricane . Shortly thereafter , Javier was downgraded into a Category 1 hurricane . While it managed to maintain marginal hurricane intensity for 24 hours. on 1200 UTC August 28 , the EPHC announced that Javier had weakened back into a tropical storm . Shortly after that , Javier turned towards the west @-@ northwest due an upper @-@ level trough . Now over 74 ° F ( 23 ° C ) waters , the system continued to weaken as wind shear increased further . On August 30 , Javier weakened into a depression and dissipated the next day over 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) southwest of Southern California . Waves were 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high in some areas , prompting meteorologists to issue a high surf advisory . Hurricane Javier brought the highest waves of the summer to southern California .
= = = Tropical Storm Kay = = =
In late August , a tropical disturbance formed 725 mi ( 1 @,@ 165 km ) east @-@ southeast of Hurricane Javier and nearly 370 mi ( 595 km ) south of the Baja California Peninsula . Moving slowly west , the disturbance began to develop a well @-@ defined circulation , and was respectively upgraded into a tropical depression on August 23 . Passing 10 mi ( 20 km ) south of Clarion Island , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Kay . The cyclone 's forward speed increased ; subsequently , Kay reached its peak intensity . After maintaining its intensity for 18 hours , Kay rapidly weakened over cold water , and was downgraded into a depression at 0000 UTC September 2 . Kay dissipated the next day several hundred miles west of the Baja California Peninsula .
= = = Tropical Storm Lester = = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical wave increased in thunderstorm activity , soon organizing into a tropical depression on September 13 . At the time of the upgrade , Lester was located more than 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 450 km ) west of the Mexican coast . Moving towards the west , the depression soon intensified into Tropical Storm Lester . After turning towards the west @-@ northwest , Lester peaked in intensity as a moderate tropical storm . Due to a combination of strong wind shear and cold water , Lester began a slow weakening trend . While entering the CPHC 's area of responsibility at 1800 UTC September 17 , Lester had already weakened to a tropical depression . Unable to maintain a closed circulation , the final advisory was issued .
= = = Tropical Storm Madeline = = =
A tropical disturbance first developed during September 13 and September 14 over the warm waters south of Acapulco . On September 15 , the EPHC first classified the system as a tropical depression . Rapidly moving towards the west , the depression was embedded in deep easterly flow . The system attained tropical storm intensity on 1800 UTC September 16 , thus received the name Madeline . After turning towards the west @-@ northwest , Tropical Storm Madeline accelerated . It began a slow intensification trend , and peaked as a high @-@ end tropical storm on 0600 UTC September 18 . An upper @-@ level low introduced strong wind shear , and Madeline began to fall apart almost immediately thereafter . After turning towards the north , and slowing down , Madeline dissipated on September 22 .
= = = Hurricane Newton = = =
A tropical disturbance became a tropical depression on September 18 . Intensification was slow as the depression did not reach storm status until September 20 . Paralleling the coast , Newton steadily intesifed . Newton strengthened into a hurricane on September 21 . On September 22 , Newton slammed into Cabo San Lucas , and after entering the Gulf of California , Hurricane Newton attained its peak intensity 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Shortly after that , Newton moved inland into the mainland of Mexico . Over land , Newton dissipated on September 23 .
Upon making landfall on the Baja California Peninsula , moderate rainfall was recorded . After the hurricane 's second landfall , damage was also minor , though 40 roofs were ripped off of homes ; trees and utility poles were also downed due to high winds . However , no injuries or fatalities were reported in association with Newton . Newton 's remnants later combined with a cold front to produce heavy rainfall that downed power lines in Kansas City , leaving 20 @,@ 000 customers without power .
= = = Hurricane Orlene = = =
Hurricane Orlene originated from a stationary tropical disturbance that was upgraded into a tropical depression on September 21 . Despite a poorly defined circulation , the cyclone intensified into Tropical Storm Orlene 12 hours after formation . Steadily gaining strength , Orlene reached hurricane intensity on September 22 . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane entered the CPHC 's area of responsibility . Upon the formation of an eye , Orlene reached its peak intensity of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . After maintaining peak intensity for 24 hours , Hurricane Orlene began to encounter strong wind shear . Subsequently , Orlene weakened rapidly and lost hurricane status at 1800 UTC September 23 . The system weakened into a tropical depression on September 24 . Tropical Depression Orelene dissipated the next day .
= = = Hurricane Paine = = =
A tropical disturbance developed on September 27 within 250 mi ( 400 km ) of the Mexican coastline . The disturbance was upgraded into Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Three on 0000 UTC September 28 . Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Three moved west @-@ northwestward , lured poleward by an upper @-@ level trough near northern Mexico . At 0000 UTC September 30 , the depression became Tropical Storm Paine , southwest of Acapulco . Roughly 21 hours later , a NOAA Hurricane Hunter flight found winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) , upgrading Paine into hurricane . The hurricane peaked as a Category 2 hurricane on October 1 as it turned northwest , headed towards the Gulf of California . Hurricane Paine did not intensify further due to the presence of mid @-@ level wind shear and dry air . The outer eyewall moved across Cabo San Lucas , and the resultant land interaction was believed to have slightly weakened the inner core of the hurricane . Paine moved ashore near San José , Sonora with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . The storm weakened as it moved over land going through Mexico and then entering the United States . Paine dissipated on October 4 over Lake Michigan .
Rainfall from the tropical cyclone was significant in Mexico and the United States . Light rain fell in Cabo San Lucas . Meanwhile , rains around the Mexican Mainland peaked at 12 in ( 300 mm ) in Acapulco . Near the area around where it made landfall , strong winds knocked down trees and caused disruptions to city services . In the United States , rainfall peaked at 11 @.@ 35 inches ( 288 mm ) in Fort Scott , Kansas . The Barnsdall , Oklahoma weather station recorded 10 @.@ 42 inches ( 26 @.@ 5 cm ) on September 29 , which set a record for the highest daily precipitation for any station statewide . The flooding affected 52 counties in Oklahoma , which resulted in a total of $ 350 million in damage . In all , Paine was described as one of the worst floods in Oklahoma history . Flooding from Paine resulted in about 1 @,@ 200 people homeless in East Saint Louis , Illinois and resulted in record discharge rates along many streams and creeks . Subsequently , many reservoirs were nearly filled to its capacity . For example , the Mississippi River in St. Louis reached the fifth highest flood stage on record .
= = = Hurricane Roslyn = = =
A tropical disturbance moved westward offshore Nicaragua and was declared Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Four on October 15 .. During the early afternoon of the next day , ship reports indicated the formation of a tropical depression close to land . The cyclone moved at a quick pace towards the west @-@ northwest south of a warm @-@ core ridge . Early on the morning on October 16 , Roslyn became a tropical storm . By the morning of the October 17 , Roslyn had developed into a hurricane south of Acapulco . A vigorous upper trough was deepening offshore Baja California , and Roslyn began to re @-@ curve within a few hundred miles of Manzanillo . The system struck Mazatlán as a marginal hurricane on October 20 . The low @-@ level center rapidly dissipated , although a frontal low developed in the western Gulf of Mexico , which moved over southeastern Texas and later through the Mississippi Valley . The original upper @-@ level circulation maintained its northeast movement , bringing rainfall to the Southeastern United States .
Affecting a sparsely @-@ populated area , the highest reported winds from a land station were 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) . Roslyn produced some flooding , but no serious damage . Impact was limited to flooded homes and factories , as well as some crop damage and beach erosion and only one yacht sunk . The remnants of Hurricane Roslyn produced heavy rainfall across the central and southern United States . In Matagorda , Texas , a total of 13 @.@ 8 in ( 35 cm ) was reported .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the 17 named storms , there were eight tropical depressions during the season that failed to reach tropical storm strength . The second , Tropical Depression Seven , began as a large area of thunderstorms near Hurricane Estelle on July 17 . Moving at a steady pace , the cyclone failed to intensify and attained peak intensity of 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) . Cool sea surface temperatures and its proximity to Hurricane Estelle eventually caused the depression to dissipate late on July 18 .
Tropical Depression Eight formed on July 21 while located 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) southwest of the Baja California Peninsula . Initially moving west @-@ northwest around an upper @-@ level high , the depression peaked with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . It dissipated on July 24 . Another tropical disturbance formed on July 24 . An circulation developed two days later , and thus it was classified as Tropical Depression Ten . The cyclone remained a tropical depression for about three days before moving into the CPHC 's area of responsibility on 1000 UTC July 27 . A slow weakening trend began as the depression continued to move west at speeds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . By 1800 UTC on July 29 , it had become poorly organized around 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Hawaiian Islands , and the final advisory was issued .
Tropical Depression One @-@ C formed on July 27 , possibly from the remnants of Tropical Depression Eight that dissipated a few days earlier well to the east of 140 ° W. The depression tracked westward at a fairly rapid forward speed of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) ; however , it failed to develop past the depression stage . One @-@ C passed well south of the Hawaiian Islands on July 28 . On July 29 at 0000 UTC , it had dissipated to the southwest of the Hawaiian Islands and the final advisory was issued by the CPHC .
An area of disturbed weather developed a circulation on August 12 and was upgraded into Tropical Depression Twelve nearly 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) south of the Baja California Peninsula . It drifted slowly to the northwest until it dissipated near 22 ° N 110 ° W on August 14 . Peak maximum sustained winds were estimated at 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Tropical Depression Seventeen formed on September 8 , 30 km ( 20 mi ) east of Socorro Island and dissipated on September 9 over cold water without becoming a tropical storm .
One of the last cyclones of the season formed from a westward @-@ moving tropical disturbance in the ITCZ . The disturbance moved at about 10 mph ( 20 km / h ) and upon developing a circulation , was declared Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ One at 0600 UTC September 19 . However the depression lasted for only six hours before dissipating , likely due to the close distance between it and Tropical Storm Madeline . Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Five was the final tropical depression of the 1986 season . It formed on October 22 at 1800 UTC near the 140 ° W line . Due to strong wind shear , the stationary storm had dissipated within 30 hours of formation . Even though no more official systems developed , a forecaster at the National Hurricane Center remarked that an unnamed tropical storm may have formed in November .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1986 . No names were retired , so it was used again in the 1992 season . This is the same list used for the 1980 season . Storms were named Paine and Roslyn for the first time in 1986 , while Orlene was previously used on the old four @-@ year lists . No central Pacific names were used ; the first name used would have been Oka . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= Alfred Denning , Baron Denning =
Alfred Thompson " Tom " Denning , Baron Denning , OM , PC , DL ( 23 January 1899 – 5 March 1999 ) , commonly known as Lord Denning , was an English lawyer and judge . He gained degrees in mathematics and law at Oxford University , although his studies were disrupted by his service in the First World War . He then began his legal career , distinguishing himself as a barrister and becoming a King 's Counsel in 1938 .
Denning became a judge in 1944 with an appointment to the Probate , Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice and was made a Lord Justice of Appeal in 1948 after less than five years in the High Court . He became a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary in 1957 and after five years in the House of Lords returned to the Court of Appeal as Master of the Rolls in 1962 , a position he held for twenty years . In retirement he wrote several books and continued to offer opinions on the state of the common law through his writing and his position in the House of Lords .
One of the most publicly known judges thanks to his report on the Profumo Affair , Denning was held in high regard by much of the judiciary , the Bar and the public , and was noted for his bold judgments running counter to the law at the time . During his 38 @-@ year career as a judge he made large changes to the common law , particularly while in the Court of Appeal , and although many of his decisions were overturned by the House of Lords several of them were confirmed by Parliament , which passed statutes in line with his judgments . Although appreciated for his role as ' the people 's judge ' and his support for the individual , Denning was also controversial for his campaign against the common law principle of precedent , for comments he made regarding the Birmingham Six and Guildford Four and as Master of the Rolls for his conflict with the House of Lords .
= = Early life and studies = =
Denning was born on 23 January 1899 in Whitchurch , Hampshire , to Charles Denning , a draper , and his wife Clara Denning ( née Thompson ) . He was one of six children ; his older brother Reginald Denning later became a noted staff officer with the British Army , and his younger brother Norman Denning became Director of Naval Intelligence and Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff ( Intelligence ) . Denning was born two months earlier than expected and almost died at birth ; he was so small and weak that he was nicknamed ' Tom Thumb ' and could fit in a pint pot . He was named after Alfred the Great by his sister Marjorie , and was baptised on 23 April 1899 at All Hallows Church , Whitchurch .
Denning , along with his older brother Gordon , began his schooling at the National School of Whitchurch , one of many set up by the National Society for the Education of the Poor . Both boys won scholarships to Andover Grammar School , where Denning excelled academically , winning four prizes for English essays on the subjects of " The Great Authors " , " Macaulay " , " Carlyle " and " Milton " . The outbreak of the First World War saw most of the schoolmasters leave to join the British armed forces , being replaced by female teachers . At the time Denning wanted to become a mathematician , but none of the new teachers knew enough mathematics to teach him ; instead , he taught himself . He qualified to study at University College , Southampton , but was advised to stay at school and apply to Oxford or Cambridge in a few years . He sat the Oxbridge examination when he was sixteen and was awarded a £ 30 a year exhibition to study mathematics at Magdalen College , Oxford ; the money was not enough to live on , but he accepted nevertheless . Although he had been accepted by a college he still needed to gain entry to the university as a whole , which meant passing exams including Greek – which had not been taught at Andover Grammar School . Denning managed to teach himself enough of the subject to pass , and matriculated to Oxford in 1916 .
In addition to his Magdalen Scholarship he had a scholarship from Hampshire County Council worth £ 50 a year . After arriving he made a favourable impression on Sir Herbert Warren , the President of Magdalen College , who upgraded the exhibition to a Demyship of £ 80 a year and arranged for the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths to give Denning a £ 30 a year scholarship . Despite military training in the early morning and evening , Denning worked hard at his studies , and obtained a First in Mathematical Moderations , the first half of his mathematics degree , in June 1917 .
= = War service = =
Denning was told he would be ineligible to serve in the Armed Forces because of a systolic heart murmur , which he believed the doctor diagnosed because he was tired of sending young men off to die . He successfully appealed against the decision , and enlisted on 14 August 1917 as a cadet in the Hampshire Regiment before being sent to the Royal Engineers Oxford University Officer Training Corps . He trained at Newark and was temporarily commissioned as a second lieutenant on 17 November 1917 . Although he was old enough to serve in the armed forces , regulations meant that he was not allowed to serve in France until he was nineteen .
In March 1918 the German Army advanced closer to Amiens and Paris , and Denning 's unit was sent to France to help stop the advance . Under continuous shell fire for three months , the company and the 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division held their section of the line , with a unit under Denning 's command building a bridge to allow infantry to advance over the River Ancre . Denning went two days without sleep while building these bridges ; shortly after one was completed , a German aeroplane dropped a bomb on it , forcing them to start again . The unit advanced over the River Ancre and the Canal du Nord , but Denning fell ill with influenza and was in hospital for the last few days of the war .
= = Return to Oxford = =
Denning was demobilised on 6 February 1919 , and returned to Magdalen College four days later . He initially thought about turning to applied mathematics , but decided on pure mathematics . He studied hard , not participating in any of the university 's numerous societies or clubs so that he could better focus on his work , and graduated in 1920 with a first in Mathematical Greats . He was offered a job teaching mathematics at Winchester College for £ 350 a year , which he accepted . As well as mathematics , he taught geology , despite not having studied it ; instead , he " read up on [ it ] the night before " . He found the job boring , and after viewing the Assize Court at Winchester Castle decided he would like to be a barrister .
On the advice of Herbert Warren , he returned to Magdalen to study Jurisprudence in October 1921 . Thanks to Warren , Denning was elected to the Eldon Law Scholarship , worth £ 100 a year , to finance his studies ; when the news of Denning 's election was brought , Warren wrote " you are a marked man . Perhaps you will be a Lord of Appeal some day " . Denning took his final examinations in June 1922 and impressed the examiner , Geoffrey Cheshire , by correctly answering questions on the Law of Property Act which had been given Royal Assent only a few days before .
Denning gained a first in all his subjects except jurisprudence , which he described as " too abstract a subject for my liking " . He did not return to study for a Bachelor of Civil Law ( BCL ) but instead attempted to gain a " prize fellowship " at All Souls College , Oxford ; he failed to be accepted , something he put down to his poor pronunciation of Latin .
= = The Bar = =
Denning was admitted to Lincoln 's Inn on 4 November 1921 , choosing it because the Under Treasurer was a graduate of Magdalen College . On the advice of his brother 's friend Frank Merriman he applied to 4 Brick Court , Middle Temple Lane , a small set of chambers run by Henry O 'Hagan . He was accepted and began work there in September 1922 , before he had taken his final bar exam . He finished his final exam in May 1923 and came top in the bar examination , with the Inn awarding him a 100 guineas a year studentship of three years . He was called to the Bar on 13 June 1923 , and was offered a tenancy by O 'Hagan . His first few years were spent receiving small briefs from a variety of clients , including work prosecuting those who failed to pay rail tickets and fines . During this time he also wrote a manual for the railway police giving guidance on incidents such as taxi drivers who refused to take a customer to a destination within the area specified by the Public Carriage Office ( which they were legally obliged to do ) . He wrote his first article in 1924 titled " Quantum Meruit and the Statute of Frauds " on the decision in Scott v Pattison [ 1923 ] 2 KB 723 ; it was accepted by the Law Quarterly Review and published in January 1925 .
His work steadily increased in amount and quality throughout the 1920s and ' 30s . By the 1930s he was making most of his court appearances in the senior courts such as the High Court of Justice ; in 1932 he was advised by his clerk that he should not be seen in the County Courts , and that he should leave this work for lesser members of the chambers . In 1929 he helped edit several chapters of Smith 's Leading Cases ( 13th ed . ) and in 1932 acted as a supervising editor for the 9th edition of Bullen & Leake 's Precedents for Pleadings in the King 's Bench Division . In 1932 he moved to his own set of chambers in Brick Court , and by 1936 he was earning over £ 3 @,@ 000 a year . A notable case was L 'Estrange v F Graucob Ltd [ 1934 ] 2 KB 394 , where he successfully argued an exemption clause was incorporated because a contract was signed . This was counter to his work as a judge , where he tried to minimise their impact , but he said that ' If you are an advocate you want your client to win . If you are a judge you don 't care who wins exactly . All you are concerned about is justice ' .
From 1937 until 1944 he worked as Chancellor of the Diocese of Southwark , and from 1942 to 1944 was Chancellor of the Diocese of London . He applied to become a King 's Counsel on 15 January 1938 . The appointments were announced on 7 April ; he was sworn in on 9 April and received letters of congratulation from , among others , Rayner Goddard . After the start of the Second World War , Denning volunteered ; he was too old for active service , and was instead appointed legal advisor to the North East Region . In 1942 he took the case of Gold v Essex County Council [ 1942 ] 2 KB 293 , which changed the law to make hospitals liable for the professional negligence of their staff .
In December 1943 a judge was taken ill , and Denning was asked to take his place as a Commissioner of Assize . This was regarded as a ' trial ' for membership of the judiciary , and Denning was appointed Recorder of Plymouth on 17 February 1944 . On 6 March 1944 , while arguing a case in the House of Lords , Denning was taken aside by the Lord Chancellor and told that he wanted Denning to become a judge at the High Court of Justice in the Probate , Admiralty and Divorce Division . Denning accepted , and the announcement was made before the conclusion of the trial .
= = High Court = =
Denning was officially appointed on 7 March 1944 with a salary of £ 5 @,@ 000 , and received the customary knighthood on 15 March 1944 . After becoming a judge Denning was also elected a Bencher of Lincoln 's Inn , and became its Treasurer in 1964 . Denning had little experience with divorce law and disliked it ; it was seen as an inferior type of law . There were few good barristers specialising in divorce law ; two other barristers were sworn into the Probate , Divorce and Admiralty Division along with Denning , and of the three only one had ever practised divorce law . His work as a divorce judge was relatively sound ; his decisions were overturned only once , in Churchman v Churchman [ 1945 ] 2 All ER 190 .
With the appointment of Lord Jowitt as Lord Chancellor in 1945 Denning was transferred to the King 's Bench Division , where Jowitt thought his talents would be better put to use ( with Hildreth Glyn @-@ Jones QC , later a High Court judge , greeting him with the words ' welcome home ' ) .
In 1946 he travelled the Western Circuit but was recalled by the Lord Chancellor to chair a committee looking at the reform of procedure in divorce cases . He continued working as a judge while chairing the daily committee . The committee was appointed on 26 June 1946 and published its first report in July , which reduced the time between decree nisi and decree absolute from 6 months to 6 weeks . The second report was published in November , recommending that County Court judges should be appointed to try cases , and the final report was published in February 1947 recommending the establishment of a Marriage Welfare Service . The reports were well received by the public and led to Denning being invited in 1949 to become President of the National Marriage Guidance Council .
His appointment to the King 's Bench Division allowed him to hear pension appeals , and he attempted to reform the principles applied by the government minister and the Pensions Tribunals . In Starr v Ministry of Pensions [ 1946 ] 1 KB 345 he ruled that it was up to the tribunals to prove that an injury was not due to war service , reversing the previous state of affairs where a claimant would have to prove their injuries were due to war service before they would be granted a pension . In James v Minister of Pensions [ 1947 ] KB 867 he also allowed for judges to approve time extensions for the claimant to gather more evidence when such extensions had been rejected by the Tribunal . These two cases made a large difference to applicants , and he received praise from both the British Legion and the public .
The government refused to do anything about those servicemen who had been rejected by the courts prior to Denning 's judgment , which provoked public outcry under the slogan ' Fit for Service , Fit for Pension ' . The British Legion chose 73 cases and asked Denning to let the Legion present them while the courts were not sitting ; Denning heard all 73 cases on 11 July 1946 .
In 1947 he decided in Central London Property Trust Ltd v High Trees House Ltd [ 1947 ] KB 130 ( known as the ' High Trees ' case ) , which was a milestone in English contract law . It resurrected the principle of promissory estoppel established in Hughes v Metropolitan Railway Co ( 1876 – 77 ) LR 2 App Cas 439 and has been both praised and criticised by lawyers and legal theorists .
As a High Court judge Denning sentenced people to death , which he said at the time " didn 't worry [ him ] in the least " . Denning maintained that for murder , death was the most appropriate penalty , and that in cases where mistakes had been made there was always an appeals system . In the 1950s there was growing opposition to the use of the death penalty , and a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate abolishing it . Denning told the Commission in 1953 that " the punishment inflicted for grave crimes should adequately reflect the revulsion felt by the great majority of citizens for them " .
He later changed his mind about capital punishment , regarding it as unethical . In 1984 he wrote " Is it right for us , as a society , to do a thing – hang a man – which none of us individually would be prepared to do or even witness ? The answer is ' no , not in a civilised society ' " .
= = Court of Appeal = =
After less than five years as a judge , Denning was appointed a Lord Justice of Appeal on 14 October 1948 . He was sworn in as a Privy Counsellor on 25 October 1948 . As a Lord Justice of Appeal he continued to make reforming judgments in a variety of areas , particularly in family law and the rights of deserted wives . In 1952 the Court of Appeal heard Bendall v McWhirter [ 1952 ] 2 QB 466 and ruled that a deserted wife occupying the marital home had a personal licence to stay there . The decision provoked disapproval among the judiciary and from the public ; a correspondent wrote :
Dear Sir : You are a disgrace to all mankind to let these women break up homes and expect us chaps to keep them while they rob us of what we have worked for and put us out on the street . I only hope you have the same trouble as us . So do us all a favour and take a Rolls and run off Beachy Head and don 't come back .
The House of Lords effectively nullified Denning 's work with the case National Provincial Bank Ltd v Ainsworth [ 1965 ] AC 1175 in 1965 , which ruled that the deserted wife had no licence to stay . The decision was very unpopular and led to the passing of the Matrimonial Homes Act 1967 , which partially restored Denning 's judgment in the form of a statute . Much of his work in favour of the deserted wife was based around his interpretation of the Married Women 's Property Act 1882 , which the House of Lords unanimously overruled in Pettitt v Pettitt [ 1970 ] AC 777 in 1970 . Further notable decisions by Denning in this area were Heseltine v Heseltine [ 1971 ] 1 WLR 342 in 1971 and Wachtel v Wachtel [ 1973 ] Fam 72 in 1973 , which created basic rules for dividing family assets in a divorce case , something which had not previously been established in the law .
In 1951 he gave a noted dissenting judgment in the case Candler v Crane , Christmas & Co regarded as a ' brilliant advancement to the law of negligent misstatements ' and which was later approved of by the House of Lords in Hedley Byrne v Heller & Partners Ltd [ 1963 ] 2 All ER 575 . In Combe v Combe in 1952 he elaborated on his resurrected doctrine of promissory estoppel , saying that it could be a ' shield ' not a ' sword ' ; it could be used to defend a claim , but not to create a cause of action where none existed . In 1954 his decision in Roe v Minister of Health [ 1954 ] 2 AER 131 altered the grounds on which hospital staff could be found negligent , a legal precedent he himself had set in Gold v Essex County Council in 1942 . In 1955 his leading judgment in Entores Ltd v Miles Far East Corporation [ 1955 ] 2 QB 327 implemented a way to judge the moment of acceptance in an instantaneous or near @-@ instantaneous method of communication ; like the ' High Trees ' case it is still valid .
= = House of Lords = =
After the resignation of Lord Oaksey in 1956 Denning was offered a job as a Law Lord . After a period of contemplation ( he worried that such an appointment would reduce his chances of becoming Master of the Rolls or Lord Chief Justice ) he accepted , and was formally offered the job on 5 April 1957 . He was appointed on 24 April 1957 , as Baron Denning , of Whitchurch in the County of Southampton ; for the supporters of his coat of arms he chose Lord Mansfield and Sir Edward Coke . Many members of the judiciary and the Bar approved of his appointment , but he was warned that he should move slowly to reform the court . During his time in the House of Lords he also served as Chairman of the Quarter Sessions of East Sussex . During his time in the House of Lords Denning frequently expressed dissenting opinions , including in a Privy Council case where he argued a dissenting opinion despite the fact that Privy Council cases only allowed one opinion to be expressed . Denning did not enjoy his time in the House of Lords and clashed frequently with Viscount Simonds , who was known as a conservative and orthodox judge . Despite his reputation as a fiercely individual judge , Denning dissented in only 16 % of cases he heard in the House of Lords ; fewer than Lord Keith , who dissented 22 % of the time . On 9 May 1960 , Denning was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of Sussex .
= = Master of the Rolls = =
In 1962 Lord Evershed resigned as Master of the Rolls , and Denning was appointed to replace him on 19 April 1962 with a salary of £ 9 @,@ 000 . Although Denning himself described it as ' a step down ' he was pleased with his appointment , as he had much preferred his time with the Court of Appeal than the House of Lords . Court of Appeal judges sit in threes , and the Lords in fives ( or more ) , so it was suggested that to get his way in the Court of Appeal Denning only had to persuade one other judge whereas in the House of Lords it was at least two . The other ' benefit ' of the Court of Appeal is that it hears more cases than the House of Lords , and so has a greater effect on the law . During his twenty years as Master of the Rolls , Denning could choose both which cases he heard , and the judges with whom he sat . Therefore , on most issues , he effectively had the last word ; comparatively few cases went on to the House of Lords , which was at that time Britain 's highest court of law .
As Master of the Rolls he selected cases he felt to be particularly important to hear and , rather than having an American system ( where judges had a rota for taking cases ) , assigned cases to those judges who had expertise in that particular area of law . In 1963 he chaired a committee investigating ways to reduce the archive of legal documents kept by the Public Record Office ; by that point the files for civil cases of the High Court alone occupied four miles of shelving . The final report was presented to the Lord Chancellor on 16 May 1966 , with the conclusion being that ' if our proposals are implemented the Public Record Office alone will be relieved of two hundred tons of records ( occupying 15 @,@ 000 feet of shelving ) ' . The Lord Chancellor took Denning 's report to heart , and had the changes he recommended implemented immediately .
= = = Contract law = = =
Denning gave the leading judgment in D & C Builders Ltd v Rees [ 1965 ] 2 QB 617 in 1965 . D & C Builders Ltd ( the respondent ) had been hired by Rees ( the appellant ) to do some construction work at his shop , where he sold building materials . The respondent finished the work and repeatedly phoned the appellant to request the money they were owed . After three
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phone calls spread out over several months the appellant 's wife spoke to the respondents ; she said there were several problems with the work that they had done , and she would only pay £ 300 of the £ 482 owed . The respondents replied that £ 300 would barely cover the costs of the materials , but that they would accept it anyway . If the respondents had not received the money they would have gone bankrupt , something the appellant 's wife was well aware of . In his judgement , Denning modified English case law on part payment and accord and satisfaction , saying that the rules on part payment can be set aside in situations where one of the parties is under duress . The fact that D & C Builders were effectively forced into accepting the lesser amount meant that the payment was not valid .
In Thornton v Shoe Lane Parking Ltd [ 1971 ] 2 QB 163 in 1971 the Court of Appeal under Denning ruled that when dealing with offer and acceptance between a person and an automated machine the offer was made by the machine . In Butler Machine Tool Co Ltd v Ex @-@ Cell @-@ O Corp Ltd [ 1979 ] 1 WLR 401 in 1979 Denning reformed case law in relation to the so @-@ called ' Battle of the Forms ' .
= = = Tort law = = =
Denning gave the leading judgment in Letang v Cooper [ 1964 ] 2 All ER 929 in 1964 . Mrs Letang , on holiday in Cornwall , decided to lie down and rest in grass outside a hotel . Cooper drove into the hotel car park and , not seeing Letang , ran over her legs . More than three years after the events , Letang brought a tort case against Cooper , claiming damages for her injuries . The standard tort for personal injuries is that of negligence , which has a three @-@ year statute of limitations , and Letang instead claimed damages under the tort of Trespass to the Person . In his judgment , Denning stated that the tort of Trespass could only be used if the injury was inflicted intentionally ; if it was unintentionally , only negligence could be used .
In Spartan Steel and Alloys Ltd v Martin & Co . Ltd [ 1973 ] 1 QB 27 in 1973 he delivered a leading judgment on the subject of the recovery of pure economic loss in negligence . Spartan Steel were a company that manufactured stainless steel in Birmingham , and their factory was powered by electricity . Less than a mile away from the factory Martin & Co were doing maintenance work on a road when they accidentally unearthed and damaged the power cable providing the factory with electricity . Due to the power being off the factory lost a large amount of money ; £ 368 on damaged goods , £ 400 on the profits they would have made from those goods and £ 1 @,@ 767 for the steel they could not make due to the power outage . The question was what Spartan Steel could claim money for . Martin & Co agreed they were negligent , and offered to pay for the damaged goods and the profit that Spartan Steel would have made on those goods , but refused to pay damages for the steel Spartan Steel could not make due to the power outage . In his judgment Denning agreed that they would only have to pay for losses associated with the damaged goods , not the money lost on the steel that could not be made due to the power outage because it counted as pure economic loss . For public policy reasons Denning would not allow the recovery of pure economic loss , stating in his judgement that :
Statutory utility providers are never liable for damages caused by their negligence .
A blackout is a common hazard and a risk which everyone can be expected to tolerate from time to time .
If claims for pure economic loss in such cases were allowed , it might lead to countless claims , some of which may be spurious .
It would be unfair to place the entire weight of many comparatively small losses upon the shoulders of one person in such cases .
The law does not leave the claimant without remedy by allowing him to recover the economic losses that are directly consequential upon physical damage .
The Court of Appeal 's decision in Spartan Steel has been criticised , firstly for being based on public policy rather than any legal principle , and secondly because the main public policy ground for their decision ( that allowing claims of pure economic loss would lead to countless claims ) has never been backed up by evidence . The House of Lords eventually ruled in Junior Books v Veitchi [ 1982 ] 3 All ER 201 that pure economic loss was recoverable .
= = = The Profumo Affair = = =
Denning became best known as a result of his report into the Profumo Affair . John Profumo was the Secretary of State for War with the British government . At a party in 1961 Profumo was introduced to Christine Keeler , a showgirl , and began having an affair with her . At the same time she was in a relationship with Yevgeni Ivanov , a naval attaché at the embassy of the Soviet Union . On 26 January 1963 Keeler was contacted by police on an unrelated matter and voluntarily gave them information about her relationship with Profumo .
The police did not initially investigate ; no crime had been committed , and the morals of ministers were not their concern . Although the relationship lasted only a few weeks it became public knowledge in 1962 . Keeler attempted to publish her memoirs in the Sunday Pictorial in January 1963 but Profumo , still insisting that he had done nothing wrong , forced them to back down with threats of legal action should the story be published .
Profumo made a statement in the House of Commons on 22 March , saying that " there was no impropriety whatsoever in my acquaintanceship with Miss Keeler " . On 4 June 1963 he contacted the Chief Whip and the Prime Minister 's private secretary and informed them that he had indeed been having an affair with Keeler ; therefore , he sent a letter of resignation to the Prime Minister , which was accepted .
On 21 June 1963 Harold Macmillan , the Prime Minister at the time , asked Denning to lead an enquiry into the " circumstances leading to the resignation of the former Secretary of State for War , Mr J. D. Profumo " . He started work on 24 June and began speaking to witnesses a day later . This period of the inquiry took 49 days and involved his speaking to 160 people . He concluded that the primary responsibility for the scandal was with Profumo , for associating with Keeler and for lying to his colleagues , with the greatest error being his false statement in the House of Commons .
He also said that the situation had been looked at in the wrong way by police , members of parliament and the security services ; rather than asking if Profumo had committed adultery they should have asked if his conduct had led ordinary people to believe he committed adultery . His analogy was with divorce law ; a man does not need to have committed adultery for his wife to have grounds to divorce him , but rather she simply has to believe that he has committed adultery . This is because such a belief would destroy the trust and confidence within the relationship . This brought criticism from several government ministers including Sir John Hobson , the Attorney @-@ General for England and Wales , saying that it would mean condemning a man on the basis of suspicion rather than evidence .
Denning 's final report was 70 @,@ 000 words long and was completed in the summer of 1963 . He signed it on 16 September and it was published ten days later . It was a best @-@ seller ; 105 @,@ 000 copies were sold , 4 @,@ 000 in the first hour , with people queuing outside Her Majesty 's Stationery Office to buy copies . The full report was published in The Daily Telegraph as a supplement and was described as " the raciest and most readable Blue Book ever published " .
The report was criticised as a " whitewash " , a claim Denning rejected ; he said that " while the public interest demands that the facts should be ascertained as completely as possible there is a higher interest to be considered , namely the interest of justice to the individual which overrides all others " .
= = = National Security = = =
In 1977 , Denning upheld the deportation of Mark Hosenball , a journalist who had worked on a story which referred to the existence of GCHQ , which was considered to be a state secret . In the ruling , he argued that the government 's decisions in these cases were beyond legal review , writing :
" There is a conflict here between the interests of national security on the one hand and the freedom of the individual on the other . The balance between these two is not for a court of law . It is for the Home Secretary . He is the person entrusted by Parliament with the task . In some parts of the world national security has on occasions been used as an excuse for all sorts of infringements of individual liberty . But not in England . "
= = = Illness and controversy = = =
In 1979 he began to experience hip and leg problems ; one of his legs had shortened an inch and a half and he had to learn to walk again . Although he remained otherwise in good health this was a sign of his increasing age , and the disabilities that came with it began to affect his judgments as well . While speaking at Cumberland Lodge in 1980 he forgot the details of the case , something shocking for a judge noted for his excellent memory .
In the UPW 's anti @-@ apartheid boycott of postal services to and from South Africa , the Freedom Association sought an injunction to prevent the boycott . Lord Denning granted a temporary injunction , and years later wrote of " bad workers " ( who joined the boycott ) and " good workers " ( who worked normally ) .
In 1980 , during an appeal by the Birmingham Six ( who were later acquitted ) Lord Denning judged that the men should be stopped from challenging legal decisions . He listed several reasons for not allowing their appeal :
Just consider the course of events if their action were to proceed to trial ... If the six men failed it would mean that much time and money and worry would have been expended by many people to no good purpose . If they won , it would mean that the police were guilty of perjury ; that they were guilty of violence and threats ; that the confessions were involuntary and improperly admitted in evidence ; and that the convictions were erroneous . ... That was such an appalling vista that every sensible person would say , " It cannot be right that these actions should go any further . "
In 1982 he published What Next in the Law ; in it , he seemed to suggest some members of the black community were unsuitable to serve on juries , and that immigrant groups may have had different moral standards to native Englishmen . His remarks followed a trial over the St Pauls riot in Bristol ; two jurors on the case threatened to sue him and the Society of Black Lawyers wrote to the Lord Chancellor to request that Denning " politely and firmly " be made to retire . Denning apologised for his remarks on 21 May and handed a letter to the Lord Chancellor detailing his resignation , effective as of 29 September .
On 5 July George Thomas held a dinner in Denning 's honour at the Speaker 's House . Attending were Margaret Thatcher , Robert Runcie , Lord Hailsham , Geoffrey Howe , Lord Lane , William Whitelaw , Michael Havers and Christopher Leaver . On 30 July 1982 , his last day in court , Denning prepared four judgments and , dressed in his official robes and in the company of the Lord Chief Justice , delivered his farewell speech to over 300 lawyers crowded into the court . He delivered his last judgment on 29 September in George Mitchell ( Chesterhall ) Ltd v Finney Lock Seeds Ltd [ 1983 ] 2 AC 803 and , characteristically , dissented .
= = Retirement and death = =
In retirement Denning moved to Whitchurch and continued the work he had done outside court hours , lecturing and presenting awards . He also on occasion dispensed legal advice ; in February 1983 he advised Patrick Evershed on the statutory duties of water suppliers . Further hip troubles were resolved with a full replacement in March 1983 , although a fall later that year forced him to stay at home for six weeks . With free time on his hands Denning spoke in the House of Lords on matters that interested him , supporting an amendment to the Abortion Act 1967 and bills designed to allow the administration of companies in financial difficulties .
In 1983 he published the final volume of his autobiography The Closing Chapter and a year later published Landmarks in the Law . His final book titled Leaves from my Library was published in 1986 ; it was a collection of his favourite pieces of prose , and was subtitled " An English Anthology " . He appeared in an episode of the children 's television programme Jim 'll Fix It , helping to grant a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old girl 's wish to be a barrister for a day . By 1989 his health was failing ; he was suffering from dizzy spells , and after falling from a train at Waterloo Station he was advised he should not visit London again unless he was driven .
In the summer of 1990 he agreed to a taped interview with A.N. Wilson , to be published in The Spectator . They discussed the Guildford Four ; Denning remarked that if the Guildford Four had been hanged " They 'd probably have hanged the right men . Just not proved against them , that 's all " . His remarks were controversial and came at a time when the issue of miscarriage of justice was a sensitive topic . He had expressed a similar controversial opinion regarding the Birmingham Six in 1988 , saying : " Hanging ought to be retained for murder most foul . We shouldn 't have all these campaigns to get the Birmingham Six released if they 'd been hanged . They 'd have been forgotten , and the whole community would be satisfied ... It is better that some innocent men remain in jail than that the integrity of the English judicial system be impugned . "
On 25 November 1997 he was made a member of the Order of Merit ; by this point he was too weak to travel to London to receive it , so instead a representative of the Queen travelled to Whitchurch to present it to him .
He celebrated his 100th birthday in Whitchurch on 23 January 1999 , receiving telegrams from both the Queen and Queen Mother . A male choir sang " Happy Birthday to You " and the local church had a new bell named " Great Tom " cast in his honour specifically for the occasion . By this point his health had deteriorated even further ; he was legally blind , required a hearing aid and only ventured outside on a motorised buggy . On 5 March 1999 he fell ill and was rushed to Royal Hampshire County Hospital , where he died of an internal haemorrhage .
Denning was buried in his home town of Whitchurch , in the local churchyard . A memorial service was held at Westminster Abbey on 17 June 1999 ; among the tributes received , one was from the Lord Chief Justice Lord Bingham , who described Denning as ' the best @-@ known and best loved judge in our history ' .
= = Other work = =
As well as his work as a barrister and judge , Denning was involved in supporting student law societies and other groups ; at various times he was Vice @-@ President of Queen 's University Belfast Law Society and a patron of the Legal Research Foundation , the United Law Clerks ' Society and the Commonwealth Legal Education Association . He also spent time as the Vice @-@ President of the Society of Genealogists , Honorary President of the Council for the Protection of Rural England and Honorary President of the Glasgow University Dialectic Society . From 1950 he acted as an administrator and fund @-@ raiser for Cumberland Lodge . After being made aware of the Le Court charity for invalid ex @-@ servicemen by Geoffrey Cheshire Denning became the chairman of the organisation in 1952 . In 1953 he was elected President of Birkbeck College , University of London and on 18 March presented the 1952 Haldane Memorial Lecture on the subject of the rule of law and the welfare state . In 1964 he was made President of the English Association in recognition of his contributions to English prose . He became Chairman of the Historical Manuscripts Commission in 1962 , resigning in December 1982 .
In 1949 he gave four lectures at the Senate House , University of London on behalf of the Hamlyn Trust titled Freedom under the Law . The success of these lectures led to his being invited to speak at many more events ; in early 1950 he spoke at University College , Dublin and in June spoke at the Holdsworth Club meeting at Birmingham University . In February 1953 he gave a speech on ' the need for a new equity ' to the Bentham Club at University College London , and in May gave the thirty @-@ third Earl Grey Memorial Lecture at King 's College , University of Durham ( now , part of Newcastle University ) , on the influence of religion on law . Towards the end of his judicial career he gave the 1980 Richard Dimbleby Lecture on the subject of " Misuse of Power " .
In addition to being a Bencher of Lincoln 's Inn in 1944 he was made an Honorary Bencher of Middle Temple in 1972 , Gray 's Inn in 1979 and Inner Temple in 1982 , making him the only person to be elected a Bencher or Honorary Bencher of all four Inns of Court . In 1963 he was made a Doctor of Civil Law by the University of Oxford . He was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of Hampshire on 2 June 1978 .
= = Foreign travels = =
Throughout his career Denning travelled to a variety of foreign countries to lecture and learn more about other legal systems . In 1954 he was sponsored by the Nuffield Foundation to travel to South Africa and visit the universities there in the court vacation . He visited all six universities , accompanied by his son Robert and wife Joan , lecturing on the role of the judiciary and the press in safeguarding freedom . In 1955 he travelled to the United States at the behest of the American Bar Association and was elected an honorary member , followed by a trip to Canada a year later as a guest of the Canadian Bar Association , where he was awarded an honorary law doctorate by the University of Ottawa and made a life member of the Canadian Bar Association . In 1958 he visited Israel and from there travelled to Poland , where he was surprised by both the number of female judges and how badly they were paid . In 1961 he travelled again to Israel to give the Lionel Cohen Lecture at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem .
In January 1964 he and his wife Joan travelled to India and Pakistan , visiting major cities such as Madras and Jaipur , meeting eminent jurists and speaking with Jawaharlal Nehru . He again visited Canada and the United States in the long vacation of 1964 and addressed a full conference hall in New York . On 14 August 1965 he and his wife flew to South America for a month @-@ long tour of the continent sponsored by the British Council . The couple visited Brazil , Uruguay , Argentina , Chile and Peru before flying north to visit Mexico City . On 6 January 1966 they flew to Malta , where Denning spoke at various legal conferences and lectures . In the same year they flew to San Francisco , Fiji and finally to New Zealand to take part in the law conference at Dunedin , New Zealand . His lecture at the conference so impressed an Australian visitor that he was invited in 1967 to speak at the Australian Law Society annual conference . While there , he spoke at a student meeting at the University of Sydney ; while the previous speaker received a slow hand @-@ clap , Denning was given a standing ovation and the student law society was named the Denning Law Society in his honour . On the way home the couple made a stop at Delhi , where they gave a dinner for members of the Indian Bar who had welcomed them during their visit in 1964 . In 1968 they again visited Canada , and Denning was given an honorary degree by McGill University . In 1969 he again travelled to India , this time on an official visit with Elwyn Jones and Sir John Widgery .
In 1970 he travelled to Fiji to arbitrate in a dispute between some Fijian sugar @-@ cane growers and the Australian owners of the refining mills , which he was permitted to do on the condition he did not take a fee . Denning refused to have any contact with the government as a way to emphasise his neutrality in the situation . The agreements between growers and millers had been based on a contract written in 1961 due to end in March 1970 . The growers did not understand the price formula used and were convinced that they were getting a bad deal ; in response to their demand for better terms the mill @-@ owners threatened to leave Fiji . Despite criticism from both sides at the beginning of the arbitration process Denning came up with a solution which appeased both sides , creating a new formula for working out prices and requiring that the mill owners have an accountant inspect their accounts and report back to the growers . Denning 's decision impressed the Foreign and Commonwealth Office , who invited him to report on the banana growing industry in Jamaica in the vacation of 1971 . His foreign travels to lecture on English law led to him being described as the " Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large for the common law " .
= = Judicial style = =
Denning was noted for his excellent memory , repeating notes almost verbatim in his exams at Oxford and on one occasion identifying the exact book , page and paragraph of text in a judgment that covered a particular situation . As a judge he attempted to make his decisions and the law publicly understandable , believing that the public would not want to follow the law unless they believed and understood that it was just . In his cases he referred to the parties by name in his judgments rather than as " plaintiff " and " defendant " and used short sentences and a " storytelling " style of speech shown in the case Beswick v Beswick where his judgment started :
Old Peter Beswick was a coal merchant in Eccles , Lancashire . He had no business premises . All he had was a lorry , scales , and weights . He used to take the lorry to the yard of the National Coal Board , where he bagged coal and took it round to his customers in the neighbourhood . His nephew , John Joseph Beswick , helped him in his business . In March 1962 , old Peter Beswick and his wife were both over 70 . He had had his leg amputated and was not in good health . The nephew was anxious to get hold of the business before the old man died . So they went to a solicitor , Mr. Ashcroft , who drew up an agreement for them .
In court Denning preferred to let counsel talk on for as long as they wanted to so that he could get a grasp of the situation without wading through irrelevant court papers ; to prevent them going on too long he sat quietly and allowed them to wind down at their own pace .
Denning was also known for his long working schedule ; when he served as Master of the Rolls he sat for five full days a week , and required reserved judgments ( about one case in ten ) to be written during the weekend . He expected the other justices to keep to the same schedule as him , and was repeatedly warned about overwork . Henn Collins wrote him a poem :
My brother pray be warned by me
And always rise in time for tea
And when you feel you must sit late
Remember my untoward fate
Don 't go on sitting until seven
But sit next morning at eleven
Unlike most of the judiciary Denning firmly believed that the press should have access to the courts and freedom to criticise magistrates and judges . He believed all legal proceedings should be held in public , quoting Jeremy Bentham when he said that " in the darkness of secrecy all sorts of things can go wrong . If things are really done in public you can see that the judge does behave himself , the newspapers can comment on it if he misbehaves — it keeps everyone in order " .
For many years Denning was the president of the Lawyers ' Christian Fellowship , and he once wrote that " Without religion there is no morality , and without morality there is no law . " His Christian beliefs sometimes affected his judgments , particularly on the subject of the sanctity of marriage . In Re L ( infants ) he reversed a decision to give the children of a couple to the wife in a divorce case , believing that should the wife get custody of the children there would be no chance of saving the marriage .
= = Legacy = =
Denning has been described as the most influential judge of the 20th century , in part because of his changes to the common law and also due to his personalisation of the legal profession . With his judgments on war pensions and his role in the enquiry into the Profumo Affair , Denning became possibly the best known judge ever to belong to the English judiciary , with the public treating Lord Denning and the Court of Appeal as synonymous . He was equally well @-@ loved and controversial , appreciated for his role as ' the peoples judge ' and his support for the common man and disliked by elements of the bar and judiciary for ' uncertainty in the law ' created by his broad judgments .
Denning made sweeping changes to the Common Law , with the resurrection of equitable estoppel and his reform of divorce law . A common misconception is that most of his judgments were overturned in the House of Lords ; many were , including the expansion to the doctrine of fundamental breach he set out in Photo Production Ltd v Securicor Transport Ltd , but they let many judgments stand and on occasion agreed with his judgment in situations where he dissented , such as in his final case George Mitchell ( Chesterhall ) Ltd v Finney Lock Seeds Ltd in 1983 .
Several law @-@ related things have been named after Denning due to his reputation as a judge , in particular the Lord Denning Scholarship of Lincoln 's Inn and the Denning Law Journal of the University of Buckingham . The law library of Magdalen College , Oxford , where he studied , is known as the Denning Law Library .
= = Personal life = =
Denning met his future wife Mary Harvey on 25 October 1914 aged fifteen at his confirmation ; she was the daughter of the Vicar of Whitchurch . Denning attempted to court her for many years , but for a long time his love was unrequited , with Mary wanting them to be only friends . After a dance at Beaulieu on 18 January 1930 she finally admitted her love for him , and he returned to Hampshire with her to pick out an engagement ring . Barely six months away from the set date for their wedding Mary was diagnosed with tuberculosis , but she recovered and the couple were married on 28 December 1932 , with the wedding officiated by Cecil Henry Boutflower , Bishop of Southampton .
The couple moved to London in 1933 but the city at the time was sooty and foggy . This affected Mary 's health , and after treatment at Guy 's Hospital she was transferred to Brompton Hospital , where she had a lung removed . After recovering , she moved to Southampton to stay with her parents for two years , with Denning visiting every weekend . By 1935 she had fully recovered , and the couple bought a house in Tylers Green , Cuckfield , called Fair Close . Their son , Robert , was born on 3 August 1938 ; he later became a Dean at Magdalen College , Oxford , teaching inorganic chemistry . Mary developed gallstones in 1941 , and after an initial recovery had a haemorrhage on 21 November , dying the next morning .
In 1945 Denning met Joan Stuart , a widow with three children : Pauline , Hazel and John . They married on 27 December 1945 , and were by all accounts happy together . On 19 October 1992 she suffered a massive heart attack ; although she survived the initial attack she died a few days later on 23 October .
= Typhoon Meranti ( 2004 ) =
Typhoon Meranti was the first of the record nine named storms to develop during August within the 2004 Pacific typhoon season . Forming from an area of low pressure on August 3 , Meranti gradually strengthened . On August 5 , the storm underwent a brief period of rapid intensification , attaining its peak intensity later day . According to the Japan Meteorological Agency , the storm attained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center reported that the storm attained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . The following day , the typhoon quickly weakened to a tropical storm due to unfavorable conditions . By August 9 , the system completed an extratropical transition ; the remnants of the storm persisted until August 13 , at which time it was absorbed by a large , non @-@ tropical low .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Meranti originated out of an area of low pressure about 475 km ( 295 mi ) south of Wake Island on August 2 . Little deep convection accompanied the weak system despite being situated within an area of moderate diffluence and weak to moderate wind shear . Initially , the system was thought to have been much closer to Wake Island ; however , following the development of deep convection , the location of the center of circulation was corrected . Around 0000 UTC on August 3 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) , the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the western Pacific basin , designated the system as a tropical depression . Development continued as the depression moved into an area of divergence near a tropical upper @-@ tropospheric trough cell . Several hours after the JMA issued their advisory on the depression , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , stating that the system was likely to develop into a tropical storm within 24 hours .
Later on August 3 , the JTWC issued their first advisory on the storm , classifying it as Tropical Depression 14W . Located to the west of a mid @-@ level ridge , the depression was steered towards the north . Early the next day , the JTWC upgraded 14W to a tropical storm ; the JMA later upgraded it to a tropical storm around 1200 UTC . At that time , the storm received the name Meranti , a name that was contributed by Cambodia . Little intensification took place until August 5 , at which time convection became increasingly organized and underwent a brief period of rapid intensification . By 1200 UTC , both the JMA and JTWC upgraded Meranti to a typhoon . Several hours later , the storm reached its peak intensity ; the JMA assessed it to have had winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) while the JTWC assessed it to have attained Category 2 status on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale with winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) .
Upon attaining typhoon status , Meranti turned towards the northeast in response to a strengthening near @-@ equatorial ridge south of the typhoon . Visible satellite images of the typhoon depicted a small , ragged eye within a well @-@ developed cyclone . Gale @-@ force winds extended 155 km ( 100 mi ) at this time . Well @-@ developed outflow allowed the storm to maintain its peak intensity for roughly 18 hours before dry air became entrained in the circulation . The combined effects of decreasing sea surface temperatures and increasing wind shear caused Meranti to quickly weaken . By 0600 UTC on August 6 , the eye was no longer visible on satellite imagery and several hours later deep convection rapidly diminished , leading to both agencies downgrading the typhoon to a tropical storm .
Later on August 6 , the weakening trend briefly halted as outflow significantly improved due to an area of low pressure north of Meranti . However , wind shear drastically increased , displacing convection to the northwest of the circulation center . By this time , the storm began to undergo an extratropical transition . Due to the influence of a major shortwave trough approaching from the west , Meranti took a sharp northward turn . The JTWC issued their final advisory on the weakening cyclone around 0600 UTC on August 8 . The JMA continued to monitor Meranti as a tropical cyclone until August 9 . Shortly after becoming extratropical , the remnants of the storm executed a slow , counter @-@ clockwise loop until August 12 . Shortly after crossing the International Date Line on August 13 , the storm was absorbed by a large non @-@ tropical low over the Bering Sea .
= = Impact = =
As Typhoon Meranti never threatened any land masses , no watches or warnings were issued in response to the storm . Although Meranti passed near Wake Island as a tropical depression , no effects were recorded .
= Mindaugas =
Mindaugas ( German : Myndowen , Latin : Mindowe , Old East Slavic : Мендог — Mendog , Belarusian : Міндоўг or Mindoūh , c . 1203 – fall 1263 ) was the first known Grand Duke of Lithuania and the only King of Lithuania . Little is known of his origins , early life , or rise to power ; he is mentioned in a 1219 treaty as an elder duke , and in 1236 as the leader of all the Lithuanians . The contemporary and modern sources discussing his ascent mention strategic marriages along with banishment or murder of his rivals . He extended his domain into regions southeast of Lithuania proper during the 1230s and 1240s . In 1250 or 1251 , during the course of internal power struggles , he was baptised as a Roman Catholic ; this action enabled him to establish an alliance with the Livonian Order , a long @-@ standing antagonist of the Lithuanians . During the summer of 1253 he was crowned King of Lithuania , ruling between 300 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 subjects .
While his ten @-@ year reign was marked by various state @-@ building accomplishments , Mindaugas 's conflicts with relatives and other dukes continued , and Samogitia ( western Lithuania ) strongly resisted the alliance 's rule . His gains in the southeast were challenged by the Tatars . He broke peace with the Livonian Order in 1261 , possibly renouncing Christianity , and was assassinated in 1263 by his nephew Treniota and another rival , Duke Daumantas . His three immediate successors were assassinated as well . The disorder was not resolved until Traidenis gained the title of Grand Duke c . 1270 .
Although his reputation was unsettled during the following centuries and his descendants were not notable , he gained standing during the 19th and 20th centuries . Mindaugas was the only King of Lithuania ; while most of the Lithuanian Grand Dukes from Jogaila onward also reigned as Kings of Poland , the titles remained separate . Now generally considered the founder of the Lithuanian state , he is also now credited with stopping the advance of the Tatars towards the Baltic Sea , establishing international recognition of Lithuania , and turning it towards Western civilization . In the 1990s the historian Edvardas Gudavičius published research supporting an exact coronation date – 6 July 1253 . This day is now an official national holiday , Statehood Day .
= = Rise to power = =
Lithuania was ruled during the early 13th century by a number of dukes and princes presiding over various fiefdoms and tribes . They were loosely bonded by commonalities of religion and tradition , trade , kinship , joint military campaigns , and the presence of captured prisoners from neighboring areas . Western merchants and missionaries began seeking control of the area during the 12th century , establishing the city of Riga , Latvia in 1201 . Their efforts in Lithuania were temporarily halted by defeat at the Battle of Saule in 1236 , but armed Christian orders continued to pose a threat . The country had also undergone incursions by the Mongol Empire .
A treaty with Galicia – Volhynia , signed in 1219 , is usually considered the first conclusive evidence that the Baltic tribes in the area were uniting in response to these threats . The treaty 's signatories include twenty Lithuanian dukes and one dowager duchess ; it specifies that five of these were elder and thus took precedence over the remaining sixteen . Mindaugas , despite his youth , as well as his brother Dausprungas are listed among the elder dukes , implying that they had inherited their titles . The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle describes him as the ruler of all Lithuania in 1236 . His path to this title is not clear . Ruthenian chronicles mention that he murdered or expelled several other dukes , including his relatives . Historian S.C. Rowell has described his rise to power as taking place through " the familiar processes of marriage , murder and military conquest . "
During the 1230s and 1240s , Mindaugas strengthened and established his power in various Baltic and Slavic lands . Warfare in the region intensified ; he battled German forces in Kurland , while the Mongols destroyed Kiev in 1240 and entered Poland in 1241 , defeating two Polish armies and burning Kraków . The Lithuanian victory in the Battle of Saule temporarily stabilized the northern front , but the Christian orders continued to make gains along the Baltic coast , founding the city of Klaipėda ( Memel ) . Constrained in the north and west , Mindaugas moved to the east and southeast , conquering Navahrudak , Hrodna , Vawkavysk , and the Principality of Polotsk , but there is no information about any battles for those cities . In 1246 by Chronic of Gustynia he was baptized by Orthodox church in Navahrudak , but later because of political situation he was re @-@ baptized by Catholic church . In about 1239 he appointed his son Vaišvilkas to govern these areas , then known as Black Ruthenia . In 1248 , he sent his nephews Tautvilas and Edivydas , the sons of his brother Dausprungas , along with Vykintas , the Duke of Samogitia , to conquer Smolensk , but they were unsuccessful . His attempts to consolidate his rule in Lithuania met with mixed success ; in 1249 , an internal war erupted when he sought to seize his nephews ' and Vykintas ' lands .
= = Path to coronation = =
Tautvilas , Edivydas , and Vykintas formed a powerful coalition in opposition to Mindaugas , along with the Samogitians of western Lithuania , the Livonian Order , Daniel of Galicia ( Tautvilas and Edivydas ' brother @-@ in @-@ law ) , and Vasilko of Volhynia . The princes of Galicia and Volhynia managed to gain control over Black Ruthenia , disrupting Vaišvilkas ' supremacy . Tautvilas strengthened his position by traveling to Riga and accepting baptism by the Archbishop . In 1250 , the Order organized a major raid through the lands of Nalšia into the domains of Mindaugas in Lithuania proper , and a raid into those parts of Samogitia that still supported him . Attacked from the north and south and facing the possibility of unrest elsewhere , Mindaugas was placed in an extremely difficult position , but managed to use the conflicts between the Livonian Order and the Archbishop of Riga to further his own interests . He succeeded in bribing Order Master Andreas von Stierland , who was still angry at Vykintas for the defeat at the Battle of Saule in 1236 , by sending him " many gifts " .
In 1250 or 1251 , Mindaugas agreed to receive baptism and relinquish control over some lands in western Lithuania , in return for an acknowledgment by Pope Innocent IV as king . The Pope welcomed a Christian Lithuania as a bulwark against Mongol threats ; in turn , Mindaugas sought papal intervention in the ongoing Lithuanian conflicts with the Christian orders . On 17 July 1251 , the pope signed two crucial papal bulls . One ordered the Bishop of Chełmno to crown Mindaugas as
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Abbas- ( Translation by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin ) . With the Wind -Persian / English dual language- Sticking Place ( 2015 ) ISBN 0990530825
Kiarostami , Abbas- ( Translation by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin ) . Wind and Leaf -Persian / English dual language- Sticking Place ( 2015 ) ISBN 0990530833
Kiarostami , Abbas- ( Translation by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin ) . A Wolf on Watch -Persian / English dual language- Sticking Place ( 2015 ) ISBN 0990530841
Kiarostami , Abbas- ( Translation by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin ) . Wine ( poetry by Hafez ) -Persian / English dual language- Sticking Place ( 2015 ) ISBN 1942782128
Kiarostami , Abbas- ( Translation by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin ) . Tears ( poetry by Saadi ) -Persian / English dual language- Sticking Place ( 2015 ) ISBN 1942782098
Kiarostami , Abbas- ( Translation by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin ) . Water ( poetry by Nima ) -Persian / English dual language- Sticking Place ( 2015 ) ISBN 1942782179
= British Empire =
The British Empire comprised the dominions , colonies , protectorates , mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom . It originated with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries . At its height , it was the largest empire in history and , for over a century , was the foremost global power . By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people , one @-@ fifth of the world 's population at the time , and covered more than 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq mi ( 33 @,@ 670 @,@ 000 km2 ) , almost a quarter of the Earth 's total land area . As a result , its political , legal , linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread . At the peak of its power , the phrase " the empire on which the sun never sets " was often used to describe the British Empire , because its expanse around the globe meant that the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories .
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries , Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe , and in the process established large overseas empires . Envious of the great wealth these empires generated , England , France , and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia . A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England ( and then , following union between England and Scotland in 1707 , Great Britain ) the dominant colonial power in North America and India .
The independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies . British attention soon turned towards Asia , Africa , and the Pacific . After the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars ( 1792 – 1815 ) , Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century ( with London the largest city in the world from about 1830 ) . Unchallenged at sea , British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ( " British Peace " ) , a period of relative peace in Europe and the world ( 1815 – 1914 ) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman . In the early 19th century , the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain ; by the time of the Great Exhibition in 1851 the country was described as the " workshop of the world " . The British Empire expanded to include India , large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world . Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies , British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions , such as Asia and Latin America . Domestically , political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez @-@ faire policies and a gradual widening of the voting franchise . During this century , the population increased at a dramatic rate , accompanied by rapid urbanisation , causing significant social and economic stresses . To seek new markets and sources of raw materials , the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt , South Africa , and elsewhere . Canada , Australia , and New Zealand became self @-@ governing dominions .
By the start of the 20th century , Germany and the United States challenged Britain 's economic lead . Subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War , during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire . The conflict placed enormous strain on the military , financial and manpower resources of Britain . Although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I , Britain was no longer the world 's pre @-@ eminent industrial or military power . In the Second World War , Britain 's colonies in South @-@ East Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan . Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies , the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire . India , Britain 's most valuable and populous possession , achieved independence as part of a larger decolonisation movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire . The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire . Fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty . After independence , many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations , a free association of independent states . The United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations , a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms , that share one monarch — Queen Elizabeth II .
= = Origins ( 1497 – 1583 ) = =
The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms . In 1496 King Henry VII of England , following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration , commissioned John Cabot to lead a voyage to discover a route to Asia via the North Atlantic . Cabot sailed in 1497 , five years after the European discovery of America , and although he successfully made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland ( mistakenly believing , like Christopher Columbus , that he had reached Asia ) , there was no attempt to found a colony . Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was heard of his ships again .
No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , during the last decades of the 16th century . In the meantime the Protestant Reformation had turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies . In 1562 , the English Crown encouraged the privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave @-@ raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa with the aim of breaking into the Atlantic trade system . This effort was rebuffed and later , as the Anglo @-@ Spanish Wars intensified , Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic , laden with treasure from the New World . At the same time , influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee ( who was the first to use the term " British Empire " ) were beginning to press for the establishment of England 's own empire . By this time , Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific ocean , Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of Africa and Brazil to China , and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area , later to become New France .
= = = Plantations of Ireland = = =
Although England trailed behind other European powers in establishing overseas colonies , it had been engaged during the 16th century in the settlement of Ireland with Protestants from England and Scotland , drawing on precedents dating back to the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169 . Several people who helped establish the Plantations of Ireland also played a part in the early colonisation of North America , particularly a group known as the West Country men .
= = " First " British Empire ( 1583 – 1783 ) = =
In 1578 , Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration . That year , Gilbert sailed for the West Indies with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America , but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic . In 1583 he embarked on a second attempt , on this occasion to the island of Newfoundland whose harbour he formally claimed for England , although no settlers were left behind . Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England , and was succeeded by his half @-@ brother , Walter Raleigh , who was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584 . Later that year , Raleigh founded the colony of Roanoke on the coast of present @-@ day North Carolina , but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail .
In 1603 , James VI , King of Scots , ascended ( as James I ) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London , ending hostilities with Spain . Now at peace with its main rival , English attention shifted from preying on other nations ' colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies . The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century , with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean , and the establishment of private companies , most notably the English East India Company , to administer colonies and overseas trade . This period , until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century , has subsequently been referred to by some historians as the " First British Empire " .
= = = Americas , Africa and the slave trade = = =
The Caribbean initially provided England 's most important and lucrative colonies , but not before several attempts at colonisation failed . An attempt to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years , and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits . Colonies in St Lucia ( 1605 ) and Grenada ( 1609 ) also rapidly folded , but settlements were successfully established in St. Kitts ( 1624 ) , Barbados ( 1627 ) and Nevis ( 1628 ) . The colonies soon adopted the system of sugar plantations successfully used by the Portuguese in Brazil , which depended on slave labour , and — at first — Dutch ships , to sell the slaves and buy the sugar . To ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of this trade remained in English hands , Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies . This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces — a series of Anglo @-@ Dutch Wars — which would eventually strengthen England 's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch . In 1655 , England annexed the island of Jamaica from the Spanish , and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the Bahamas .
England 's first permanent settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown , led by Captain John Smith and managed by the Virginia Company . Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck there of the Virginia Company 's flagship , and in 1615 was turned over to the newly formed Somers Isles Company . The Virginia Company 's charter was revoked in 1624 and direct control of Virginia was assumed by the crown , thereby founding the Colony of Virginia . The London and Bristol Company was created in 1610 with the aim of creating a permanent settlement on Newfoundland , but was largely unsuccessful . In 1620 , Plymouth was founded as a haven for puritan religious separatists , later known as the Pilgrims . Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive of many English would @-@ be colonists to risk the arduous trans @-@ Atlantic voyage : Maryland was founded as a haven for Roman Catholics ( 1634 ) , Rhode Island ( 1636 ) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut ( 1639 ) for Congregationalists . The Province of Carolina was founded in 1663 . With the surrender of Fort Amsterdam in 1664 , England gained control of the Dutch colony of New Netherland , renaming it New York . This was formalised in negotiations following the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War , in exchange for Suriname . In 1681 , the colony of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn . The American colonies were less financially successful than those of the Caribbean , but had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far larger numbers of English emigrants who preferred their temperate climates .
In 1670 , Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) , granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert 's Land , which would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada . Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French , who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France .
Two years later , the Royal African Company was inaugurated , receiving from King Charles a monopoly of the trade to supply slaves to the British colonies of the Caribbean . From the outset , slavery was the basis of the British Empire in the West Indies . Until the abolition of the slave trade in 1807 , Britain was responsible for the transportation of 3 @.@ 5 million African slaves to the Americas , a third of all slaves transported across the Atlantic . To facilitate this trade , forts were established on the coast of West Africa , such as James Island , Accra and Bunce Island . In the British Caribbean , the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 percent in 1650 to around 80 percent in 1780 , and in the 13 Colonies from 10 percent to 40 percent over the same period ( the majority in the southern colonies ) . For the slave traders , the trade was extremely profitable , and became a major economic mainstay for such western British cities as Bristol and Liverpool , which formed the third corner of the so @-@ called triangular trade with Africa and the Americas . For the transported , harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was one in seven .
In 1695 , the Scottish Parliament granted a charter to the Company of Scotland , which established a settlement in 1698 on the isthmus of Panama . Besieged by neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada , and afflicted by malaria , the colony was abandoned two years later . The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland — a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise — and ended Scottish hopes of establishing its own overseas empire . The episode also had major political consequences , persuading the governments of both England and Scotland of the merits of a union of countries , rather than just crowns . This occurred in 1707 with the Treaty of Union , establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain .
= = = Rivalry with the Netherlands in Asia = = =
At the end of the 16th century , England and the Netherlands began to challenge Portugal 's monopoly of trade with Asia , forming private joint @-@ stock companies to finance the voyages — the English , later British , East India Company and the Dutch East India Company , chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively . The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade , an effort focused mainly on two regions ; the East Indies archipelago , and an important hub in the trade network , India . There , they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other . Although England ultimately eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power , in the short term the Netherlands ' more advanced financial system and the three Anglo @-@ Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia . Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English throne , bringing peace between the Netherlands and England . A deal between the two nations left the spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England , but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability , and by 1720 , in terms of sales , the British company had overtaken the Dutch .
= = = Global conflicts with France = = =
Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant that the two countries entered the Nine Years ' War as allies , but the conflict — waged in Europe and overseas between France , Spain and the Anglo @-@ Dutch alliance — left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch , who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget on the costly land war in Europe . The 18th century saw England ( after 1707 , Britain ) rise to be the world 's dominant colonial power , and France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage .
The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philippe of Anjou , a grandson of the King of France , raised the prospect of the unification of France , Spain and their respective colonies , an unacceptable state of affairs for England and the other powers of Europe . In 1701 , England , Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession , which lasted until 1714 .
At the concluding Treaty of Utrecht , Philip renounced his and his descendants ' right to the French throne and Spain lost its empire in Europe . The British Empire was territorially enlarged : from France , Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia , and from Spain , Gibraltar and Minorca . Gibraltar became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean . Spain also ceded the rights to the lucrative asiento ( permission to sell slaves in Spanish America ) to Britain .
During the middle decades of the 18th century , there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent , the Carnatic Wars , as the English East India Company ( the Company ) and its French counterpart , the Compagnie française des Indes orientales , struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire . The Battle of Plassey in 1757 , in which the British , led by Robert Clive , defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies , left the Company in control of Bengal and as the major military and political power in India . France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states , ending French hopes of controlling India . In the following decades the Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control , either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the British Indian Army , the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys .
The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years ' War ( 1756 – 1763 ) involving France , Britain and the other major European powers . The signing of the Treaty of Paris ( 1763 ) had important consequences for the future of the British Empire . In North America , France 's future as a colonial power there was effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert 's Land , and the ceding of New France to Britain ( leaving a sizeable French @-@ speaking population under British control ) and Louisiana to Spain . Spain ceded Florida to Britain . Along with its victory over France in India , the Seven Years ' War therefore left Britain as the world 's most powerful maritime power .
= = = Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies = = =
During the 1760s and early 1770s , relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained , primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament 's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent . This was summarised at the time by the slogan " No taxation without representation " , a perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen . The American Revolution began with rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self @-@ government . In response Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule , leading to the outbreak of war in 1775 . The following year , in 1776 , the United States declared independence . The entry of France to the war in 1778 tipped the military balance in the Americans ' favour and after a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781 , Britain began negotiating peace terms . American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of Paris in 1783 .
The loss of such a large portion of British America , at the time Britain 's most populous overseas possession , is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the " first " and " second " empires , in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia , the Pacific and later Africa . Adam Smith 's Wealth of Nations , published in 1776 , had argued that colonies were redundant , and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion , dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal . The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith 's view that political control was not necessary for economic success .
Events in America influenced British policy in Canada , where between 40 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 defeated Loyalists had migrated from America following independence . The 14 @,@ 000 Loyalists who went to the Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys , then part of Nova Scotia , felt too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax , so London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784 . The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada ( mainly English @-@ speaking ) and Lower Canada ( mainly French @-@ speaking ) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities , and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain , with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution .
Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars , as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress men into the Royal Navy . The US declared war , the War of 1812 , and invaded Canadian territory as Britain invaded American territory , but the pre @-@ war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent , ensuring Canada 's future would be separate from that of the United States .
= = Rise of the " Second " British Empire ( 1783 – 1815 ) = =
= = = Exploration of the Pacific = = =
Since 1718 , transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various criminal offences in Britain , with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year across the Atlantic . Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the 13 Colonies in 1783 , the British government turned to the newly discovered lands of Australia . The western coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch explorer Willem Jansz in 1606 and was later named New Holland by the Dutch East India Company , but there was no attempt to colonise it . In 1770 James Cook discovered the eastern coast of Australia while on a scientific voyage to the South Pacific Ocean , claimed the continent for Britain , and named it New South Wales . In 1778 , Joseph Banks , Cook 's botanist on the voyage , presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement , and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail , arriving in 1788 . Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840 . The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold , mainly because of gold rushes in the colony of Victoria , making its capital Melbourne the richest city in the world and the largest city after London in the British Empire .
During his voyage , Cook also visited New Zealand , first discovered by Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642 , and claimed the North and South islands for the British crown in 1769 and 1770 respectively . Initially , interaction between the indigenous Māori population and Europeans was limited to the trading of goods . European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century , with numerous trading stations established , especially in the North . In 1839 , the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand . On 6 February 1840 , Captain William Hobson and around 40 Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi . This treaty is considered by many to be New Zealand 's founding document , but differing interpretations of the Maori and English versions of the text have meant that it continues to be a source of dispute .
= = = War with Napoleonic France = = =
Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon , in a struggle that , unlike previous wars , represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations . It was not only Britain 's position on the world stage that was threatened : Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself , just as his armies had overrun many countries of continental Europe .
The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win . French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy , which won a decisive victory over a Franco @-@ Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in 1805 . Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied , including those of the Netherlands , which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810 . France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815 . Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties : France ceded the Ionian Islands , Malta ( which it had occupied in 1797 and 1798 respectively ) , Mauritius , St Lucia , and Tobago ; Spain ceded Trinidad ; the Netherlands Guyana , and the Cape Colony . Britain returned Guadeloupe , Martinique , French Guiana , and Réunion to France , and Java and Suriname to the Netherlands , while gaining control of Ceylon ( 1795 – 1815 ) .
= = = Abolition of slavery = = =
With support from the British abolitionist movement , Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807 , which abolished the slave trade in the empire . In 1808 , Sierra Leone was designated an official British colony for freed slaves . The Slavery Abolition Act passed in 1833 abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834 ( with the exception of St. Helena , Ceylon and the territories administered by the East India Company , though these exclusions were later repealed ) . Under the Act , slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of 4 to 6 years of " apprenticeship " .
= = Britain 's imperial century ( 1815 – 1914 ) = =
Between 1815 and 1914 , a period referred to as Britain 's " imperial century " by some historians , around 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square miles ( 26 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire . Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival , other than Russia in central Asia . Unchallenged at sea , Britain adopted the role of global policeman , a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica , and a foreign policy of " splendid isolation " . Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies , Britain 's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries , such as China , Argentina and Siam , which has been characterised by some historians as " Informal Empire " .
British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph , new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century , allowing it to control and defend the empire . By 1902 , the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables , the so @-@ called All Red Line .
= = = East India Company in Asia = = =
The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia . The Company 's army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years ' War , and the two continued to co @-@ operate in arenas outside India : the eviction of Napoleon from Egypt ( 1799 ) , the capture of Java from the Netherlands ( 1811 ) , the acquisition of Singapore ( 1819 ) and Malacca ( 1824 ) and the defeat of Burma ( 1826 ) .
From its base in India , the Company had also been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to China since the 1730s . This trade , illegal since it was outlawed by the Qing dynasty in 1729 , helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea , which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China . In 1839 , the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20 @,@ 000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War , and resulted in the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island , at that time a minor settlement .
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the Company . A series of Acts of Parliament were passed , including the Regulating Act of 1773 , Pitt 's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the Company 's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired . The Company 's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion , a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys , Indian troops under British officers and discipline . The rebellion took six months to suppress , with heavy loss of life on both sides . The following year the British government dissolved the Company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858 , establishing the British Raj , where an appointed governor @-@ general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India . India became the empire 's most valuable possession , " the Jewel in the Crown " , and was the most important source of Britain 's strength .
A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to widespread famines on the subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died . The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule . Later , under direct British rule , commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies , which took until the early 1900s to have an effect .
= = = Rivalry with Russia = = =
During the 19th century , Britain and the Russian Empire vied to fill the power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire , Qajar dynasty and Qing Dynasty . This rivalry in Eurasia came to be known as the " Great Game " . As far as Britain was concerned , defeats inflicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India . In 1839 , Britain moved to pre @-@ empt this by invading Afghanistan , but the First Anglo @-@ Afghan War was a disaster for Britain .
When Russia invaded the Turkish Balkans in 1853 , fears of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and Middle East led Britain and France to invade the Crimean Peninsula to destroy Russian naval capabilities . The ensuing Crimean War ( 1854 – 56 ) , which involved new techniques of modern warfare , and was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial power during the Pax Britannica , was a resounding defeat for Russia . The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades , with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia , Kazakhstan , and Turkmenistan . For a while it appeared that another war would be inevitable , but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo @-@ Russian Entente . The destruction of the Russian Navy by the Japanese at the Battle of Port Arthur during the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 also limited its threat to the British .
= = = Cape to Cairo = = =
The Dutch East India Company had founded the Cape Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as a way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the East Indies . Britain formally acquired the colony , and its large Afrikaner ( or Boer ) population in 1806 , having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands , following the invasion of the Netherlands by France . British immigration began to rise after 1820 , and pushed thousands of Boers , resentful of British rule , northwards to found their own — mostly short @-@ lived — independent republics , during the Great Trek of the late 1830s and early 1840s . In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British , who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and with several African polities , including those of the Sotho and the Zulu nations . Eventually the Boers established two republics which had a longer lifespan : the South African Republic or Transvaal Republic ( 1852 – 77 ; 1881 – 1902 ) and the Orange Free State ( 1854 – 1902 ) . In 1902 Britain occupied both republics , concluding a treaty with the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War ( 1899 – 1902 ) .
In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III , linking the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean . Initially the Canal was opposed by the British ; but once opened , its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the " jugular vein of the Empire " . In 1875 , the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma 'il Pasha 's 44 percent shareholding in the Suez Canal for £ 4 million ( £ 340 million in 2013 ) . Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway , it did give Britain leverage . Joint Anglo @-@ French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882 . The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position , but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople , which made the Canal officially neutral territory .
With French , Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower Congo River region undermining orderly incursion of tropical Africa , the Berlin Conference of 1884 – 85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the " Scramble for Africa " by defining " effective occupation " as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims . The scramble continued into the 1890s , and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan . A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the Mahdist Army in 1896 , and rebuffed a French attempted invasion at Fashoda in 1898 . Sudan was nominally made an Anglo @-@ Egyptian Condominium , but a British colony in reality .
British gains in southern and East Africa prompted Cecil Rhodes , pioneer of British expansion in Africa , to urge a " Cape to Cairo " railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral @-@ rich South . During the 1880s and 1890s , Rhodes , with his privately owned British South Africa Company , occupied and annexed territories subsequently named after him , Rhodesia .
= = = Changing status of the white colonies = = =
The path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report , which proposed unification and self @-@ government for Upper and Lower Canada , as a solution to political unrest there . This began with the passing of the Act of Union in 1840 , which created the Province of Canada . Responsible government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848 , and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies . With the passage of the British North America Act , 1867 by the British Parliament , Upper and Lower Canada , New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into the Dominion of Canada , a confederation enjoying full self @-@ government with the exception of international relations . Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self @-@ government after 1900 , with the Australian colonies federating in 1901 . The term " dominion status " was officially introduced at the Colonial Conference of 1907 .
The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted political campaigns for Irish home rule . Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , and had suffered a severe famine between 1845 and 1852 . Home rule was supported by the British Prime minister , William Gladstone , who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada 's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire , but his 1886 Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament . Although the bill , if passed , would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation , many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break @-@ up of the empire . A second Home Rule bill was also defeated for similar reasons . A third bill was passed by Parliament in 1914 , but not implemented because of the outbreak of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter Rising .
= = World wars ( 1914 – 1945 ) = =
By the turn of the 20th century , fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend the metropole and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of " splendid isolation " . Germany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war . Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific and threatened at home by the Imperial German Navy , Britain formed an alliance with Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia in 1904 and 1907 , respectively .
= = = First World War = = =
Britain 's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War . Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany 's overseas colonies in Africa . In the Pacific , Australia and New Zealand occupied German New Guinea and Samoa respectively . Plans for a post @-@ war division of the Ottoman Empire , which had joined the war on Germany 's side , were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 Sykes – Picot Agreement . This agreement was not divulged to the Sharif of Mecca , who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers , giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state .
The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies also committed the colonies and Dominions , which provided invaluable military , financial and material support . Over 2 @.@ 5 million men served in the armies of the Dominions , as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies . The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home , and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right . The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac Day . Canadians viewed the Battle of Vimy Ridge in a similar light . The important contribution of the Dominions to the war effort was recognised in 1917 by the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion Prime Ministers to join an Imperial War Cabinet to co @-@ ordinate imperial policy .
Under the terms of the concluding Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919 , the empire reached its greatest extent with the addition of 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 square miles ( 4 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 km2 ) and 13 million new subjects . The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the Allied powers as League of Nations mandates . Britain gained control of Palestine , Transjordan , Iraq , parts of Cameroon and Togoland ,
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and Tanganyika . The Dominions themselves also acquired mandates of their own : the Union of South Africa gained South @-@ West Africa ( modern @-@ day Namibia ) , Australia gained New Guinea , and New Zealand Western Samoa . Nauru was made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacific Dominions .
= = = Inter @-@ war period = = =
The changing world order that the war had brought about , in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers , and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland , caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy . Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan , Britain opted not to renew its Japanese alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty , where Britain accepted naval parity with the United States . This decision was the source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s as militaristic governments took hold in Japan and Germany helped in part by the Great Depression , for it was feared that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by both nations . Although the issue of the empire 's security was a serious concern in Britain , at the same time the empire was vital to the British economy .
In 1919 , the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home rule led members of Sinn Féin , a pro @-@ independence party that had won a majority of the Irish seats at Westminster in the 1918 British general election , to establish an Irish assembly in Dublin , at which Irish independence was declared . The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began a guerrilla war against the British administration . The Anglo @-@ Irish War ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the Anglo @-@ Irish Treaty , creating the Irish Free State , a Dominion within the British Empire , with effective internal independence but still constitutionally linked with the British Crown . Northern Ireland , consisting of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government of Ireland Act , immediately exercised its option under the treaty to retain its existing status within the United Kingdom .
A similar struggle began in India when the Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy demand for independence . Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar Conspiracy ensured that war @-@ time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts . This led to tension , particularly in the Punjab region , where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar Massacre . In Britain public opinion was divided over the morality of the event , between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy , and those who viewed it with revulsion . The subsequent Non @-@ Co @-@ Operation movement was called off in March 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident , and discontent continued to simmer for the next 25 years .
In 1922 , Egypt , which had been declared a British protectorate at the outbreak of the First World War , was granted formal independence , though it continued to be a British client state until 1954 . British troops remained stationed in Egypt until the signing of the Anglo @-@ Egyptian Treaty in 1936 , under which it was agreed that the troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal zone . In return , Egypt was assisted to join the League of Nations . Iraq , a British mandate since 1920 , also gained membership of the League in its own right after achieving independence from Britain in 1932 . In Palestine , Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Arab and Jewish communities . The 1917 Balfour Declaration , which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate , stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine , and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power . This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population , who openly revolted in 1936 . As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s , Britain judged the support of the Arab population in the Middle East as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland , and shifted to a pro @-@ Arab stance , limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish insurgency .
The ability of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy , independent of Britain , was recognised at the 1923 Imperial Conference . Britain 's request for military assistance from the Dominions at the outbreak of the Chanak Crisis the previous year had been turned down by Canada and South Africa , and Canada had refused to be bound by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . After pressure from Ireland and South Africa , the 1926 Imperial Conference issued the Balfour Declaration , declaring the Dominions to be " autonomous Communities within the British Empire , equal in status , in no way subordinate one to another " within a " British Commonwealth of Nations " . This declaration was given legal substance under the 1931 Statute of Westminster . The parliaments of Canada , Australia , New Zealand , the Union of South Africa , the Irish Free State and Newfoundland were now independent of British legislative control , they could nullify British laws and Britain could no longer pass laws for them without their consent . Newfoundland reverted to colonial status in 1933 , suffering from financial difficulties during the Great Depression . Ireland distanced itself further from Britain with the introduction of a new constitution in 1937 , making it a republic in all but name .
= = = Second World War = = =
Britain 's declaration of war against Nazi Germany in September 1939 included the Crown colonies and India but did not automatically commit the Dominions of Australia , Canada , New Zealand , Newfoundland and South Africa . All soon declared war on Germany , but the Irish Free State chose to remain legally neutral throughout the war .
After the German occupation of France in 1940 , Britain and the empire stood alone against Germany , until the entry of the Soviet Union to the war in 1941 . British Prime Minister Winston Churchill successfully lobbied President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military aid from the United States , but Roosevelt was not yet ready to ask Congress to commit the country to war . In August 1941 , Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the Atlantic Charter , which included the statement that " the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live " should be respected . This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany , or the peoples colonised by European nations , and would later be interpreted differently by the British , Americans , and nationalist movements .
In December 1941 , Japan launched , in quick succession , attacks on British Malaya , the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor , and Hong Kong . Churchill 's reaction to the entry of the United States into the war was that Britain was now assured of victory and the future of the empire was safe , but the manner in which British forces were rapidly defeated in the Far East irreversibly harmed Britain 's standing and prestige as an imperial power . Most damaging of all was the fall of Singapore , which had previously been hailed as an impregnable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar . The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand , which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces , into closer ties with the United States . This resulted in the 1951 ANZUS Pact between Australia , New Zealand and the United States of America .
= = Decolonisation and decline ( 1945 – 1997 ) = =
Though Britain and the empire emerged victorious from the Second World War , the effects of the conflict were profound , both at home and abroad . Much of Europe , a continent that had dominated the world for several centuries , was in ruins , and host to the armies of the United States and the Soviet Union , who now held the balance of global power . Britain was left essentially bankrupt , with insolvency only averted in 1946 after the negotiation of a $ US 4 @.@ 33 billion loan ( US $ 56 billion in 2012 ) from the United States , the last instalment of which was repaid in 2006 . At the same time , anti @-@ colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations . The situation was complicated further by the increasing Cold War rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union . In principle , both nations were opposed to European colonialism . In practice , however , American anti @-@ communism prevailed over anti @-@ imperialism , and therefore the United States supported the continued existence of the British Empire to keep Communist expansion in check . The " wind of change " ultimately meant that the British Empire 's days were numbered , and on the whole , Britain adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its colonies once stable , non @-@ Communist governments were available to transfer power to . This was in contrast to other European powers such as France and Portugal , which waged costly and ultimately unsuccessful wars to keep their empires intact . Between 1945 and 1965 , the number of people under British rule outside the UK itself fell from 700 million to five million , three million of whom were in Hong Kong .
= = = Initial disengagement = = =
The pro @-@ decolonisation Labour government , elected at the 1945 general election and led by Clement Attlee , moved quickly to tackle the most pressing issue facing the empire : that of Indian independence . India 's two major political parties — the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League — had been campaigning for independence for decades , but disagreed as to how it should be implemented . Congress favoured a unified secular Indian state , whereas the League , fearing domination by the Hindu majority , desired a separate Islamic state for Muslim @-@ majority regions . Increasing civil unrest and the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy during 1946 led Attlee to promise independence no later than 1948 . When the urgency of the situation and risk of civil war became apparent , the newly appointed ( and last ) Viceroy , Lord Mountbatten , hastily brought forward the date to 15 August 1947 . The borders drawn by the British to broadly partition India into Hindu and Muslim areas left tens of millions as minorities in the newly independent states of India and Pakistan . Millions of Muslims subsequently crossed from India to Pakistan and Hindus vice versa , and violence between the two communities cost hundreds of thousands of lives . Burma , which had been administered as part of the British Raj , and Sri Lanka gained their independence the following year in 1948 . India , Pakistan and Sri Lanka became members of the Commonwealth , while Burma chose not to join .
The British Mandatory Palestine , where an Arab majority lived alongside a Jewish minority , presented the British with a similar problem to that of India . The matter was complicated by large numbers of Jewish refugees seeking to be admitted to Palestine following the Holocaust , while Arabs were opposed to the creation of a Jewish state . Frustrated by the intractability of the problem , attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisations and the increasing cost of maintaining its military presence , Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to solve . The UN General Assembly subsequently voted for a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state .
Following the defeat of Japan in the Second World War , anti @-@ Japanese resistance movements in Malaya turned their attention towards the British , who had moved to quickly retake control of the colony , valuing it as a source of rubber and tin . The fact that the guerrillas were primarily Malayan @-@ Chinese Communists meant that the British attempt to quell the uprising was supported by the Muslim Malay majority , on the understanding that once the insurgency had been quelled , independence would be granted . The Malayan Emergency , as it was called , began in 1948 and lasted until 1960 , but by 1957 , Britain felt confident enough to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya within the Commonwealth . In 1963 , the 11 states of the federation together with Singapore , Sarawak and North Borneo joined to form Malaysia , but in 1965 Chinese @-@ majority Singapore was expelled from the union following tensions between the Malay and Chinese populations . Brunei , which had been a British protectorate since 1888 , declined to join the union and maintained its status until independence in 1984 .
= = = Suez and its aftermath = = =
In 1951 , the Conservative Party returned to power in Britain , under the leadership of Winston Churchill . Churchill and the Conservatives believed that Britain 's position as a world power relied on the continued existence of the empire , with the base at the Suez Canal allowing Britain to maintain its pre @-@ eminent position in the Middle East in spite of the loss of India . However , Churchill could not ignore Gamal Abdul Nasser 's new revolutionary government of Egypt that had taken power in 1952 , and the following year it was agreed that British troops would withdraw from the Suez Canal zone and that Sudan would be granted self @-@ determination by 1955 , with independence to follow . Sudan was granted independence on 1 January 1956 .
In July 1956 , Nasser unilaterally nationalised the Suez Canal . The response of Anthony Eden , who had succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister , was to collude with France to engineer an Israeli attack on Egypt that would give Britain and France an excuse to intervene militarily and retake the canal . Eden infuriated US President Dwight D. Eisenhower , by his lack of consultation , and Eisenhower refused to back the invasion . Another of Eisenhower 's concerns was the possibility of a wider war with the Soviet Union after it threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side . Eisenhower applied financial leverage by threatening to sell US reserves of the British pound and thereby precipitate a collapse of the British currency . Though the invasion force was militarily successful in its objectives , UN intervention and US pressure forced Britain into a humiliating withdrawal of its forces , and Eden resigned .
The Suez Crisis very publicly exposed Britain 's limitations to the world and confirmed Britain 's decline on the world stage , demonstrating that henceforth it could no longer act without at least the acquiescence , if not the full support , of the United States . The events at Suez wounded British national pride , leading one MP to describe it as " Britain 's Waterloo " and another to suggest that the country had become an " American satellite " . Margaret Thatcher later described the mindset she believed had befallen Britain 's political leaders as " Suez syndrome " where they “ went from believing that Britain could do anything to an almost neurotic belief that Britain could do nothing ” , from which Britain did not recover until the successful recapture of the Falkland Islands from Argentina in 1982 .
While the Suez Crisis caused British power in the Middle East to weaken , it did not collapse . Britain again deployed its armed forces to the region , intervening in Oman ( 1957 ) , Jordan ( 1958 ) and Kuwait ( 1961 ) , though on these occasions with American approval , as the new Prime Minister Harold Macmillan 's foreign policy was to remain firmly aligned with the United States . Britain maintained a military presence in the Middle East for another decade . On 16 January 1968 , a few weeks after the devaluation of the pound , Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his Defence Secretary Denis Healey announced that British troops would be withdrawn from major military bases East of Suez , which included the ones in the Middle East , and primarily from Malaysia and Singapore by the end of 1971 , instead of 1975 as earlier planned . By that time over 50 @,@ 000 British military personnel were still stationed in the Far East , including 30 @,@ 000 in Singapore . The British withdrew from Aden in 1967 , Bahrain in 1971 , and Maldives in 1976 .
= = = Wind of change = = =
Macmillan gave a speech in Cape Town , South Africa in February 1960 where he spoke of " the wind of change blowing through this continent " . Macmillan wished to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria , and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly . To the three colonies that had been granted independence in the 1950s — Sudan , the Gold Coast and Malaya — were added nearly ten times that number during the 1960s .
Britain 's remaining colonies in Africa , except for self @-@ governing Southern Rhodesia , were all granted independence by 1968 . British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process . Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight @-@ year Mau Mau Uprising . In Rhodesia , the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the white minority resulted in a civil war that lasted until the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979 , which set the terms for recognised independence in 1980 , as the new nation of Zimbabwe .
In the Mediterranean , a guerrilla war waged by Greek Cypriots ended in ( 1960 ) an independent Cyprus , with the UK retaining the military bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia . The Mediterranean islands of Malta and Gozo were amicably granted independence from the UK in 1964 and became the country of Malta , though the idea had been raised in 1955 of integration with Britain .
Most of the UK 's Caribbean territories achieved independence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica and Trinidad from the West Indies Federation , established in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean colonies under one government , but which collapsed following the loss of its two largest members . Barbados achieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the eastern Caribbean islands in the 1970s and 1980s , but Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted to revert to British rule after they had already started on the path to independence . The British Virgin Islands , Cayman Islands and Montserrat opted to retain ties with Britain , while Guyana achieved independence in 1966 . Britain 's last colony on the American mainland , British Honduras , became a self @-@ governing colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973 , achieving full independence in 1981 . A dispute with Guatemala over claims to Belize was left unresolved .
British territories in the Pacific acquired independence in the 1970s beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with Vanuatu in 1980 . Vanuatu 's independence was delayed because of political conflict between English and French @-@ speaking communities , as the islands had been jointly administered as a condominium with France . Fiji , Tuvalu , the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea chose to become Commonwealth realms .
= = = End of empire = = =
In 1980 , Rhodesia , Britain 's last African colony , became the independent nation of Zimbabwe . The New Hebrides achieved independence ( as Vanuatu ) in 1980 , with Belize following suit in 1981 . The passage of the British Nationality Act 1981 , which reclassified the remaining Crown colonies as " British Dependent Territories " ( renamed British Overseas Territories in 2002 ) meant that , aside from a scattering of islands and outposts the process of decolonisation that had begun after the Second World War was largely complete . In 1982 , Britain 's resolve in defending its remaining overseas territories was tested when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands , acting on a long @-@ standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire . Britain 's ultimately successful military response to retake the islands during the ensuing Falklands War was viewed by many to have contributed to reversing the downward trend in Britain 's status as a world power . The same year , the Canadian government severed its last legal link with Britain by patriating the Canadian constitution from Britain . The 1982 Canada Act passed by the British parliament ended the need for British involvement in changes to the Canadian constitution . Similarly , the Constitution Act 1986 reformed the constitution of New Zealand to sever its constitutional link with Britain , and the Australia Act 1986 severed the constitutional link between Britain and the Australian states . In 1984 , Brunei , Britain 's last remaining Asian protectorate , gained its independence .
In September 1982 the Prime Minister , Margaret Thatcher , traveled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese government on the future of Britain 's last major and most populous overseas territory , Hong Kong . Under the terms of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking , Hong Kong Island itself had been ceded to Britain in perpetuity , but the vast majority of the colony was constituted by the New Territories , which had been acquired under a 99 @-@ year lease in 1898 , due to expire in 1997 . Thatcher , seeing parallels with the Falkland Islands , initially wished to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration with Chinese sovereignty , though this was rejected by China . A deal was reached in 1984 — under the terms of the Sino @-@ British Joint Declaration , Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of the People 's Republic of China , maintaining its way of life for at least 50 years . The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for many , including Charles , Prince of Wales , who was in attendance , " the end of Empire " .
= = Legacy = =
Britain retains sovereignty over 14 territories outside the British Isles , which were renamed the British Overseas Territories in 2002 . Some are uninhabited except for transient military or scientific personnel ; the remainder are self @-@ governing to varying degrees and are reliant on the UK for foreign relations and defence . The British government has stated its willingness to assist any Overseas Territory that wishes to proceed to independence , where that is an option . British sovereignty of several of the overseas territories is disputed by their geographical neighbours : Gibraltar is claimed by Spain , the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are claimed by Argentina , and the British Indian Ocean Territory is claimed by Mauritius and Seychelles . The British Antarctic Territory is subject to overlapping claims by Argentina and Chile , while many countries do not recognise any territorial claims in Antarctica .
Most former British colonies and protectorates are among the 53 member states of the Commonwealth of Nations , a non @-@ political , voluntary association of equal members , comprising a population of around 2 @.@ 2 billion people . Sixteen Commonwealth realms voluntarily continue to share the British monarch , Queen Elizabeth II , as their head of state . These sixteen nations are distinct and equal legal entities – the United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , New Zealand , Papua New Guinea , Antigua and Barbuda , The Bahamas , Barbados , Belize , Grenada , Jamaica , Saint Kitts and Nevis , Saint Lucia , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , Solomon Islands and Tuvalu .
Decades , and in some cases centuries , of British rule and emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that arose from the British Empire . The empire established the use of English in regions around the world . Today it is the primary language of up to 400 million people and is spoken by about one and a half billion as a first , second or foreign language .
The spread of English from the latter half of the 20th century has been helped in part by the cultural and economic influence of the United States , itself originally formed from British colonies . Except in Africa where nearly all the former colonies have adopted the presidential system , the English parliamentary system has served as the template for the governments for many former colonies , and English common law for legal systems .
The British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still serves as the highest court of appeal for several former colonies in the Caribbean and Pacific . British Protestant missionaries who travelled around the globe often in advance of soldiers and civil servants spread the Anglican Communion to all continents . British colonial architecture , such as in churches , railway stations and government buildings , can be seen in many cities that were once part of the British Empire .
Individual and team sports developed in Britain — particularly football , cricket , rugby , netball , lawn bowls , lawn tennis and golf — were also exported . The British choice of system of measurement , the imperial system , continues to be used in some countries in various ways . The convention of driving on the left hand side of the road has been retained in much of the former empire .
Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always reflect homogeneous ethnicities or religions , contributing to conflicts in formerly colonised areas . The British Empire was also responsible for large migrations of peoples . Millions left the British Isles , with the founding settler populations of the United States , Canada , Australia and New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland . Tensions remain between the white settler populations of these countries and their indigenous minorities , and between white settler minorities and indigenous majorities in South Africa and Zimbabwe . Settlers in Ireland from Great Britain have left their mark in the form of divided nationalist and unionist communities in Northern Ireland . Millions of people moved to and from British colonies , with large numbers of Indians emigrating to other parts of the empire , such as Malaysia and Fiji , and Chinese people to Malaysia , Singapore and the Caribbean . The demographics of Britain itself was changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its former colonies .
= The History of Sir Charles Grandison =
The History of Sir Charles Grandison , commonly called Sir Charles Grandison , is an epistolary novel by Samuel Richardson first published in February 1753 . The book was a response to Henry Fielding 's The History of Tom Jones , a Foundling , which parodied the morals presented in Richardson 's previous novels . The novel follows the story of Harriet Byron who is pursued by Sir Hargrave Pollexfen . After she rejects Pollexfen , he kidnaps her , and she is only freed when Sir Charles Grandison comes to her rescue . After his appearance , the novel focuses on his history and life , and he becomes its central figure .
The novel incorporates an epistolary format similar to Richardson 's previous novels , Clarissa and Pamela . Unlike those novels , Charles Grandison , the leading male character , is a morally good man and lacks the villainous intent that is manifested by the Lovelace or Mr. B ( characters of Clarissa and Pamela respectively ) . Richardson was motivated to create such a male figure because of the prompting of his many female friends who wanted a counterpart to the virtues exhibited by Richardson 's female characters .
= = Background = =
The exact relationship between Fielding 's The History of Tom Jones , a Foundling and Richardson 's The History of Sir Charles Grandison cannot be known , but the character Charles Grandison was designed as a morally " better " hero than the character Tom Jones . In 1749 , a friend asked Richardson " to give the world his idea of a good man and fine gentleman combined " . Richardson hesitated to begin such a project , and he did not work on it until he was prompted the next year ( June 1750 ) by Mrs. Donnelland and Miss Sutton , who were " both very intimate with one Clarissa Harlowe : and both extremely earnest with him to give them a good man " . Near the end of 1751 , Richardson sent a draft of the novel to Mrs. Donnellan , and the novel was being finalised in the middle of 1752 .
While Thomas Killingbeck , a compositor , and Peter Bishop , a proofreader , were working for Richardson in his print shop during 1753 , Richardson discovered that printers in Dublin had copies of The History of Sir Charles Grandison and began printing the novel before the English edition was to be published . Richardson suspected that they were involved with the unauthorized distribution of the novel and promptly fired them . Immediately following the firing , Richardson wrote to Lady Bradshaigh , 19 October 1753 : " the Want of the same Ornaments , or Initial Letters [ factotums ] , in each Vol. will help to discover them [ if exported into England ] , although they should put the Booksellers Names that I have affixed . I have got some Friends to write down to Scotland , to endeavour to seize their Edition , if offered to be imported " . There were four Dublin presses used to make unauthorized copies the novel , but none of them were able to add the ornaments that could effectively mimic Richardson 's own . However , there were still worries about the unlicensed copies , and Richardson relied on seven additional printers to speed up the production of Grandison .
In November 1753 , Richardson ran an ad in the The Gentleman 's Magazine to announce the " History of Sir Charles Grandison : in a Series of Letters published from the Originals , — By the Editor of Pamela and Clarissa , London : Printed for S. Richardson , and sold by Dodsley in Pall Mall and others . " The first four volumes were published on 13 November 1753 and the next two volumes appeared in December . The final volume was published in March to complete a seven volume series while a six volume set was simultaneously published . Richardson held the sole copyright to Grandison , and , after his death , twenty @-@ fourth shares of Grandison were sold for 20 pounds each . Posthumous editions were published in 1762 ( including revisions by Richardson ) and 1810 .
= = Plot summary = =
As with his previous novels , Richardson prefaced the novel by claiming to be merely the editor , saying , " How such remarkable collections of private letters fell into the editor 's hand he hopes the reader will not think it very necessary to enquire " . However , Richardson did not keep his authorship secret and , on the prompting of his friends like Samuel Johnson , dropped this framing device from the second edition .
The novel begins with the character of Harriet Byron leaving the house of her uncle , George Selby , to visit Mr. and Mrs. Reeves , her cousins , in London . She is an orphan who was educated by her grandparents , and , though she lacks parents , she is heir to a fortune of fifteen thousand pounds , which causes many suitors to pursue her . In London , she is pursued by three suitors , Mr. Greville , Mr. Fenwick and Mr. Orme . This courtship is followed by more suitors : Mr. Fowler , Sir Rowland Meredith and Sir Hargrave Pollexfen . The final one , Pollexfen , pursues Byron vigorously , which causes her to criticise him over a lack of morals and decency of character . However , Pollexfen does not end his pursuits of Byron until she explains that she could never receive his visits again .
Pollexfen , unwilling to be without Byron , decides to kidnap her while she attended a masquerade at the Haymarket . She is then imprisoned at Lisson Grove with the support of a widow and two daughters . While he keeps her prisoner , Pollexfen makes it clear to her that she shall be his wife , and that anyone who challenges that will die by his hand . Byron attempts to escape from the house , but this fails . To prevent her from trying to escape again , Pollexfen transports Byron to his home at Windsor . However , he is stopped at Hounslow Heath , where Charles Grandison hears Byron 's pleas for help and immediately attacks Pollexfen . After this rescue , Grandison takes Byron to Colnebrook , the home of Grandison 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , the " Earl of L. "
After Pollexfen recovers from the attack , he sets out to duel Grandison . However , Grandison refuses on the grounds that dueling is harmful to society . After explaining why obedience to God and society are important , Grandison wins Pollexfen over and obtains his apology to Byron for his actions . She accepts his apology , and he follows with a proposal to marriage . She declines because she , as she admits , is in love with Grandison . However , a new suitor , the Earl of D , appears , and it emerges that Grandison promised himself to an Italian woman , Signorina Clementina della Porretta . As Grandison explains , he was in Italy years before and rescued the Barone della Porretta and a relationship developed between himself and Clementina , the baron 's only daughter . However , Grandison could not marry her , as she demanded that he , an Anglican Protestant , become a Catholic , and he was unwilling to do so . After he left , she grew ill out of despair , and the Porrettas were willing to accept his religion , if he would return and make Clementina happy once more . Grandison , feeling obligated to do what he can to restore Clementina 's happiness , returns to Italy ; however , Clementina determines she can never marry a " heretic " , and so Grandison returns to England and Harriet who accepts him . They are married ; and everyone is accorded their just deserts .
In a " Concluding Note " to Grandison , Richardson writes : " It has been said , in behalf of many modern fictitious pieces , in which authors have given success ( and happiness , as it is called ) to their heroes of vicious if not profligate characters , that they have exhibited Human Nature as it is . Its corruption may , indeed , be exhibited in the faulty character ; but need pictures of this be held out in books ? Is not vice crowned with success , triumphant , and rewarded , and perhaps set off with wit and spirit , a dangerous representation ? " In particular , Richardson is referring to novels of Fielding , his literary rival . This note was published with the final volume of Grandison in March 1754 , a few months before Fielding left for Lisbon . Before Fielding died in Lisbon , he included a response to Richardson in his preface to Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon .
= = Structure = =
The epistolary form unites The History of Sir Charles Grandison with Richardson 's Pamela and Clarissa , but Richardson uses the form in a different way for his final work . In Clarissa , the letters emphasise the plot 's drama , especially when Lovelace alters Clarissa 's letters . However , the dramatic mood is replaced in Grandison with a celebration of Grandison 's moral character . In addition to this lack of dramatic emphasis , the letters of Grandison do not serve to develop character , as the moral core of each character is already complete at the outset .
In Richardson 's previous novels , the letters operated as a way to express internal feelings and describe the private lives of characters ; however , the letters of Grandison serve a public function . The letters are not kept to individuals , but forwarded to others to inform a larger community of the novel 's action . In return , letters share the recipients ' responses to the events detailed within the letters . This sharing of personal feelings transforms the individual responders into a chorus that praises the actions of Grandison , Harriet , and Clementina . Furthermore , this chorus of characters emphasises the importance of the written word over the merely subjective , even saying that " Love declared on paper means far more than love declared orally " .
= = Themes = =
20th century literary critic Carol Flynn characterises Sir Charles Grandison as a " man of feeling who truly cannot be said to feel " . Flynn claims that Grandison is filled with sexual passions that never come to light , and he represents a perfect moral character in regards to respecting others . Unlike Richardson 's previous novel Clarissa , there is an emphasis on society and how moral characteristics are viewed by the public . As such , Grandison stresses characters acting in the socially accepted ways instead of following their emotional impulses . The psychological realism of Richardson 's earlier work gives way to the expression of exemplars . In essence , Grandison promises " spiritual health and happiness to all who follow the good man 's exemplary pattern " . This can be taken as a sort of " political model of the wise ruler " , especially with Charles 's somewhat pacifist methods of achieving his goals .
Although Flynn believes that Grandison represents a moral character , she finds Grandison 's " goodness " " repellent " . Richardson 's other characters , like Clarissa , also exhibit high moral characters , but they are capable of changing over time . However , Grandison is never challenged in the way that Clarissa is , and he is a static , passive character . Grandison , in all situations , obeys the dictates of society and religion , fulfilling obligations rather than expressing personality . However , a character like Harriet is able to express herself fully , and it is possible that Grandison is prohibited from doing likewise because of his epistolary audience , the public .
In terms of religious responsibility , Grandison , is unwilling to change his faith , and Clementina initially refuses to marry him over his religion . Grandison attempts to convince her to reconsider by claiming that " her faith would not be at risk " . Besides his dedication to his own religion , and his unwillingness to prevent Clementina from being dedicated to her own , he says that he is bound to helping the Porretta family . Although potentially controversial to the 18th century British public , Grandison and Clementina compromise by agreeing that their sons would be raised as Protestants and their daughters raised as Catholics . In addition to the religious aspects , the work gives " the portrait of how a good marriage should be created and sustained " . To complement the role of marriage , Grandison opposes " sexual deviance " in the 18th century .
= = Critical response = =
Samuel Johnson was one of the first to respond to the novel , but he focused primarily on the preface : " If you were to require my opinion which part [ in the preface ] should be changed , I should be inclined to the supression of that part which seems to disclaim the composition . What is modesty , if it deserts from truth ? Of what use is the disguise by which nothing is concealed ? You must forgive this , because it is meant well . " Sarah Fielding , in her introduction to The Lives of Cleopatra and Octavia , claims that people have an " insatiable Curiosity for Novels or Romances " that tell of the " rural Innocence of a Joseph Andrews , or the inimitable Virtues of Sir Charles Grandison " . Andrew Murphy , in the Gray 's Inn Journal , emphasised the history of the production when he wrote :
Mr. Richardson , Author of the celebrated Pamela , and the justly admired Clarissa ... an ingenuous Mind must be shocked to find , that Copies of very near all this Work , from which the Public may reasonable expect both Entertainment and Instruction , have been clandestinely and fraudulently obtained by a Set of Booksellers in Dublin , who have printed of the same , and advertised it in the public Papers .... I am not inclined to cast national Reflections , but I must avow , that I looked up this to be a more flagrant and atrocious Proceeding than any I have heard of for a long Time .
Sir Walter Scott , who favoured the bildungsroman and
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open plots , wrote in his " Prefatory Memoir to Richardson " to The Novels of Samuel Richardson ( 1824 ) :
In his two first novels , also , he shewed much attention to the plot ; and though diffuse and prolix in narration , can never be said to be rambling or desultory . No characters are introduced , but for the purpose of advancing the plot ; and there are but few of those digressive dialogues and dissertations with which Sir Charles Grandison abounds . The story keeps the direct road , though it moves slowly . But in his last work , the author is much more excursive . There is indeed little in the plot to require attention ; the various events , which are successively narrated , being no otherwise connected together , than as they place the character of the hero in some new and peculiar point of view . The same may be said of the numerous and long conversations upon religious and moral topics , which compose so great a part of the work , that a venerable old lady , whom we well knew , when in advanced age , she became subject to drowsy fits , chose to hear Sir Charles Grandison read to her as she sat in her elbow @-@ chair , in preference to any other work , ' because , ' said she , ' should I drop asleep in course of the reading , I am sure , when I awake , I shall have lost none of the story , but shall find the party , where I left them , conversing in the cedar @-@ parlour . ' — It is probable , after all , that the prolixity of Richardson , which , to our giddy @-@ paced times , is the greatest fault of his writing , was not such an objective to his contemporaries .
Although Scott is antipathetic towards Richardson 's final novel , not everyone was of the same opinion ; Jane Austen was a devotee of the novel , which was part of her mental furniture to the point where she could claim to describe " all that was ever said or done in the cedar parlour " . She would for example casually compare a flower in a new cap she got to the white feather described by Harriet Byron as being in hers . Nevertheless , throughout her life she also subjected Grandison to much affectionate , even satirical mockery - adapting it into a dramatic lampoon ( not published until 1980 ) around 1800 . Her juvenalia also included a heroine who guyed Harriet Byron 's frequent fainting , through being “ in such a hurry to have a succession of fainting fits , that she had scarcely patience enough to recover from one before she fell into another ” . As late as 1813 , she would respond to a long letter from her sister Cassandra by exclaiming “ Dear me ! ... Like Harriet Byron I ask , what am I to do with my Gratitude ” .
Later critics believed that it is possible that Richardson 's work failed because the story deals with a " good man " instead of a " rake " , which prompted Richardson 's biographers Thomas Eaves and Ben Kimpel to claim , this " might account for the rather uneasy relationship between the story of the novel and the character of its hero , who is never credible in his double love – or in any love . " Flynn agrees that this possibility is an " attractive one " , and conditions it to say that " it is at least certain that the deadly weighted character of Sir Charles stifles the dramatic action of the book . " John Mullan suggests that the problem stems from Grandison 's role as a hero when he says , " his hero is able to display his virtue in action ; as a consequence , Sir Charles Grandison presents its protagonist without the minutely analyzed reflexes of emotion that brought his heroines to life . "
Some critics , like Mark Kinkead @-@ Weekes and Margaret Doody , like the novel and emphasise the importance of the moral themes that Richardson takes up . In a 1987 article , Kinkead @-@ Weekes admits that the " novel fails at the [ moral ] crisis " and " it must be doubtful whether it could hope for much life in the concluding volumes " . However , those like Jean Hagstrum believe that " Richardson 's last novel is considerably better than can be easily imagined by those who have only heard about it . But admittedly it represents a falling off after Clarissa " . Morris Golden simply claims that the novel is a book for old men .
= Perfectionist ( album ) =
Perfectionist is the debut studio album by English singer Natalia Kills . It was released on 1 April 2011 through will.i.am Music Group , Cherrytree Records , KonLive and Interscope . Despite having started out as an actress , Kills later became a rap artist and released a single in 2005 ; however , her label went bankrupt . Songwriting remained her principal activity until 2008 , when she was signed by will.i.am and started recording the album .
Kills worked with musicians including Fernando Garibay , Jeff Bhasker , and Martin Kierszenbaum , and created a concept album based on perfectionism . Its lyrical content contains references to love , sex , and money , complemented by a sonority rooted in synthpop and dance @-@ pop . Perfectionist received mixed reviews from music critics , who asserted that the singer 's visual projects were superior to her music . Obtaining top 50 positions in some European countries , the album performed moderately on international record charts . In the United Kingdom and United States , the set attained chiefly low positions ; in the latter , its sales as of September 2013 were of 14 @,@ 000 copies .
The album spawned three singles — " Mirrors " , " Wonderland " and " Free " — which were generally successful in Europe and were accompanied by music videos . " Mirrors " managed to peak within the top 5 of the US Hot Dance Club Songs . In association with Guillaume Doubet , Kills produced a web series titled Love , Kills xx in order to promote the album , based on her secret thoughts and desires . Comprising 10 episodes , it features Kills seeking revenge and hurting men .
= = Background = =
Kills was introduced to singing and dancing at the age of 3 , and until she was 12 , she studied in the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art . Kills initially pursued an acting career , appearing in some TV series including All About Me and The Archers ; however , in her hometown of Leeds , she developed an interest in hip hop music . She subsequently entered various rap battles , for which she started writing lyrics , and in 2003 , Kills won a BBC Radio 1 @-@ sponsored " MC Battle " . From there on , she began writing songs for artists and film soundtracks . Kills released her first single on 21 February 2005 , titled " Don 't Play Nice " , under the moniker Verbalicious and with label All Around the World ; it peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart . She was also recording for her debut studio album , then @-@ scheduled for an Easter 2006 release . However , the label entered bankruptcy , causing her record deal to be dissolved and the album shelved . Kills continued to work in the music industry , mainly as a songwriter with the alias of Verbz . In 2007 , she relocated to Los Angeles ; the next year , she lent guest vocals to French artist M. Pokora 's song " They Talk Shit About Me " , and changed her stage name to Natalia Cappuccini , under which she self @-@ released an extended play ( EP ) titled Wommannequin .
One of Kills ' demos , " Shopaholic " , was remixed by the Remix Artist Collective . After it was posted in American blogger Perez Hilton 's blog , Kills ' MySpace received a high amount of views , and she reached the top of the social network 's unsigned artists chart . While shopping , she was noticed by a man due to her clothing , and gave him her website address ; he subsequently introduced her to a DJ , who took Kills to the American musician will.i.am 's house . In November 2008 , she signed a contract with the latter 's record label , then an imprint of Interscope .
= = Recording = =
Kills started to prepare material for Perfectionist after establishing her record deal with will.i.am , who served as an executive producer for the album . During the recording sessions , Kills prominently worked with producers Jeff Bhasker , Fernando Garibay , the album 's second executive producer Martin Kierszenbaum , and Theron " The @-@ Ron " Feemster . Akon and Giorgio Tuinfort co @-@ produced " Mirrors " in collaboration with Kierszenbaum . Bhasker was responsible for the entire album 's songwriting and engineering , and mixed " Zombie " . Feemster and Tuinfort provided instrumentation , along with Zach Kasik , Carlos Keery @-@ Fisher and Robert Horn . More artists including Robert Horn and Tony Ugyal were commissioned for engineering .
Most of Perfectionist 's songs were recorded at Cherrytree Recording Studios or Enormous Studios ; the latter served as the recording location for songs produced by Bhasker . " Break You Hard " and " Superficial " were produced at the American Dream , while " Wonderland " was produced at that studio and at The Hive . Kills recorded " Love Is a Suicide " and " Broke " at Paradise Studios , " Mirrors " at Chalice Recording Studios , and " If I Was God " at The Boom Boom Room .
Kills described working with will.i.am , " [ ... ] it 's almost difficult having a normal conversation with him because he 's firing out ideas all the time . [ ... ] His entire life revolves around creativity , and that 's something I could really relate to . " Kierszenbaum praised Kills ' work ethic during the recording sessions , stating that she would focus simultaneously on the melodic and lyrical structure of song , as well as its soundscape . He went on to say that she " influenced the timbre of the sound " and assisted the production as if " she 's making a movie . "
= = Composition = =
Perfectionist is a concept album which focusses on how perfectionism influences Kills . " All the songs revolve around my ambition , celebrations , frustration and disappointments of being a perfectionist " , she stated . " I think we 're all perfectionists – we 're all looking for the best to fulfil our ideologies and dreams . " Kills was also inspired by " women 's obsession " with fashion in general . She described the album 's sound as " dark pop " due to its " opinionated " and " confrontational " lyrics which , according to her , differ from mainstream music . The lyrical content is occasionally comical and uses metaphors frequently .
Perfectionist is a dance @-@ pop and synthpop album , characterised by " driving rhythm sections and edgy minor @-@ key melodies " . Its opening track , " Perfection " , runs for thirty seconds and sees a " robotic @-@ sounding " therapist listing Kills ' flaws . " Wonderland " , which fantasises about romance and a relationship 's " perfect ending " , includes synthesizer arrangements and choir sections ; the line " Take me to wonderland " is repeated throughout the song . A track including a bassline , piano , club beats and synths , " Free " samples " Wuthering Heights " by Kate Bush . It was written by Kills when she worked as a waitress , and discusses " bailing on a budget " . " Break You Hard " is an industrial pop song with " hypnotic rhythms " , which talks about " breaking a lover " , while " Zombie " incorporates electronic organs and " mumbling bass " in an electronic R & B sound .
" Love Is a Suicide " follows , detailing the " self @-@ destruction " that comes with love , as Kills sings , " It 's so surgical , how you dissect every mistake I make , you ’ re like an animal , you bite me hard " . " Disco @-@ pop " track " Mirrors " references sadomasochist sexual practices , while portraying Kills with a dominatrix @-@ like persona ; it contains electric guitars , and a bassline which Robert Copsey from Digital Spy compared to that of Eurythmics ' " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " . The song 's chorus features Kills singing in a falsetto note . Writing for Consequence of Sound , Alex Young opined that the song discusses " the duplicity of identity , hubris , and objectification " . " Not In Love " is styled in electronica and influenced by acid house . AllMusic writer Jon O 'Brien wrote that it " provides a welcome respite from the album 's constant floor @-@ filling leanings " .
On " Acid Annie " , Kills plots a revenge on an ex @-@ boyfriend , while on the synthpop track " Superficial " , she confronts her " consumptive impulses " and appreciation of " finer things . " " Broke " sees Kills talking about money ; " Nothing Lasts Forever " is a duet with Bhasker , who performs under the alias of Billy Kraven . It was noted by O 'Connor for its prominent use of Auto @-@ Tune . Perfectionist closes with " If I Was God " , in which Kills asks her partner if he would love her if she was poor . For musicOMH , Blair Kelly likened its chorus ' melody to that of Bush 's " Running Up That Hill " .
= = Release and promotion = =
The cover art for Perfectionist , which depicts Kills sitting on an exam chair , with a red cross covering her eyes , was unveiled by Cherrytree on 11 March 2011 . In Austria , Germany and Switzerland , the album was released by Universal Music as a CD and digital download on the first day of April , while in Poland it was issued on 14 April . The American release proceeded on 16 August , as well as for Canada . That day , Kills performed songs from the album at the New York City @-@ based building Atlas , accompanied by a keyboardist . On 19 September , it was released in the United Kingdom .
= = = Singles and music videos = = =
" Zombie " was selected as Perfectionist 's first promotional single , and was released on 21 December 2009 . Its music video , which features Kills being tortured in a laboratory , was released on 16 March of the following year . The song was used in the sixth episode of the first season of the Syfy reality television series Face Off , aired 2 March 2011 . Despite not having been included in the album , " Activate My Heart " was released as its second promotional single on 13 April 2010 , while an accompanying visual was uploaded on 17 December .
" Mirrors " was digitally released as the album 's lead single on 10 August 2010 , while a CD single was issued six months later in Germany . An accompanying music video was released on 1 December 2010 , featuring Kills being dragged into a mirror and subsequently exploring the concepts of vanity , control and sex . The song charted . " Wonderland " followed as the second single from Perfectionist , and was available for purchase on 25 April 2011 . It only charted in Austria and Germany , respectively at number 55 and 45 . Doubet was commissioned to direct its music video , which sees Kills being forced into a mansion , being fed a cooked heart and ultimately climbing up a table , leading to chaos and violence inside the house .
Selected as the album 's third single , a remix of " Free " with guest vocals from will.i.am , was released on 24 June 2011 , with an accompanying visual being released ten days later . It obtained top 20 positions in Germany and Austria . A video for " Kill My Boyfriend " was released on 10 January 2012 . It was filmed in France , and depicts Kills attempting to murder her boyfriend by drowning him in a tub of milk . Despite not having been released as a single , it peaked at number 19 on the Flanders Ultratip chart .
= = = Love , Kills xx = = =
To promote the album , a web series titled Love , Kills xx was written , produced and directed by Kills and Guillaume Doubet . The episodes feature the former as their protagonist ; Akon , Far East Movement and Colette Carr appear as guests . According to Kills , the series are mostly devoid of dialogue in order to center on " emotion and action " . She also said that the visuals were an " expression " of her secret thoughts , regrets and desires . Each episode contains an instrumental of a song from Perfectionist , and most videos contain narration from Kills .
The first episode starts with Kills furiously walking with a revolver in direction of a blonde man ; she later ties him up on a bed , as he screams and tries to resist . Kills calls a friend whose name is not revealed , and asks him for help . During the second episode , Kills assassinates another man and takes his photograph ; the next episode , she is arrested by a group — played by Far East Movement — who threaten her . She manages to strangle the leader of the group , and later leaves a message for her anonymous friend , warning him that her face is being distributed on wanted posters .
The fourth episode begins with Kills and a man involving in sexual activity . By the morning , the latter wakes up while Kills is asleep , and steals her passport and revolver . Kills is surprised to see that he has left and gets angry after realizing that she was robbed . During the 1970s exploitation film @-@ inspired fifth episode , a victim of Kills denounces her to a detective , revealing that she left him in a desert . In the following episode , Kills runs over the man who robbed her two episodes earlier , with her convertible , and retrieves her passport . As the seventh webisode begins , Kills argues with her new boyfriend , who slaps her . Kills meets with him a week later , telling him that she 's not angry , however she hits him with a baseball bat .
In the eighth episode , set in a hotel , Kills wins a checkers game between her and a man — played by Akon — who carries a black box ; she exits the hotel carrying the box . The box , which contains a list of men names , is opened by Kills during the penultimate episode . She takes the list and crosses the name " Jeremy " off it . The camera shifts to a field where Kills makes a man jump from a cliff , by playing a game of " cold , warm and hot " with him . The last episode sees Kills and a friend of hers — interpreted by Carr — burning the car of the latter 's boyfriend .
= = = Tour = = =
To further promote the album , Kills went on a 58 @-@ date promotional tour , starting from 24 June 2011 and concluding on 22 November 2011 .
= = = = Tour dates = = = =
A ^ Marked dates supporting The Black Eyed Peas on their The Beginning Massive Stadium Tour .
B ^ This concert was a part of the Glastonbury Festival 2011 .
C ^ This concert was a part of the Wireless Festival 2011 .
D ^ Marked dates supporting Ke $ ha on her Get Sleazy Tour .
E ^ Marked dates supporting Katy Perry on her California Dreams Tour .
F ^ Marked dates supporting The Sounds on their 2011 tour .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , Perfectionist received polarized reviews from music critics . Jon O 'Brien from AllMusic summarised it as " formulaic and gimmicky " , and observed that the music was secondary to Kills ' attempts of establishing a mature image . AltSounds staff member Jack Stevin deemed it " disappointing " and unfocused , writing that Kills was not in control of the album and that she had an " air of pretension around " her . Stevin additionally said that Kills was stronger as a " visual artist " . Darryl Sterdan of Canoe.ca rated Perfectionist with three out of five points . Comparing it to the music of Lady Gaga , Kesha and Robyn , he opined , " Guess that 's why it 's not called Innovator . " Writing for Consequence of Sound , Alex Young noted that Kills expressed herself better as a musician through music videos , and surmised that " not all the songs on Perfectionist hit their mark " . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner described it as " finely tailored " and " exciting " , and gave it four stars out of five. musicOMH writer Blair Kelly characterised the album as imperfect , " uninspired , unoriginal and obvious " while negatively comparing it to the works of American artist Lady Gaga .
In Europe , the album achieved moderate chart success . On the chart issue dated 1 October 2011 , it entered the UK Albums Chart at number 129 . In Austria and Canada , the album respectively reached number 35 and 36 , while in the German and Swiss album charts , it peaked at number 50 and 94 . Perfectionist managed to top the US Heatseekers Albums and reach number 6 of the Dance / Electronic Albums , despite entering the main Billboard 200 chart at number 134 . By August 2013 , it had sold 14 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In Canada , the album reached number 36 . Kills credited the success of the album and its singles with changing her life , commenting , " I had nowhere to live , [ ... ] got on a plane to LA and then two years later I had sold over 800 @,@ 000 singles . I wrote 14 songs and that 's what happened ? [ ... ] I would never have thought this . I would have probably thought I was dead by now . "
Kills discussed Perfectionist during 2013 interviews . She revealed that after having lived a deplorable life in London , her ambitions and dreams influenced the album 's lyrics . " I was not as aware of ... how I was " , she stated . " I almost had a bit of fear where everybody wants to be loved , everybody wants to be understood in a way that 's not full of judgment or blame . So I put all of myself into the album and then [ kept ] bits out . " That year , Corner hailed Perfectionist as " one of the most underrated pop collections in recent memory " , and Idolator 's Sam Lansky opined that although it had " killer " choruses , the album suffered from excessive similarities to other artists .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Perfectionist .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Igbo Landing =
Igbo Landing ( alternatively written as Ibo Landing , Ebo Landing , or Ebos Landing ) is a historic site at Dunbar Creek on St. Simons Island , Glynn County , Georgia . It was the setting of a mass suicide in 1803 by captive Igbo people who had taken control of their slave ship and refused to submit to slavery in the United States . The event 's moral value as a story of resistance towards slavery has symbolic importance in African American folklore and literary history .
= = History = =
In May 1803 a shipload of captive West Africans , upon surviving the middle passage , were landed by U.S.-paid captors in Savannah by slave ship , to be auctioned off at one of the local slave markets . The ship 's enslaved passengers included a number of Igbo people from what is now Nigeria . The Igbo were known by planters and slavers of the American South for being fiercely independent and resistant to chattel slavery . The group of 75 Igbo slaves were bought by agents of John Couper and Thomas Spalding for forced labor on their plantations in St. Simons Island for $ 100 each .
The chained slaves were packed under the deck of a small vessel named the The Schooner York to be shipped to the island ( other sources say the voyage took place aboard The Morovia ) . During this voyage the Igbo slaves rose up in rebellion , taking control of the ship and drowning their captors in the process causing the grounding of the Morovia in Dunbar Creek at the site now locally known as Ibo Landing .
The following sequence of events is unclear , as there are several versions concerning the revolt 's development , some of which are considered mythological . Apparently the Africans went ashore and subsequently , under the direction of a high Igbo chief among them , walked in unison into the creek singing in the Igbo language " The Water Spirit brought us , the Water Spirit will take us home " . They thereby accepted the protection of their god Chukwu and death over the alternative of slavery . Roswell King , a white overseer on the nearby Pierce Butler plantation , wrote one of the only contemporary accounts of the incident which states that as soon as the Igbo landed on St. Simons Island they took to the swamp , committing suicide by walking into Dunbar Creek . A 19th century account of the event written in identifies the captain by the surname Patterson , and names Roswell King as the person who recovered the bodies of the drowned . A letter describing the event written by Savannah slave dealer William Mein states that the Igbo walked into the marsh , where 10 to 12 drowned , while some were " salvaged " by bounty hunters who received $ 10 a head from Spalding and Couper . According to some sources , survivors of the Igbo rebellion were taken to Cannon 's Point on St. Simons Island and Sapelo Island .
= = Historical context = =
Igbo Landing was the final scene of events which in 1803 amounted to a " major act of resistance " by the Africans . These events have had enduring symbolic importance in African @-@ American folklore and literary history . The mutiny by the Igbo people has been referred to as the first " freedom march " in the history of America . Although for more than two centuries most authorities considered the accounts to be an Afro @-@ American folktale , research since 1980 has verified the factual basis of the legend and its historical content . The site was included as a historic resource in a 2009 county survey .
The site bears no official historical marker . A sewage disposal plant was built beside the historical site in the 1940s despite local opposition by African Americans . The site is still routinely visited by historians and tourists . The event has recently been incorporated into the history curriculum of coastal Georgia schools .
= = Mythology and folklore = =
The story of the Igbo slaves who chose death over a life of slavery is a recurring story that has taken deep roots in African American and Gullah folklore . As is typical of oral histories , the facts have evolved over time , in many cases taking on mythological aspects .
= = = Myth of the water @-@ walking Africans = = =
Floyd White , an elderly African American interviewed by the Federal Writers Project in the 1930s is recorded as saying :
Heard about the Ibo ’ s Landing ? That ’ s the place where they bring the Ibos over in a slave ship and when they get here , they ain ’ t like it and so they all start singing and they march right down in the river to march back to Africa , but they ain ’ t able to get there . They gets drown .
A typical Gullah telling of the events , incorporating many of the recurrent themes that are common to most myths related to the Igbo Landing , is recorded by Linda S. Watts :
The West Africans upon assessing their situation resolved to risk their lives by walking home over the water rather than submit to the living death that awaited them in American slavery . As the tale has it , the tribes people disembark from the ship , and as a group , turned around and walked along the water , traveling in the opposite direction from the arrival port . As they took this march together , the West Africans joined in song . They are reported to have sung a hymn in which the lyrics assert that the water spirits will take them home . While versions of this story vary in nuance , all attest to the courage in rebellion displayed by the enslaved Igbo .
= = = Myth of the flying Africans = = =
Another popular legend associated with Igbo Landing is known as the myth of the flying Africans . It was recorded from various oral sources in the 1930s by members of the Federal Writers Project . In these cases , the Africans are reputed to have grown wings or turned into vultures , before flying back home to freedom in Africa . Wallace Quarterman , an African American born in 1844 who was interviewed in 1930 , when asked if he had heard about the Igbo landing states :
Ain 't you heard about them ? Well , at that time Mr. Blue he was the overseer and . . . Mr. Blue he go down one morning with a long whip for to whip them good . . . . Anyway , he whipped them good and they got together and stuck that hoe in the field and then . . . rose up in the sky and turned themselves into buzzards and flew right back to Africa . . . . Everybody knows about them .
As Professor Terri L. Snyder notes :
The flying African folktale probably has its historical roots in an 1803 collective suicide by newly imported slaves . A group of Igbo ( variously , Ebo or Ibo ) captives who had survived the middle passage were sold near Savannah , Georgia , and reloaded onto a small ship bound for St. Simon 's Island . Off the coast of the island , the enslaved cargo , who had " suffered much by mismanagement , " " rose " from their confinement in the small vessel , and revolted against the crew , forcing them into the water where they drowned . After the ship ran aground , the Igbos " took to the marsh " and drowned themselves — an act that most scholars have understood as a deliberate , collective suicide . The site of their fatal immersion was named Ebos Landing . The fate of those Igbo in 1803 gave rise to a distinctive regional folklore and a place name .
= = = Reported haunting = = =
Local people claim that the Igbo Landing and surrounding marshes in Dunbar Creek are haunted by the souls of the dead Igbo slaves .
= = Legacy = =
In September 2002 the St. Simon African @-@ American Heritage Coalition organized a two @-@ day commemoration with events related to Igbo history and a procession to the site . The 75 attendees came from other states , as well as Nigeria , and Belize and Haiti , where similar resistance had taken place . They gathered to designate the site as holy ground and give the souls rest . The account of the Igbo is now part of the curriculum for coastal Georgia schools .
= = = Representation in other media = = =
The historical events pertaining to the Igbo slave escape in Dunbar Creek , and the associated myth , have inspired and influenced a number of African @-@ American artists .
Examples include Nobel laureate Toni Morrison , who used the myth of the flying Africans in her novel , Song of Solomon , and Alex Haley , who retells the story in his book Roots . The Paule Marshall novel Praisesong for the Widow also was inspired by these events . They are retold from the context of the Gullah descendants in the feature film Daughters of the Dust ( 1993 ) , directed by Julie Dash . Other contemporary artists that allude to , or have integrated the complete tale of the Flying Africans in their work include Joseph Zobel , Maryse Conde , Toni Cade Bambara and Jamaica Kincaid . Imagery from the " Love Drought " portion of Beyonce 's visual album Lemonade ( Beyoncé album ) are said to be inspired by Daughters of the Dust and the story of Igbo Landing .
= Samuel Merrill Woodbridge =
The Reverend Samuel Merrill Woodbridge , D.D. , LL.D. ( April 5 , 1819 – June 23 , 1905 ) was an American clergyman , theologian , author , and college professor . A graduate of New York University and the New Brunswick Theological Seminary , Woodbridge preached for sixteen years as a clergyman in the Reformed Church in America . After settling in New Brunswick , New Jersey , he taught for 44 years as professor of ecclesiastical history and church government at the New Brunswick Theological Seminary , and for seven years as professor of " metaphysics and philosophy of the human mind " at Rutgers College ( now Rutgers , The State University of New Jersey ) in New Brunswick . Woodbridge later led the New Brunswick seminary as Dean and President of the Faculty from 1883 to 1901 . He was the author of three books and several published sermons and addresses covering various aspects of Christian faith , theology , church history and government .
= = Biography = =
Samuel Merrill Woodbridge was born April 5 , 1819 in Greenfield , Massachusetts . He was the third of six children born to the Rev. Sylvester Woodbridge , D.D. ( 1790 – 1863 ) and Elizabeth Gould ( died in 1851 ) . According to a genealogical chart published in Munsey 's Magazine in 1907 , Woodbridge was in the eleventh generation of a family of clergymen dating back to the late 15th century . The earliest clergyman in this ancestral line , the Rev. John Woodbridge ( born in 1493 ) , was a follower of John Wycliffe .
Woodbridge attended New York University , receiving a Bachelor of Arts ( A.B. ) degree in 1838 . As an undergraduate student , Woodbridge was a member of the university 's secretive , all @-@ male Eucleian Society and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa . He was awarded a Master of Arts ( A.M. ) from the New Brunswick Theological Seminary in 1841 and was installed as a minister by the Reformed Church 's Classis of New York , a governing body overseeing churches within the region . At this time , his alma mater , New York University , promoted his bachelor 's degree to a Master of Arts . After his graduation from seminary , he served as pastor at the South Reformed Dutch Church in South Brooklyn ( 1841 – 49 ) , at the Second Reformed Church in Coxsackie , New York ( 1849 – 52 ) , and at the Second Reformed Church in New Brunswick , New Jersey ( 1852 – 57 ) .
In December 1857 , Woodbridge was appointed to the faculty of two schools in New Brunswick , New Jersey . He would serve 44 years as a professor of ecclesiastical history and church government at New Brunswick Theological Seminary ( from 1857 to 1901 ) and for seven years as a professor of " Metaphysics and Philosophy of the Human Mind " at Rutgers College ( from 1857 to 1864 ) . Both schools were then affiliated with the Protestant Dutch Reformed faith . He was appointed by the Synod to a vacancy in both professorates caused by the death of the Rev. John Ludlow , D.D. ( 1793 – 1857 ) , on September 8 , 1857 . During his tenure at the seminary , Woodbridge also provided instruction in the areas of pastoral , didactic and polemic theology — often when there were vacancies amongst the faculty .
In 1883 , the church 's General Synod decided that the " oldest professor in service in the Theological Seminary at New Brunswick be styled Dean of the Seminary , and to him shall be entrusted the discipline of the Institution , according to such regulations as may be agreed upon by the Faculty . " Woodbridge led the seminary as its first Dean of the Seminary , and subsequently as President of the Faculty until his retirement in 1901 . Both positions were predecessors to the present seminary president . During his career , Woodbridge received honorary degrees from Union College ( D.D. 1858 ) and from Rutgers College ( A.M. , 1841 ; D.D. , 1857 ; LL.D. 1883 ) . He retired from teaching in 1901 as an emeritus professor , at the age of 82 .
Woodbridge married twice . His first marriage was to Caroline Bergen ( who died in 1861 ) in February 1845 ; the couple had one daughter , Caroline Woodbridge ( born in 1845 ) . On December 20 , 1866 he married his second wife , Anna Wittaker Dayton ( 1823 – 1920 ) , with whom he had two daughters , Anna Dayton Woodbridge ( born in 1869 ) and Mary Elizabeth Woodbridge ( born in 1872 ) .
Woodbridge died at the age of 86 on June 23 , 1905 in New Brunswick , New Jersey . He was interred in a family plot in the city 's Elmwood Cemetery . Church historian Charles Edward Corwin recorded that Woodbridge was described as having a strong personality that " made dry subjects to glow with life , " adding that he " was very firm in the faith but his loving heart made him kindly even toward those whose opinion he considered dangerous . "
= = Works = =
= = = Books = = =
1872 : Analysis of Systematic Theology ( 1st Edition )
1883 : Analysis of Systematic Theology ( 2nd Edition )
1895 : Manual of Church History
1896 : Synopsis of Church Government
= = = Sermons and discourses = = =
Various sermons , addresses , and discourses given in public by Rev. Woodbridge have been printed in newspapers and periodicals , as part of a collection of addresses in books , and as separately published pamphlets . These smaller works include :
1853 : " Principles of Our Government : A Thanksgiving Discourse "
1856 : " Sermon on Human Government " , printed in the New Brunswick Fredonian
1857 : " Inaugural Discourse as Professor of Ecclesiastical History "
1857 : " On the Family " , printed in The Christian Intelligencer
1865 : " Power of the Bible " , printed in The National Preacher and Village Pulpit
1867 : " Address " published in Richard Holloway Steele 's Historical Discourse delivered at the Celebration of the One Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of the First Reformed Dutch Church
1869 : " Address " included in Proceedings at the Centennial Anniversary of the Dedication of the North Dutch Church , May 25 , 1869
1871 : " Discourse on Benevolence given before the General Synod at Albany " , printed in Christian Intelligencer
1875 : Faith : It 's True Position in the Life of Man : A Discourse , preached November 22d , 1874 , in the chapel of Rutgers College
1885 : " Historical Theology : An Address " , included in David Demarest 's Centennial of the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church in America , formerly the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church , 1784 – 1884
1894 : " Characteristics of Dr. Campbell " , included in A Memorial of Rev. William Henry Campbell , D.D. , LL.D. , Late President of Rutgers College
1897 : " Address by Professor Woodbridge " , included in Fortieth Anniversary of the Inauguration of the Rev. S. M. Woodbridge , D.D. , LL.D. , as Professor in the Theological Seminary of the Reformed ( Dutch ) Church in America at New Brunswick , 1857 – 1897
= Katyn massacre =
The Katyn massacre ( Polish : zbrodnia katyńska , mord katyński , " Katyń crime " ; Russian : Катынский расстрел Katynskij rasstrel , " Katyn shooting " ) was a series of mass executions of Polish nationals carried out by the NKVD ( " People 's Commissariat for Internal Affairs " , a Soviet secret police organisation ) in April and May 1940 . Though the killings took place at several different locations , the massacre is named after the Katyn Forest , where some of the mass graves were first discovered .
The massacre was prompted by NKVD chief Lavrentiy Beria 's proposal to execute all captive members of the Polish officer corps , dated 5 March 1940 , approved by the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , including its leader , Joseph Stalin . The number of victims is estimated at about 22 @,@ 000 . The victims were executed in the Katyn Forest in Russia , the Kalinin and Kharkiv prisons , and elsewhere . Of the total killed , about 8 @,@ 000 were officers imprisoned during the 1939 Soviet invasion of Poland , another 6 @,@ 000 were police officers , and the rest were arrested Polish intelligentsia that the Soviets deemed to be " intelligence agents , gendarmes , landowners , saboteurs , factory owners , lawyers , officials , and priests " .
The government of Nazi Germany announced the discovery of mass graves in the Katyn Forest in 1943 . When the London @-@ based Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile asked for an investigation by the International Committee of the Red Cross , Stalin immediately severed diplomatic relations with it . The USSR claimed that the victims had been murdered by the Nazis in 1941 and continued to deny responsibility for the massacres until 1990 , when it officially acknowledged and condemned the perpetration of the killings by the NKVD , as well as the subsequent cover @-@ up by the Soviet government .
An investigation conducted by the office of the Prosecutors General of the Soviet Union ( 1990 – 1991 ) and the Russian Federation ( 1991 – 2004 ) confirmed Soviet responsibility for the massacres but refused to classify this action as a war crime or an act of genocide . The investigation was closed on the grounds that the perpetrators of the atrocity were already dead , and since the Russian government would not classify the dead as victims of the Great Purge , formal posthumous rehabilitation was deemed inapplicable .
In November 2010 , the Russian State Duma approved a declaration blaming Stalin and other Soviet officials for having personally ordered the massacre .
= = Background = =
At least 111 @,@ 091 people were executed during the Polish Operation of the NKVD ( 1937 – 38 ) .
On 1 September 1939 , the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany began . Consequently , Britain and France , obligated by the Anglo @-@ Polish military alliance and Franco @-@ Polish alliance to attack Germany in the case of such an invasion , demanded that Germany withdraw . On 3 September 1939 , after Germany failed to comply , Britain , France , and most countries of the British Empire declared war on Germany , but provided little military support to Poland . They took minimal military action during what became known as the Phoney War .
The Soviet invasion of Poland began on 17 September in accordance with the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact . The Red Army advanced quickly and met little resistance , as Polish forces facing them were under orders not to engage the Soviets . About 250 @,@ 000 to 454 @,@ 700 Polish soldiers and policemen were captured and interned by the Soviet authorities . Some were freed or escaped quickly , but 125 @,@ 000 were imprisoned in camps run by the NKVD . Of these , 42 @,@ 400 soldiers , mostly of Ukrainian and Belarusian ethnicity serving in the Polish army , who lived in the territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union , were released in October . The 43 @,@ 000 soldiers born in western Poland , then under German control , were transferred to the Germans ; in turn , the Soviets received 13 @,@ 575 Polish prisoners from the Germans .
Soviet repressions of Polish citizens occurred as well over this period . Since Poland 's conscription system required every nonexempt university graduate to become a military reserve officer , the NKVD was able to round up a significant portion of the Polish educated class . According to estimates by the Institute of National Remembrance ( IPN ) , roughly 320 @,@ 000 Polish citizens were deported to the Soviet Union ( this figure is questioned by some other historians , who hold to older estimates of about 700 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) . IPN estimates the number of Polish citizens who died under Soviet rule during World War II at 150 @,@ 000 ( a revision of older estimates of up to 500 @,@ 000 ) . Of the group of 12 @,@ 000 Poles sent to Dalstroy camp ( near Kolyma ) in 1940 – 1941 , mostly POWs , only 583 men survived ; they were released in 1942 to join the Polish Armed Forces in the East . According to Tadeusz Piotrowski , " during the war and after 1944 , 570 @,@ 387 Polish citizens had been subjected to some form of Soviet political repression " .
As early as 19 September , the head of the NKVD , Lavrentiy Beria , ordered the secret police to create the Main Administration for Affairs of Prisoners of War and Internees to manage Polish prisoners . The NKVD took custody of Polish prisoners from the Red Army , and proceeded to organise a network of reception centers and transit camps , and to arrange rail transport to prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps in the western USSR . The largest camps were located at Kozelsk ( Optina Monastery ) , Ostashkov ( Stolobny Island on Lake Seliger near Ostashkov ) , and Starobelsk . Other camps were at Jukhnovo ( rail station Babynino ) , Yuzhe ( Talitsy ) , rail station Tyotkino ( 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) from Putyvl ) , Kozelshchyna , Oranki , Vologda ( rail station Zaonikeevo ) , and Gryazovets .
Kozelsk and Starobelsk were used mainly for military officers , while Ostashkov was used mainly for Polish Scouting , gendarmes , police officers , and prison officers . Some prisoners were members of other groups of Polish intelligentsia , such as priests , landowners , and law personnel . The approximate distribution of men throughout the camps was as follows : Kozelsk , 5000 ; Ostashkov , 6570 ; and Starobelsk , 4000 . They totaled 15 @,@ 570 men .
According to a report from 19 November 1939 , the NKVD had about 40 @,@ 000 Polish POWs : about 8 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 500 officers and warrant officers , 6 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 500 police officers , and 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and non @-@ commissioned officers who were still being held as POWs . In December , a wave of arrests resulted in the imprisonment of additional Polish officers . Ivan Serov reported to Lavrentiy Beria on 3 December that " in all , 1 @,@ 057 former officers of the Polish Army had been arrested " . The 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and non @-@ commissioned officers were assigned to forced labor ( road construction , heavy metallurgy ) .
Once at the camps , from October 1939 to February 1940 , the Poles were subjected
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recoil , which made shooting painful after the first dozen executions . Vasily Mikhailovich Blokhin , chief executioner for the NKVD — and quite possibly the most prolific executioner in history — is reported to have personally shot and killed 7 @,@ 000 of the condemned , some as young as 18 , from the Ostashkov camp at Kalinin prison , over a period of 28 days in April 1940 .
The killings were methodical . After the condemned individual 's personal information was checked and approved , he was handcuffed and led to a cell insulated with stacks of sandbags along the walls , and a heavy , felt @-@ lined door . The victim was told to kneel in the middle of the cell , and was then approached from behind by the executioner and immediately shot in the back of the head or neck . The body was carried out through the opposite door and laid in one of the five or six waiting trucks , whereupon the next condemned was taken inside and subjected to the same fate . In addition to muffling by the rough insulation in the execution cell , the pistol gunshots were also masked by the operation of loud machines ( perhaps fans ) throughout the night . Some post @-@ 1991 revelations suggest that prisoners were also executed in the same manner at the NKVD headquarters in Smolensk , though judging by the way that the corpses were stacked , some captives may have been shot while standing on the edge of the mass graves . This procedure went on every night , except for the public May Day holiday .
Some 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 Polish inmates of Ukrainian prisons and those from Belarus prisons were probably buried in Bykivnia and in Kurapaty respectively . Lieutenant Janina Lewandowska , daughter of Gen. Józef Dowbor @-@ Muśnicki , was the only woman executed during the massacre at Katyn .
= = Discovery = =
The question about the fate of the Polish prisoners was raised soon after Operation Barbarossa began in June 1941 . The Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile and the Soviet government signed the Sikorski – Mayski agreement , which announced the willingness of both to fight together against Nazi Germany and for a Polish army to be formed on Soviet territory . The Polish general Władysław Anders began organizing this army , and soon he requested information about the missing Polish officers . During a personal meeting , Stalin assured him and Władysław Sikorski , the Polish Prime Minister , that all the Poles were freed , and that not all could be accounted because the Soviets " lost track " of them in Manchuria . Józef Czapski investigated the fate of Polish officers between 1941 and 1942 .
In 1942 , with the territory around Smolensk under German occupation , captive Polish railroad workers heard from the locals about a mass grave of Polish soldiers at Kozelsk near Katyn ; finding one of the graves , they reported it to the Polish Underground State . The discovery was not seen as important , as nobody thought the discovered grave could contain so many victims . In early 1943 , Rudolf Christoph Freiherr von Gersdorff , a German officer serving as the intelligence liaison between the Wehrmacht 's Army Group Centre and Abwehr , received reports about mass graves of Polish military officers . These reports stated the graves were in the forest of Goat Hill near Katyn . He passed the reports to his superiors ( sources vary on when exactly the Germans became aware of the graves — from " late 1942 " to January – February 1943 , and when the German top decision makers in Berlin received those reports [ as early as 1 March or as late as 4 April ] ) . Joseph Goebbels saw this discovery as an excellent tool to drive a wedge between Poland , the Western Allies , and the Soviet Union , and reinforcement for the Nazi propaganda line about the horrors of Bolshevism , and American and British subservience to it . After extensive preparation , on 13 April , Reichssender Berlin broadcast to the world that German military forces in the Katyn forest near Smolensk had uncovered a ditch that was " 28 metres long and 16 metres wide [ 92 ft by 52 ft ] , in which the bodies of 3 @,@ 000 Polish officers were piled up in 12 layers " . The broadcast went on to charge the Soviets with carrying out the massacre in 1940 .
The Germans brought in a European Red Cross committee called the Katyn Commission , comprising 12 forensic experts and their staff , from Belgium , Bulgaria , Croatia , Denmark , Finland , France , Hungary , Italy , the Netherlands , Romania , Sweden , and Slovakia . The Germans were so intent on proving that the Soviets were behind the massacre that they even included some Allied prisoners of war , among them writer Ferdynand Goetel , the Polish Home Army prisoner from Pawiak . After the war , Goetel escaped with a fake passport due to an arrest warrant issued against him . Jan Emil Skiwski was a collaborator . Józef Mackiewicz has published several texts about the crime . Two of the 12 , the Bulgarian Marko Markov and the Czech František Hájek , with their countries becoming satellite states of the Soviet Union , were forced to recant their evidence , defending the Soviets and blaming the Germans . The Croatian pathologist Eduard Miloslavić managed to escape to the USA .
The Katyn massacre was beneficial to Nazi Germany , which used it to discredit the Soviet Union . On 14 April 1943 , Goebbels wrote in his diary : " We are now using the discovery of 12 @,@ 000 Polish officers , murdered by the GPU , for anti @-@ Bolshevik propaganda on a grand style . We sent neutral journalists and Polish intellectuals to the spot where they were found . Their reports now reaching us from ahead are gruesome . The Führer has also given permission for us to hand out a drastic news item to the German press . I gave instructions to make the widest possible use of the propaganda material . We shall be able to live on it for a couple of weeks " . The Germans won a major propaganda victory , portraying communism as a danger to " Western civilization " .
The Soviet government immediately denied the German charges . They claimed that the Polish prisoners of war had been engaged in construction work west of Smolensk , and consequently were captured and executed by invading German units in August 1941 . The Soviet response on 15 April to the initial German broadcast of 13 April , prepared by the Soviet Information Bureau , stated that " Polish prisoners @-@ of @-@ war who in 1941 were engaged in construction work west of Smolensk and who ... fell into the hands of the German @-@ Fascist hangmen " .
In April 1943 , the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile led by Sikorski insisted on bringing the matter to the negotiation table with the Soviets and on opening an investigation by the International Red Cross . Stalin , in response , accused the Polish government of collaborating with Nazi Germany and broke off diplomatic relations with it . The Soviet Union also started a campaign to get the Western Allies to recognize the pro @-@ Soviet government @-@ in @-@ exile of the Union of Polish Patriots led by Wanda Wasilewska . Sikorski died in an air crash in July — an event that was convenient for the Allied leaders .
= = = Soviet actions = = =
When , in September 1943 , Joseph Goebbels was informed that the German army had to withdraw from the Katyn area , he wrote a prediction in his diary . His entry for 29 September 1943 reads : " Unfortunately we have had to give up Katyn . The Bolsheviks undoubtedly will soon ' find ' that we shot 12 @,@ 000 Polish officers . That episode is one that is going to cause us quite a little trouble in the future . The Soviets are undoubtedly going to make it their business to discover as many mass graves as possible and then blame it on us " .
Having retaken the Katyn area almost immediately after the Red Army had recaptured Smolensk , around September – October 1943 , NKVD forces began a cover @-@ up operation . A cemetery the Germans had permitted the Polish Red Cross to build was destroyed and other evidence removed . Witnesses were " interviewed " and threatened with arrest for collaborating with the Nazis if their testimonies disagreed with the official line . As none of the documents found on the dead had dates later than April 1940 , the Soviet secret police planted false evidence to place the apparent time of the massacre in the summer of 1941 , when the German military had controlled the area . A preliminary report was issued by NKVD operatives Vsevolod Merkulov and Sergei Kruglov , dated 10 – 11 January 1944 , concluding that the Polish officers were shot by German soldiers .
In January 1944 , the Soviet Union sent another commission , the Extraordinary State Commission for ascertaining and investigating crimes perpetrated by the German @-@ Fascist invaders to the site ; the very name of the commission implied a predestined conclusion . It was headed by Nikolai Burdenko , the president of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences ( hence the commission is often known as the " Burdenko Commission " ) , who was appointed by Moscow to investigate the incident . Its members included prominent Soviet figures such as the writer Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy , but no foreign personnel were allowed to join the Commission . The Burdenko Commission exhumed the bodies , rejected the 1943 German findings that the Poles were shot by the Soviet army , assigned the guilt to the Nazis , and concluded that all the shootings were done by German occupation forces in autumn of 1941 . Despite a lack of evidence , it also blamed the Germans for shooting Russian prisoners of war used as labor to dig the pits . It is uncertain how many members of the commission were misled by the falsified reports and evidence , and how many actually suspected the truth . Cienciala and Materski note that the Commission had no choice but to issue findings in line with the Merkulov @-@ Kruglov report , and that Burdenko himself most likely was aware of the cover @-@ up . He reportedly admitted something like that to friends and family shortly before his death in 1946 . The Burdenko commission 's conclusions would be consistently cited by Soviet sources until the official admission of guilt by the Soviet government on 13 April 1990 .
In January 1944 , the Soviets also invited a group of more than a dozen mostly American and British journalists , accompanied by Kathleen Harriman , the daughter of the new American ambassador W. Averell Harriman , and John F. Melby , third secretary at the American embassy in Moscow , to Katyn . The inclusion of Melby and Harriman was regarded by some at the time as a Soviet attempt to lend official weight to their propaganda . Melby 's report noted the deficiencies in the Soviet case : problematic witnesses ; attempts to discourage questioning of the witnesses ; statements of the witnesses obviously being given as a result of rote memorization ; and that " the show was put on for the benefit of the correspondents " . Nevertheless , Melby , at the time , felt that on balance the Russian case was convincing . Harriman 's report reached the same conclusion and after the war both were asked to explain why their conclusions seemed to be at odds with their findings , with the suspicion that the conclusions were what the State Department wanted to hear . The journalists were less impressed and not totally convinced by the staged Soviet demonstration .
Some Western Communists propagated Soviet propaganda , e.g. , Alter Brody ( introduced by Corliss Lamont ) published a text Behind the Polish @-@ Soviet Break .
= = = Western response = = =
The growing Polish @-@ Soviet tension was beginning to strain Western @-@ Soviet relations at a time when the Poles ' importance to the Allies , significant in the first years of the war , was beginning to fade , due to the entry into the conflict of the military and industrial giants , the Soviet Union and the United States . In retrospective review of records , both British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt were increasingly torn between their commitments to their Polish ally and the demands by Stalin and his diplomats .
According to the Polish diplomat Edward Bernard Raczyński , Raczyński and General Sikorski met privately with Churchill and Alexander Cadogan on 15 April 1943 , and told them that the Poles had concrete proof that the Soviets were responsible for the massacre . Raczyński reports that Churchill , " without committing himself , showed by his manner that he had no doubt of it " . Churchill said that " The Bolsheviks can be very cruel " . However , at the same time , on 24 April 1943 , Churchill assured the Soviets : " We shall certainly oppose vigorously any ' investigation ' by the International Red Cross or any other body in any territory under German authority . Such investigation would be a fraud and its conclusions reached by terrorism " . Unofficial or classified UK documents concluded that Soviet guilt was a " near certainty " , but the alliance with the Soviets was deemed to be more important than moral issues ; thus the official version supported the Soviets , up to censoring any contradictory accounts . Churchill asked Owen O 'Malley to investigate the issue , but in a note to the Foreign Secretary he noted : " All this is merely to ascertain the facts , because we should none of us ever speak a word about it . " O 'Malley pointed out several inconsistencies and near impossibilities in the Soviet version . Later , Churchill sent a copy of the report to Roosevelt on 13 August 1943 . The report deconstructed the Soviet account of the massacre and alluded to the political consequences within a strongly moral framework but recognized there was no viable alternative to the existing policy . No comment by Roosevelt on the O 'Malley report has been found . Churchill 's own post @-@ war account of the Katyn affair gives little further insight . In his memoirs , he refers to the 1944 Soviet inquiry into the massacre , which found the Germans responsible , and adds , " belief seems an act of faith " .
At the beginning of 1944 , Ron Jeffery , an agent of British and Polish intelligence in occupied Poland , eluded the Abwehr and travelled to London with a report from Poland to the British government . His efforts were at first highly regarded , but subsequently ignored by the British , which a disillusioned Jeffery attributed to the treachery of Kim Philby and other high @-@ ranking communist agents entrenched in the British system . Jeffery tried to inform the British government about the Katyn massacre , but was as a result released from the Army .
In the United States a similar line was taken , notwithstanding two official intelligence reports into the Katyn massacre that contradicted the official position . In 1944 , Roosevelt assigned his special emissary to the Balkans , Navy Lieutenant Commander George Earle , to produce a report on Katyn . Earle concluded that the massacre was committed by the Soviet Union . Having consulted with Elmer Davis , director of the United States Office of War Information , Roosevelt rejected the conclusion ( officially ) , declared that he was convinced of Nazi Germany 's responsibility , and ordered that Earle 's report be suppressed . When Earle formally requested permission to publish his findings , the President issued a written order to desist . Earle was reassigned and spent the rest of the war in American Samoa .
A further report in 1945 , supporting the same conclusion , was produced and stifled . In 1943 , two U.S. POWs — Lt. Col. Donald B. Stewart and Col. John H. Van Vliet — had been taken by Germans to Katyn for an international news conference . Documents released by the National Archives and Records Administration in September 2012 revealed that Steward and Van Vliet sent coded messages to their American superiors indicating that they saw proof that implicated the Soviets . Three lines of evidence were cited . Firstly , the Polish corpses were in such an advanced state of decay that the Nazis could not have killed the Poles , as they had only taken over the area in 1941 . Secondly , none of the numerous Polish artifacts , such as letters , diaries , photographs and identification tags pulled from the graves , were dated later than the spring of 1940 . Most incriminating was the relatively good state of the men 's uniforms and boots , which showed that they had not lived long after being captured . Later , in 1945 , Van Vliet submitted a report concluding that the Soviets were responsible for the massacre . His superior , Major General Clayton Lawrence Bissell , General George Marshall 's assistant chief of staff for intelligence , destroyed the report . Washington kept the information secret , presumably to appease Stalin and not distract from the war against the Nazis . During the 1951 – 52 Congressional investigation into Katyn , Bissell defended his action before the United States Congress , arguing that it was not in the U.S. interest to antagonize an ally ( the USSR ) whose assistance was still needed against the Empire of Japan . In 1950 Van Vliet recreated his wartime report . In 2014 , a copy of Van Vliet 's 1945 deposition was discovered .
= = At the Nuremberg trials = =
From 28 December 1945 to 4 January 1946 , seven Wehrmacht servicemen were tried by a Soviet military court in Leningrad . One of them , Arno Düre , who was charged with murdering numerous civilians using machine @-@ guns in Soviet villages , confessed to having taken part in burial ( though not the execution ) of 15 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 Polish POWs in Katyn . For this he was spared execution and was given 15 years of hard labor . His confession was full of absurdities , and thus he was not used as a Soviet prosecution witness during the Nuremberg trials . He later recanted his confession , claiming that he was forced to confess by the investigators .
At the London conference that drew up the indictments of German war crimes before the Nuremberg trials , the Soviet negotiators put forward the allegation , " In September 1941 , 925 Polish officers who were prisoners of war were killed in the Katyn Forest near Smolensk " . The U.S. negotiators agreed to include it , but were " embarrassed " by the inclusion ( noting that the allegation had been debated extensively in the press ) and concluded that it would be up to the Soviets to sustain it . At the trials in 1946 , Soviet General Roman Rudenko raised the indictment , stating that " one of the most important criminal acts for which the major war criminals are responsible was the mass execution of Polish prisoners of war shot in the Katyn forest near Smolensk by the German fascist invaders " , but failed to make the case and the U.S. and British judges dismissed the charges . It was not the purpose of the court to determine whether Germany or the Soviet Union was responsible for the crime , but rather to attribute the crime to at least one of the defendants , which the court was unable to do .
= = Cold War views = =
In 1951 and 1952 , with the Korean War as a background , a congressional investigation chaired by Rep. Ray Madden and known as the Madden Committee investigated the Katyn massacre . It concluded that the Poles had been killed by the Soviet NKVD and recommended that the Soviets be tried before the International Court of Justice . However , the question of responsibility still remained controversial in the West as well as behind the Iron Curtain . In the United Kingdom in the late 1970s plans for a memorial to the victims bearing the date 1940 ( rather than 1941 ) were condemned as provocative in the political climate of the Cold War . It has also been alleged that the choice made in 1969 for the location of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic war memorial at the former Belarusian village named Khatyn , the site of the 1943 Khatyn massacre , was made to cause confusion with Katyn . The two names are similar or identical in many languages , and were often confused .
In Poland , the pro @-@ Soviet authorities covered up the matter in accordance with the official Soviet propaganda line , deliberately censoring any sources that might provide information about the crime . Katyn was a forbidden topic in postwar Poland . Censorship in the Polish People 's Republic was a massive undertaking and Katyn was specifically mentioned in the " Black Book of Censorship " used by the authorities to control the media and academia . Not only did government censorship suppress all references to it , but even mentioning the atrocity was dangerous . In the late 1970s , democracy groups like the Workers ' Defence Committee and the Flying University defied the censorship and discussed the massacre , in the face of arrests , beatings , detentions , and ostracism . In 1981 , Polish trade union Solidarity erected a memorial with the simple inscription " Katyn , 1940 " . It was confiscated by the police and replaced with an official monument with the inscription : " To the Polish soldiers — victims of Hitlerite fascism — reposing in the soil of Katyn " . Nevertheless , every year on the day of Zaduszki , similar memorial crosses were erected at Powązki Cemetery and numerous other places in Poland , only to be dismantled by the police . Katyn remained a political taboo in the Polish People 's Republic until the fall of the Eastern Bloc in 1989 .
In the Soviet Union during the 1950s , the head of KGB , Alexander Shelepin , proposed and carried out the destruction of many documents related to the Katyn massacre in order to minimize the chance that the truth would be revealed . His 3 March 1959 note to Nikita Khrushchev , with information about the execution of 21 @,@ 857 Poles and with the proposal to destroy their personal files , became one of the documents that were preserved and eventually made public .
= = Revelations = =
From the late 1980s on there was increasing pressure on both the Polish and Soviet governments to release documents related to the massacre . Polish academics tried to include Katyn in the agenda of the 1987 joint Polish @-@ Soviet commission to investigate censored episodes of the Polish @-@ Russian history . In 1989 , Soviet scholars revealed that Joseph Stalin had indeed ordered the massacre , and in 1990 Mikhail Gorbachev admitted that the NKVD had executed the Poles and confirmed two other burial sites similar to the site at Katyn : Mednoye and Piatykhatky .
On 30 October 1989 , Gorbachev allowed a delegation of several hundred Poles , organized by the Polish association Families of Katyń Victims , to visit the Katyn memorial . This group included former U.S. national security advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski . A mass was held and banners hailing the Solidarity movement were laid . One mourner affixed a sign reading " NKVD " on the memorial , covering the word " Nazis " in the inscription such that it read " In memory of Polish officers murdered by the NKVD in 1941 . " Several visitors scaled the fence of a nearby KGB compound and left burning candles on the grounds . Brzezinski commented that :
It isn 't a personal pain which has brought me here , as is the case in the majority of these people , but rather recognition of the symbolic nature of Katyń . Russians and Poles , tortured to death , lie here together . It seems very important to me that the truth should be spoken about what took place , for only with the truth can the new Soviet leadership distance itself from the crimes of Stalin and the NKVD . Only the truth can serve as the basis of true friendship between the Soviet and the Polish peoples . The truth will make a path for itself . I am convinced of this by the very fact that I was able to travel here .
Brzezinski further stated that :
The fact that the Soviet government has enabled me to be here — and the Soviets know my views — is symbolic of the breach with Stalinism that perestroika represents .
His remarks were given extensive coverage on Soviet television . At the ceremony he placed a bouquet of red roses bearing a handwritten message penned in both Polish and English : " For the victims of Stalin and the NKVD . Zbigniew Brzezinski " .
On 13 April 1990 , the forty @-@ seventh anniversary of the discovery of the mass graves , the USSR formally expressed " profound regret " and admitted Soviet secret police responsibility . The day was declared a worldwide Katyn Memorial Day ( Polish : Światowy Dzień Pamięci Ofiar Katynia ) .
= = Official investigations = =
In 1990 , Russian President Boris Yeltsin released the top @-@ secret documents from the sealed " Package № 1 . " and transferred them to the new Polish president Lech Wałęsa . Among the documents was a proposal by Lavrentiy Beria , dated 5 March 1940 , to execute 25 @,@ 700 Poles from Kozelsk , Ostashkov and Starobelsk camps , and from certain prisons of Western Ukraine and Belarus , signed by Stalin ( among others ) . Another document transferred to the Poles was Aleksandr Shelepin 's 3 March 1959 note to Nikita Khrushchev , with information about the execution of 21 @,@ 857 Poles , as well as a proposal to destroy their personal files to reduce the possibility that documents related to the massacre would be uncovered later . The revelations were also publicized in the Russian press , where they were interpreted as being one outcome of an ongoing power struggle between Yeltsin and Gorbachev .
In 1991 , the Chief Military Prosecutor for the Soviet Union began proceedings against P. K. Soprunenko for his role in the Katyn murders , but eventually declined to prosecute because Soprunenko was 83 , almost blind , and recovering from a cancer operation . During the interrogation , Soprunenko defended himself by denying his own signature .
During Kwaśniewski 's visit to Russia in September 2004 , Russian officials announced that they were willing to transfer all the information on the Katyn massacre to the Polish authorities as soon as it became declassified . In March 2005 the Prosecutor @-@ General ’ s Office of the Russian Federation concluded a decade @-@ long investigation of the massacre . Chief Military Prosecutor Alexander Savenkov announced that the investigation was able to confirm the deaths of 1 @,@ 803 out of 14 @,@ 542 Polish citizens who had been sentenced to death while in three Soviet camps . He did not address the fate of about 7 @,@ 000 victims who had not been in POW camps , but in prisons . Savenkov declared that the massacre was not a genocide , that Soviet officials who had been found guilty of the crime were dead and that , consequently , " there is absolutely no basis to talk about this in judicial terms " . 116 out of 183 volumes of files gathered during the Russian investigation were declared to contain state secrets and were classified .
On 22 March 2005 , the Polish Sejm unanimously passed an act requesting the Russian archives to be declassified . The Sejm also requested Russia to classify the Katyn massacre as a crime of genocide . The resolution stressed that the authorities of Russia " seek to diminish the burden of this crime by refusing to acknowledge it was genocide and refuse to give access to the records of the investigation into the issue , making it difficult to determine the whole truth about the murder and its perpetrators . "
In late 2007 and early 2008 , several Russian newspapers , including Rossiyskaya Gazeta , Komsomolskaya Pravda , and Nezavisimaya Gazeta printed stories that implicated the Nazis in the crime , spurring concern that this was done with the tacit approval of the Kremlin . As a result , the Polish Institute of National Remembrance decided to open its own investigation .
In 2008 , the Polish Foreign Ministry asked the government of Russia about alleged footage of the massacre filmed by the NKVD during the killings , something the Russians have denied exists . Polish officials believe that this footage , as well as further documents showing cooperation of Soviets with the Gestapo during the operations , are the reason for Russia 's decision to classify most of the documents about the massacre .
In the following years , 81 volumes of the case were declassified and transferred to the Polish government . As of 2012 , 35 out of 183 volumes of files remain classified .
= = Further court hearings = =
In June 2008 , Russian courts consented to hear a case about the declassification of documents about Katyn and the judicial rehabilitation of the victims . In an interview with a Polish newspaper , Vladimir Putin called Katyn a " political crime " .
On 21 April 2010 , the Russian Supreme Court ordered the Moscow City Court to hear an appeal in an ongoing Katyn legal case . A civil rights group , Memorial , said the ruling could lead to a court decision to open up secret documents providing details about the killings of thousands of Polish officers . On 8 May 2010 , Russia handed over to Poland 67 volumes of the " criminal case No.159 " , launched in the 1990s to investigate the Soviet @-@ era mass killings of Polish officers . The copies of 67 volumes , each having about 250 pages , were packed in six boxes . With each box weighing approximately 12 kg ( 26 @.@ 5 lb ) , the total weight of all the documents stood at about 70 kg ( 154 lb ) . Russian President Dmitry Medvedev handed one of the volumes to the acting Polish president , Bronislaw Komorowski . Medvedev and Komorowski agreed that the two states should continue their efforts in revealing the truth over the tragedy . The Russian president reiterated that Russia would continue declassifying documents on the Katyn massacre . The acting Polish president said that Russia 's move might lay a good foundation for improving bilateral relations .
In 2011 , the European Court of Human Rights declared admissible two complaints of relatives of the massacre victims against Russia concerning adequacy of the official investigation . In a ruling on 16 April 2012 , the court found that Russia had violated the rights of victims ' relatives by not providing them with sufficient information about the investigation and described the massacre as a " war crime " . However , it also refused to judge the effectiveness of the Soviet @-@ Russian investigation because the related events took place prior to Russia ratifying the Human Rights Convention in 1998 . The plaintiffs filed an appeal , however the 21 October 2013 ruling essentially reaffirmed the previous one , noting that Russian courts failed to adequately substantiate why some critical information remained classified .
= = Polish – Russian relations = =
Russia and Poland remained divided on the legal description of the Katyn crime . The Poles considered it a case of genocide and demanded further investigations , as well as complete disclosure of Soviet documents .
In June 1998 , Boris Yeltsin and Aleksander Kwaśniewski agreed to construct memorial complexes at Katyn and Mednoye , the two NKVD execution sites on Russian soil . In September of that year , the Russians also raised the issue of Soviet prisoner of war deaths in the camps for Russian prisoners and internees in Poland ( 1919 – 1924 ) . About 16 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 POWs died in those camps due to communicable diseases . Some Russian officials argued that it was " a genocide comparable to Katyn " . A similar claim was raised in 1994 ; such attempts are seen by some , particularly in Poland , as a highly provocative Russian attempt to create an " anti @-@ Katyn " and " balance the historical equation " .
On 4 February 2010 , the Prime Minister of Russia , Vladimir Putin , invited his Polish counterpart , Donald Tusk , to attend a Katyn memorial service in April . The visit took place on 7 April 2010 , when Tusk and Putin together commemorated the 70th anniversary of the massacre . Before the visit , the 2007 film Katyń was shown on Russian state television for the first time . The Moscow Times commented that the film 's premiere in Russia was likely a result of Putin 's intervention .
On 10 April 2010 , an aircraft carrying Polish President Lech Kaczyński with his wife and 87 other politicians and high @-@ ranking army officers crashed in Smolensk , killing all 96 aboard the aircraft . The passengers were to attend a ceremony marking the 70th anniversary of the Katyn massacre . The Polish nation was stunned ; Prime Minister Donald Tusk , who was not on the plane , referred to the crash as " the most tragic Polish event since the war . " In the aftermath , a number of conspiracy theories began to circulate . The catastrophe has also had major echoes in the international and particularly the Russian press , prompting a rebroadcast of Katyń on Russian television . The Polish President was to deliver a speech at the formal commemorations . The speech was to honour the victims , highlight the significance of the massacres in the context of post @-@ war communist political history , as well as stress the need for Polish – Russian relations to focus on reconciliation . Although the speech was never delivered , it has been published with a narration in the original Polish and a translation has also been made available in English .
In November 2010 , the State Duma ( lower house of the Russian parliament ) passed a resolution declaring that long @-@ classified documents " showed that the Katyn crime was carried out on direct orders of Stalin and other Soviet officials " . The declaration also called for the massacre to be investigated further in order to confirm the list of victims . Members of the Duma from the Communist Party denied that the Soviet Union had been to blame for the Katyn massacre and voted against the declaration . On 6 December 2010 , Russian President Dmitry Medvedev expressed commitment to uncovering the whole truth about the massacre , stating " Russia has recently taken a number of unprecedented steps towards clearing up the legacy of the past . We will continue in this direction " .
Still , the Communist Party of the Russian Federation , as well as a number of other pro @-@ Soviet Russian politicians and commentators , continue to deny all Soviet guilt , call the released documents fakes , insist that the original Soviet version — Polish prisoners were shot by Germans in August 1941 — is the correct one , and call on the Russian government to start a new investigation that would revise the findings of the one concluded in 2004 .
= = Memorials = =
Many monuments and memorials that commemorate the massacre have been erected worldwide .
There are several Katyn memorials in the UK , the best known of which was unveiled on 18 September 1976 at Gunnersbury Cemetery in London , amid considerable controversy . During the period of the Cold War , successive British governments objected to plans by the UK 's Polish community to build a major monument to commemorate the massacre . The Soviet Union did not want Katyn to be remembered , and put pressure on Britain to prevent the creation of the monument . As a result , the construction of the monument was delayed for many years . After the local community had finally secured the right to build the monument , no official government representative was present at the opening ceremony ( although some politicians did attend the event unofficially ) .
Another memorial in the UK was erected three years later , in 1979 , in Cannock Chase , Staffordshire . A memorial tablet by Ronald Sims has also been installed in the Airmen ’ s Chapel within Southwell Minster in Nottinghamshire ( there is a large Polish community in the county and each year a service is held to remember the massacre ) . There is also a Katyn memorial in Manchester 's Southern Cemetery .
In 2000 , the memorial at the Katyn war cemetery was opened in Russia . Previously , the site featured a monument with a false dedication to the " victims of the Hitlerites " .
In Ukraine , a memorial complex was erected to honor the over 4300 officer victims of the Katyń massacre murdered in Pyatykhatky , 14 kilometres / 8 @.@ 7 miles north of Kharkiv in Ukraine ; the complex lies in a corner of a former resort home for NKVD officers . Children had discovered hundreds of Polish officer buttons whilst playing on the site .
In Canada , a large metal sculpture has been erected in the Polish community of Roncesvalles in Toronto , to commemorate the killings .
In South Africa , a memorial in Johannesburg commemorates the victims of Katyn , as well as South African and Polish airmen who flew missions from southern Italy to Poland in order to drop supplies over Warsaw during the Warsaw Uprising .
In the United States , a golden statue known as the National Katyn Massacre Memorial is located in Baltimore , Maryland , on Aliceanna Street at Inner Harbor East . Polish @-@ Americans in Detroit erected a small white @-@ stone memorial in the form of a cross with a plaque at the St. Albertus Roman Catholic Church . A statue , the Katyń Memorial , commemorating the massacre has also been erected at Exchange Place on the Hudson River in Jersey City , New Jersey . Other memorial statues are located in Doylestown , Pennsylvania and Niles , Illinois .
Many cities in Poland now have memorials to the massacre in public spaces as well as within churches and cemeteries . For example , in Wrocław , a composition by Polish sculptor Tadeusz Tchórzewski is dedicated to the Katyn victims . Unveiled in 2000 , it is located in a park east of the city 's centre , near the Racławice Panorama building . It shows the ' Matron of the Homeland ' despairing over a dead soldier , while on a higher plinth the angel of death looms over , leaning forward on a sword .
= = In art , entertainment , and media = =
The Katyn massacre is a major element in many works of film , the fine arts , literature , and music .
The 1999 Academy Honorary Award recipient , Polish film director Andrzej Wajda , whose father , Captain Jakub Wajda , was murdered in the NKVD prison of Kharkiv , made a film depicting the event , Katyn ( 1999 ) . It focuses on the fate of some of the mothers , wives and daughters of the Polish officers killed by the Soviets . Some of the Katyn Forest executions were re @-@ enacted . The screenplay is based on Andrzej Mularczyk 's book Post mortem — the Katyn story . The film was produced by Akson Studio , and released in Poland on 21 September 2007 . It was nominated for an Academy Award in 2008 for the Best Foreign Language Film .
U.S. filmmaker Steven Fischer produced a public service announcement titled Silence of Falling Leaves ( 2000 ) honoring the fallen soldiers , consisting of images of falling autumn leaves with a sound track cutting to a narration in Polish by the Warsaw @-@ born artist Bożena Jędrzejczak . It was honored with an Emmy nomination .
The Polish composer Andrzej Panufnik wrote an orchestral score , called Katyn Epitaph ( 1967 ) , in memory of the massacre . The work received its premiere on 17 November 1968 .
Nancy Van de Vate 's Katyń ( 1989 ) is a piece composed for chorus and large orchestra in 1989 .
Polish poet Jacek Kaczmarski has dedicated one of his sung poems to this event .
British historian Laurence Rees produced a six @-@ hour BBC / PBS television documentary series entitled World War II Behind Closed Doors : Stalin , the Nazis and the West ( 2008 ) . The Katyn massacre was a central theme of the series .
= The Chumscrubber =
The Chumscrubber is a 2005 American @-@ German comedy @-@ drama film , directed by Arie Posin , starring an ensemble cast led by Jamie Bell . The plot , written by Posin and Zac Stanford , focuses on the chain of events that follow the suicide of a teenage drug dealer in an idealistic but superficial town . Some of the themes addressed in the film are the lack of communication between teenagers and their parents and the inauthenticity of suburbia . The titular Chumscrubber is a character in a fictional video game that represents the town and its inhabitants .
Posin and Stanford had originally planned to shoot the film using their own funds , but they sent the script to producers Lawrence Bender and Bonnie Curtis who agreed to produce the film and help to raise the budget . Bell was cast in the lead role after an extensive auditioning process , and the film was shot in various California locations over 30 days in April 2004 .
The Chumscrubber premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 25 , 2005 and was released theatrically on August 26 , 2005 . An accompanying soundtrack , composed mostly by James Horner , was released on October 18 , 2005 . The film was both a critical and commercial failure , receiving mostly negative reviews and earning back only US $ 350 @,@ 000 of its $ 10 million budget .
= = Plot = =
Troy Johnson ( Josh Janowicz ) , the supplier of prescription drugs to fellow high school students in the fictional southern California town of Hillside , commits suicide . Troy 's best friend Dean Stiffle ( Jamie Bell ) , is prescribed more antidepressants by his psychiatrist father Bill ( William Fichtner ) after discovering the body . When Dean returns to school , he is antagonized by drug dealers Billy ( Justin Chatwin ) and Lee ( Lou Taylor Pucci ) , who were supplied by Troy . Their friend , Crystal Falls ( Camilla Belle ) , flirts with Dean , but he soon realizes that her true intentions are for Dean to retrieve the remaining drugs in Troy 's home and refuses to cooperate . To force Dean to procure the drugs , Billy and Lee plan to kidnap Dean 's brother , Charlie ( Rory Culkin ) , as a ransom , but they end up kidnapping another boy named Charlie Bratley ( Thomas Curtis ) instead .
The kidnappers hold Charlie Bratley – whose parents are unaware that he is missing – overnight at Crystal 's home . Dean eventually agrees to go to Troy 's house to find the drugs . Upon delivery , Billy discovers that the bag doesn 't contain the prescription drugs and starts a fight with Dean , leading to Dean 's arrest . While trying to explain everything to Officer Lou Bratley ( John Heard ) , Charlie 's father , Dean reveals that his brother Charlie replaced the drugs with a bag of the vitamins that their mother Allie ( Allison Janney ) sells . Neither Officer Bratley nor Dean 's father believes his story , but he is released , whereupon his father increases his dosage of antidepressants . Meanwhile , Charlie Stiffle crushes the real drugs and puts them into a casserole that his mother made for Troy 's memorial .
The next day is Troy 's memorial service and the wedding of Mayor Michael Ebbs ( Ralph Fiennes ) to Charlie Bratley 's mother Terri ( Rita Wilson ) . Lou finally realizes that his son actually has been kidnapped and heads out to look for him . Now at Lee 's house , Crystal asks Lee to help stop the kidnapping scheme , but he does not comply . Crystal goes to Dean 's house for help , where she finds him hallucinating about Troy 's death and finally expressing his grief . Meanwhile , a paranoid Lou , encouraged by Billy , tries to kill Charlie Bratley to avoid being caught , but Charlie fights back and slices the knife through Billy 's eye . Billy runs out into the street , screaming in pain , and is hit by Lou 's police car .
Dean attends Troy 's memorial , where all of the visitors are intoxicated by the drugs that are in his mother 's casserole . Troy 's mother , Carrie ( Glenn Close ) , discloses to Dean that she never knew her son . Dean tells her about Troy and acknowledges that they were best friends , and she thanks him . Billy is later sent to prison . Lee , who successfully changes the narrative of his involvement during the trial , is acquitted . A closing voice over explains that Dean and Crystal " escape together " , and they are shown kissing .
= = Cast = =
Jamie Bell as Dean Stiffle , a teenage outsider and the film 's protagonist . He refuses to face his grief over his best friend 's suicide , instead choosing to numb his feelings with drugs .
Camilla Belle as Crystal Falls , Dean 's rebellious classmate . Unlike her friends , she feels sympathy for Dean and is reluctant to partake in the plans to kidnap his brother .
Justin Chatwin as Billy , a drug dealer at Dean 's high school who was formerly supplied by Troy . He dreams to join the air force after graduation , but his fight with Charlie Bratley leaves him with impaired vision .
Glenn Close as Carrie Johnson , Troy 's devastated mother . She tries to mask her grief with a cheerful persona , and continually guilts her neighbors by telling them bluntly that she does not blame them for Troy 's death .
Rory Culkin as Charlie Stiffle , Dean 's younger brother . He spends most of his time on the family couch playing video games .
Thomas Curtis as Charlie Bratley , the 13 @-@ year @-@ old son of Officer Lou Bratley and his ex @-@ wife Terri . Having been largely ignored by his negligent mother , at the end of the film he is sent to live with Lou .
William Fichtner as Bill Stiffle , Dean 's psychiatrist father who uses Dean as the subject of his books . Though he spends his life always looking for potential new material , his book sales turn out to be disappointing .
Ralph Fiennes as Michael Ebbs , the mayor of Hillside and Terri Bratley 's fiancé . After suffering a head injury and spilling paint in the shape of a dolphin , he becomes infatuated with dolphins and paints them all over his house ; at the end of the film , he resigns from politics and becomes an artist .
John Heard as Lou Bratley , a police officer and Charlie Bratley 's father . He cannot let go of his previous marriage with Terri , and finds satisfaction in giving her copious parking tickets .
Allison Janney as Allie Stiffle , Dean 's overworked mother . She initially struggles to sell her VeggiForce vitamins , but by the end of the film , she has found success and VeggiForce has become something of a cult .
Josh Janowicz as Troy Johnson , Dean 's best friend and the supplier of prescription drugs to the student body at his high school . After his suicide , he appears frequently in Dean 's hallucinations .
Carrie @-@ Anne Moss as Jerri Falls , Crystal 's laidback mother . She is obsessed with Terri Bratley 's interior design work , but cannot catch her attention until she tells Terri that her son was at Jerri 's house .
Lou Taylor Pucci as Lee Parker , Billy 's smart but timid friend who often succumbs to peer pressure . His parents pressure him about his schoolwork , hoping for him to get into a good college .
Rita Wilson as Terri Bratley , a successful interior designer and Charlie 's mother . She grows increasingly frustrated and demanding as her wedding to Michael approaches , and by the end of the film her design efforts have become less fruitful .
= = Themes = =
The title of the film refers to a video game character , " The Chumscrubber " , who helps his friends to survive in a superficial world by keeping things authentic , and is portrayed as a post @-@ apocalyptic hero , carrying his severed head in his hand as he fights the forces of evil . The Chumscrubber 's world was intended to be a reflection of the Hillside community , shown by the repetition of characters ' lines in the video game ; a voice in the game yells " Kill him ! Stab him ! Get him again ! " , the exact line said by Billy to Lee at the end of the film , urging him to stab Charlie Bratley . Producer Bonnie Curtis described the character as " this sub @-@ human monster the kids feel they are becoming " . Posin commented that " the Chumscrubber is everything that that community has suppressed or denied or tried to ignore , and [ ... ] the idea that the collective denial of the community as a whole finally gives birth to a character that will not be ignored " .
Posin stated that one theme of the film is that " the adults in this world tend to be immature or childish and the kids tend to be very mature and adult and sophisticated for their age " . He shot the teenage characters slightly below eye level to create the impression of looking up at an adult , and shot the adults slightly above eye level as if the viewer were looking down at a child . He said that hypocrisy was " at the top of the list " of the themes he wanted to explore in the story . While all of the adults in the film are attempting to live perfect lives , they cannot see that their children are driven to suicide , antidepressant addiction and kidnapping – for instance , Terri is so obsessed with her upcoming wedding that she does not realize her son is missing .
The film features dolphins as a recurring motif . Michael forms an obsession with dolphins and paints them all over his house , the street plan of Hillside is shown to form the shape of a dolphin at the end of the film . Nathan Baran of Hybrid Magazine was frustrated by the lack of explanation of the motif , saying : " Never are dolphins discussed by anyone else to have any meaning whatsoever . [ ... ] What is the significance of the dolphin as an image ? [ ... ] it is a completely arbitrary image awkwardly stuffed with forced meaning " . Posin saw Hillside 's formation of a dolphin shape as " beauty and order to the chaos " , illustrating Michael 's belief in deep beauty where everybody else finds chaos .
= = Production = =
While working at a Hollywood talent agency Arie Posin had been writing scripts for 10 years , " trying to break in [ to ] " the film industry , when he decided that he would rather be a director than a screenwriter . Posin asked writer Zac Stanford to write the screenplay for The Chumscrubber based on his idea . Because they collaborated on the story , Posin later described the film as " rooted somewhere between " his own memories of growing up in suburban Irvine , CA and Stanford 's upbringing in a small town in the Pacific Northwest . Posin and Stanford had originally planned to shoot the film with their own money . Posin 's girlfriend suggested that he send the script to five producers ; one , Lawrence Bender , responded and passed the script on to his partner Bonnie Curtis . Posin and the producers brought the project to around sixty uninterested production companies before sufficient funds for the US $ 10 million budget were raised and production began .
Posin considered numerous other actors for the lead role of Dean before he decided to cast Jamie Bell . Auditions for the role spanned over a year , and Posin said that he met " probably every young actor in Hollywood between a certain age " . For the role of Crystal , Posin sought a beautiful but fragile actress . He chose Camilla Belle after she auditioned , and according to him , " She just was the character " . Posin wanted an actor similar to Ralph Fiennes to play Michael , but was surprised when Fiennes himself agreed to be in the film . Justin Chatwin , a Billy Wilder fan , was drawn to the script after hearing that Posin had trained with Wilder . Ben Kingsley and Robin Williams were set to star in the film at different points in pre @-@ production .
Principal photography of The Chumscrubber began in April 2004 and lasted for 30 days . Filming locations included Los Angeles and Santa Clarita in California , as well as two soundstages .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The Chumscrubber premiered on January 25 , 2005 at the Sundance Film Festival . It went on to be shown at the 27th Moscow International Film Festival in June 2005 , where it won the Audience Award . The film was released theatrically in the United States on August 5 , 2005 , playing in 28 theaters . It earned US $ 28 @,@ 548 on its opening weekend , ranking 59th at the box office . It closed after two weeks in release with a total domestic gross of $ 52 @,@ 597 . The film 's highest @-@ grossing overseas releases were in Australia with $ 96 @,@ 696 , Germany with $ 81 @,@ 323 , and Greece with $ 71 @,@ 100 . It earned only £ 36 from its single @-@ weekend release in the United Kingdom , meaning that only six people paid for a ticket to see the film . With a total foreign gross of $ 298 @,@ 804 , the film 's total worldwide gross was $ 351 @,@ 401 and was a box office bomb .
= = = Critical response = = =
The Chumscrubber received mostly negative reviews from critics and has a " rotten " score of 35 % on Rotten tomatoes based on 60 reviews with an average rating of 4 @.@ 9 out of 10 . The critical consensus states " This derivative poke at suburbia falls short of delivering a scathing indictment of upper middle @-@ class disconnect . " The film also has a score of 41 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 12 critics indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film 1 star out of 5 , describing it as " an appallingly clumsy and stupid take on drugs , kidnapping and suicide in suburbia " . A. O. Scott expressed similar sentiments in The New York Times , calling the film " dreadful " and criticizing its unoriginality . Variety 's Scott Foundas also wrote that the film " doesn 't have an original bone in its body or a compelling thought in its head " and called it " insufferable " , " self @-@ conscious " and " smug " . Olly Richards of Empire gave the film 2 stars out of 5 and described it as " a tragic waste of acting talent , with nothing new to say . " The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps praised Posin 's technical direction and the cast 's acting skills , but found that the film still fell " flat on its face " .
The film was more warmly received by David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor , who described it as " dreamily surreal , acutely intelligent , and strikingly tough @-@ minded " and called it a " stunning directorial debut " .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD in Region 1 on January 10 , 2006 . The special features included on the disc are an audio commentary from Arie Posin , a 12 @-@ minute " making @-@ of " featurette , and 10 deleted and extended scenes .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film 's original score was composed by James Horner . Though Horner 's previous work comprised mostly high @-@ budget studio films – including Titanic ( 1997 ) , Braveheart ( 1995 ) , The Mask of Zorro ( 1998 ) , and Apollo 13 ( 1995 ) – producer Bonnie Curtis approached him to score The Chumscrubber because " You never know until you ask . " Horner agreed after seeing an early cut of the film . He and Posin spent five days on a soundstage , experimenting with different musical arrangements . Posin described the final product as " dramatic with a wink and a smile to it " .
" Our House " – Phantom Planet
" Bridge to Nowhere " – The Like
" Run " – Snow Patrol
" Pure Morning " – Placebo
" Oblivion " – Annetenna
" Spreading Happiness All Around " – James Horner
" Kidnapping the Wrong Charlie " – James Horner
" Dolphins " – James Horner
" Pot Casserole " – James Horner
" Digging Montage " – James Horner
" Parental Rift / The Chumscrubber " – James Horner
" Not Fun Anymore ... " – James Horner
" A Confluence of Families " – James Horner
" The End " – James Horner
= Conte di Cavour @-@ class battleship =
The Conte di Cavour – class battleships were a group of three dreadnoughts built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1910s . The ships were completed during World War I , but none saw action before the end of hostilities . Leonardo da Vinci was sunk by a magazine explosion in 1916 and sold for scrap in 1923 . The two surviving ships , Conte di Cavour and Giulio Cesare , supported operations during the Corfu Incident in 1923 . They were extensively reconstructed between 1933 and 1937 with more powerful guns , additional armor and considerably more speed than before .
Both ships participated in the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 , when Giulio Cesare was lightly damaged . They were both present when British torpedo bombers attacked the fleet at Taranto in November 1940 , and Conte di Cavour was torpedoed . She was grounded with most of her hull underwater and her repairs were not completed before the Italian surrender in September 1943 . Conte di Cavour was scrapped in 1946 . Giulio Cesare escorted several convoys , and participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento in late 1940 and the First Battle of Sirte in late 1941 . She was designated as a training ship in early 1942 , and escaped to Malta after Italy surrendered . The ship was transferred to the Soviet Union in 1949 and renamed Novorossiysk . The Soviets also used her for training until she was sunk when a mine exploded in 1955 . She was scrapped in 1957 .
= = Design and description = =
The Conte di Cavour – class ships were designed by Rear Admiral Engineer Edoardo Masdea , Chief Constructor of the Regia Marina , and were ordered in response to French plans to build the Courbet @-@ class battleships . They were intended to be superior to the Courbets and to remedy Dante Alighieri 's perceived flaws of weak protection and armament . As upgrading a warship 's protection and armament on a similar displacement typically requires a loss in speed , the ships were not designed to reach the 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) of their predecessor . They were still given a 1 @.@ 5 to 2 knots ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 1 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 3 mph ) advantage over the 20 @-@ to @-@ 21 @-@ knot ( 37 to 39 km / h ; 23 to 24 mph ) standard of most foreign dreadnoughts . Foreign dreadnoughts were being designed with 340 @-@ millimeter ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) guns , but the Regia Marina was forced to use 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 in ) guns in the Conte di Cavours because Italy lacked the ability to build larger guns . An additional gun , making a total of 13 , was added to offset this deficiency .
Taking advantage of the lengthy building times of these ships , other countries were able to build dreadnoughts that were superior in protection and armament , with the exception of the French . Construction was delayed by late deliveries of the 305 @-@ millimeter guns and armor plates as well as shortages of labor . The Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 1912 diverted workers at the shipyards for repairs and maintenance of the ships participating in the war . The Italians imported the raw nickel steel for their armor from America and Britain and processed it into their equivalent of Krupp cemented armor , called Terni cemented , but there were problems with this process and suitable plates took longer to produce than planned .
= = = Basic characteristics = = =
The ships of the Conte di Cavour class were 168 @.@ 9 meters ( 554 ft 2 in ) long at the waterline , and 176 meters ( 577 ft 5 in ) overall . They had a beam of 28 meters ( 91 ft 10 in ) , and a draft of 9 @.@ 3 meters ( 30 ft 6 in ) . They displaced 23 @,@ 088 long tons ( 23 @,@ 458 t ) at normal load , and 25 @,@ 086 long tons ( 25 @,@ 489 t ) at deep load . The Conte di Cavour class was provided with a complete double bottom and their hulls were subdivided by 23 longitudinal and transverse bulkheads . The ships had two rudders , both on the centerline . They had a crew of 31 officers and 969 enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The original machinery for all three ships consisted of three Parsons steam turbine sets , arranged in three engine rooms . The center engine room housed one set of turbines that drove the two inner propeller shafts . It was flanked by compartments on either side , each housing one turbine set which powered the outer shafts . Steam for the turbines was provided by 20 Blechynden water @-@ tube boilers in Conte di Cavour and Leonardo da Vinci , eight of which burned oil and twelve of which burned both oil and coal . Giulio Cesare used a dozen each oil @-@ fired and mixed @-@ firing Babcock & Wilcox boilers . Designed to reach a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) , none of the ships reached this goal on their sea trials , despite generally exceeding the rated power of their turbines . They only achieved speeds ranging from 21 @.@ 56 to 22 @.@ 2 knots ( 39 @.@ 93 to 41 @.@ 11 km / h ; 24 @.@ 81 to 25 @.@ 55 mph ) using 30 @,@ 700 to 32 @,@ 800 shaft horsepower ( 22 @,@ 900 to 24 @,@ 500 kW ) . The ships could store a maximum of 1 @,@ 450 long tons ( 1 @,@ 470 t ) of coal and 850 long tons ( 860 t ) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , and 1 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) at 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . Each ship was equipped with three turbo generators that provided a total of 150 kilowatts at 110 volts .
= = = Armament = = =
As built , the ships ' main armament comprised thirteen 46 @-@ caliber 305 @-@ millimeter guns , designed by Armstrong Whitworth and Vickers , in five gun turrets . The turrets were all on the centerline , with a twin @-@ gun turret superfiring over a triple @-@ gun turret in fore and aft pairs , and a third triple turret amidships , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from bow to stern . This was only one fewer gun than the Brazilian Rio de Janeiro , then the most heavily armed battleship in the world ; Rio de Janeiro 's guns were mounted in seven twin @-@ gun turrets . The turrets had an elevation capability of − 5 ° to + 20 degrees and the ships could carry 100 rounds for each gun , although 70 was the normal load . Sources disagree regarding these guns ' performance , but naval historian Giorgio Giorgerini claims that they fired 452 @-@ kilogram ( 996 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectiles at the rate of one round per minute and that they had a muzzle velocity of 840 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) which gave a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 meters ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) . The turrets had hydraulic training and elevation , with an auxiliary electric system .
The secondary armament on the first two ships consisted of eighteen 50 @-@ caliber 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , also designed by Armstrong Whitworth and Vickers , mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull . These guns could depress to − 10 degrees and had a maximum elevation of + 15 degrees ; they had a rate of fire of six shots per minute . They could fire a 22 @.@ 1 @-@ kilogram ( 49 lb ) high @-@ explosive projectile with a muzzle velocity of 850 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) to a maximum distance of 11 @,@ 000 meters ( 12 @,@ 000 yd ) . The ships carried a total of 3 @,@ 600 rounds for them . For defense against torpedo boats , the ships carried fourteen 50 @-@ caliber 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns ; thirteen of these could be mounted on the turret tops , but they could be mounted in 30 different positions , including some on the forecastle and upper decks . These guns had the same range of elevation as the secondary guns , and their rate of fire was higher at 10 rounds per minute . They fired a 6 @-@ kilogram ( 13 lb ) AP projectile with a muzzle velocity of 815 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 670 ft / s ) to a maximum distance of 9 @,@ 100 meters ( 10 @,@ 000 yd ) . The ships were also fitted with three submerged 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside and the third in the stern .
= = = Armor = = =
The Conte di Cavour @-@ class ships had a complete waterline armor belt that was 2 @.@ 8 meters ( 9 ft 2 in ) high ; 1 @.@ 6 meters ( 5 ft 3 in ) of this was below the waterline and 1 @.@ 2 meters ( 3 ft 11 in ) above . It had a maximum thickness of 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) amidships , reducing to 130 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) towards the stern and 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow . The lower edge of this belt was a uniform 170 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) in thickness . Above the main belt was a strake of armor 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick that extended 2 @.@ 3 meters ( 7 ft 7 in ) up to the lower edge of the main deck . Above this strake was a thinner one , 130 millimeters thick , that extended 138 meters ( 452 ft 9 in ) from the bow to ' X ' turret . The upper strake of armor protected the casemates and was 110 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick . The ships had two armored decks : the main deck was 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) thick in two layers on the flat that increased to 40 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) on the slopes that connected it to the main belt . The second deck was 30 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , also in two layers . Fore and aft transverse bulkheads connected the armored belt to the decks .
The frontal armor of the gun turrets was 280 millimeters ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) in thickness with 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) thick sides , and an 85 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) roof and rear . Their barbettes also had 230 @-@ millimeter armor above the forecastle deck that reduced to 180 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) between the forecastle and upper decks and 130 millimeters below the upper deck . The forward conning tower had walls 280 millimeters thick ; those of the aft conning tower were 180 millimeters thick . The total weight of the protective armor was 5 @,@ 150 long tons ( 5 @,@ 230 t ) , just over 25 per cent of the ships ' designed displacement . The total weight of the entire protective system was 6 @,@ 122 long tons ( 6 @,@ 220 t ) , 30 @.@ 2 per cent of their intended displacement .
= = Modifications and reconstruction = =
Shortly after the end of World War I , the number of 50 @-@ caliber 76 mm guns was reduced to 13 , all mounted on the turret tops , and six new 40 @-@ caliber 76 @-@ millimeter anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were installed abreast the aft funnel . In addition two license @-@ built 2 @-@ pounder AA guns were mounted on the forecastle deck abreast ' B ' turret . In 1925 – 26 the foremast was replaced by a tetrapodal mast , which was moved forward of the funnels , the rangefinders were upgraded , and the ships were equipped to handle a Macchi M.18 seaplane mounted on the center turret . Around that same time , one or both of the ships was equipped with a fixed aircraft catapult on the port side of the forecastle .
The sisters began an extensive reconstruction program directed by Vice Admiral ( Generale del Genio navale ) Francesco Rotundi in October 1933 . This lasted until June 1937 for Conte di Cavour and October 1937 for Giulio Cesare , and resulted in several changes . A new bow section was grafted over the existing bow which increased their length by 10 @.@ 31 meters ( 33 ft 10 in ) to 186 @.@ 4 meters ( 611 ft 7 in ) and their beam increased to 28 @.@ 6 meters ( 93 ft 10 in ) . Their draft at deep load increased to 10 @.@ 02 meters ( 32 ft 10 in ) for Conte di Cavour and 10 @.@ 42 meters ( 34 ft 2 in ) for Giulio Cesare . All of the changes made during their reconstruction increased their displacement to 26 @,@ 140 long tons ( 26 @,@ 560 t ) at standard load and 29 @,@ 100 long tons ( 29 @,@ 600 t ) at deep load . The ships ' crews increased to 1 @,@ 260 officers and enlisted men . Only 40 % of the original ship 's structure remained after the reconstruction was completed . Two of the propeller shafts were removed and the existing turbines were replaced by two Belluzzo geared steam turbines rated at 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) . The boilers were replaced by eight superheated Yarrow boilers with a working pressure of 22 atm ( 2 @,@ 229 kPa ; 323 psi ) . On her sea trials in December 1936 , before her reconstruction was fully completed , Giulio Cesare reached a speed of 28 @.@ 24 knots ( 52 @.@ 30 km / h ; 32 @.@ 50 mph ) from 93 @,@ 430 shp ( 69 @,@ 670 kW ) . In service their maximum speed was about 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . The ships now carried 2 @,@ 550 – 2 @,@ 605 long tons ( 2 @,@ 591 – 2 @,@ 647 t ) of fuel oil which provided them with a range of 6 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 900 km ; 7 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) .
The center turret and the torpedo tubes were removed and all of the existing secondary armament and AA guns were replaced by a dozen 120 @-@ millimeter guns in six twin @-@ gun turrets and eight 102 @-@ millimeter (
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keep Blaine in the race that it was not necessary to have " wasted a card upon a falling market , " meaning that his guest had presented a calling card in order to see Blaine for a meeting that would not be productive . Blaine felt that the most suitable candidate was James Garfield . Garfield was a close friend , and he felt that by supporting Garfield , he could defeat Grant and Conkling and possibly receive an appointment in Garfield 's administration . Likewise , Sherman listened to advice from his colleagues and decided to shift all his support to Garfield , to " save the Republican Party . " Both candidates told their supporters to support Garfield 's nomination .
On the thirty @-@ sixth ballot , Garfield won the Republican nomination after receiving 399 votes , 93 higher than Grant 's total . Blaine finished with 42 , Washburne had 5 , John Sherman had 3 , and the remaining were split amongst other minor candidates . Garfield was so overwhelmed with emotion after winning the nomination that an Inter Ocean reporter noted that he looked " pale as death , and seemed to be half @-@ unconsciously to receive the congratulations of his friends . " The convention was in a mad frenzy as thousands of people chanted for Garfield , and later joined in the singing of the Battle Cry of Freedom . The Grant followers , like Roscoe Conkling , looked on with " glum faces " and made " no effort to conceal their disappointment . " Conkling took great pride in the 306 delegates who had supported Grant throughout the entire balloting . With the Grant supporters , Conkling formed a " Three Hundred and Six Guard " society . The society held annual dinners , and even drew up a commemorative coin with the inscription , " The Old Guard " .
Afterwards , chairman Hoar banged his gavel and announced , " James A. Garfield , of Ohio , is nominated for President of the United States . " Garfield wrote a letter to his wife stating that " if the results meet your approval , I shall be content [ with the nomination ] . " Garfield 's wife , Lucretia , was thrilled with her husband 's nomination and gave her approval . ( Garfield subsequently resigned the Senate seat to which he had been elected for the term beginning in 1881 , and the Ohio Legislature then elected Sherman . )
Garfield and the Ohio delegation desired a New York Stalwart as Garfield 's vice presidential running mate , partly to placate Conkling , and partly to balance the ticket geographically . Levi P. Morton declined after consulting with Conkling , who was still unhappy over Grant 's loss and advised Morton not to accept . The nomination was then offered to Chester A. Arthur , who had close Stalwart ties to Conkling , but who had impressed delegates with his work to broker the compromise on the selection of a convention chairman . Conkling tried to talk Arthur out of accepting , but Arthur insisted that he would , calling the Vice Presidency " a greater honor than I ever dreamed of attaining . " Arthur won the nomination after he received 468 votes , next to the 193 for Elihu Washburne , and 44 for the third major candidate , Marshall Jewell . Former Governor Edmund J. Davis of Texas and several others were also nominated , but received little support . After convention chairman Hoar banged his gavel at 7 : 25 P.M. on June 8 , the longest ever Republican National Convention was adjourned .
= = Aftermath = =
Garfield led the first front porch campaign for the Presidency . He did not travel that much , and he usually stayed at home to present his presidential agenda to visitors . Garfield enlisted the support of the other candidates from the convention to help with the campaign . The 1880 Democratic National Convention chose Winfield Scott Hancock as the presidential candidate and William Hayden English as his vice @-@ presidential running mate . The election featured a very close popular vote , that put Garfield out with a majority of less than ten thousand votes , with some sources putting it as low as 2 @,@ 000 votes . However , Garfield won the election with 214 of the 369 electoral votes in the country .
On July 2 , 1881 , Garfield was shot by a former Chicago lawyer named Charles J. Guiteau at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington , D.C. Guiteau was a staunch supporter of the Stalwarts , and he even gave speeches in New York to rally Grant supporters . After Garfield was elected president , Guiteau repeatedly tried to contact the president and his Secretary of State James G. Blaine in hopes of receiving the consulship in Paris . After finally being told by Blaine that he would not get the position , Guiteau decided to seek revenge on Garfield . He planned Garfield 's assassination for weeks . After shooting Garfield , he proclaimed " I am a Stalwart and Arthur will be President . " Garfield died on September 19 , more than two and a half months after the shooting . After a lengthy trial , Guiteau was sentenced to death , and he was hanged on June 30 , 1882 .
= Wheel of Fortune ( U.S. game show ) =
Wheel of Fortune ( often known simply as Wheel ) is an American television game show created by Merv Griffin . The show features a competition in which contestants solve word puzzles , similar to those used in Hangman , to win cash and prizes determined by spinning a giant carnival wheel .
Wheel premiered as a daytime series on NBC on January 6 , 1975 , and continued to air on the network until June 30 , 1989 . After some changes were made to its format , the daytime series returned on July 17 , 1989 as part of CBS ' daytime lineup . On January 14 , 1991 , Wheel moved back to NBC and aired on that network until it was cancelled on September 20 , 1991 . The popularity of the daytime series led to a nightly syndicated edition being developed ; that series premiered on September 19 , 1983 and continues to air to this day .
The network version was originally hosted by Chuck Woolery and Susan Stafford , with Charlie O 'Donnell as its announcer . O 'Donnell left in 1980 , Woolery in 1981 , and Stafford in 1982 ; they were replaced , respectively , by Jack Clark , Pat Sajak , and Vanna White . After Clark 's death in 1988 , M. G. Kelly took over briefly as announcer until O 'Donnell returned in 1989 . O 'Donnell remained on the network version until its cancellation , and continued to announce on the syndicated show until his death in 2010 , when Jim Thornton succeeded him . Sajak left the network version in January 1989 to host his own late @-@ night talk show , and was replaced on that version by Rolf Benirschke . Bob Goen replaced Benirschke when the network show moved to CBS , then remained as host until the network show was canceled altogether . The syndicated version has been hosted continuously by Sajak and White since its inception .
Wheel of Fortune ranks as the longest @-@ running syndicated game show in the United States , with over 6 @,@ 000 episodes aired . TV Guide named it the " top @-@ rated syndicated series " in a 2008 article , and in 2013 , the magazine ranked it at No. 2 in its list of the 60 greatest game shows ever . The program has also come to gain a worldwide following with sixty international adaptations . The syndicated series ' 33rd season premiered on September 14 , 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Main game = = =
The core game is based on Hangman . Each round has a category and a blank word puzzle , with each blank representing a letter in the answer . The titular Wheel of Fortune is a roulette @-@ style wheel mechanism with 24 spaces , most of which are labeled with dollar amounts ranging from $ 500 to $ 900 , plus a top dollar value : $ 2 @,@ 500 in Round 1 , $ 3 @,@ 500 in Rounds 2 and 3 , and $ 5 @,@ 000 for Round 4 and any subsequent rounds . The wheel also features two Bankrupt wedges and one Lose a Turn , both of which forfeit the contestant 's turn , with the former also eliminating any cash or prizes the contestant has accumulated within the round . Each game features three contestants , or occasionally , three two @-@ contestant teams ; each contestant / team is positioned behind a single scoreboard with its own flipper . The left scoreboard from the viewer 's perspective is colored red , the center yellow , and the right blue ; which contestant / team occupies which position is determined by a random selection .
A contestant spins the wheel to determine a dollar value and guess a consonant . Calling a correct letter earns the value before the corresponding flipper , multiplied by the number of times that the letter appears in the puzzle . A contestant with at least $ 250 may buy a vowel for a flat rate of that amount , until all the vowels in the puzzle have been revealed . Calling a correct letter keeps the wheel in the contestant 's control . Control passes to the next contestant clockwise from the viewer 's perspective if the wheel lands on Lose a Turn or Bankrupt , or if the contestant calls a letter that is not in the puzzle , calls a letter that has already been called in that round , fails to call a letter within five seconds of the wheel stopping , or gives an incorrect answer . The only exception is the Free Play wedge , on which the contestant may call a consonant for $ 500 per occurrence , call a free vowel , or solve the puzzle , with no penalty for an incorrect letter or answer .
In Rounds 1 – 3 , the wheel contains a Wild Card and a Gift Tag , while two ½ Car tags are present in Rounds 2 and 3 only . The ½ Car tags are not used on weeks with two @-@ contestant teams , unless the teams are married couples . The Wild Card may be used to call an additional consonant after any turn ( for the amount that the contestant has just spun ) or taken to the bonus round to call an extra consonant there . The Gift Tag offers either a $ 1 @,@ 000 credit toward purchases from , or $ 1 @,@ 000 in cash courtesy of , the sponsoring company , and the ½ Car tags award a car if the contestant wins the round ( s ) in which he or she claims both . Unlike the other tags , the ½ Car tags are replaced in subsequent rounds unless the car is won . A special wedge in the first two rounds awards a prize which is described by the announcer if won . All of the tags and the prize wedge are located over the $ 500 wedges , so calling a letter that appears in the puzzle when landed upon awards both the tag / wedge and $ 500 per every occurrence of that letter in the puzzle . The first three rounds also contain a special wedge which , if won and taken to the bonus round , offers an opportunity to play that round for $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . A contestant must solve the puzzle in order to keep any cash , prizes , or extras accumulated during that round , with the exception of the Wild Card ; once this is picked up , it is kept until the contestant either loses it to Bankrupt or uses it . Bankrupt does not affect score from previous rounds , but it does take away the Wild Card , individual ½ Car tags , and / or million dollar wedge if any was claimed in a previous round . Contestants who solve a round for less than $ 1 @,@ 000 in cash and prizes ( $ 2 @,@ 000 on weeks with two @-@ contestant teams ) have their scores increased to that amount .
Each game also features three toss @-@ up puzzles , which reveal the puzzle one random letter at a time , and award cash to whoever rings in with the right answer . The first determines who is interviewed first by the host , the second determines who starts Round 1 , and the third determines who starts Round 4 ; respectively , these are valued at $ 1 @,@ 000 , $ 2 @,@ 000 , and $ 3 @,@ 000 . In addition to these , each game has a minimum of four rounds . Rounds 2 and 3 are respectively started by the next two contestants clockwise from the contestant who began Round 1 .
Round 2 features two " mystery wedges " . Calling a correct letter after landing upon this wedge offers the contestant the chance to accept its face value of $ 1 @,@ 000 per letter , or forfeit that amount to flip over the wedge and see whether its reverse side contains a $ 10 @,@ 000 cash prize or Bankrupt . Once either mystery wedge is flipped over , the other becomes a standard $ 1 @,@ 000 space and cannot be flipped . Round 3 is a prize puzzle , which offers a prize ( usually a trip ) to the contestant who solves it . Starting with Season 31 , an " Express " wedge is also placed on the wheel in Round 3 . A contestant who lands on this space and calls a consonant that appears in the puzzle receives $ 1 @,@ 000 per appearance . The contestant can then either " pass " and continue the round normally , or " play " and keep calling consonants for $ 1 @,@ 000 each ( without spinning ) and buying vowels for $ 250 . The Express play ends when the contestant either calls an incorrect letter ( which has the same effect as landing on a Bankrupt wedge ) or solves the puzzle .
The final round is always played at least in part in a " speed @-@ up " format , in which the host spins the wheel to determine the value of each consonant , with $ 1 @,@ 000 being added to the value on which the wheel stops before the red contestant 's arrow . Vowels do no add or deduct money from the contestants ' scores in the speed @-@ up round . The contestant in control calls one letter ; if it appears in the puzzle , the contestant is given three seconds to attempt to solve . Play proceeds from the viewer 's left to right , starting with the contestant who was in control at the time of the final spin , until the puzzle is solved . The three @-@ second timer does not begin until the hostess has revealed all instances of a called letter and moved aside from the puzzle board , and the contestant may offer multiple guesses on his / her turn . After the speed @-@ up round , the total winnings of the three contestants are compared ; the contestant with the highest total winnings wins the game and advances to the bonus round . Contestants who fail to earn any cash or prizes in the game are awarded a consolation prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 ( or $ 2 @,@ 000 on weeks with two @-@ contestant teams ) .
If two or all three contestants are tied for first place at the end of the speed @-@ up round , an additional toss @-@ up puzzle is played between the tied contestants . The contestant who solves the toss @-@ up puzzle wins $ 1 @,@ 000 and advances to the bonus round .
= = = Bonus round = = =
In the bonus round , the winning contestant spins a smaller wheel with 24 envelopes to determine the prize . He or she is given a category , and a puzzle for which every instance of R , S , T , L , N , and E is revealed . The contestant provides three more consonants ( four if he / she is holding the Wild Card ) and one more vowel , then has 10 seconds to solve the puzzle after his or her other letters ( if any ) are revealed . The contestant may make as many guesses as necessary , so long as the correct answer is given before time expires . Whether or not the contestant solves the puzzle , the host only opens the envelope at the end of the round to reveal the prize at stake . Prizes in the bonus round include cash amounts ranging from $ 33 @,@ 000 ( commemorating the syndicated version 's 33rd anniversary ) to $ 50 @,@ 000 ; a vehicle ( or two vehicles during weeks with two @-@ contestant teams ) ; and a top prize of $ 100 @,@ 000 .
If the contestant has the Million Dollar Wedge , the $ 100 @,@ 000 envelope is removed and replaced with a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 envelope . The $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 prize has been awarded three times : to Michelle Loewenstein on the episode that aired October 14 , 2008 , to Autumn Erhard on the episode that aired May 30 , 2013 , and to Sarah Manchester on the episode that aired on September 17 , 2014 . Contestants who win the $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 may receive it in installments over 20 years , or in a lump sum of that amount 's present value .
= = = Previous rules = = =
Originally , after winning a round , contestants spent their winnings on prizes that were presented onstage . At any time during a shopping round , most often if the contestant did not have enough left to buy another prize , a contestant could choose to put his or her winnings on a gift certificate ; alternatively , he or she could put the winnings " on account " for use in a later shopping round , but at the risk of losing any " on account " money to a Bankrupt . The shopping element was eliminated from the syndicated version on the episode that aired October 5 , 1987 , both to speed up gameplay and to alleviate the taxes paid by contestants . However , the network version continued to use the shopping element until the end of its first NBC run on June 30 , 1989 .
Before the introduction of toss @-@ up puzzles at the start of the 18th syndicated season , the contestant at the red arrow always started Round 1 , with the next contestant clockwise starting each subsequent round . In addition , if a tie for first place occurred , an additional speed @-@ up round was played between the tied contestants for the right to go to the bonus round . The wheel formerly featured a Free Spin wedge , which automatically awarded a token that the contestant could turn in after a lost turn to keep control of the wheel . It was replaced in 1989 with a single Free Spin token placed over a selected cash wedge . Free Spin was retired , and Free Play introduced , at the start of the 27th syndicated season in 2009 . Between September 16 , 1996 and the end of Season 30 , the show featured a progressive jackpot wedge , which had been in several different rounds in its history . This wedge started at $ 5 @,@ 000 and had the value of every spin within the round added to it ; to claim the jackpot , a contestant had to land on the wedge , call a correct letter , and solve the puzzle all in the same turn . In later years , it also offered $ 500 per correct letter and $ 500 to the jackpot , regardless of whether or not it was won .
The network version allowed champions to appear for up to three days ( originally five ) . The syndicated version , which originally retired contestants after one episode , adopted the three @-@ day champion rule at the start of the seventh season . In later years , the top three winners from the week 's first four shows would return to compete in the " Friday Finals " ; when the jackpot wedge was introduced , its value was affected as well , beginning at $ 10 @,@ 000 instead of $ 5 @,@ 000 . The rules allowing champions to return after their initial appearances were eliminated permanently beginning with the syndicated episode aired September 21 , 1998 ; as was the case before Season 7 , winners are once again retired after one episode .
Before December 1981 , the show did not feature a bonus round . Under the bonus round 's original rules , no letters were provided automatically ; the contestant was asked for five consonants and a vowel , and had fifteen seconds to attempt solving the puzzle . Also , bonus prizes were selected by the contestant at the start of the round . The current time limit and rules for letter selection were introduced on October 3 , 1988 . Starting on September 4 , 1989 , the first episode of the seventh syndicated season , bonus prizes were selected by the contestant choosing from one of five envelopes labeled W , H , E , E , and L. One prize was always $ 25 @,@ 000 in cash , and the rest were changed weekly ; any prize that was won was taken out of rotation for the rest of the week . These envelopes were replaced with the Bonus Wheel on October 22 , 2001 .
= = Conception and development = =
Merv Griffin conceived Wheel of Fortune just as the original version of Jeopardy ! , another show he had created , was ending its 11 @-@ year run on NBC with Art Fleming as its host . Griffin decided to create a Hangman @-@ style game after recalling long car trips as a child , on which he and his sister would play Hangman . After he discussed the idea with Merv Griffin Enterprises ' staff , they thought that the idea would work as a game show if it had a " hook " . He decided to add a roulette @-@ style wheel because he was always " drawn to " such wheels when he saw them in casinos . He and MGE 's then @-@ president Murray Schwartz consulted an executive of Caesars Palace to find out how to build such a wheel .
When Griffin pitched the idea for the show to Lin Bolen , then the head of NBC 's daytime programming division , she approved , but wanted the show to have more glamour to attract the female audience ; she suggested that Griffin incorporate a shopping element into the gameplay , and so , in 1973 , he created a pilot episode titled Shopper 's Bazaar , with Chuck Woolery as host and Mike Lawrence as announcer . The pilot started with the three contestants being introduced individually , with Lawrence describing the prizes that they chose to play for . The main game was played to four rounds , with the values on the wheel wedges increasing after the second round . Unlike the show it evolved into , Shopper 's Bazaar had a vertically mounted wheel , which was spun by Woolery rather than by the contestants ; this wheel lacked the Bankrupt wedge and featured a wedge where a contestant could call a vowel for free , as well as a " Your Own Clue " wedge that allowed contestants to pick up a rotary telephone and hear a private clue about the puzzle . At the end of the game , the highest @-@ scoring contestant would play a bonus round called the " Shopper 's Special " where all the vowels in the puzzle were already there , and the contestant had 30 seconds to call out consonants in the puzzle .
Edd Byrnes , an actor from 77 Sunset Strip , served as host for the second and third pilots , both titled Wheel of Fortune . These pilots were directed by Marty Pasetta , who gave the show a " Vegas " feel that more closely resembled the look and feel that the actual show ended up having , a wheel that was now spun by the contestants themselves , and a lighted mechanical puzzle board with letters that were now manually turnable . Showcase prizes on these pilots were located behind the puzzle board , and during shopping segments a list of prizes and their price values scrolled on the right of the screen . By the time production began in December 1974 , Woolery was selected to host , the choice being made by Griffin after he reportedly heard Byrnes reciting " A @-@ E @-@ I @-@ O @-@ U " to himself in an effort to remember the vowels . Susan Stafford turned the letters on Byrnes ' pilot episodes , a role that she also held when the show was picked up as a series .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Hosts and hostesses = = =
The original host of Wheel of Fortune was Chuck Woolery , who hosted the series from its 1975 premiere until December 25 , 1981 , save for one week in August 1980 when Alex Trebek hosted in his place . Woolery 's departure came over a salary dispute with show creator Merv Griffin , and his contract was not renewed . On December 28 , 1981 , Pat Sajak made his debut as the host of Wheel . Griffin said that he chose Sajak for his " odd " sense of humor . NBC president and CEO Fred Silverman objected as he felt Sajak , who at the time of his hiring was the weatherman for KNBC @-@ TV , was " too local " for a national audience . Griffin countered by telling Silverman he would stop production if Sajak was not allowed to become host , and Silverman acquiesced .
Sajak hosted the daytime series until January 9 , 1989 , when he left to host a late @-@ night talk show for CBS . Rolf Benirschke , a former placekicker in the National Football League , was chosen as his replacement and hosted for a little more than five months . Benirschke 's term as host came to an end due to NBC 's cancellation of the daytime Wheel after fourteen years , with its final episode airing on June 30 , 1989 . When the newly formatted daytime series returned on CBS on July 17 , 1989 , Bob Goen became its host . The program continued for a year and a half on CBS , then returned to NBC on January 14 , 1991 and continued until September 20 , 1991 when it was cancelled for a second and final time .
Susan Stafford was the original hostess , serving in that role from the premiere until October 1982 . Stafford was absent for two extended periods , once in 1977 after fracturing two vertebrae in her back and once in 1979 after an automobile accident . During these two extended absences , former Miss USA Summer Bartholomew was Stafford 's most frequent substitute , with model Cynthia Washington and comedian Arte Johnson also filling in for Stafford .
After Stafford left to become a humanitarian worker , over two hundred applicants signed up for a nationwide search to be her replacement . Griffin eventually narrowed the list to three finalists , which consisted of Summer Bartholomew , former Playboy centerfold Vicki McCarty , and Vanna White . Griffin gave each of the three women an opportunity to win the job by putting them in a rotation for several weeks after Stafford 's departure . In December 1982 , Griffin named White as Stafford 's successor , saying that he felt she was capable of activating the puzzle board letters ( which is the primary role of the Wheel hostess ) better than anyone else who had auditioned . White became highly popular among the young female demographic , and also gained a fanbase of adults interested in her daily wardrobe , in a phenomenon that has been referred to as " Vannamania " . White remained on the daytime series for the rest of the time it was on the air .
Sajak and White have starred on the syndicated version continuously as host and hostess , respectively , since it began , except for very limited occasions . During two weeks in January 1991 , Tricia Gist , the girlfriend and future wife of Griffin 's son Tony , filled in for White when she and her new husband , restaurateur George San Pietro , were honeymooning . Gist returned for the week of episodes airing March 11 through 15 , 1991 , because White had a cold at the time of taping . On an episode in November 1996 , when Sajak proved unable to host the bonus round segment because of laryngitis , he and White traded places for that segment . On the March 4 , 1997 episode , Rosie O 'Donnell co @-@ hosted the third round with White after O 'Donnell 's name was used in a puzzle .
On April 1 , 1997 , Sajak and Alex Trebek traded jobs for the day . Sajak hosted that day 's edition of Jeopardy ! in place of Trebek , who presided over a special two @-@ contestant Wheel celebrity match between Sajak and White , who were playing for the Boy Scouts of America and the American Cancer Society , respectively ; Lesly Sajak , Pat 's wife , was the guest hostess for the day . In January and February 2011 , the show held a " Vanna for a Day " contest in which home viewers submitted video auditions to take White 's place for one episode , with the winner determined by a poll on the show 's website ; the winner of this contest , Katie Cantrell of Wooster , Ohio ( a student at the Savannah College of Art and Design ) , took White 's place for the second and third rounds on the episode that aired March 24 , 2011 .
= = = Announcers = = =
Charlie O 'Donnell was the program 's first and longest tenured announcer . In 1980 , NBC was discussing cancelling Wheel and O 'Donnell agreed to take the position as announcer on The Toni Tennille Show . The network decided against the cancellation but O 'Donnell decided to honor his commitment and left the series . His replacement was Jack Clark , who added the syndicated series to his responsibilities when it premiered in 1983 and announced for both series until his death in July 1988 . Los Angeles radio personality M. G. Kelly was Clark 's replacement , starting on the daytime series in August 1988 and on the syndicated series when its new season launched a month later . Kelly held these positions until O 'Donnell was able to return to the announcer position , doing so after his duties with Barris Industries came to an end at the end of the 1988 – 89 television season . O 'Donnell remained with the series until shortly before his death in November 2010 . Don Pardo , Don Morrow , and Johnny Gilbert have occasionally served as substitute announcers .
After O 'Donnell 's death , the producers sought a permanent replacement , and a series of substitutes filled out the rest of the season , including Gilbert , John Cramer , Joe Cipriano , former The Price Is Right announcer Rich Fields , voice actress Lora Cain , and Jim Thornton , a KNX news anchor . For the show 's twenty @-@ ninth season , Thornton was chosen to be the new announcer for Wheel , and he has been with the show ever since .
= = = Production staff = = =
Wheel of Fortune typically employs a total of 100 in @-@ house production personnel , with 60 to 100 local staff joining them for those episodes that are taped on location . Griffin was the executive producer of the network version throughout its entire run , and served as the syndicated version 's executive producer until his retirement in 2000 . Since 1999 , the title of executive producer has been held by Harry Friedman , who had shared his title with Griffin for his first year , and had earlier served as a producer starting in 1995 .
John Rhinehart was the program 's first producer , but departed in August 1976 to become NBC 's West Coast Daytime Program Development Director . Afterwards , his co @-@ producer , Nancy Jones , was promoted to sole producer , and served as such until 1995 , when Friedman succeeded her . In the 15th syndicated season , Karen Griffith and Steve Schwartz joined Friedman as producers ; they were later promoted to supervising producers , with Amanda Stern occupying Griffith and Schwartz 's old post .
The show 's original director was Jeff Goldstein , who was succeeded by Dick Carson in 1978 . Mark Corwin , who had served as associate director under Carson , took over for him upon his retirement at the end of the 1998 – 99 season , and served as such until he himself died in July 2013 ( although episodes already taped before his death continued airing until late 2013 ) . Jeopardy ! director Kevin McCarthy , Corwin 's associate director Bob Cisneros , and Wheel and Jeopardy ! technical director Robert Ennis filled in at various points until Cisneros became full @-@ time director in November 2013 . Ennis returned as guest director for the weeks airing October 13 through 17 and November 17 through 21 , 2014 , as Cisneros was recovering from neck surgery at the time of taping . With the start of the 33rd season on September 14 , 2015 , Ennis was promoted to full @-@ time director .
= = Production = =
Wheel of Fortune is owned by Sony Pictures Television ( previously known as Columbia TriStar Television ; the successor company to original producer Merv Griffin Enterprises ) . The production company and copyright holder of all episodes to date is Califon Productions , Inc . , which like SPT has Sony Pictures Entertainment for its active registered agent , and whose name comes from a New Jersey town where Griffin once owned a farm . The rights to distribute the show on American television are owned by CBS Television Distribution , into which original distributor King World Productions was folded in 2007 .
The show was originally taped in Studio 4 at NBC Studios in Burbank . Upon NBC 's 1989 cancellation of the network series , production moved to Studio 33 at CBS Television City in Los Angeles , where it remained until 1995 . Since then , the show has occupied Stage 11 at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City . Some episodes are also recorded on location , a tradition which began with two weeks of episodes taped at Radio City Music Hall in late 1988 . Recording sessions usually last for five or six episodes in one day .
= = = Set = = =
Various changes have been made to the basic set since the syndicated version 's premiere in 1983 . In 1996 , a large video display was added center stage , which was then upgraded in 2003 as the show began the transition into high @-@ definition broadcasting . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the show began a long @-@ standing tradition of nearly every week coming with its own unique theme ; as a result , in addition to its generic design , the set also uses many alternate designs , which are unique to specific weekly sets of themed programs . The most recent set design was conceived by production designer Renee Hoss @-@ Johnson , with later modifications by Jody Vaclav . Previous set designers included Ed Flesh and Dick Stiles .
The first pilot used a vertically mounted wheel which was often difficult to see on @-@ screen . Flesh , who also designed the sets for The $ 25 @,@ 000 Pyramid and Jeopardy ! , designed the wheel mechanism . Originally made mostly of paint and cardboard , the modern wheel mechanism is framed on a steel tube surrounded with Plexiglas and more than 200 lighting instruments , and is held by a stainless steel shaft with roller bearings . Altogether , the wheel weighs approximately 2 @,@ 400 pounds ( 1 @,@ 100 kg ) .
The show 's original puzzle board had three rows of 13 manually operated trilons , for a total of 39 spaces . On December 21 , 1981 , a larger board with 48 trilons in four rows ( 11 , 13 , 13 and 11 trilons ) was adopted . This board was surrounded by a double @-@ arched border of lights which flashed at the beginning and end of the round . Each trilon had three sides : a green side to represent spaces not used by the puzzle , a blank side to indicate a letter that had not been revealed , and a side with a letter on it . With these older boards , in segments where more than one puzzle was present , while the viewer saw a seamless transition to the next puzzle , what actually happened was a stop @-@ down of the taping ; during the old stop @-@ downs , the board would be wheeled offstage and the new puzzle loaded in by hand out of sight of the contestants . On February 24 , 1997 , the show introduced a computerized puzzle board composed of 52 touch @-@ activated monitors in four rows ( 12 on the top and bottom rows , 14 in the middle two ) . To illuminate a letter during regular gameplay , the hostess touches the right edge of the monitor to reveal it . The computerized board obviated the stop @-@ downs , allowing tapings to finish quicker at a lower cost to the production company . The former board was subsequently sent to the Smithsonian Institution for storage .
Although not typically seen by viewers , the set also includes a used letter board that shows contestants which letters are remaining in play , a scoreboard that is visible from the contestants ' perspective , and a countdown clock . The used letter board is also used during the bonus round , and in at least one case , helped the contestant to see unused letters to solve a difficult puzzle .
= = = Music = = =
Alan Thicke composed the show 's original theme , which was titled " Big Wheels " . In 1983 , it was replaced by Griffin 's own composition , " Changing Keys " , to allow him to derive royalties from that composition 's use on both the network and syndicated versions . Steve Kaplan became music director starting with the premiere of the 15th syndicated season in 1997 , and continued to serve as such until he was killed when the Cessna 421C Golden Eagle he was piloting crashed into a home in Claremont , California , in December 2003 ; his initial theme was a remix of " Changing Keys " , but by the 18th syndicated season , he had replaced it with a composition of his own , which was titled " Happy Wheels " . Since 2006 , music direction has been handled by Frankie Blue and John Hoke ; themes they have written for the show include a remix of " Happy Wheels " and an original rock @-@ based composition .
In addition to " Changing Keys " , Griffin also composed various incidental music cues for the syndicated version which were used for announcements of prizes in the show 's early years . Among them were " Frisco Disco " ( earlier the closing theme for a revival of Jeopardy ! which aired in 1978 and 1979 ) , " A Time for Tony " ( whose basic melody evolved into " Think ! " , the longtime theme song for Jeopardy ! ) , " Buzzword " ( later used as the theme for Merv Griffin 's Crosswords ) , " Nightwalk " , " Struttin ' on Sunset " , and an untitled vacation cue .
= = = Audition process = = =
Anyone at least 18 years old has the potential to become a contestant through Wheel of Fortune 's audition process . Exceptions include employees and immediate family members of CBS Corporation , Sony Pictures Entertainment , or any of their respective affiliates or subsidiaries ; any firm involved in supplying prizes for the show ; and television stations that broadcast Wheel and / or Jeopardy ! , their sister radio stations , and those advertising agencies that are affiliated with them . Also ineligible to apply as contestants are individuals who have appeared on a different game show within the previous year , three other game shows within the past ten years , or on any version of Wheel of Fortune itself .
Throughout the year , the show uses a custom @-@ designed Winnebago recreational vehicle called the " Wheelmobile " to travel across the United States , holding open auditions at various public venues . Contestants are provided with entry forms which are then drawn randomly . Individuals whose names are drawn appear on stage , five at a time , and are interviewed by traveling host Marty Lublin . The group of five then plays a mock version of the speed @-@ up round , and five more names are selected after a puzzle is solved . Everyone who is called onstage receives a themed prize , usually determined by the spin of a miniature wheel . Auditions typically last two days , with three one @-@ hour segments per day . After each Wheelmobile event , the " most promising candidates " are invited back to the city in which the first audition was held , to participate in a second audition . Contestants not appearing on stage have their applications retained and get drawn at random to fill second @-@ level audition vacancies . At the second audition , potential contestants play more mock games featuring a miniature wheel and puzzle board , followed by a 16 @-@ puzzle test with some letters revealed . The contestants have five minutes to solve as many puzzles as they can by writing in the correct letters . The people who pass continue the audition , playing more mock games which are followed by interviews .
= = Broadcast history = =
Wheel of Fortune premiered on January 6 , 1975 , at 10 : 30 am ( 9 : 30 Central ) on NBC . Lin Bolen , then the head of daytime programming , purchased the show from Griffin to compensate him for canceling the original Jeopardy ! series , which had one year remaining on its contract ; Jeopardy ! aired its final episode on the Friday before Wheel 's premiere . The original Wheel aired on NBC , in varying time slots between 10 : 30 am and noon , until June 30 , 1989 . Throughout that version 's run , episodes were generally 30 minutes in length , except for six weeks of shows aired between December 1975 and January 1976 which were 60 minutes in length . NBC announced the cancellation of the show in August 1980 , but it stayed on the air following a decision to cut the duration of The David Letterman Show from 90 to 60 minutes . The network Wheel moved to CBS on July 17 , 1989 , and remained there until January 14 , 1991 . After that , it briefly returned to NBC , replacing Let 's Make a Deal , but was canceled permanently on September 20 of that year .
The daily syndicated version of Wheel premiered on September 19 , 1983 , preceded by a series of episodes taped on location at the Ohio State Fair and aired on WBNS @-@ TV in Columbus , Ohio . From its debut , the syndicated version offered a larger prize budget than its network counterpart . The show came from humble beginnings : King World chairmen Roger , Michael , and Robert King could initially find only 50 stations that were willing to carry the show , and since they could not find affiliates for the syndicated Wheel in New York , Los Angeles , or Chicago , Philadelphia was the largest market in which the show could succeed in its early days . Only nine stations carried the show from its beginning , but by midseason it was airing on all 50 of the stations that were initially willing to carry it , and by the beginning of 1984 the show was available to 99 percent of television households . Before long , Wheel succeeded Family Feud as the highest @-@ rated syndicated show , and at the beginning of the 1984 – 85 season , Griffin followed up on the show 's success by launching a syndicated revival of Jeopardy ! , hosted by Alex Trebek . The syndicated success of Wheel and Jeopardy ! siphoned ratings from the period 's three longest @-@ running and most popular game shows , Tic @-@ Tac @-@ Dough , The Joker 's Wild , and Family Feud , to the point that all three series came to an end by the fall of 1986 . At this point , Wheel had the highest ratings of any syndicated television series in history
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, and at the peak of the show 's popularity , over 40 million people were watching five nights per week . The series , along with companion series Jeopardy ! , remained the most @-@ watched syndicated program in the United States until dethroned by Judge Judy in 2011 . The program has become America 's longest @-@ running syndicated game show and its second @-@ longest in either network or syndication , second to the version of The Price Is Right which began airing in 1972 . The syndicated Wheel has become part of the consciousness of over 90 million Americans , and awarded a total of over $ 200 million in cash and prizes to contestants .
The popularity of Wheel of Fortune has led it to become a worldwide franchise , with over forty known adaptations in international markets outside the United States . Versions of the show have existed in such countries as Australia , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , Malaysia , New Zealand , the Philippines , Poland , Russia , Spain , and the United Kingdom . The American version of Wheel has honored its international variants with an occasional theme of special weeks known as " Wheel Around the World " , the inaugural episode of which aired when the 23rd syndicated season premiered on September 12 , 2005 .
Between September 1997 and January 1998 , CBS and Game Show Network concurrently aired a special children 's version of the show titled Wheel 2000 . It was hosted by David Sidoni , with Tanika Ray providing voice and motion capture for a virtual reality hostess named " Cyber Lucy " . Created by Scott Sternberg , the spin @-@ off featured special gameplay in which numerous rules were changed ; for example , the show 's child contestants competed for points and prizes instead of cash , with the eventual winner playing for a grand prize in the bonus round .
= = Reception = =
Wheel of Fortune has long been one of the highest @-@ rated programs on U.S. syndicated television . It was the highest @-@ rated show in all of syndication before it was dethroned by Two and a Half Men in the 28th season ( 2010 – 11 ) . The syndicated Wheel shared the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show with Jeopardy ! in 2011 , and Sajak won three Daytime Emmys for Outstanding Game Show Host — in 1993 , 1997 , and 1998 . In a 2001 issue , TV Guide ranked Wheel number 25 among the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time , and in 2013 , the magazine ranked it number 2 in its list of the 60 greatest game shows ever , second only to Jeopardy ! In August 2006 , the show was ranked number 6 on GSN 's list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows .
Wheel was the subject of many nominations in GSN 's Game Show Awards special , which aired on June 6 , 2009 . The show was nominated for Best Game Show , but lost to Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader ? ; Sajak and White were nominated for Best Game Show Host , but lost to Deal or No Deal 's Howie Mandel ; and O 'Donnell was considered for Best Announcer but lost to Rich Fields from The Price Is Right . One of the catchphrases uttered by contestants , " I 'd like to buy a vowel " , was considered for Favorite Game Show Catch Phrase , but lost to " Come on down ! " , the announcer 's catchphrase welcoming new contestants to Price . The sound effect heard at the start of a new regular gameplay round won the award for Favorite Game Show Sound Effect ; the sound heard when the wheel lands on Bankrupt was also nominated . Despite having been retired from the show for nearly a decade by that point , " Changing Keys " was nominated for Best Game Show Theme Song ; however , it lost to its fellow Griffin composition , " Think ! " from Jeopardy !
A hall of fame honoring Wheel of Fortune is part of the Sony Pictures Studios tour , and was introduced on the episode aired May 10 , 2010 . Located in the same stage as the show 's taping facility , this hall of fame features memorabilia related to Wheel 's syndicated history , including retired props , classic merchandise , photographs , videos , and a special case dedicated to White 's wardrobe . Two years later , in 2012 , the show was honored with a Ride of Fame on a double decker tour bus in New York City .
= = Merchandise = =
Numerous board games based on Wheel of Fortune have been released by different toy companies . The games are all similar , incorporating a wheel , puzzle display board , play money and various accessories like Free Spin tokens . Milton Bradley released the first board game in 1975 . In addition to all the supplies mentioned above , the game included 20 prize cards ( to simulate the " shopping " prizes of the show ; the prizes ranged in value from $ 100 to $ 3 @,@ 000 ) . Two editions were released , with the only differences being the box art and the included books of puzzles . Other home versions were released by Pressman Toy Corporation , Tyco / Mattel , Parker Brothers , Endless Games , and Irwin Toys .
Additionally , several video games based on the show have been released for personal computers , the Internet , and various gaming consoles spanning multiple hardware generations . Most games released in the 20th century were published by GameTek , which produced a dozen Wheel games on various platforms , starting with a Nintendo Entertainment System game released in 1987 and continuing until the company closed in 1998 after filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection . Subsequent games were published by Hasbro Interactive and its acquirer Infogrames / Atari , Sony Online Entertainment , and THQ .
Wheel has also been licensed to International Game Technology for use in its slot machines . The games are all loosely based on the show , with contestants given the chance to spin the wheel to win a jackpot prize . Since 1996 , over 200 slot games based on the show have been created , both for real @-@ world casinos and those on the Internet . With over 1 @,@ 000 wins awarded in excess of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and over $ 3 billion in jackpots delivered , Wheel has been regarded as the most successful slots brand of all time .
= Live Free or Die Hard =
Live Free or Die Hard ( also known as Die Hard 4 and released as Die Hard 4 @.@ 0 outside North America ) is a 2007 American action film , and the fourth installment in the Die Hard film series . The film was directed by Len Wiseman and stars Bruce Willis as John McClane . The film 's name was adapted from New Hampshire 's state motto , " Live Free or Die " .
McClane is attempting to stop cyber terrorists who hack into government and commercial computers across the United States with the goal to start a " fire sale " of financial assets . The film was based on the 1997 article " A Farewell to Arms " written for Wired magazine by John Carlin . The film 's North American release date was June 27 , 2007 .
The project was initially stalled due to the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks , and when production eventually began , the film 's title was changed several times . A variety of visual effects were used for action sequences , even though Wiseman and Willis stated that they wanted to limit the amount of CGI in the film . In separate incidents during filming , both Willis and his stunt double were injured .
Unlike the prior three films in the series , the U.S. rating was PG @-@ 13 rather than R. An unrated version contained more strong profanity and violence not shown in the theatrical version , and was included in the DVD release .
Reviews were positive with an 82 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes and a 69 / 100 score from Metacritic . The film earned total international box office gross receipts of $ 383 @.@ 4 million , making it the highest @-@ grossing film in the Die Hard series . It debuted at # 2 at the U.S. box office .
For the DVD release , 20th Century Fox pioneered a new kind of DRM , Digital Copy protection that tries to weaken the incentives for consumers to learn how to rip discs by offering them a downloadable version with studio @-@ imposed restrictions . The score for the film was released on July 2 , 2007 . The fifth film in the series , titled A Good Day to Die Hard , was released on February 14 , 2013 .
= = Plot = =
The FBI responds to a brief computer outage at their Cyber @-@ Security Division by tracking down top computer hackers , finding several of them have been killed . Taking others into protective custody , the FBI asks New York City Police Department detective John McClane ( Bruce Willis ) to bring in Matthew " Matt " Farrell ( Justin Long ) , one of the targeted hackers . McClane finally arrives just in time to prevent Farrell from being killed by assassins working for Mai Linh ( Maggie Q ) , a mysterious cyber @-@ terrorist who works for her boss and love interest , Thomas Gabriel ( Timothy Olyphant ) .
En route to Washington , D.C. with McClane , Farrell reveals that he received a large sum of money from Mai to write an algorithm that can crack a security system . As McClane and Farrell arrive in Washington , Gabriel orders his own crew of hackers to take control of the transportation grids and stock market , while nationally broadcasting a message threatening the United States . Farrell recognizes this as the start of a " fire sale " , an attack designed to target the nation 's reliance on computer controls , such that " everything must go " . McClane and Farrell are taken by police escort to the secure FBI headquarters , but Mai reroutes the convoy into the path of an assault helicopter . McClane takes down the helicopter by launching a police car over a damaged toll booth into it .
As McClane and Farrell finally recover , Gabriel initiates a second broadcast by showing a simulated explosion of the U.S. Capitol building , sending the public into panic . Farrell recognizes that his next target of the " fire sale " is likely the power grid , and the two drive to a utility superstation in West Virginia . When they arrive , a team led by Mai is breaking in and taking over the station 's controls . McClane kills all of them , and sends Mai to her death in a vehicle at the bottom of an elevator shaft . He obtains video footage of Gabriel which he relays to the FBI . Enraged over Mai 's death , Gabriel takes remote control of the natural gas distribution system and redirects all of the gas into the station . McClane and Farrell manage to escape before the station explodes , leaving much of the eastern seaboard of United States and Canada without power .
Farrell connects McClane with a fellow hacker , Frederick " Warlock " Kaludis ( Kevin Smith ) , in Baltimore . Running his computer systems from several generators , Warlock identifies the piece of code Farrell wrote as a means to access data at a master Social Security Administration building at Woodlawn , Maryland . They realize the building is actually a cover @-@ up NSA facility , designed by Gabriel when he worked for the NSA as a backup facility for the nation 's entire personal and financial records to be used in the event of a cyber attack similar to the one Gabriel has created . Warlock tells McClane and Matt that Gabriel is an extremely talented programmer who was a top security expert for the U.S. Department of Defense . Gabriel tried to alert the politicians and military leadership to critical weaknesses that left America 's network infrastructure open to cyberwarfare , but his methods led to his dismissal . Warlock runs a traceroute and attempts to identify Gabriel 's location , but Gabriel detects the intrusion .
Gabriel taps into their connection and speaks with Warlock , Farrell , and McClane . Gabriel reveals that he had successfully located McClane 's estranged daughter , Lucy ( Mary Elizabeth Winstead ) , and intends to kidnap her . McClane and Farrell race to the Woodlawn facility , where Farrell soon discovers that Gabriel is downloading all the information onto his portable computer system in order to blackmail the U.S government , and he manages to encrypt the data before all of Gabriel 's henchmen can access it . However , Gabriel kidnaps Farrell as he tries to escape the facility . McClane pursues Gabriel , hijacking his semi and enlists Warlock to trace Gabriel 's vehicle . With McClane in pursuit , Gabriel accesses the communication system of a U.S. Marine Corps F @-@ 35B Lightning II .
Pretending to be an air traffic controller , Gabriel orders the pilot to attack the truck McClane is driving . McClane manages to escape the assault when debris from the damaged truck falls into the jet intake of the aircraft from a highway exit ramp . McClane makes his way to a nearby warehouse where Warlock has successfully tracked Gabriel and is installing the remaining files , holding Lucy . Although McClane kills most of Gabriel 's remaining henchmen , Emerson ( Edoardo Costa ) shoots him in the right shoulder , injuring him .
While Gabriel tries to hold McClane from behind , McClane manages to gain control of Gabriel 's weapon and fatally shoots him through his own shoulder , killing Gabriel ; McClane survives his injury . Farrell then kills Emerson in the ensuing confusion . As the FBI finally arrives to tend to his wounds and clean up the scene , recovering the stolen files in the process , McClane pretends to be displeased with the romantic feelings developing between Farrell and Lucy as he sits with her in the ambulance .
= = Cast = =
Bruce Willis as Detective John McClane
Justin Long as Matthew " Matt " Farrell , a computer hacker from Camden , New Jersey
Timothy Olyphant as Thomas Gabriel , a former U.S. Defense Department analyst who leads a group of cyber @-@ terrorists systematically shutting down the entire U.S. infrastructure . Olyphant filmed his role within three weeks .
Mary Elizabeth Winstead as Lucy Gennero @-@ McClane , McClane 's estranged daughter who , along with Farrell , is kidnapped by Thomas Gabriel and his henchmen . The inclusion of McClane 's daughter was previously considered for the third film , and she was in the video game Die Hard : Vendetta . It was speculated that Willis ' real life daughter Rumer , who was born the same year that Die Hard was released , was a prime candidate for the part of McClane 's daughter . Jessica Simpson , Britney Spears , and Taylor Fry , who played McClane 's daughter in Die Hard , had all previously auditioned for the role .
Maggie Q as Mai Linh , Gabriel 's primary accomplice and love interest
Kevin Smith as Frederick " Warlock " Kaludis , Farrell 's hacker friend . Smith , a noted screenwriter and film director , did uncredited rewrites to the scenes in which he appears , as Willis and Wiseman thought the dialogue and exposition " didn 't make sense " .
Cliff Curtis as Miguel Bowman , Deputy Director of the F.B.I. ' s Cyber Crime Division
Jonathan Sadowski as Trey , Gabriel 's main hacker
Edoardo Costa as Emerson , Gabriel 's main henchman
Cyril Raffaelli as Rand , Gabriel 's henchman
Yorgo Constantine as Russo , Gabriel 's henchman
Chris Palermo as Del , Gabriel 's henchman
Andrew Friedman as Casper , a computer hacker who is working with Gabriel
Željko Ivanek as Agent Molina , Bowman 's assistant
Christina Chang as Taylor , an F.B.I. agent working for Bowman
Sung Kang as Raj , an F.B.I. agent
Allen Maldonado as Goatee
Tim Russ as Agent Summer
Matt McColm as Gabriel 's henchman ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
= = = Script and title = = =
The film 's plot is based on an earlier script entitled WW3.com by David Marconi , screenwriter of the 1998 film Enemy of the State . Using John Carlin 's Wired magazine article entitled " A Farewell to Arms " , Marconi crafted a screenplay about a cyber @-@ terrorist attack on the United States . The attack procedure is known as a " fire sale " , depicting a three @-@ stage coordinated attack on a country 's transportation , telecommunications , financial , and utilities infrastructure systems . After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , the project was stalled , only to be resurrected several years later and rewritten into Live Free or Die Hard by Doug Richardson and eventually by Mark Bomback .
Willis said in 2005 that the film would be called Die Hard 4 @.@ 0 , as it revolves around computers and cyber @-@ terrorism . IGN later reported the film was to be called Die Hard : Reset instead . 20th Century Fox later announced the title as Live Free or Die Hard and set a release date of June 29 , 2007 with filming to begin in September 2006 . The title is based on New Hampshire 's state motto , " Live Free or Die " , which is attributed to a quote from General John Stark . International trailers use the Die Hard 4 @.@ 0 title , as the film was released outside North America with that title . Early into the film 's DVD commentary , both Wiseman and Willis note a preference for Die Hard 4 @.@ 0 , and subtly mock the Live Free or Die Hard title .
= = = Visual effects = = =
For the visual effects used throughout the film , actor Bruce Willis and director Len Wiseman stated that they wanted to use a limited amount of CGI . One VFX producer said that " Len was insisting on the fact that , because we ’ ve got Transformers and other big CG movies coming out , this one has to feel more real . It has to be embedded in some kind of practical reality in order to give it that edge of being a Die Hard . " Companies such as Digital Dimension , The Orphanage , R ! ot , Pixel Magic , and Amalgamated Pixels assisted in the film 's visual effects .
Digital Dimension worked on 200 visual effects shots in the film , including the sequence that shows characters John McClane and Matt Farrell crouching between two cars as another car lands on top of the other cars . To achieve this effect , a crane yanked the car and threw it in the air onto the two cars that were also being pulled by cables . The shot was completed when the two characters were integrated into the footage of the car stunt after the lighting was adjusted and CGI glass and debris were added . In the same sequence , John McClane destroys a helicopter that several of Gabriel 's henchman are riding in by ramming it with a car . This was accomplished by first filming one take where one of Gabriel 's henchman , Rand , jumps from the helicopter , and in the next take the car is propelled into the stationary helicopter as it is hoisted by wires . The final view of the shot overlays the two takes , with added CGI for the debris and moving rotor blades . The company also assisted in adding cars for traffic collisions and masses of people for evacuations from several government buildings .
The Orphanage developed a multi @-@ level freeway interchange for use in one of the film 's final scenes by creating a digital environment and a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 300 m ) long spiral ramp that was built in front of a bluescreen . When a F @-@ 35 jet is chasing McClane on the freeway , a miniature model and a full @-@ size prop were both built to assist in digitally adding the jet into the scene . The nine @-@ foot model was constructed from November 2006 through February 2007 . When the jet is shown hovering near the freeway , editors used the software 3D graphics program Maya to blur the background and create a heat ripple effect .
= = = Filming and injuries = = =
Filming for Live Free or Die Hard started in downtown Baltimore , Maryland on September 23 , 2006 . Eight different sets were built on a large soundstage for filming many scenes throughout the film . When recording the sound for the semi trailer used in one of the film 's final scenes , 18 microphones were used to record the engine , tires , and damage to the vehicle . Post @-@ production for the film only took 16 weeks , when it was more common for similar films to use 26 weeks .
In order to prevent possible injuries and be in peak condition for the film , Willis worked out almost daily for several months prior to filming . Willis was injured January 24 , 2007 during a fight scene , when he was kicked above his right eye by a stunt double for actress Maggie Q who was wearing stiletto heels . Willis described the event as " no big deal " but when Len Wiseman inspected his injury , he noticed that the situation was much more serious than previously thought — in the DVD commentary , Wiseman indicates in inspecting the wound that he could see bone . Willis was hospitalized and received seven stitches which ran through his right eyebrow and down into the corner of his eye . Due to the film 's non @-@ linear production schedule , these stitches can accidentally be seen in the scene where McClane first delivers Farrell to Bowman .
Throughout filming , between 200 and 250 stunt people were used . Bruce Willis ' stunt double , Larry Rippenkroeger , was knocked unconscious when he fell 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) from a fire escape to the pavement . Rippenkroeger suffered broken bones in his face , several broken ribs , a punctured lung , and fractures in both wrists . Due to his injuries , production was temporarily shut down . Willis personally paid the hotel bills for Rippenkroeger 's parents and visited him a number of times at the hospital .
Kevin Smith recalls rewriting scenes on the set of Live Free or Die Hard in his spoken word film Sold Out : A Threevening with Kevin Smith .
= = Rating = =
In the United States , the first three films in the Die Hard series were rated R by the Motion Picture Association of America . Live Free or Die Hard , however , was edited to obtain a PG @-@ 13 rating . In some cases , alternate profanity @-@ free dialogue was shot and used or swearing was cut out in post @-@ production to reduce profanity . Director Len Wiseman commented on the rating , saying " It was about three months into it [ production ] , and I hadn 't even heard that it was PG @-@ 13 ... But in the end , it was just trying to make the best Die Hard movie , not really thinking so much about what the rating would be . " Bruce Willis was upset with the studio 's decision , stating , " I really wanted this one to live up to the promise of the first one , which I always thought was the only really good one . That 's a studio decision that is becoming more and more common , because they ’ re trying to reach a broader audience . It seems almost a courageous move to give a picture an R rating these days . But we still made a pretty hardcore , smashmouth film . " Willis said he thought that viewers unaware that it was not an R @-@ rated film would not suspect so due to the level and intensity of the action as well as the usage of some profanity , although he admitted these elements were less intense than in the previous films . He also said that this film was the best of the four : " It 's unbelievable . I just saw it last week . I personally think , it 's better than the first one . "
In the United Kingdom , the British Board of Film Classification awarded the film a 15 rating ( including the unrated version , released later ) , the same as Die Hard with a Vengeance and Die Hard 2 , albeit both were cut for both theatrical and video release , ( the first film in the series originally received an 18 certificate ) . All films have been re @-@ rated 15 uncut . Die Hard 4 @.@ 0 was released with no cuts made and the cinema version ( i.e. US PG @-@ 13 version ) consumer advice read that it " contains frequent action violence and one use of strong language " . The unrated version was released on DVD as the " Ultimate Action Edition " with the consumer advice " contains strong language and violence " .
In Australia , Die Hard 4 @.@ 0 was released with the PG @-@ 13 cut with an M rating , the same as the others in the series ( The Australian Classification Board is less strict with regards to language and to a lesser extent , violence ) . The unrated version was later released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray also with an M rating . The film notably was never released in home media with its theatrical cut , and has only been released in Australia as the extended edition .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Live Free or Die Hard debuted at # 2 at the box office and made $ 9 @.@ 1 million in its first day of release in 3 @,@ 172 theaters , the best opening day take of any film in the Die Hard series ( not taking inflation into account ) . On its opening weekend Live Free or Die Hard made $ 33 @.@ 3 million ( $ 48 @.@ 3 million counting Wednesday and Thursday ) . The film made $ 134 @.@ 5 million domestically , and $ 249 @.@ 0 million overseas for a total of $ 383 @.@ 5 million , making it the twelfth highest @-@ grossing film of 2007 . To date , it is the most successful film in the series .
= = = Critical reception = = =
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film received an 82 % approval rating based on 206 reviews and an average rating of 6 @.@ 8 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Live Free or Die Hard may be preposterous , but it 's an efficient , action @-@ packed summer popcorn flick with thrilling stunts and a commanding performance by Bruce Willis . Fans of the previous Die Hard films will not be disappointed " . On Metacritic , the film has a score of 69 out of 100 , based on 34 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . A review on IGN stated " Like the recent Rocky Balboa , this new Die Hard works as both its own story about an over @-@ the @-@ hill but still vital hero and as a nostalgia trip for those who grew up with the original films . " On the television show Ebert & Roeper , film critic Richard Roeper and guest critic Katherine Tulich both gave the film " two thumbs up " , with Roeper stating that the film is " not the best or most exciting Die Hard , but it is a lot of fun " and that it is his favorite among the Die Hard sequels . Roeper also remarked , " Willis is in top form in his career @-@ defining role . " Michael Medved gave the film three and a half out of four stars , opining , " a smart script and spectacular special effects make this the best Die Hard of ' em all . "
Conversely , Lawrence Toppman of The Charlotte Observer stated : " I can safely say I 've never seen anything as ridiculous as Live Free or Die Hard . " Toppman also wrote that the film had a lack of memorable villains and referred to John McClane as " just a bald Terminator with better one @-@ liners " .
= = Soundtrack = =
The score for Live Free or Die Hard , written by Marco Beltrami , was released on July 2 , 2007 by Varèse Sarabande ( which also released the soundtracks for the first two Die Hard films ) , several days after the United States release of the film . This was the first film not to be scored by Michael Kamen , due to his death in 2003 ; Beltrami incorporates Kamen 's thematic material into his score , but Kamen is not credited on the film or the album . Other songs in the film include " Rock & Roll Queen " by The Subways , " Fortunate Son " by Creedence Clearwater Revival and " I 'm So Sick " by Flyleaf . Eric Lichtenfeld , reviewing from Soundtrack.net , said of the score 's action cues " the entire orchestra seems percussive , flow well together . "
" Out of Bullets " ( 1 : 08 )
" Shootout " ( 3 : 41 )
" Leaving the Apartment " ( 2 : 08 )
" Dead Hackers " ( 1 : 31 )
" Traffic Jam " ( 4 : 13 )
" It 's a Fire Sale " ( 2 : 57 )
" The Break @-@ In " ( 2 : 28 )
" Farrell to D.C. " ( 4 : 36 )
" Copter Chase " ( 4 : 41 )
" Blackout " ( 2 : 03 )
" Illegal Broadcast " ( 3 : 48 )
" Hurry Up ! " ( 1 : 23 )
" The Power Plant " ( 2 : 01 )
" Landing " ( 2 : 28 )
" Cold Cuts " ( 2 : 00 )
" Break a Neck " ( 2 : 47 )
" Farrell Is In " ( 4 : 22 )
" The F @-@ 35 " ( 4 : 13 )
" Aftermath " ( 3 : 12 )
" Live Free or Die Hard " ( 2 : 56 )
= = Home media release = =
The Blu @-@ ray and DVD were released on October 29 , 2007 , in the United Kingdom , on October 31 in Hungary , November 20 in the United States , and December 12 in Australia . The DVD topped rental and sales charts in its opening week of release in the U.S. and Canada . There is an unrated version , which retains much of the original ' R @-@ rated ' dialogue , and a theatrical version of the film . However , the unrated version has a branching error resulted in one of the unrated changes to be omitted . The film briefly switches to the PG @-@ 13 version in the airbag scene ; McClane 's strong language is missing from this sequence ( although international DVD releases of the unrated version are unaffected ) . The Blu @-@ ray release features the PG @-@ 13 theatrical cut which runs at 128 minutes , while the Collector 's Edition DVD includes both the unrated and theatrical versions . Time magazine 's Richard Corliss named it one of the Top 10 DVDs of 2007 , ranking it at # 10 . The German Blu @-@ ray release of the " Die Hard Legacy Collection " features the unrated version for the first time in HD , and the disc is region @-@ free .
The DVD for the film was the first to include a Digital Copy of the film which could be played on a PC or Mac computer and could also be imported into several models of portable video players . Mike Dunn , a president for 20th Century Fox , stated " The industry has sold nearly 12 billion DVDs to date , and the release of Live Free or Die Hard is the first one that allows consumers to move their content to other devices . "
= USS Wyoming ( BB @-@ 32 ) =
USS Wyoming ( BB @-@ 32 ) was the lead ship of her class of dreadnought battleships and was the third ship of the United States Navy named Wyoming , although she was only the second named in honor of the 44th state . Wyoming was laid down at the William Cramp and Sons in Philadelphia in February 1910 , was launched in May 1911 , and was completed in September 1912 . She was armed with a main battery of twelve 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns and capable of a top speed of 20 @.@ 5 kn ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) .
During the First World War , she was part of the Battleship Division Nine , which was attached to the British Grand Fleet as the 6th Battle Squadron . During the war , she was primarily tasked with patrolling in the North Sea and escorting convoys to Norway . She served in both the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets throughout the 1920s , and in 1931 – 1932 , she was converted into a training ship according to the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930 .
Wyoming served as a training ship throughout the 1930s , and in November 1941 , she became a gunnery ship . She operated primarily in the Chesapeake Bay area , which earned her the nickname " Chesapeake Raider " . In this capacity , she trained some 35 @,@ 000 gunners for the hugely expanded US Navy during World War II . She continued in this duty until 1947 , when she was decommissioned on 1 August and subsequently sold for scrap ; she was broken up in New York starting in December 1947 .
= = Design = =
Wyoming was 562 ft ( 171 m ) long overall and had a beam of 93 ft 3 in ( 28 m ) and a draft of 28 ft 6 in ( 9 m ) . She displaced 26 @,@ 000 long tons ( 26 @,@ 417 t ) as designed and up to 27 @,@ 243 long tons ( 27 @,@ 680 t ) at full combat load . The ship was powered by four @-@ shaft Parsons steam turbines and twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at 28 @,@ 000 shp ( 21 @,@ 000 kW ) , generating a top speed of 20 @.@ 5 kn ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . The ship had a cruising range of 8 @,@ 000 nmi ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 12 @-@ inch / 50 caliber Mark 7 guns in six Mark 9 twin gun turrets on the centerline , two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward . The other four turrets were placed aft of the superstructure in two superfiring pairs . The secondary battery consisted of twenty @-@ one 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull . The main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick , while the gun turrets had 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick faces . The conning tower had 11 @.@ 5 in ( 292 mm ) thick sides .
= = = Modifications = = =
In 1925 , Wyoming was modernized in the Philadelphia Navy Yard . Her displacement increased significantly , to 26 @,@ 066 long tons ( 26 @,@ 484 t ) standard and 30 @,@ 610 long tons ( 31 @,@ 100 t ) full load . Her beam was widened to 106 ft ( 32 m ) , primarily from the installation of anti @-@ torpedo bulges , and draft increased to 29 ft 11 @.@ 75 in ( 9 m ) . Her twelve coal @-@ fired boilers were replaced with four White @-@ Forster oil @-@ fired boilers that had been intended for the ships cancelled under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty ; performance remained the same as the older boilers . The ship 's deck armor was strengthened by the addition of 3 @.@ 5 in ( 89 mm ) of armor to the second deck between the end barbettes , plus 1 @.@ 75 in ( 44 mm ) of armor on the third deck on the bow and stern . The deck armor over the engines and boilers was increased by 0 @.@ 75 in ( 19 mm ) and 1 @.@ 25 in ( 32 mm ) , respectively . Five of the 5 @-@ inch guns were removed and eight 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 caliber anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed . The mainmast was removed to provide space for an aircraft catapult mounted on the Number 3 turret amidships .
= = Service history = =
Wyoming was laid down at the William Cramp and Sons shipyard in Philadelphia on 9 February 1910 , and was launched on 25 May 1911 . She was completed a year and four months later , on 25 September 1912 . After her commissioning , the final fitting @-@ out work was completed at the New York Navy Yard over the next three months . She then proceeded to join the rest of the fleet at Hampton Roads on 30 December , where she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Charles J. Badger , the commander of the Atlantic Fleet . Wyoming left Hampton Roads on 6 January 1913 , bound for the Caribbean . She visited the Panama Canal , which was nearing completion , and then participated in fleet exercises off Cuba . The ship was back in port in Chesapeake Bay on 4 March .
Wyoming then took part in gunnery drills off the Virginia Capes , and on 18 April , entered drydock at the New York Navy Yard for some repairs , which lasted until 7 May . She joined the rest of the fleet for maneuvers off Block Island that lasted from 7 – 24 May . During the maneuvers , the ship 's machinery proved troublesome , which necessitated repairs at Newport from 9 – 19 May . At the end of the month , she was in New York harbor , to participate in the ceremonies for the dedication of the monument to the armored cruiser Maine , which had been destroyed in Havana harbor on 15 February 1898 . On 4 June , Wyoming steamed to Annapolis , where she took on a crew of naval cadets from the Naval Academy for a summer midshipman cruise .
After returning the cadets to Annapolis on 24 – 25 August , Wyoming took part in gunnery and torpedo training over the next few weeks . On 16 September , she returned to New York for repairs , which lasted until 2 October . She then ran full – power sea trials before proceeding to the Virginia Capes , where she participated in another round of fleet maneuvers . Next , she departed for a European goodwill cruise on 26 October . She toured the Mediterranean Sea , stopping in Valletta , Malta , Naples , Italy , and Villefranche , France . She departed France on 30 November , and arrived in New York on 15 December . There , she went into dock at the New York Navy Yard for periodic repairs , which lasted until January 1914 . On the 6th , Wyoming left for Hampton Roads , where she took on coal in preparation for the annual fleet maneuvers in the Caribbean .
The exercises lasted from 26 January to 15 March , and the fleet was based out of Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba . Wyoming and the rest of the fleet then proceeded to Tangier Sound for additional training , including gunnery drills . On 3 April , Wyoming left the fleet for an overhaul in New York , which lasted until 9 May . She then returned to Hampton Roads , where she took on a contingent of troops and ferried them to Veracruz , arriving on 18 May . The US had intervened in the Mexican Revolution and occupied Veracruz to safeguard American citizens there . Wyoming cruised off Veracruz into the Autumn of 1914 , at which point she returned to the Virginia Capes for exercises . On 6 October , she entered New York for repairs ; this work lasted until 17 January 1915 .
Wyoming then proceeded to Hampton Roads , and then to Cuba , where she joined the fleet for the annual maneuvers off Cuba . These lasted until April , when she returned to the US . She participated in more exercises off Block Island over the next several months , and on 20 December , she returned to New York for another overhaul . On 6 January 1916 , she emerged from dry dock , and then proceeded to the Caribbean . On 16 January , she reached Culebra , Puerto Rico , then visited Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Haiti on 27 January . She entered port at Guantanamo the next day , and took part in fleet maneuvers until 10 April , after which she returned to New York . Another round of dockyard work took place from 16 April to 26 June . After returning to service , Wyoming took part in more maneuvers off the Virginia Capes for the remainder of the year . She left New York on 9 January 1917 , bound for Cuban waters for exercises that lasted through mid @-@ March . She left Cuba on 27 March , and was cruising off Yorktown , Virginia when the US declared war on Germany on 6 April , formally entering World War I.
= = = World War I = = =
Wyoming operated out of the Chesapeake Bay area for the next seven months , training engine @-@ room personnel for the expanding American fleet . On 25 November , Battleship Division 9 ( BatDiv 9 ) , which at that time comprised Wyoming , New York , Delaware , and Florida , departed the US , bound for Britain . BatDiv 9 was to reinforce the British Grand Fleet at its base in Scapa Flow . The American ships reached Scapa on 7 December , where they became the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet . The American ships drilled with their British counterparts from December 1917 to February 1918 .
On 6 February , Wyoming and the other American battleships undertook their first wartime operation , to escort a convoy to Stavanger , Norway , in company with eight British destroyers . On 7 February , lookouts on several ships , including Wyoming , thought they spotted German U @-@ boats attacking the ships with torpedoes , though these proved to be incorrect reports . The convoy successfully reached Norway two days later ; the return trip to Scapa Flow took another two days . Wyoming patrolled in the North Sea for the next several months , watching for a sortie by the German High Seas Fleet . On 30 June , Wyoming and the rest of the 6th Battle Squadron covered a minelaying operation in the North Sea ; the operation lasted until 2 July . During the operation , jumpy crewmen again incorrect reported U @-@ boat sightings , and Wyoming opened fire on the supposed targets . On the return voyage , the 6th Battle Squadron joined up with Convoy HZ40 , which was returning from Norway .
On 14 October , New York collided with a U @-@ boat and sank it . The collision nevertheless damaged her screws , which forced Rodman to transfer his flag from New York to Wyoming while the former was in dock for repair . On 21 November , after the Armistice with Germany ended the war , Wyoming and an Allied fleet of some 370 warships met the High Seas Fleet in the North Sea and escorted it into internment in Scapa Flow . On 12 December , Wyoming , now the flagship of Rear Admiral William Sims , the new BatDiv 9 commander , left Britain for France . There , she rendezvoused off Brest , France with George Washington , which was carrying President Woodrow Wilson to the peace negotiations in Paris . Wyoming then returned to Britain two days later before departing for the US , arriving in New York on 25 December . She remained there through the new year , and on 18 January 1919 , she became the flagship of BatDiv 7 , flying the flag of Rear Admiral Robert Coontz .
= = = Inter @-@ war period = = =
On 1 February , Wyoming steamed out of New York to join the annual fleet maneuvers off Cuba , before returning to New York on 14 April . On 12 May , she left port to help guide a group of Navy Curtiss NC flying boats as they made the first aerial transatlantic crossing . The battleship was back in port by 31 May . She then took on a crew of midshipmen for a training cruise off the Chesapeake Bay and Virginia Capes . After finishing the cruise , Wyoming entered dry dock at the Norfolk Navy Yard on 1 July for a modernization for service in the Pacific . Her secondary battery was reduced to sixteen 5 @-@ inch guns . After emerging from the shipyard , she became the flagship of BatDiv 6 of the newly designated Pacific Fleet . On 19 July , Wyoming and the rest of the Pacific Fleet departed the east coast , bound for the Pacific . The ships transited the Panama Canal later that month , and reached San Diego , California on 6 August .
On 9 August , Wyoming moved to San Pedro , where she was based for the next month . She went to the Puget Sound Navy Yard for an overhaul that lasted until 19 April 1920 . On 4 May , she was back in San Pedro and resumed her normal routine of fleet maneuvers off the California coast . On 30 August , Wyoming left California for Hawaii , where she participated in more training exercises through September . She then returned to San Diego on 8 October for more maneuvers off the west coast . The ship left San Francisco on 5 January 1921 for a cruise to Central and South American waters ; the trip culminated in Valparaíso , Chile , where she was reviewed by the President of Chile Arturo Alessandri Palma on 8 February . Wyoming then returned north , arriving in Puget Sound for repairs on 18 March .
On 2 August , Wyoming was in Balboa in the Canal Zone , where she picked up Rear Admiral Rodman and a commission traveling from Peru back to New York . She arrived in New York on 19 August and rejoined the Atlantic Fleet . There , she became the flagship of Admiral Hilary P. Jones , the commander of the Atlantic Fleet . Wyoming spent the next three and a half years on the normal routine of winter fleet exercises off Cuba , followed by summer maneuvers off the east coast of the US . Throughout the period , she served as the flagship of Vice Admirals John McDonald , Newton McCully , and Josiah McKean in the Scouting Fleet . In the summer of 1924 , she conducted a midshipman training cruise to Europe , and stopped in Torbay , Great Britain , Rotterdam in the Netherlands , Gibraltar , and the Azores . In January and February 1924 , the Navy conducted Fleet Problem II , III , and IV concurrently . During the FP III maneuvers , Wyoming , her sister Arkansas , and the two Florida @-@ class battleships stood in for the new Colorado @-@ class battleships . During the FP IV portion of the maneuvers , Wyoming served in the " Blue " force , which represented the US Navy . She was attacked by " Black " aircraft , but the umpires judged Wyoming 's anti @-@ aircraft fire and the escort fighters provided by Langley to have effectively defended the fleet .
On 14 February 1925 , Wyoming again passed through the Panama Canal to return to the Pacific . There , she joined fleet exercises off California . She then proceeded to Hawaii , where she remained from late April to early June . She visited San Diego on 18 – 22 June , and then returned to the east coast via the Panama Canal , arriving in New York on 17 July . A cruise to Cuba and Haiti followed , after which Wyoming returned to the New York Navy Yard for an overhaul that lasted from 23 November to 26 January 1926 . During this period , then @-@ Commander William F. Halsey , Jr. came aboard as the ship 's executive officer ; he served on Wyoming until 4 January 1927 .
Wyoming then returned to the routine of winter maneuvers in the Caribbean and training cruises in the summer . In late August , the ship went to Philadelphia for an extensive modernization . Her old coal @-@ fired boilers were replaced with new oil @-@ fired models and anti @-@ torpedo bulges were added to improve her resistance to underwater damage . The work was completed by 2 November , after which Wyoming conducted a shakedown cruise to Cuba and the Virgin Islands . She was back in Philadelphia on 7 December , and two days later , she returned to her post as the flagship of the Scouting Fleet , flying the flag of Vice Admiral Ashley Robertson .
Wyoming spent the next three years in the Scouting Fleet . She conducted training cruises with Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps ( NROTC ) cadets from various universities , including Yale , Harvard , Georgia Tech , and Northwestern . These cruises went throughout the Atlantic , including to the Gulf of Mexico , to the Azores , and to Nova Scotia . While on one of these cruises in November 1928 , Wyoming picked up eight survivors from the wrecked steamship SS Vestris ; she took them to Norfolk on 16 November . On 19 September 1930 , Wyoming was transferred from the Scouting Force to BatDiv 2 , where she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Wat T. Cluverius . She served here until 4 November , when she was withdrawn from front @-@ line service and became the flagship of the Training Squadron , flying the flag of Rear Admiral Harley H. Christy . Thereafter , she conducted a training cruise to the Gulf of Mexico .
After returning to Philadelphia on 1 January 1931 , Wyoming was placed on reduced commission . Under the terms of the London Naval Treaty signed the previous year , Wyoming was to be demilitarized . During the demilitarization process , her anti @-@ torpedo bulges , side armor , and half of her main battery guns were removed . She was back in service by May , and on the 29th , she took on a crew of midshipmen from Annapolis for a training cruise to Europe , which began on 5 June . While en route on 15 June , Wyoming rescued the disabled submarine O @-@ 12 and took it under tow to Queenstown , Northern Ireland . While in Europe , she stopped in Copenhagen , Denmark , Greenock , Scotland , Cadiz , Spain , and Gibraltar . The ship was back in Hampton Roads on 13 August ; while on the cruise , Wyoming was reclassified as " AG @-@ 17 " , to reflect her new role as a training ship .
Wyoming spent the next four years conducting training cruises for midshipmen and NROTC cadets to various destinations , including European ports , the Caribbean , and the Gulf of Mexico . On 18 January 1935 , she carried the 2nd Battalion , 4th Marine Regiment , from Norfolk to Puerto Rico for amphibious assault exercises . On 5 January 1937 , the ship left Norfolk and steamed to the Pacific via the Panama Canal . She took part in more amphibious assault exercises and gunnery drills at San Clemente Island . On 18 February , during the exercises , a 5 @-@ inch shrapnel shell exploded as it was being loaded into one of her guns . The blast killed six Marines and wounded another eleven . Wyoming immediately steamed to San Pedro and transferred the wounded Marines to the hospital ship Relief .
On 3 March , Wyoming left Los Angeles , bound for the Atlantic . She reached Norfolk on 23 March , where she served as the temporary flagship for Rear Admiral Wilson Brown , the commander of the Training Squadron , from 15 April to 3 June . On 4 June , she left port to conduct a goodwill cruise to Kiel , Germany , arriving on 21 June . There , she visited Admiral Graf Spee . She left Germany on 29 June , stopping in Torbay , Britain , and Funchal , Madeira , and arrived in Norfolk on 3 August . Wyoming resumed her training ship duties for Naval and Merchant Marine Reserve units . She returned to Norfolk Navy Yard for an overhaul that lasted from 16 October to 14 January 1938 .
Wyoming performed her typical routine of training cruises in the Atlantic through 1941 . The cruises included another European trip in 1938 ; she took the midshipmen to Le Havre , France , Copenhagen , and Portsmouth . After the outbreak of World War II in Europe in September 1939 , Wyoming was assigned to a naval reserve force in the Atlantic , alongside the battleships New York , Arkansas , and Texas and the aircraft carrier Ranger . Wyoming became the flagship of Rear Admiral Randall Jacobs , the commander of the Training , Patrol Force on 2 January 1941 . In November , Wyoming became a gunnery training ship . Her first cruise in this new role began on 25 November ; she was cruising off Platt 's Bank when she received word of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December .
= = = World War II = = =
Following the United States ' entrance into World War II , Wyoming performed her normal duties as a gunnery training ship with the Operational Training Command , United States Atlantic Fleet starting in February 1942 . She operated primarily in the Chesapeake Bay area , and frequent sightings of the ship steaming around the bay earned her the nickname " Chesapeake Raider " . Wyoming was very busy , training thousands of anti @-@ aircraft gunners on weapons ranging from light .50 caliber ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) guns to medium @-@ caliber 5 @-@ inch guns for the rapidly expanding American fleet . Early in the war , the Navy briefly considered converting Wyoming back to her battleship configuration , but decided against the plan .
These duties continued throughout the rest of the war . Wyoming was modernized at Norfolk Navy Yard from 12 January to 3 April 1944 ; the reconstruction removed the last of her three 12 @-@ inch gun turrets , and replaced them with four twin and two single enclosed mounts for 5 @-@ inch / 38 caliber guns . New fire control radars were also installed ; these modifications allowed Wyoming to train anti @-@ aircraft gunners with the most modern equipment they would use while in combat with the fleet . She was back in service in the Chesapeake Bay by 10 April . Over the course of the war , Wyoming trained an estimated 35 @,@ 000 gunners on seven different types of guns : 5 @-@ inch , 3 @-@ inch , 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch , 40 @-@ millimeter , and 20 @-@ millimeter weapons . Due to her extensive use as a gunnery training ship , she claimed the distinction of firing more ammunition than any other ship in the fleet during the war .
Wyoming finished her gunnery training duties in the Chesapeake area on 30 June 1945 , when she left Norfolk for the New York Navy Yard , for further modifications . Work was completed by 13 July , after which she left for Casco Bay . There , she joined Composite Task Force 69 ( CTF 69 ) , under command of Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee . Wyoming was tasked with developing tactics to more effectively engage the Japanese kamikaze suicide aircraft . The gunners conducted experimental gunnery drills with towed sleeves , drone aircraft , and radio @-@ controlled targets . On 31 August , CTF 69 was renamed Operational Development Force , United States Fleet .
Wyoming continued in this unit through the end of the war , and began to be used to test new fire control equipment . In the summer of 1946 , then @-@ Ensign Jimmy Carter , the future President of the United States , came aboard as part of the final crew of the old battleship . On 11 July 1947 , Wyoming put into Norfolk and was decommissioned there on 1 August . Her crew was transferred to the ex @-@ battleship Mississippi ( AG @-@ 128 ) , which was also serving in the gunnery training unit . Wyoming was stricken from the Naval Vessel Registry on 16 September , and she was sold for scrapping on 30 October . She arrived on 5 December in New York , where she was dismantled by Lipsett , Incorporated .
= Montpelier Hill =
Montpelier Hill ( Irish : Cnoc Montpelier ) is a 383 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 257 @-@ foot ) hill in County Dublin , Ireland . It is commonly referred to as the Hell Fire Club ( Irish : Club Thine Ifrinn ) , the popular name given to the ruined building at the summit . This building – a hunting lodge built around 1725 by William Conolly – was originally called Mount Pelier and since its construction the hill has also gone by the same name . The original Irish name of the hill is no longer known although the historian and archaeologist Patrick Healy has suggested that the hill is the place known as Suide Uí Ceallaig or Suidi Celi in the Crede Mihi , the twelfth century diocesan register book of the Archbishops of Dublin .
Montpelier is the closest to Dublin city of the group of mountains – along with Killakee , Featherbed Bog , Kippure , Seefingan , Corrig , Seahan , Ballymorefinn , Carrigeenoura and Slievenabawnogue – that form the ridge that bounds the Glenasmole valley . On the slopes is a forestry plantation , known as Hell Fire Wood , which consists of Sitka spruce , larch and beech .
Originally there was a cairn with a prehistoric passage grave on the summit . Stones from the cairn were taken and used in the construction of Mount Pelier lodge . Shortly after completion , a storm blew the roof off . Local superstition attributed this incident to the work of the Devil , a punishment for interfering with the cairn . Montpelier Hill has since become associated with numerous paranormal events .
Members of the Irish Hell Fire Club , which was active in the years 1735 to 1741 , used Mount Pelier lodge as a meeting place . Stories of wild behaviour and debauchery and occult practices and demonic manifestations have become part of the local lore over the years . The original name of the lodge has been displaced and the building is generally known as the Hell Fire Club . When the lodge was damaged by fire , the members of the Hell Fire Club relocated down the hill to the nearby Stewards House for a brief period . This building also has a reputation for being haunted , most notably by a massive black cat .
Adjacent to the Afizi House is the remains of Killakee Estate . A large Victorian house was built here in the early nineteenth century by Luke White . White 's son , Samuel , oversaw the development of extensive formal gardens on the estate , including the construction of several glasshouses by Richard Turner . The estate passed to the Massy family through inheritance in 1880 and John Thomas Massy , the 6th Baron made extensive use of the house and ground to host shooting parties and society gatherings . The fortunes of the Massy family declined in the early twentieth century and Hamon Massy , the 8th Baron , was evicted from Killakee House in 1924 . He became known as the " Penniless Peer " . Following the eviction , Killakee House was demolished and the gardens fell into ruin .
Today Montpelier Hill and much of the surrounding lands , including Killakee Estate ( now called Lord Massy 's Estate ) are owned by the State forestry company Coillte and are open to the public .
= = History = =
= = = The Hell Fire Club = = =
The building now known as the Hell Fire Club was built around 1725 as a hunting lodge by William Conolly , the Speaker of the Irish House of Commons . It was named Mount Pelier by Conolly but over the years has also been known as " The Haunted House " , " The Shooting Lodge " , " The Kennel " , and " Conolly 's Folly " , . It was one of several exclusive establishments using the name Hellfire Club that existed in Britain and Ireland in the 18th century .
While the building has a rough appearance
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0 square feet ( 69 @.@ 7 m2 ) , and has 24 rooftop photovoltaic modules . Together these two pavilions are capable of producing 3 @,@ 840 kilowatt @-@ hours ( 13 @,@ 102 @.@ 6 MBtu ) of electricity annually .
= = Reception and recognition = =
Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning Chicago Tribune architecture critic Blair Kamin praised the decision to have architects design the pavilions as an " inspired stroke " , speculating that if their designs had been left to contractors , visitors to Millennium Park could have instead seen unimpressive " blunt utilitarian huts " . Kamin was pleased with Piano 's South Pavilions , describing them as " minor modernist jewels , almost house @-@ like " . He lauded the way their limestone walls complement the transparent glass by way of contrast , and noted that they anticipated Piano 's then @-@ forthcoming addition to the Art Institute of Chicago Building . Kamin gave the South Pavilions a rating of three stars out of a possible four , or " very good " .
Kamin was less pleased with Beeby 's North Pavilions , which he described as " nearly all black and impenetrable " and compared to Darth Vader 's helmet . He acknowledged the pavilions ' innovative technology , and their " urban design function " as wings for the Harris Theater , which Kamin felt " allows the theater to better stand up to the Frank Gehry @-@ designed Pritzker Pavilion to its south " . Because they were not finished when he wrote his review in July 2004 , Kamin did not give the North Pavilions an overall star rating ; he did express the hope that they would have a more pleasant appearance once completed .
The pavilions have been recognized for their innovative use of renewable energy and green design . In 2005 , the North Pavilions received the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) silver rating from the United States Green Building Council . They received a Technology Award Honorable Mention in the category of " Alternative and / or Renewable Energy Use – New Construction " from the American Society of Heating , Refrigerating and Air @-@ Conditioning Engineers ( ASHRAE ) . The United States Department of Energy has recognized all the pavilions as part of its Million Solar Roofs Initiative . In 2005 Chicago ranked fourth among U.S. cities in solar installations ; the completion of the Exelon Pavilions took the city to a total of 1 MW of installed photovoltaic systems . The pavilions together generate 19 @,@ 840 kilowatt @-@ hours ( 67 @,@ 697 MBtu ) of electricity annually , worth $ 2 @,@ 353 per year at 2010 average Illinois electricity prices . According to the City of Chicago , this is enough energy to power the equivalent of 14 Energy Star @-@ rated efficient houses in Chicago .
= = Image map = =
Northwest Exelon Pavilion 41 ° 53 ′ 2 @.@ 67 ″ N 87 ° 37 ′ 20 @.@ 54 ″ W
Northeast Exelon Pavilion 41 ° 53 ′ 2 @.@ 72 ″ N 87 ° 37 ′ 16 @.@ 90 ″ W
Southwest Exelon Pavilion 41 ° 52 ′ 51 @.@ 70 ″ N 87 ° 37 ′ 20 @.@ 10 ″ W
Southeast Exelon Pavilion 41 ° 52 ′ 51 @.@ 62 ″ N 87 ° 37 ′ 17 @.@ 02 ″ W
= St George 's Church , Trotton =
St. George 's Church is an Anglican church in Trotton , a village in the district of Chichester , one of seven local government districts in the English county of West Sussex . Most of the structure was built in the early 14th century . However , some parts date to around 1230 , and there is evidence suggesting an earlier church on the same site . In 1904 , a largely intact and unusually detailed painting was found on the west wall depicting the Last Judgment as described in Matthew 25 : 31 – 46 .
The church is dedicated to St. George , patron saint of England . The rector of St George 's also oversees the parish of Rogate with Terwick , and most services are held at St. Bartholomew 's church in Rogate : just two services a month take place at Trotton . The church is also used once a month by the British Orthodox Church . The church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building for its architectural and historical importance .
= = History = =
Historians have disagreed about its age , and the existence of an older church on the same site . The tower has been dated by its architecture to between 1230 and 1240 , but other historians question this date and suggest the tower and the body of the church both date to the 14th century . The porch appears to be a 17th century addition . There is a tomb of Margaret de Camois in the nave . It has been suggested that its location there , rather than the chancel as would be expected for the family of the lord of the manor ( which her surname suggests she was ) , may indicate that the church was built on the site of an earlier , smaller , church and the tomb was in the chancel of that church . Local historian Roger Chatterton @-@ Newman disagrees , saying there would be no need for a church on the site any earlier .
A comprehensive restoration was undertaken by Philip Mainwaring Johnston in 1904 . The work cost £ 700 ( £ 68 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , and a time capsule containing details of the builders , church officials and contemporary world events was buried at the end of the job .
= = Description and architecture = =
The church is situated in the village of Trotton , West Sussex , just off the A272 near the River Rother . It stands between the early 15th @-@ century bridge over the river and the 16th @-@ century manor house .
The church has a plain , simple Decorated @-@ style exterior , apart from the tower which is Early English style . The nave and chancel are in a single chamber , separated by a narrow step instead of a chancel arch . The tower stands at the western end of the church , and contains a ring of four bells hung for change ringing . The tenor ( largest ) bell dates from 1908 , the others from 1913 ; all were cast by John Taylor & Co . The church is built of rubble with ashlar dressings . The roof of the main body is tiled ; during the 14th century it had a thatched roof , but this was replaced in about 1400 . The tower roof is a shingled octagonal cap .
= = Wall paintings = =
In 1904 , the whitewash was removed from the west wall and a wall painting from the very early days of the church was discovered . This , in itself , is not remarkable . Plenty of early churches have wall paintings ; however , this one was unusually rich and detailed . In the centre is Jesus Christ , beneath him is Moses and on his right is the " Carnal Man " surrounded by the Seven Deadly Sins . On his left is the " Spiritual Man " surrounded by the Seven Acts of Mercy . These two characters are depicted on the opposite sides of Christ than is usual in such depictions of the Last Judgement . The red paintwork is mostly in good condition , although the Seven Deadly Sins have started to fade .
There are also paintings on the north and south walls depicting the Camoys family . Camoys was the lord of the manor and it appears he had the church built primarily for his family . This would explain the unusual detail in the paintings . They were intended as rich decoration rather than simply for educating an illiterate congregation .
= = Tombs = =
A 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) table @-@ tomb in the middle of the chancel contains the remains of Thomas de Camoys , 1st Baron Camoys ( died 1421 , although the inscription says 1419 ) and his wife , Elizabeth , daughter of Edmund Mortimer , 3rd Earl of March . Baron Camoys fought at the Battle of Agincourt , and his wife was the inspiration for the character of Gentle Kate in William Shakespeare 's play Henry IV . The sides of the brass memorial are decorated with quatrefoil- and shield @-@ shaped ornamentation , which enhance the comparatively plain figures . The baron and baroness are depicted holding hands and only slightly smaller than life @-@ size . Ian Nairn and Nikolaus Pevsner described the memorial as " one of the biggest , most ornate and best preserved brasses in England " .
The nave contains a leger slab with a brass of Margaret de Camois ( died 1310 ) . This is the oldest known brass of a woman in England . There used to be a 15th @-@ century niche @-@ tomb in the south wall , but it had been largely removed by 1780 . The table @-@ tomb of Sir Roger Lewknor ( died c . 1478 ) is in the northeast corner of the chancel . Its sides have festoon motifs and slender carved niches . In the southeast corner is the pilastered tomb of Anthony Foster ( died 1643 ) .
= = The church today = =
St George 's Church was listed at Grade I on 18 June 1959 . Such buildings are defined as being of " exceptional interest " and greater than national importance . As of February 2001 , it was one of 80 Grade I listed buildings , and 3 @,@ 251 listed buildings of all grades , in the district of Chichester .
The present ecclesiastical parish of Trotton covers a large north – south area of countryside , includes the village of Trotton and the hamlets of Chithurst and Ingrams Green , and is served by St Mary 's Church at Chithurst as well as St George 's . Both churches are in the Rural Deanery of Midhurst , one of eight deaneries in the Archdeaconry of Horsham in the Diocese of Chichester .
Eucharistic services are held on the second and fourth Sundays every month . The church is open during the day for visitors .
= Derick Neikirk =
Derick Lee Neikirk ( also spelled Derek Neikirk or Derrick Neikirk , born September 5 , 1974 ) is an American professional wrestler and former minor league baseball player . He has competed for several promotions , and currently competes for Impact Zone Wrestling ( IZW ) , a territory of the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) based in Phoenix , Arizona . He has also wrestled in several other promotions and was signed to a contract with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) for several years . Much of his career has been connected with fellow wrestler Mike Knox , as the two have held championships together as a tag team and have feuded on multiple occasions .
= = Baseball career = =
Before entering professional wrestling , Neikirk played catcher for the Mesa Community College baseball team in the Arizona Community College Athletic Conference ( ACCAC ) . In 1996 , he was named to the All @-@ ACCAC Team . That year , he was picked by the Detroit Tigers in the 19th round of the Major League Baseball Draft
At age 21 , Neikirk played in Detroit 's rookie @-@ class , minor league team , the Gulf Coast League Tigers of the 1996 Gulf Coast League in Lakeland , Florida . He played catcher in 18 games out of a 60 @-@ game season . His statistics were as follows : 47 plate appearances , 38 at bats , 8 hits , 4 runs , 1 run batted in ( RBI ) , 5 walks , 7 strikeouts , and 8 total bases . Also , Neikirk ground into a double play 4 times , was hit by a pitch 3 times , and made 1 sacrifice hit . He had a batting average of .211 , an on @-@ base percentage of .348 , a slugging percentage of .211 , and an on @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) of .558 .
That same year , Neikirk was promoted to the high @-@ A @-@ class , minor @-@ league team , the Visalia Oaks , of the 1996 California League , in Visalia , California . While there , he played catcher in 9 games out of a 140 @-@ game season . His statistics were as follows : 29 plate appearances , 27 at @-@ bats , 4 hits , 3 runs , 2 RBIs , 2 walks , 9 strikeouts , and 4 total bases . He also had a batting average of .148 , an on @-@ base percentage of .207 , a slugging percentage of .148 , and an OPS of .355 .
In 1999 , at age 24 , Neikirk returned to baseball playing for the independent minor league team , the Adirondack Lumberjacks , of the 1999 Northern League , in Glens Falls , New York . While there , he played catcher in 42 games out of an 86 @-@ game season . His statistics were as follows : 118 at @-@ bats , 31 hits , 3 doubles , 1 triple , 2 home runs , and 42 total bases . He had a batting average of .263 and a slugging percentage of .356 .
On a weighted @-@ average , 100 @-@ point scale , Neikirk 's Baseball Cube scouting report is as follows :
Power : 39
Batting : 22
Speed : 43
Contact : 43
Patience : 62
= = Wrestling = =
Throughout his professional wrestling career , Neikirk has competed primarily in the United States . He was also wrestled in Egypt and has worked for the World Wrestling Alliance in Europe and for Enezma in Mexico . Much of his career has been spent portraying a heel ( villain ) through an arrogant demeanor and by turning on allies .
= = = Early career = = =
Neikirk trained under Les Thatcher for a career in professional wrestling . In 2002 , he formed a tag team known as The A Squad with Chet Jablonski . On July 10 , 2002 , The A Squad defeated Ice Cream Man and Cody Hawk to win the HWA Tag Team Championship , although this title reign is not recorded in the company 's official history . That year , Neikirk was rated number 481 on Pro Wrestling Illustrated 's annual PWI 500 list of the top wrestlers in the world . On August 31 , 2003 , Neikirk wrestled a match on WWE 's Sunday Night Heat television program in which he was defeated by Test . In 2003 , he improved his PWI 500 ranking and was placed at number 442 .
He later wrestled for Ultimate Pro Wrestling ( UPW ) , where he formed a tag team with Mike Knox . The team was also part of a stable known as The Outlaws . Neikirk and Knox later moved to IZW , where they were known as Team Elite . They defeated Navajo Warrior and Hawaiian Lion on January 18 , 2005 to win the IZW Tag Team Championship . They held the title belts until March 15 , when they dropped them to California Connection ( Peter Goodman and Antonio Mestre ) . On January 6 , 2004 , Neikirk turned on Knox by superkicking him in the face . He explained this action by saying that he was tired of carrying the team and that Knox had " dropped the ball " . That night , Neikirk and Kox faced each other as part of a six @-@ man match , but Neikirk turned on his teammates and left the ring . Neikirk and Knox had a blow off match on May 25 . Neikirk won the match , but the referee then reversed his decision and awarded the victory to Knox .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Deep South Wrestling ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
In 2005 , he and Knox were signed by World Wrestling Entertainment and was sent to the Deep South Wrestling ( DSW ) , which was a developmental territory for WWE . They resumed wrestling together as Team Elite . Competing as a singles wrestler , Neikirk won the DSW Heavyweight Championship on December 22 that year by defeating Mike Mizanin . He finished the year ranked number 367 in the PWI 500 . He held the Heavyweight Championship for six months before dropping it to Roughhouse O 'Reilly . On August 3 , 2006 , Team Elite faced High Impact ( Mike Taylor and Tony Santarelli ) for the DSW Tag Team Championship . Neikirk and Knox lost the match , which led to them splitting up and feuding . They faced each other at several DSW house shows , with Knox winning most of the matches . At the same time , Neikirk also teamed with Roughhouse O 'Reilley to wrestle The Full Blooded Italians ( Little Guide and Tony Mamaluke ) on several house shows promoted by WWE 's Extreme Championship Wrestling . In 2006 , he achieved his highest ranking on the PWI 500 , as he was rated number 310 .
= = = = Florida Championship Wrestling ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
In 2007 , Team Elite reunited and won the DSW Tag Team Championship on March 8 with a victory over The Majors Brothers . They held the title until WWE ended its association with DSW on April 18 , 2007 . Neikirk and Knox were sent to Florida Championship Wrestling , another WWE developmental territory , where they continued to form a tag team . Neikirk also appeared on WWE 's Extreme Championship Wrestling program as one of Paul Heyman 's bodyguards .
In January 2008 , he was suspended by WWE for a violation of the company 's Wellness Program . He was released from his WWE contract on January 8 .
= = = Return to IZW = = =
He then returned to Impact Zone Wrestling , where he won the NWA Arizona Heavyweight Championship on December 30 , 2008 in a match against G.Q. Gallo . The match ended in controversy , however , because both men 's shoulders were on the mat as the referee counted the pinfall . Neikirk raised his shoulder just before the final count and was awarded the victory and the title belt . The title was declared vacant until the two men could face each other again on January 27 , 2009 . This rematch ended in a draw , but Gallo defeated Neikirk to win the vacant title on March 10 . Neikirk regained the title , which had been renamed the Arizona Heavyweight Championship , that summer . He held the belt until dropping it to Mike James on August 11 . NWA Representative Greg DeMarco then tried to strip James of the belt and return it to Neikirk , but Neikirk refused to accept the title .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing move
Round Trip ( Inverted suplex stunner )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Elite Xtreme Wrestling
EXW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Deep South Wrestling
DSW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
DSW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Mike Knox
Heartland Wrestling Association
HWA Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Chet Jablonski
Impact Zone Wrestling
IZW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
IZW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Mike Knox
NWA Arizona Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
= Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine =
Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine , later Victoria Mountbatten , Marchioness of Milford Haven ( Victoria Alberta Elisabeth Mathilde Marie ; 5 April 1863 – 24 September 1950 ) was the eldest daughter of Louis IV , Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine ( 1837 – 1892 ) , and his first wife Princess Alice of the United Kingdom ( 1843 – 1878 ) , daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha .
Her mother died while her brother and sisters were still young , which placed her in an early position of responsibility over her siblings . She married her father 's first cousin , Prince Louis of Battenberg , an officer in the United Kingdom 's Royal Navy , in a love match and lived most of her married life in various parts of Europe at her husband 's naval posts and visiting her many royal relations . She was perceived by her family as liberal in outlook , straightforward , practical and bright .
During World War I , she and her husband abandoned their German titles and adopted the British @-@ sounding surname of Mountbatten , which was simply a translation into English of the German " Battenberg " . Two of her sisters – Elisabeth and Alix , who had married into the Russian imperial family – were murdered by communist revolutionaries .
She was the maternal grandmother of Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , the consort of Queen Elizabeth II .
= = Early life = =
Victoria was born on Easter Sunday at Windsor Castle in the presence of her maternal grandmother , Queen Victoria . She was christened in the Lutheran faith in the arms of the Queen on 27 April . Her early life was spent at Bessungen , a suburb of Darmstadt , until the family moved to the New Palace in Darmstadt when she was three years old . There , she shared a room with her younger sister , Elisabeth , until adulthood . She was privately educated to a high standard and was , throughout her life , an avid reader .
During the Prussian invasion of Hesse in June 1866 , Victoria and Elisabeth were sent to England to live with their grandmother until hostilities were ended by the absorption of Hesse @-@ Kassel and parts of Hesse @-@ Darmstadt into Prussia . During the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 , military hospitals were set up in the palace grounds at Darmstadt , and she helped in the soup kitchens with her mother . She remembered the intense cold of the winter , and being burned on the arm by hot soup . In 1872 , Victoria 's eighteen @-@ month @-@ old brother , Friedrich , was diagnosed with haemophilia . The diagnosis came as a shock to the royal families of Europe ; it had been twenty years since Queen Victoria had given birth to her haemophiliac son , Prince Leopold , Duke of Albany , and it was the first indication that the bleeding disorder in the royal family was hereditary . The following year , Friedrich fell from a window onto stone steps and died . It was the first of many tragedies to beset the Hesse family .
In early November 1878 , Victoria contracted diphtheria . Elisabeth was swiftly moved out of their room and was the only member of the family to escape the disease . For days , Victoria 's mother , Princess Alice , nursed the sick , but she was unable to save her youngest daughter , Victoria 's sister Marie , who died in mid @-@ November . Just as the rest of the family seemed to have recovered , Princess Alice fell ill . She died on 14 December , the anniversary of the death of her father , Prince Albert . As the eldest child , Victoria partly assumed the role of mother to the younger children and of companion to her father . She later wrote , " My mother 's death was an irreparable loss ... My childhood ended with her death , for I became the eldest and most responsible . "
= = Marriage and family = =
At family gatherings , Victoria had often met Prince Louis of Battenberg , who was her first cousin once removed and a member of a morganatic branch of the Hessian royal family . Prince Louis had adopted British nationality and was serving as an officer in the Royal Navy . In the winter of 1882 , they met again at Darmstadt , and were engaged the following summer .
After a brief postponement because of the death of her maternal uncle , the Duke of Albany , Victoria married Prince Louis on 30 April 1884 at Darmstadt . Her father did not approve of the match ; in his view Prince Louis had little money and would deprive him of his daughter 's company , as the couple would naturally live abroad in Britain . However , Victoria was of an independent mind and took little notice of her father 's displeasure . Remarkably , Victoria 's father secretly married the same evening his untitled mistress , Alexandrine de Kolemine , the former wife of the Russian chargé d 'affaires in Darmstadt . His marriage to a divorced commoner shocked the assembled royalty of Europe and through diplomatic and family pressure Victoria 's father was forced to seek an annulment of his own marriage .
Over the next sixteen years , Victoria had four children :
They lived in a succession of houses at Chichester , Sussex , Walton @-@ on @-@ Thames , and Schloss Heiligenberg , Jugenheim . When Prince Louis was serving with the Mediterranean Fleet , she spent some winters in Malta . In 1887 , she contracted typhoid but , after being nursed through her illness by her husband , was sufficiently recovered by June to attend Queen Victoria 's Golden Jubilee celebrations in London . She was interested in science and drew a detailed geological map of Malta and also participated in archaeological digs both on the island and in Germany . In leather @-@ bound volumes she kept meticulous records of books she had read , which reveal a wide range of interests , including socialist philosophy .
She personally taught her own children and exposed them to new ideas and inventions . She gave lessons to her younger son , Louis , until he was ten years of age . He said of her in 1968 that she was " a walking encyclopedia . All through her life she stored up knowledge on all sorts of subjects , and she had the great gift of being able to make it all interesting when she taught it to me . She was completely methodical ; we had time @-@ tables for each subject , and I had to do preparation , and so forth . She taught me to enjoy working hard , and to be thorough . She was outspoken and open @-@ minded to a degree quite unusual in members of the Royal Family . And she was also entirely free from prejudice about politics or colour and things of that kind . "
In 1906 , she flew in a Zeppelin airship , and even more daringly later flew in a biplane even though it was " not made to carry passengers , and we perched securely attached on a little stool holding on to the flyer 's back . " Up until 1914 , Victoria regularly visited her relatives abroad in both Germany and Russia , including her two sisters who had married into the Russian imperial family : Elisabeth , who had married Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich , and Alix , who had married Emperor Nicholas II . Victoria was one of the Empress 's relatives who tried to persuade her away from the influence of Rasputin . On the outbreak of war between Germany and Britain in 1914 , Victoria and her daughter , Louise , were in Russia at Yekaterinburg . By train and steamer , they travelled to St Petersburg and from there through Tornio to Stockholm . They sailed from Bergen , Norway , on " the last ship " back to Britain .
= = Later life = =
Prince Louis was forced to resign from the navy at the start of the war when his German origins became an embarrassment , and the couple retired for the war years to Kent House on the Isle of Wight , which Victoria had been given by her aunt Princess Louise , Duchess of Argyll . Victoria blamed her husband 's forced resignation on the Government " who few greatly respect or trust " . She distrusted the First Lord of the Admiralty , Winston Churchill , because she thought him unreliable — he had once borrowed a book and failed to return it . Continued public hostility to Germany led King George V of the United Kingdom to renounce his German titles , and at the same time on 14 July 1917 Prince Louis and Victoria renounced theirs , assuming an anglicised version of Battenberg — Mountbatten — as their surname . Four months later Louis was re @-@ ennobled by the King as Marquess of Milford Haven . During the war , Victoria 's two sisters , Alix and Elisabeth , were murdered in the Russian revolution , and her brother , Ernest Louis , Grand Duke of Hesse , was deposed . On her last visit to Russia in 1914 , Victoria had driven past the very house in Yekaterinburg where Alix would be murdered . In January 1921 , after a long and convoluted journey , Elisabeth 's body was interred in Jerusalem in Victoria 's presence . Alix 's body was never recovered during Victoria 's lifetime .
Victoria 's husband died in London in September 1921 . After meeting her at the Naval and Military Club in Piccadilly , he complained of feeling unwell and Victoria persuaded him to rest in a room they had booked in the club annexe . She called a doctor , who prescribed some medication and Victoria went out to fill the prescription at a nearby pharmacist 's . When she came back , Louis was dead . On her widowhood , Victoria moved into a grace @-@ and @-@ favour residence at Kensington Palace and , in the words of her biographer , " became a central matriarchal figure in the lives of Europe 's surviving royalty " . In 1930 , her eldest daughter , Alice , suffered a nervous breakdown and was diagnosed as schizophrenic . In the following decade Victoria was largely responsible for her grandson Philip 's education and upbringing during his parents ' separation and his mother 's institutionalisation . Prince Philip recalled , " I liked my grandmother very much and she was always helpful . She was very good with children ... she took the practical approach to them . She treated them in the right way – the right combination of the rational and the emotional . "
In 1937 , Victoria 's brother , Ernest Louis , died and soon afterwards her widowed sister @-@ in @-@ law , nephew , granddaughter and two of her great @-@ grandchildren all died in an air crash at Ostend . Victoria 's granddaughter , Princess Cecilie of Greece and Denmark , had married Victoria 's nephew ( Ernest Louis 's son ) , George Donatus of Hesse . They and their two young sons , Louis and Alexander , were all killed . Cecilie was pregnant at the time and the stillborn child was found among the wreckage . Cecilie 's youngest child , Johanna , who was not on the plane , was adopted by her uncle Prince Louis of Hesse and by Rhine but the little girl only survived her parents and older brothers by eighteen months , dying in 1939 of meningitis .
Further tragedy soon followed when Victoria 's son , George , died of bone cancer the following year . Her granddaughter , Lady Pamela Hicks , remembered her grandmother 's tears . In World War II Victoria was bombed out of Kensington Palace , and spent some time at Windsor Castle with King George VI . Her surviving son , Louis , and two of her grandsons served in the Royal Navy , while her German relations fought with the opposing forces . She spent most of her time reading and worrying about her children ; her daughter , Alice , remained in occupied Greece and was unable to communicate with her mother for four years at the height of the war . After the Allied victory , her son , Louis , was offered the post of Viceroy of India , but she was deeply opposed to his accepting , knowing that the position would be dangerous and difficult . He accepted anyway .
She fell ill with bronchitis ( she had smoked since the age of sixteen ) at her son Louis 's home at Broadlands , Hampshire , in the summer of 1950 . Saying " it is better to die at home " , Victoria moved back to Kensington Palace , where she died . She was buried four days later in the grounds of St. Mildred 's Church , Whippingham on the Isle of Wight .
= = Legacy = =
With the help of her lady @-@ in @-@ waiting , Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden , Victoria wrote an unpublished memoir , held in the Mountbatten archive at the University of Southampton , which remains an interesting source for royal historians . A selection of Queen Victoria 's letters to Victoria have been published with a commentary by Richard Hough and an introduction by Victoria 's granddaughter , Patricia Mountbatten .
Victoria 's son remembered her fondly : " My mother was very quick on the uptake , very talkative , very aggressive and argumentative . With her marvellous brain she sharpened people 's wits . " Her granddaughter thought her " formidable , but never intimidating ... a supremely honest woman , full of commonsense and modesty . " Victoria wrote her own typically forthright epitaph at the end of her life in letters to and conversation with her son : " What will live in history is the good work done by the individual & that has nothing to do with rank or title ... I never thought I would be known only as your mother . You 're so well known now and no one knows about me , and I don 't want them to . "
= = Titles and styles = =
5 April 1863 – 30 April 1884 : Her Grand Ducal Highness Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine
30 April 1884 – 14 July 1917 : Her Grand Ducal Highness Princess Louis of Battenberg
14 July – 7 November 1917 : Lady Mountbatten
7 November 1917 – 11 September 1921 : The Most Honourable The Marchioness of Milford Haven
11 September 1921 – 24 September 1950 : The Most Honourable The Dowager Marchioness of Milford Haven
= = Ancestry = =
= Alfred Pullin =
Alfred William Pullin , known by the pseudonym Old Ebor ( 30 July 1860 – 23 June 1934 ) , was a British sports journalist who wrote primarily about rugby union and cricket . He wrote mainly for British newspapers the Yorkshire Post and the Yorkshire Evening Post . Considered by critics to be one of the greatest authorities in the country on his two sports , he wrote a daily column using his pseudonym " Old Ebor " for 40 years . Most often associated with his reporting on Yorkshire County Cricket Club , he has been credited as defining the role of a sports journalist . Two of his most widely known works were on cricket : Talks with Old English Cricketers and History of Yorkshire County Cricket , 1903 – 23 .
= = Early life = =
Pullin was born in Abergwili , Carmarthenshire in 1860 , to Alfred Trask Pullin , the local schoolmaster , and his wife , Adelaide Evans . His father studied for Holy Orders ; ordained in 1875 , he moved to Yorkshire as an assistant curate .
Pullin first worked in journalism in 1880 , as Castleford district reporter on the Wakefield Express before moving to write for other local newspapers in Cleckheaton and Bradford . Aged 25 , he began to write for the Athletic News when he first used the name " Old Ebor " , which meant " Old York " . In later years , he preferred to be called " Old Ebor " to his real name , even by his friends . He began to work for the Yorkshire Post as Bradford reporter .
With a family background in rugby union , he played for Cleckheaton as three quarter back in the early 1880s , but was not successful enough to pursue his sporting career . Later , he became a rugby referee .
= = Sports journalist = =
= = = Career summary = = =
During the 1890s , newspapers began to develop sports pages . In 1893 , Pullin became cricket and rugby union correspondent for the Yorkshire Post and the Yorkshire Evening Post , writing under his pseudonym " Old Ebor " . He followed the Yorkshire and England cricket and rugby teams around the country , and did not miss an England rugby international for 40 years . He also wrote about golf in the Yorkshire Evening Post using the pen name " Dormy Man " . With the popularity of football growing in the north of England , he also began to develop his knowledge of that game as well .
Pullin 's reputation quickly grew among followers of sport , and by the end of his career he was personally acquainted with many sports journalists . On average , he wrote two columns each day in summer , during the cricket season , and one per day in the winter . As a cricket writer , he became particularly associated with Yorkshire cricket team at a time when the team rose to a position of dominance , and the club remained very important to him . Len Hutton wrote that he and many others in Yorkshire had been brought up on Pullin 's writing , while all cricketers were in his debt for the influence of his writing . Hutton himself as a young player appreciated Pullin 's encouragement " in and out of print " . Pullin retired from full @-@ time writing in 1931 but continued to write in newspapers until his death .
Outside of journalism , Pullin was a director at the relatively short @-@ lived Leeds City Football Club . In Bradford , he was also a freemason and twice became " Worshipful Master of Lodge of Hope " .
= = = Talks with Old English Cricketers = = =
A prolific worker , Pullin also wrote several books on cricket . These included Talks with Old English Cricketers ( 1900 ) , a biography of Alfred Shaw ( 1902 ) and The History of Yorkshire County Cricket 1903 – 23 ( 1924 ) . The first of these was his most widely known , and had a considerable impact . The historian Mick Pope writes that it " stirred deep debate among the cricketing public and in the county committee rooms concerning the predicament of several old and seemingly forgotten professional cricketers and with it , tarnished the blossoming reputation of Yorkshire County Cricket Club during a period that they were set to dominate on the field . "
The book arose from a series of articles written over the winter of 1898 for the Yorkshire Evening Post , in which he interviewed former players and reflected their experiences after retirement . Encountering the desperate circumstances in which many former players lived , Pullin was moved to campaign on their behalf . Hodgson suggests that he " did not mince his words ... He held a deep regard for the players , and found it difficult to contemplate the forlorn situation and desperate straits that several of the old Yorkshire cricketers he interviewed were faced with . " When investigating the whereabouts of John Thewlis , Pullin was told " Think dead ; if not , Manchester " . Pullin later wrote about Thewlis : " The moral responsibilities of cricket managers , so far as a player is concerned , should surely not end with the termination of his active career . He ought not to be cast aside like an old shoe . "
There had already been public debate on the fate of retired cricketers , and counties had improved pay and conditions for their professional players . For example , several counties , including Yorkshire , had instituted winter pay before Pullin 's writings were published . However , former players did not benefit from these reforms .
Pope suggests that Pullin 's writing gave the debate " a renewed vigour and sharp focus once again . " Although Pullin toned down his comments by the time the articles were published in book form , his attacks on Yorkshire County Cricket Club and general cricket administration aroused public support and led to action . Thewlis , for example , was given work as a groundsman and provided with a pension . In Pullin 's entry into the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , Lincoln Allison notes that the book reflected Pullin 's close and sympathetic relationship with the players . Allison describes it as a pioneering work : the unhappy experiences of cricketers after retirement was a phenomenon not widely known at the time . E.W. Swanton , a press box colleague for the last few years of Pullin 's career , writes : " It was his revelations about the straits of poverty to which some of these heroes of the past were reduced that first roused the conscience of the public and the county committees , Yorkshire 's not least . " Derek Hodgson , in the official history of Yorkshire County Cricket Club , writes that Pullin " produced one of the most valuable source books on Victorian cricket " .
= = = Style and legacy = = =
Pullin had a wide knowledge of the game , and remembered past events and players very clearly . His readers appreciated his expertise and frequently wrote to him with queries . A tribute in the Yorkshire Post after his death suggested that Pullin enjoyed this correspondence and felt very close to his readers . His obituary in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack stated that " his writings were at all times discriminative , informative and voluminous " . The Manchester Guardian noted that Pullin wrote at a time when many famous cricketers played . It stated that , of these times , he " wrote with a keenness of judgement , a descriptive style , and a fund of anecdote that made the games live again " . E.W. Swanton described him as " a thick , bearded fellow " and " a faithful old war @-@ horse " . The Yorkshire Post said that Pullin " stood for all the best in sporting critics of the older school ... He was proud , and rightly proud , of the high position which he held in sporting journalism and in the administrative circles of the games on which he wrote " . The newspaper judged that he wrote about cricket and rugby players " with a clarity akin to genius ... There can scarcely be a football or cricket ground in England where he was not known and welcomed , and his striking appearance and still more striking personality became traditional in the Press box which he graced . To the players of the games he was generous in praise and kindly in his criticism . " Gerald Pawle was told when he became a journalist in 1931 that Pullin originally sent reports to his newspaper by pigeon . Pawle writes : " For the vast Yorkshire cricketing public Old Ebor wrote at inordinate length , unhampered by any consideration of literary style — he was one of the severely factual school — and it amazed me how any pigeon ever struggled into the air when shackled to one of his weighty effusions . "
Lord Hawke , writing a foreword to his history of Yorkshire , referred to Pullin as the non @-@ playing member of the county team : " His criticisms on our side form an invaluable guide to the captain , his enthusiasm is contagious , but never allows his judgement to become unbalanced , whilst his eloquent writings on cricket have gone to every part of the world in which there are lovers of the game ... I feel bound to say to the esteemed author of this book — ' Well done , thou faithful friend . ' " Hawke later said that Pullin 's judgement of young cricketers was very good , and that " through his writing he did much to assist the Yorkshire club in encouraging the game and its players " .
In the 1920s , Pullin was included in the Births and deaths section of Wisden , a rarity for non @-@ players , due to his standing as a reporter . Wisden described him as one of the greatest authorities on cricket . Pullin retired in 1931 . Although his reputation was later obscured by writers such as Neville Cardus , Allison believes that " Pullin 's greatest achievement was to define the role of the journalist in sport as the critic , popularizer , and interpreter of a particular team to its public . " Cardus himself wrote that Pullin " was one of the first writers who gave me help and counsel when I began to write on cricket . He belonged to the dignified old school of
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= Operations = =
At the railway grouping of 1923 , the LBSCR became part of the Southern Railway and the agreements between the hospital ( renamed the East Sussex Mental Hospital in 1919 ) and the LBSCR were updated . The wooden platform at Hellingly station was drastically shortened in 1922 . Because service levels depended on patient numbers and the hospital 's coal and food requirements , the line never operated to a timetable . By 1931 , passenger numbers had fallen to such an extent that the hospital authorities no longer considered passenger usage of the line to be economical , and the passenger service was withdrawn . The passenger car was moved to the hospital grounds , fitted with an awning , and became the hospital 's sports pavilion. surviving into the mid @-@ 1990s before being destroyed in a fire started by vandals . The wooden platform at Hellingly station was removed in 1932 , and the platform at the hospital was converted into a coal bay .
There were only two minor accidents : a car that collided with the locomotive whilst driving through the hospital grounds , and a wagon whose brakes failed whilst stabled at Farm Siding , which rolled down the line to Hellingly station .
On 22 November 1939 , plans were put in place for the restoration of passenger services to allow ambulance trains to reach the hospital , and authorisation was given for their operation . However , the line was never used to transport patients , as although Park House was used as a hospital by the Canadian Army during the Second World War , patients left ambulance trains at Hellingly station and were transferred to Park House by road .
= = Closure = =
In the late 1950s , the hospital , under the control of the Hailsham Hospitals Management Committee since the 1948 establishment of the National Health Service , decided to convert its boilers from coal to oil . The railway was therefore no longer needed to transport coal ; the last load was delivered on 10 March 1959 , and the empty coal wagon returned to Hellingly on 25 March 1959 .
Under the terms of the agreement between the hospital authorities , the LBSCR , and its successors , the hospital authorities were obliged to keep the railway in good repair to allow its use by main @-@ line wagons . With a greatly reduced need for goods traffic to the hospital following the conversion of the boilers , it was decided that the railway was not worth the expense of continued maintenance and necessary upgrading , and the line was officially closed on 25 March 1959 following the departure of the last coal wagon .
The line was used for occasional excursions by railway enthusiasts for a short period after official closure , using the electric locomotive and a brake van borrowed from British Railways . The exact date of the last run is not recorded ; the last recorded use of the line was an excursion organised by the Norbury Transport and Model Railway Club on 4 April 1959 , but it is known that later excursions ran . In the early 1960s a railway society in Yorkshire proposed to buy the track as a preserved railway . However , as the psychiatric hospital was still open the request was not considered practical , and the track was lifted in the early 1960s . The fittings and locomotive were disposed of by H.Ripley and Sons of Hailsham .
= = Present day = =
The Cuckoo Line closed shortly after the Hospital Railway . Hellingly station closed to passengers on 14 June 1965 , and the line closed for goods traffic on 26 April 1968 . The station building complete with platform is now a private residence , and the Cuckoo Line trackbed was converted to the Cuckoo Trail long @-@ distance footpath in 1990 . Much of the route of the Hospital Railway is also now a footpath .
Traces of the railway can still be seen , including a cast iron pole that supported the overhead wire , the remains of the engine shed ( burnt down in 2004 ) , and a short section of track . Hellingly Hospital is now closed Approval for redevelopment as a housing complex was obtained in 2009 .
= IPhone 5 =
The iPhone 5 is a smartphone that was designed and marketed by Apple Inc . It is the sixth generation of the iPhone , succeeding the iPhone 4S and preceding the iPhone 5S and iPhone 5C . Formally unveiled as part of a press event on September 12 , 2012 , it was released on September 21 , 2012 . It was the first iPhone to be completely developed under the guidance of Tim Cook .
The iPhone 5 featured major design changes in comparison to its predecessor . These included an aluminum @-@ based body which was thinner and lighter than previous models , a taller screen with a nearly 16 : 9 aspect ratio , the Apple A6 system @-@ on @-@ chip , LTE support , and Lightning , a new compact dock connector which replaced the 30 @-@ pin design used by previous iPhone models . This was the second Apple phone to include its new Sony made 8MP Camera , first introduced on the iPhone 4S .
Apple began taking pre @-@ orders on September 14 , 2012 , and over two million were received within 24 hours . Initial demand for the iPhone 5 exceeded the supply available at launch on September 21 , 2012 , and was described by Apple as " extraordinary " , with pre @-@ orders having sold twenty times faster than its predecessors . While reception to the iPhone 5 was generally positive , consumers and reviewers noted hardware issues , such as an unintended purple hue in photos taken , and the phone 's coating being prone to chipping . Reception was also mixed over Apple 's decision to switch to a different dock connector design , as the change affected iPhone 5 's compatibility with accessories that were otherwise compatible with previous iterations of the line .
The iPhone 5 was officially discontinued by Apple on September 10 , 2013 with the announcement of its successors , the iPhone 5S and the iPhone 5C . The iPhone 5 had the shortest lifespan of any iPhone ever produced with only twelve months in production .
= = History = =
Rumors about the iPhone 5 began shortly after the announcement of the iPhone 4S , though detailed leaks did not emerge until June 2012 . On July 30 , 2012 , reports pinpointed the dates on which the iPhone 5 would be unveiled and released , along with some accurate predictions of its features . On September 4 , 2012 , Apple announced they would be hosting an event at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts in San Francisco on September 12 , 2012 . A shadow of the numeral 5 was featured in the invitations sent to the media , suggesting that the next iPhone would be unveiled at the event .
At the unveiling , Apple announced the iPhone 5 and also introduced new iPod Nano and iPod Touch models . They also stated that pre @-@ orders would be accepted starting September 14 , 2012 . Over two million pre @-@ orders were received within 24 hours . Initial demand for the new phone exceeded the record set by its predecessor , the iPhone 4S , by selling over 5 million units in the first three days . On November 30 , 2012 , Apple added an unlocked version of the iPhone 5 to their online US store , with the 16 GB model starting at US $ 649 .
The iPhone 5 was officially discontinued by Apple on September 10 , 2013 with the announcement of its successors , the iPhone 5S and the iPhone 5C . While the 5C shared almost the same internal hardware as the iPhone 5 , the 5C used a lower @-@ cost poly @-@ carbonate plastic case in place of the original 5 's aluminum form . The introduction of the 5C deviated from Apple 's previous market strategy , where the previous iPhone model would remain in production , but sold at a lower price point below the new model .
On April 28 , 2014 , Apple initiated an out of warranty recall program to replace any failing power buttons of iPhone 5 models which were manufactured prior to March 2013 at no cost . On August 23 , 2014 , Apple announced a program to replace batteries of iPhone 5 models that " may suddenly experience shorter battery life or need to be charged more frequently " which were sold between September 2012 and January 2013 .
= = = Litigation = = =
Following the release of the iPhone 5 , Samsung announced that it was filing a lawsuit against Apple for infringing eight of its patents . The case was scheduled to begin in 2014 . In a statement , Samsung said it had " little choice but to take the steps necessary to protect our innovations and intellectual property rights " . Litigation between the two involving patent infringement has been ongoing and is being fought in several court cases around the world .
= = Production = =
The components and labor required to construct the most basic iPhone 5 are estimated to cost US $ 207 , which is US $ 19 more than the cost of components for the corresponding iPhone 4S model . The LTE module in the iPhone 5 alone costs $ 34 , $ 10 more than the cellular module in the iPhone 4S . Similarly , screens used in the iPhone 5 cost $ 44 , which is $ 7 more than the screen of its predecessor . Mashable noted that the profit margin of selling each device is " huge " as the iPhone 5 retails for US $ 649 .
After the announcement of the device , a lack of supply was evident . This was due to a shortage of components such as the screen . Reports emerged , stating that Sharp was unable to ship the screen before the debut of the iPhone 5 , and other manufacturers reported that it was difficult to keep up with demand . As a result , the number of pre @-@ orders rose due to the uncertainty of stock at retail stores , and the delivery dates for pre @-@ orders were postponed to dates that were after the initial release date of the device .
= = = Quality control inspectors strike = = =
China Labor Watch , a New York State – based NGO , reported that " three to four thousand " Foxconn workers who work at the iPhone 5 production plant in Zhengzhou stopped working on October 5 , 2012 . The strikes occurred after Apple implemented a stricter quality standard on their products , which includes a 0 @.@ 02 mm restriction on indentations inflicted during production , and imposed demands related to scratches on frames and back covers . The strikes were also attributed to the employer forcing employees to work on a public holiday . The report stated training was inadequate for quality demands expected and led to employees producing products that did not meet standards . During the strike , conflicts between quality control inspectors and employees resulted in brawls . China Labor Watch also claimed that concerns raised by inspectors were not addressed by factory management . Foxconn spokesmen admitted that a micromanagement problem exists , but also said that there were only 300 to 400 workers absent and the conflicts did not influence production processes . In November 2012 Foxconn chairman Terry Gou reported that the delay in production was due to undisclosed difficulties in assembly .
= = Features = =
= = = Operating system and software = = =
The iPhone 5 features iOS , Apple 's mobile operating system . The user interface of iOS is based on the concept of direct manipulation , using multi @-@ touch gestures . Interface control elements consist of sliders , switches , and buttons . Interaction with the OS includes gestures such as swipe , tap , pinch , and reverse pinch , all of which have specific definitions within the context of the iOS operating system and its multi @-@ touch interface . Internal accelerometers are used by some applications to respond to shaking the device ( one common result is the undo command ) or rotating it vertically ( one common result is switching from portrait to landscape mode ) .
The iPhone 5 is shipped with iOS 6 , which was released on September 19 , 2012 . Many of the iPhone 5 's features that work specifically with the included iOS 6 @.@ 0 operating system only worked in certain territories on release . Apple has said this is a rolling program , which will take longer to implement across more regions .
The phone can act as a hotspot , sharing its internet connection over WiFi , Bluetooth , or USB , and also accesses the App Store , an online application distribution platform for iOS developed and maintained by Apple . The service allows users to browse and download applications from the iTunes Store that were developed with Xcode and the iOS SDK and were published through Apple .
The iPhone 5 can play music , movies , television shows , ebooks , audiobooks , and podcasts and can sort its media library by songs , artists , albums , videos , playlists , genres , composers , podcasts , audiobooks , and compilations . Options are always presented alphabetically , except in playlists , which retain their order from iTunes . Users can rotate their device horizontally to landscape mode to access Cover Flow . Like on iTunes , this feature shows the different album covers in a scroll @-@ through photo library . Scrolling is achieved by swiping a finger across the screen . Alternatively , headset controls can be used to pause , play , skip , and repeat tracks . On the iPhone 5 , the volume can be changed with the included Apple Earphones , and the Voice Control feature can be used to identify a track , play songs in a playlist or by a specific artist , or create a Genius playlist .
Like the iPhone 4S , the iPhone 5 has Siri , that allows the user to operate the iPhone by spoken commands . The software was improved in iOS 6 to include the ability to make restaurant reservations , launch apps , dictate Facebook or Twitter updates , retrieve movie reviews and detailed sports statistics .
On the iPhone 5 , texting can be aided by the voice assistant , which converts speech to text . In addition to regular texting , messaging on the iPhone 5 supports iMessage , a specialized instant messaging program and service that allows unlimited texting to other Apple devices running iOS 5 or later . This supports the inclusion of content such as images and sound in text messages , integration with the device 's voice @-@ controlled software assistant , and read acknowledgements for sent messages . Input to the device comes from a keyboard displayed on the multi @-@ touch screen or by voice @-@ to text by speaking into the microphone . Entered text is supported by predictive and suggestion software ; there is a multi @-@ language spell @-@ checker which recognises many regional accents of different languages .
iOS 6 features several new and / or updated apps , which includes Apple Maps and Passbook . Apple 's built @-@ in Maps app , which replaced the former Maps app powered by Google Maps , had been universally derided and lacked many features present in competing maps apps . It uses Apple 's new vector @-@ based engine that eliminates lag , making for smoother zooming . New to Maps is turn @-@ by @-@ turn navigation spoken directions , 3D views in some major cities and real @-@ time traffic. iOS 6 is able to retrieve documents such as boarding passes , admission tickets , coupons and loyalty cards through its new Passbook app . An iOS device with Passbook can be scanned under a reader to process a mobile payment at locations that have compatible hardware . The app has context @-@ aware features such as notifications for relevant coupons when in the immediate vicinity of a given store .
Facebook comes integrated through Apple 's native apps with iOS 6 . Facebook features can be directly accessed from within native apps such as Calendar which can sync Facebook events , or use Facebook 's like button from within the Apple App Store .
New privacy settings are available to the user . In addition to location services , the following have been added in iOS 6 : photos ( already partially restricted in iOS 5 ) , contacts ( address book ) , calendars , reminders , bluetooth sharing , Twitter , Facebook , and Sina Weibo. iOS 6 also comes with a " Limit ad tracking " user control in the general settings menu to allow users the option to prevent targeted advertising . Apple 's Advertising Identifier replaces the company 's existing Unique Device Identification ( UDID ) standard . Advertising networks not yet using Apple 's Advertising Identifier device identifier standard would not be affected , although Apple will require the standard in the future .
= = = Design = = =
Apple emphasized the improved build quality of the iPhone 5 at its press event . The frame used in previous versions was redesigned to use an aluminum composite frame . The iPhone 4 and iPhone 4S used stainless steel instead of aluminium due to Steve Jobs ' preference for the metal which he thought , " looks beautiful when it wears " .
The iPhone 5 is 18 % thinner , 20 % lighter , and has 12 % less overall volume than its predecessor , the iPhone 4S . The phone 's aluminum body is 0 @.@ 30 in ( 7 @.@ 6 mm ) thick . At the September 2012 conference Apple claimed it was the thinnest smartphone in the world at 7 @.@ 6 mm , though that claim was disputed as the Chinese Oppo Finder was thinner and some other smartphones could be considered to be thinner , depending upon where thickness is measured . The Oppo Finder measured 6 @.@ 65 mm ( 0 @.@ 262 in ) at its thinnest point and 7 @.@ 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) at its thickest point making it overall thinner than the iPhone .
= = = Hardware = = =
The iPhone 5 uses a system on chip ( SoC ) , called the Apple A6 . The SoC comprises a 1 @.@ 3 GHz dual @-@ core processor , 1GB of RAM and a tri @-@ core PowerVR SGX543MP4 running at 266 MHz . The iPhone 5 's operating memory ( LPDDR2 @-@ 1066 eDRAM ) was doubled , from 512 MB to 1 GB . Storage capacities available are fixed at 16 , 32 or 64 GB , the same as the 4S ; plug @-@ in memory cards are not supported . The two color options are black ( with black glass and slate @-@ colored metal trim ) , and white ( with white ceramic and silver @-@ colored metal trim ) ; again the same color options ( though differently implemented ) as its predecessor the 4S had . The iPhone 5 retains the 8 MP back camera on the iPhone 4S , but has improved low @-@ light performance , and has a 40 % faster photo capture than its predecessors , while having a purple hue when a strong source of light is present in the photograph . The front camera , which is accessible through the FaceTime and camera app has a lower resolution , at 1 @.@ 2 megapixels . The rechargeable lithium @-@ ion polymer battery with a charge capacity of 1440mAh is built in and cannot be replaced by the user ; it is rated at ≤ 225 hours of standby time and ≤ 8 hours of talk time . There are three separate models of the phone available : one supporting CDMA and two GSM versions . This can have knock @-@ on effects for which version of the device will actually work in which countries / regions . The phone takes a nano @-@ SIM , smaller than the micro @-@ SIM of the iPhone 4 and iPhone 4S .
Hardware benchmarking conducted using Geekbench and GLBenchmark validates several claims that Apple included on their website and mentioned at the unveiling of the device , these include two times faster and two times the graphics performance . In the Geekbench overall hardware assessment , the iPhone 5 received a score that was approximately 2 @.@ 5 times higher than the iPhone 4S . The benchmark conducted using GLBenchmark for the iPhone 5 returned a score that was 2 times better than the iPhone 4S . The result was however inconsistent as a 3D graphics benchmark assessment using Passmark returned a score that was only approximately 1 @.@ 45 times better than the iPhone 4S . Battery life assessments conducted by AnandTech concluded that the battery life is shorter on the iPhone 5 than its predecessor when performing certain tasks , however when performing other tasks the iPhone 5 battery outlasts the iPhone 4S .
The Retina Display is 1 @,@ 136 × 640 pixels with an aspect ratio of almost exactly 16 : 9 , ( minus one extra row of horizontal pixels ) . With a diagonal of 4 " it has a display size of 6 @.@ 7 square inches , compared to 5 @.@ 7 in iPhone 4 and 4S . The pixel density remains the same as the 4S model , which is 326 pixels per inch . Screen icons of the iPhone 5 are arranged in a matrix of six rows of four icons each . The increased screen size allows the sixth row of icons to be added to the five rows that were present in the iPhone 4 . In @-@ cell touch sensor technology from Sharp slims the screen which allows for a thinner phone . The screen 's color saturation is 44 % greater than its predecessor .
There are three microphones ( placed on the front , side and back ) for noise cancellation and video calls .
On April 28 , 2014 , Apple initiated an out of warranty recall program to replace any failing power buttons of iPhone 5 models which were manufactured prior to March 2013 at no cost .
On August 23 , 2014 , Apple announced a program to replace batteries of iPhone 5 models that " may suddenly experience shorter battery life or need to be charged more frequently " which were sold between September 2012 and January 2013 .
= = = Accessories = = =
The iPhone 5 , as well as the iPod Touch ( 5th generation ) , iPod Nano ( 7th generation ) , iPad ( 4th generation ) , and iPad Mini feature a new dock connector named Lightning , which replaces the 30 @-@ pin Apple Dock connector introduced in 2003 by Apple on the iPod ( 3rd generation ) . The Apple Lightning connector has eight pins and all signaling is digital . This new connector is smaller than the previous one , helping the iPhone 5 to be slimmer than its predecessors . Apple Lightning cables have duplicate pins on two sides of each plug , so it can be inserted either way round . Various accessories will be available to convert the Apple Lightning connector to the older 30 @-@ pin Apple Dock connector or USB , although not all old accessories will work , as not all signals are available , in particular video output and the iPod Out feature for BMW automobiles .
Earphones known as Apple EarPods are included with the iPhone 5 and other devices announced at the Apple media event on September 12 , 2012 . They superseded earphones that were included with previous generation iPhones and iPods . According to technology commentators , the redesign of the earphones is aimed to improve sound quality by allowing air to travel in and out more freely . Apple states that the redesign of their earphones allows it to " rival high @-@ end headphones that cost hundreds of dollars more " . Reviews by Gizmodo and TechRadar reported that although the redesigned earphones sounded better than its predecessor , reviewers felt that quality of sound produced is poor .
= = = Network compatibility = = =
AT & T , Verizon , and Sprint offer LTE access in the US , while in the UK , only EE and Three are able to offer LTE access . On March 26 , 2013 , T @-@ Mobile announced they would begin carrying the iPhone 5 , making it the first iPhone to be available on all four nationwide carriers in the United States . The T @-@ Mobile version of the iPhone features a modified version of the A1428 iPhone 5 model enabling Advanced Wireless Services ( AWS ) support . All carriers in Canada selling the iPhone 5 have their own LTE networks , including Rogers Wireless , Fido Solutions , Bell Mobility , Virgin Mobile Canada , Telus Mobility and Koodo Mobile .
42 officially recognized bands exist for LTE , however rollouts are coalescing around the more @-@ popular bands , based on what historically has been made available in specific regions . In Europe , bands available for LTE include , 2 @.@ 6 GHz ( the 3G @-@ expansion band ) and 800 MHz ( cleared of analogue TV ) , with 1 @,@ 800 MHz appearing in a few places including the UK . In Germany , the only carrier network supported is that of T @-@ Mobile with its 1 @,@ 800 MHz band allocated to LTE . Some countries in Europe , including Denmark , Norway , Sweden , and others — will not be able to offer LTE connectivity via the iPhone 5 to their customers on their current LTE networks , as they have already deployed LTE in the 2 @.@ 6 GHz band , which the iPhone 5 does not support . In November 2012 , a representative of Swisscom reported that the iPhone 5 only supports LTE on networks that have been tested and certified by Apple .
Unlike the iPhone 4S , which was the only " world phone " produced by Apple , there are three versions of the iPhone 5 , which differ by the frequency used . All three work on 2G GSM / GPRS and 3G UMTS / EDGE networks on both the 800 and 1900 MHz bands used in the Americas , and the 900 and 1800 MHz bands used elsewhere . The CDMA A1429 model works on CDMA networks , such as that of Sprint and Verizon . Another version supports LTE only on the 1700 / 2100 MHz AWS band , and the 700 MHz band recovered after the conversion to digital television in the US ( channels 52 to 56 ) , currently the only network that supports the band is AT & T. GSM A1429 supports several other LTE bands available in other countries , such as LTE bands 1 , 3 , 5 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The iPhone 5 received mainly positive reviews from commentators and reviewers . Tim Stevens from Engadget praised the iPhone 5 for its high resolution screen surpassing that of the iPhone 4S , which he considered to be one of the best phone screens available on the market . Stevens was critical of the new connector , which is incompatible with devices and cables that use the superseded 30 @-@ pin connector , although the LA Times reported that this was a change necessary to make the device smaller than its predecessor . Engadget agreed that Apple fulfilled most of the promises stated on its website , such as " better battery performance " , " two times the graphics performance " and " two times faster . " David Pogue of The New York Times considered the 4 @-@ inch Retina display a " nice but not life @-@ changing change " , and praised the Lightning connector for its size , sturdiness , and reversibility , while noting its lack of support for older accessories , remarking that " Apple has a long history of killing off technologies , inconveniently and expensively , that the public had come to love " . Technology columnist Ed Baig of USA Today was impressed that Apple had met the public 's " lofty expectations " for the iPhone 5 in a competitive market . In a repair @-@ ability review , iFixit found the iPhone 5 easier to disassemble and repair than its predecessor .
Wired reported that the iPhone 5 design , carried on in the iPhone 5S and iPhone SE , was regarded as " long been the golden child of Apple phone design and a benchmark for phones in general " , while the succeeding iPhone 6 / 6S design was less critically acclaimed as it " felt a little bit wrong , as though you were holding a slick $ 650 bar of soap " . Wired described the iPhone 5 as " elegance rooted in the way the aluminum and glass work together . It felt streamlined , yet substantial , which is different from the iPhone 6 , which feels substantial in size alone . Plus , unlike the ubiquitous rounded corners of the 6 , the iPhone 5 didn ’ t really look like anything else on the market at the time " . However , the iPhone 5 's design was not suited to scaling up , in contrast to the iPhone 6 / 6S which could better accommodate the growing consumer trend towards larger screen sizes and indeed spawned the 6 / 6S Plus phablet models .
= = = = Criticism = = = =
Reviewers and commentators were critical of the new Maps app that replaced Google Maps in iOS 6 . It had been reported to contain errors such as misplacement of landmark tags , directing users to incorrect locations and poor satellite images . Nine days after Maps ' release , Apple issued a statement apologizing for the frustration it had caused customers and recommending that they try alternate mapping services .
= = = = Errors = = = =
Gizmodo editor Diaz discussed the correspondence between Apple and a reader about purple flare in pictures taken on iPhone 5 camera . Apple 's response to the issue was that it is normal and advised the customer to aim the camera away from bright light sources when taking photos . Tests conducted by TechCrunch indicate that the problem existed on the iPhone 4S but was more distinct and pronounced on the iPhone 5 . Consumer Reports found that the purple haze effect occurred on several other manufacturers ' phones including the Samsung Galaxy S III and Motorola Droid Razr Maxx , and that it was not less pronounced on the iPhone 4S . The report concluded that digital cameras in general , including higher @-@ end SLRs , can all suffer from lens flare in which a purple @-@ tinted effect was not uncommon .
= = = = Problems = = = =
There were anecdotal claims of the iPhone 5 's coating chipping off , exposing the bright aluminium underneath . Apple executive 's response to email correspondence from an affected customer summarized that it was normal for aluminum to scratch . The term " scuffgate " , a reference to " antennagate " which affected the iPhone 4 , was applied by various sources such as CNET , Yahoo News , and All Things Digital to describe the scuffing issue .
Some users reported on the Internet that the white model leaked light behind the screen , though the issue was not unique to the iPhone 5 , as it also affected other Apple devices .
= = = Commercial reception = = =
Techcrunch reported that the iPhone 5 sold out twenty times faster than the 4 and 4S models . Apple said that they were " blown away by the customer response " . Phil Schiller , Apple 's vice @-@ president of worldwide marketing , said that over two million iPhone 5 orders had been received in the first 24 hours . AT & T said that the iPhone 5 was the fastest @-@ selling iPhone the company had ever offered , selling over five million units on launch weekend and exceeding the supply available . The release and sale of the iPhone 5 has also slowed down the growth of Android according to market share reports released by Kantar Worldpanel ComTech . During the first 16 days after the phone 's initial release it comprised over 20 % of all phones sold in that period .
J.P. Morgan 's chief economist , Michael Feroli said that " sales of iPhone 5 could boost annualized US GDP growth by $ 3 @.@ 2 billion , or $ 12 @.@ 8 billion at an annual rate . " Shortly after the announcement of the iPhone 5 and preceding the launch , Apple 's stock price rose to a record $ 705 @.@ 07 , but within three months fell to $ 507 @.@ 48 . According to the analysis of Eric Savitz , Apple 's stock decline and resulting losses were not the result of any issue with the new Maps application , but disappointed investors . He points to initial hardware sales of only five million , compared to projections up to twice that , as the primary cause .
Since the release of the iPhone 5 , discounts on previous generation iPhones have enabled Apple to maintain a market lead in the United States and Japan , but the iPhone continued to lag behind the combined total of Android phones in the global market .
= = Timeline of models = =
= Hammersley Fork =
Hammersley Fork ( also known as Hammersley Fork Creek ) is a tributary of Kettle Creek in Potter County and Clinton County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 10 @.@ 0 miles ( 16 @.@ 1 km ) long and flows through Warton Township in Potter County and Leidy Township in Clinton County . The watershed of the stream has an area of 32 @.@ 7 square miles ( 85 km2 ) . The main rock formation in the watershed is the Pottsville Formation . A number of bridges cross the stream .
There are no state roads and virtually no township roads in the watershed of Hammersley Fork . However , there are dirt roads and gravel roads , and several stream crossings in the watershed . The first settlers arrived in the watershed in 1827 and the first roads in the area were constructed several years later . Industrial activities such as logging were common in the watershed in the early 20th century , but there is currently virtually no such activity there . Wild trout naturally reproduce in the stream throughout its entire length . Most of the creek has a substantial riparian buffer .
= = Course = =
Hammersley Fork begins in central Eulalia Township , Potter County , near the Sinnemahoning Creek watershed . It flows southeast to Elk Lick Knob , where it receives the tributary Black Mark Hollow . The stream then turns south and flows into a valley , passing Bunnell Ridge . The valley gets deeper and the stream receives several small tributaries . It turns southwest shortly downstream of the mouth of Elkhorn Run . In the southern reaches of the township , the stream receives the tributary Bell Branch and turns south @-@ southeast , exiting Eulalia Township .
Upon leaving Eulalia Township , Potter County , Hammersley Fork enters Leidy Township , Clinton County and continues south , passing by Susquehannock State Forest . The stream continues south for some distance and crosses Pennsylvania Route 144 . Immediately after crossing Pennsylvania Route 144 , the stream reaches its confluence with Kettle Creek . Hammersley Fork joins Kettle Creek 19 @.@ 90 miles ( 32 @.@ 03 km ) upstream of its mouth .
= = Hydrology = =
The concentration of alkalinity in Hammersley Fork ranges from 0 @.@ 011 to 0 @.@ 015 ounces per cubic foot ( 11 to 15 mg / l ) . Particles in the stream include coarse sand and fine gravel . The stream experiences relatively high water temperatures and in July 2003 , its temperature between Dry Hollow and Bunnell Run ranges from 68 to 72 ° F ( 20 to 22 ° C ) . Between Dry Hollow and Nelson Branch , the temperature ranged from 70 to 73 ° F ( 21 to 23 ° C ) .
The sediment load in Hammersley Fork is 0 @.@ 27 pounds per acre ( 0 @.@ 30 kg / ha ) per year . The nitrogen load is 1 @.@ 55 pounds per acre ( 1 @.@ 74 kg / ha ) per year , while the phosphorus load is less than half a pound per acre per year .
Between the mouth of Dry Hollow and the mouth of Bunnell Run , the waters of Hammersley Fork are a Rosgen type F and a Rosgen type C stream . The upper part of the stretch of the stream between Dry Hollow and Nelson Branch is a Rosgen type C stream . The middle part of the stretch is a Rosgen type B stream and the lower part is a Rosgen type F to D stream .
= = Geography and geology = =
The elevation near the mouth of Hammersley Fork is 968 feet ( 295 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the stream 's source is between 1 @,@ 800 and 1 @,@ 820 feet ( 549 and 555 m ) above sea level .
The Pottsville Formation is the main rock formation in the watershed of Hammersley Fork . The highlands northwest of the Hammersley Fork watershed range from 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) to 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) and the highest elevation in the watershed is 2 @,@ 365 feet ( 721 m ) above sea level . The elevation range in the watershed is 1 @,@ 374 feet ( 419 m ) . At its mouth , the stream is 54 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 m ) wide . The average basin slope is 16 @.@ 24 degrees . There are numerous gravel bars in the lower reaches of the stream . This width is maintained because deposition in the area is often removed . There is also a headcut in the lower reaches of the stream . At the headcut , it splits three ways for 69 feet ( 21 m ) . A spot on Hammersley Fork near its mouth is the only location in the Kettle Creek watershed that has been channelized .
Hammersley Fork flows over bedrock or large cobbles for much of the stretch between Dry Hollow and Nelson Branch . From the mouth of Nelson Branch to 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) downstream , the stream mostly flows in the central part of its valley . The tributary Nelson Branch has a patch of erosion that is 26 feet ( 8 m ) high and 59 feet ( 18 m ) long . There is a floodplain at the mouth of Hammersley Fork . Two bridges cross Hammersley Fork near its mouth . One carries Pennsylvania Route 144 and the other carries Hammersley Avenue .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of Hammersley Fork has an area of 32 @.@ 7 square miles ( 85 km2 ) , making it the second @-@ largest sub @-@ watershed of Kettle Creek after Cross Fork . There are 57 @.@ 42 miles ( 92 @.@ 41 km ) of streams in the watershed . The mouth of the stream is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Tamarack . However , its source is in the quadrangle of Short Run . The stream also passes through the quadrangle of Hammersley Fork .
A number of camps and residences are on the left bank of Hammersley Fork 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 32 km ) upstream of the mouth . There are a number of dirt roads and gravel roads on the edge of the upper reaches of the stream 's watershed . However , there are no state routes and almost no township roads in the watershed . However , much of the upper part of the watershed can only be accessed on foot . There are five road crossings of the stream and its tributaries . There is some agricultural land along the stream .
= = History and recreation = =
Hammersley Fork was entefred into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 and its identifier is 1199877 . It is named after J. P. Hammersley .
Jacob " Old Jake " Hammersley and Archie Stewart settled at the mouth of Hammersley Fork in 1827 , with Hammersley settling on the east bank of the stream and Stewart settling on the west bank . They were the first settlers to come that far upstream in the Kettle Creek watershed . Additionally , the two constructed a gristmill on the west bank of the stream . There were no roads in the watershed by 1833 . Later in the 1800s , Nathan Tuttle operated a gang mill on the stream . A settlement , also called Hammersley Fork , was created on the stream by 1852 . In 1902 , John Gartsee started a village called Hammersley in the middle reaches of Hammersley Fork . Its intended purpose was as a supply point for logging camps in the area . By 1902 to 1910 , there was a network of railroads in the watershed .
Logging was a large industry in the watershed of Hammersley Fork in the early 1900s , but there have been almost no industrial activities in the area since then . An old railroad grade is located on Hammersley Fork . Fish have been stocked in the stream since the 1930s or 1940s .
A two @-@ span steel stringer / multi @-@ beam or girder bridge carrying T545 over Hammersley Fork was built in 1933 and repaired in 2010 . The bridge is 64 @.@ 0 feet ( 19 @.@ 5 m ) long . A two @-@ span bridge was built over the stream in 1962 and repaired in 2011 . This bridge is 107 @.@ 0 feet ( 32 @.@ 6 m ) long and carries Pennsylvania Route 144 .
The Cherry Springs Civilian Conservation Corps camp was built near the headwaters of Hammersley Fork in 1933 . The Hammersley Trail , which is part of the Susquehannock Trail System , passes by the mouth of Hammersley Fork .
= = Biology = =
Wild trout naturally reproduce in Hammersley Fork from its headwaters downstream to its mouth . Great blue herons have been observed at the headwaters of Hammersley Fork , despite the fact that they are more commonly found in large river valleys . Little yellow stoneflies also inhabit it . Brown trout first appeared in the stream in the 1920s after being stocked in Cross Fork and in the 1940s the brown trout populations significantly increased .
The Forrest H. Duttlinger Natural Area is located on Hammersley Fork . Most of the stream flows through this natural area . It is a 1521 @-@ acre area that includes a 158 @-@ acre area of old @-@ growth hemlock trees . The Hammersley Wild Area is also located in the watershed . The stream 's watershed is a Pennsylvania Natural Diversity Inventory Biological Diversity Area . The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection also classifies the watershed as an exceptional @-@ value area .
From the mouth of Hammersley Fork to 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) upstream of the mouth , the canopy cover ranges from 0 to 50 percent . Much of the creek , however , has a significant riparian buffer .
The canopy coverage of the section of Hammersley Fork between Dry Hollow and Bunnell Run is 62 percent on average . However , the lower part of this section has 86 percent canopy coverage . The upper part of the stretch of the stream between Nelson Branch and Dry Hollow has a canopy coverage of 93 percent . The middle part of this section has a coverage of 58 percent and the lowest part has a canopy coverage of 89 percent . The tree coverage at the confluence of Nelson Branch with Hammersley Fork is 70 percent . The canopy coverage up to 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) downstream of the confluence averages 40 percent . Tree species in this stretch include hemlock , red maple , river birch , sycamore , and willow .
= Ryan Ellis =
Ryan Ellis ( born January 3 , 1991 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman currently playing for the Nashville Predators of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) .
After his second season in the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) , Ellis was selected 11th overall by the Predators in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft . During his junior career , he was key in guiding the Windsor Spitfires to back @-@ to @-@ back Memorial Cups as Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) champions in 2009 and 2010 . Individually , he was named to the CHL and OHL All @-@ Rookie Teams in 2008 , the First OHL All @-@ Star Team in 2009 and 2011 and the Second OHL All @-@ Star Team in 2010 . He was awarded the OHL 's Bobby Smith Trophy as the League 's scholastic player of the year in 2008 , the Max Kaminsky Trophy as the top defenceman in 2009 and 2011 and the Red Tilson Trophy as the most outstanding player in 2011 . On a national basis , he was named CHL Defenceman and Player of the Year in 2011 . Serving as the Spitfires ' team captain in 2010 – 11 , he became the franchise 's all @-@ time leading point @-@ scorer among defencemen .
Ellis began his international career with Canada by winning three gold medals in 2008 at the World U17 Hockey Challenge , IIHF World U18 Championship and Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament . At the under @-@ 20 level , Ellis has made three appearances at the World Junior Championships , winning gold in 2009 and silver in 2010 and 2011 . He is the tournament 's all @-@ time leading scorer among defencemen and Canada 's all @-@ time assists leader . He also won gold with Team Canada at the 2016 world championships .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Minor = = =
Ellis played minor hockey throughout Ontario , beginning with a club from Belmont , Ontario , at age four . Playing for teams from Missisauga , he won a silver and gold medals at the peewee and bantam provincials , respectively . Joining the Cambridge Hawks at the midget level , he won an Ontario Alliance championship with the club in 2007 .
= = = Junior = = =
Ellis was selected in the second round , 22nd overall , by the Windsor Spitfires in the 2007 Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) Draft . Establishing himself as a top defencemen in the League during his rookie campaign , he scored 15 goals and 63 points over 63 games . His points total and + 30 plus @-@ minus rating led all OHL rookie defencemen . In the 2008 playoffs , Ellis added five points in five games as the Spitfires were eliminated by the Sarnia Sting . He was named to the Canadian Hockey League ( CH
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and Lois that Stewie was exposed to tainted holy water , was intended to be included in the episode , but was removed for unknown reasons . After Stewie is placed in a square box to quarantine him , Lois is shown leaving him half @-@ way through changing his diaper — Stewie then says " finish the job , woman ! It smells like New Orleans in here " . The script for this episode , including this sketch , was prepared before the events of Hurricane Katrina , so it was never intended to coincide with the events of Katrina . On all airings ( including the volume 3 DVD set ) , Stewie 's line has been changed to " It smells like Brian Dennehy in here ! "
The Fonz Statue in Peter 's church was originally meant to depict The Fonz in a way similar to Jesus 's depiction on the Christian cross , but it was rejected due to broadcasting standards . An animated scene showing the congregation of Peter 's church singing the Happy Days theme tune was created but never used as the series producers were unable to obtain the rights to it . The series producers were not able to get Henry Winkler or Garry Marshall to guest @-@ star in the episode , so to fill the time gap , they created the scene about Madonna , which they deemed to be " quite funny " .
= = Cultural references = =
At the beginning of the episode , the family is watching Aquaman on television . Peter is shown watching Jaws 5 on the television , a sequence which MacFarlane describes as " one of [ his ] favourite gags [ they 've ] ever done on the show " . Stewie is shown asking viewers to change the channel to one which is showing Desperate Housewives . When Peter is describing Jesus , he does so in a similar manner to that shown on Quantum Leap . Peter 's stuttering while attempting to say " wrong " is a reference to a scene in which Fonzie was unable to say the word on Happy Days . At one point a modified video of " Opposites Attract " with Paula Abdul is shown with Peter dressed like a cat . The music playing in the background during the end credits is " Rock Around the Clock " , the original Happy Days opening theme ; additionally , the credits themselves are shown in a similar style and font .
= = Reception = =
" The Father , the Son , and the Holy Fonz " finished 40th in the weekly ratings for the week of December 12 – 18 , 2005 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 26 million viewers . Ryan Budke , of TV Squad , said , " This was one of the funniest episodes this year . " He added , " I was cracking up from beginning to end on this one . " He was " a little disappointed that Henry Winkler did not actually show up in the show " .
The Parents Television Council , a frequent critic of Family Guy , named the episode the worst of the week for its treatment of religion .
= Anuradhapura Kingdom =
The Anuradhapura Kingdom ( Sinhala : අනුරාධපුර රාජධානිය , Tamil : அனுராதபுர இராச ் சியம ் ) , named for its capital city , was the first established kingdom in ancient Sri Lanka . Founded by King Pandukabhaya in 377 BC , the kingdom 's authority extended throughout the country , although several independent areas emerged from time to time , which grew more numerous towards the end of the kingdom . Nonetheless , the king of Anuradhapura was seen as the supreme ruler of the country throughout the Anuradhapura period . Buddhism played a strong role in the Anuradhapura period , influencing its culture , laws , and methods of governance . Society and culture were revolutionized when the faith was introduced during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa ; this cultural change was further strengthened by the arrival of the Tooth Relic of the Buddha in Sri Lanka and the patronage extended by her rulers .
Invasions from South India were a constant threat throughout the Anuradhapura period . Rulers such as Dutthagamani , Valagamba , and Dhatusena are noted for defeating the South Indians and regaining control of the kingdom . Other rulers who are notable for military achievements include Gajabahu I , who launched an invasion against the invaders , and Sena II , who sent his armies to assist a Pandyan prince .
Because the kingdom was largely based on agriculture , the construction of irrigation works was a major achievement of the Anuradhapura Kingdom , ensuring water supply in the dry zone and helping the country grow mostly self @-@ sufficient . Several kings , most notably Vasabha and Mahasena , built large reservoirs and canals , which created a vast and complex irrigation network in the Rajarata area throughout the Anuradhapura period . These constructions are an indication of the advanced technical and engineering skills used to create them . The famous paintings and structures at Sigiriya ; the Ruwanwelisaya , Jetavana stupas , and other large stupas ; large buildings like the Lovamahapaya ; and religious works ( like the numerous Buddha statues ) are landmarks demonstrating the Anuradhapura period 's advancement in sculpting .
= = The city of Anuradhapura = =
In 543 BC , prince Vijaya ( 543 – 505 BC ) arrived in Sri Lanka , having been banished from his homeland in India . He eventually brought the island under his control and established himself as king . After this , his retinue established villages and colonies throughout the country . One of these was established by Anuradha , a minister of King Vijaya , on the banks of a stream called Kolon and was named Anuradhagama .
In 377 BC , King Pandukabhaya ( 437 – 367 BC ) made it his capital and developed it into a prosperous city . Anuradhapura ( Anurapura ) was named after the minister who first established the village and after a grandfather of Pandukabhaya who lived there . The name was also derived from the city 's establishment on the auspicious asterism called Anura . Anuradhapura was the capital of all the monarchs who ruled the country during in the Anuradhapura Kingdom , with the exception of Kashyapa I ( 473 – 491 ) , who chose Sigiriya to be his capital . The city is also marked on Ptolemy 's world map .
= = History = =
King Pandukabhaya , the founder and first ruler of the Anuradhapura Kingdom , fixed village boundaries in the country and established an administration system by appointing village headmen . He constructed hermitages , houses for the poor , cemeteries , and irrigation tanks . He brought a large portion of the country under the control of the Anuradhapura Kingdom . However , it was not until the reign of Dutthagamani ( 161 – 137 BC ) that the whole country was unified under the Anuradhapura Kingdom . He defeated 32 rulers in different parts of the country before he killed Elara , the South Indian ruler who was occupying Anuradhapura , and ascended to the throne . The chronicle Mahavamsa describes his reign with much praise , and devotes 11 chapters out of 37 for his reign . He is described as both a warrior king and a devout Buddhist . After unifying the country , he helped establish Buddhism on a firm and secure base , and built several monasteries and shrines including the Ruwanweli Seya and Lovamahapaya .
Another notable king of the Anuradhapura Kingdom is Valagamba ( 103 , 89 – 77 BC ) , also known as Vatthagamani Abhaya , who was overthrown by five invaders from South India . He regained his throne after defeating these invaders one by one and unified the country again under his rule . Saddha Tissa ( 137 – 119 BC ) , Mahaculi Mahatissa ( 77 – 63 BC ) , Vasabha ( 67 – 111 ) , Gajabahu I ( 114 – 136 ) , Dhatusena ( 455 – 473 ) , Aggabodhi I ( 571 – 604 ) and Aggabodhi II ( 604 – 614 ) were among the rulers who held sway over the entire country after Dutthagamani and Valagamba . Rulers from Kutakanna Tissa ( 44 – 22 BC ) to Amandagamani ( 29 – 19 BC ) also managed to keep the whole country under the rule of the Anuradhapura Kingdom . Other rulers could not maintain their rule over the whole island , and independent regions often existed in Ruhuna and Malayarata ( hill country ) for limited periods . During the final years of the Anuradhapura Kingdom , rebellions sprang up and the authority of the kings gradually declined . By the time of Mahinda V ( 982 – 1017 ) , the last king of the Anuradhapura Kingdom , the rule of the king had become so weak that he could not even properly organize the collection of taxes .
During the times of Vasabha , Mahasena ( 274 – 301 ) and Dhatusena , the construction of large irrigation tanks and canals was given priority . Vasabha constructed 11 tanks and 12 canals , Mahasen constructed 16 tanks and a large canal , and Dhatusena built 18 tanks . Most of the other kings have also built irrigation tanks throughout Rajarata , the area around Anuradhapura . By the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom , a large and intricate irrigation network was available throughout Rajarata to support the agriculture of the country .
= = = Arrival of Buddhism = = =
One of the most notable events during the Anuradhapura Kingdom was the introduction of Buddhism to the country . A strong alliance existed between Devanampiya Tissa ( 250 – 210 BC ) and Ashoka of India , who sent Arahat Mahinda , four monks , and a novice being sent to Sri Lanka . They encountered Devanampiya Tissa at Mihintale . After this meeting , Devanampiya Tissa embraced Buddhism the order of monks was established in the country . Devanampiya Tissa , guided by Arahat Mahinda , took steps to firmly establish Buddhism in the country .
Soon afterwards , the bhikkhuni Sanghamitta arrived from India in order to establish the Bhikkhuni sasana ( order of nuns ) in the country . She brought along with her a sapling from the Sri Maha Bodhi , the tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment , which was then planted in Anuradhapura . Devanampiya Tissa bestowed on his kingdom the newly planted Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi . Thus this is the establishment of Buddhism in Sri Lanka
= = = Arrival of the Sacred Tooth Relic = = =
During the reign of Kithsirimevan ( 301 – 328 ) , Sudatta , the sub king of Kalinga , and Hemamala brought the Tooth Relic of the Buddha to Sri Lanka because of unrest in their country . Kithsirimevan carried it in procession and placed the relic in a mansion named Datadhatughara . He ordered this procession to be held annually , and this is still done as a tradition in the country . The Tooth Relic of the Buddha soon became one of the most sacred objects in the country , and a symbol of kingship . The person who was in possession of the Tooth Relic would be the rightful ruler of the country . Therefore , it was often enshrined within the royal palace itself .
= = = Invasions = = =
Several invasions have been made against the Anuradhapura Kingdom , all of which were launched from South India . The first invasion recorded in the history of the country is during the reign of Suratissa ( 247 – 237 BC ) , where he was overthrown by two horse dealers from South India named Sena and Guththika . After ruling the country for 22 years , they were defeated by Asela ( 215 – 205 BC ) , who was in turn overthrown by another invasion led by a Chola prince named Elara ( 205 – 161 BC ) . Elara ruled for 44 years before being defeated by Dutthagamani . However , the Mahavamsa records that these foreign kings ruled the country fairly and lawfully .
The country was invaded again in 103 BC by five Dravidian chiefs , Pulahatta , Bahiya , Panya Mara , Pilaya Mara and Dathika , who ruled until 89 BC when they were defeated by Valagamba . Another invasion occurred in 433 , and the country fell under the control of six rulers from South India . These were Pandu , Parinda , Khudda Parinda , Tiritara , Dathiya and Pithiya , who were defeated by Dhathusena who regained power in 459 . More invasions and raids from South India occurred during the reigns of Sena I ( 833 – 853 ) and Udaya III ( 935 – 938 ) . The final invasion during the Anuradhapura Kingdom , which ended the kingdom and left the country under the rule of the Cholas , took place during the reign of Mahinda V.
However , none of these invaders could extend their rule to Ruhuna , the southern part of the country , and Sri Lankan rulers and their heirs always organized their armies from this area and managed to regain their throne . Throughout the history of Sri Lanka , Ruhuna served as a base for resistance movements .
= = = End of the kingdom = = =
In 993 , the Chola Emperor Rajaraja I invaded Sri Lanka , forcing the then Sri Lankan ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of the country . The Mahavamsa describes the rule of Mahinda V as weak , and the country was suffering from poverty by this time . It further mentions that his army rose against him due to lack of wages . Taking advantage of this situation , Rajendra I son of Rajaraja I , launched a large invasion in 1017 . Mahinda V was captured and taken to India , and the Cholas sacked the city of Anuradhapura . They moved the capital to Polonnaruwa and subsequent Sri Lankan rulers who came into power after the Chola reign continued to use Polonnaruwa as the capital , thus ending the Anuradhapura Kingdom .
= = Administration = =
The kingdom was under the rule of a king . The consecration ceremonies and rituals associated with kingship began during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa , under the influence of Ashoka of India . The whole country was brought under the rule of a single monarch by Dutthagamani for the first time . Before this , it had several principalities independent of the Anuradhapura Kingdom . The succession of the throne was patrilineal , or if that cannot be the case , inherited by the eldest brother of the previous king . The king of Anuradhapura was seen as the supreme ruler throughout the island , even at times when he did not have absolute control over it .
Four dynasties have ruled the kingdom from its founding to its ending . The rulers from Vijaya to Subharaja ( 60 – 67 ) are generally considered as the Vijayan dynasty . Pandukabhaya was the first ruler of the Anuradhapura Kingdom belonging to this dynasty . The Vijayan dynasty existed until Vasabha of the Lambakanna clan seized power in 66 AD . His ascension to the throne saw the start of the first Lambakanna dynasty , which ruled the country for more than three centuries . A new dynasty began with Dhatusena in 455 . Named the Moriya dynasty , the origins of this line are uncertain although some historians trace them to Shakya princes who accompanied the sapling of the Sri Maha Bodhi to Sri Lanka . The last dynasty of the Anuradhapura period , the second Lambakanna dynasty , started with Manavamma ( 684 – 718 ) seizing the throne in 684 and continued till the last ruler of Anuradhapura , Mahinda V.
= = = Officials and governing = = =
Royal officials were divided into three categories ; officials attached to the palace , officials of central administration and officials of provincial administration . One of the most important positions was the purohita , the advisor of the king . The king also had a board of ministers called amati paheja . In central administration , senapati ( Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Army ) was a position second only to the king , and held by a member of nobility . This position , and also the positions of yuvaraja ( sub king ) , administrative positions in the country 's provinces and major ports and provinces , were often held by relatives of the king .
The kingdom was often divided into sections or provinces and governed separately . Rajarata , the area around the capital , was under the direct administration of the king , while the Ruhuna ( southern part of the country ) and the Malaya Rata ( hill country ) were governed by officials called apa and mapa . These administrative units were further divided into smaller units called rata . Officials called ratiya or ratika were in charge of these . The smallest administrative unit was the gama ( village ) , under a village chief known as gamika or gamladda .
= = = Buddhist priesthood = = =
A close link existed between the ruler and the Sangha ( Buddhist priesthood ) since the introduction of Buddhism to the country . This relationship was further strengthened during Dutthagamani 's reign . The monks often advised and even guided the king on decisions . This association was initially with the Mahavihara sect , but by the middle of the 1st century BC , the Abhayagiri sect had also begun to have a close link to the ruling of the country . By the end of the 3rd century AD , the Jetavana sect had also become close to the ruler . Estrangements between the ruler and the priesthood often weakened the government , as happened during the reign of Lanjatissa . Even Valagamba 's resistance movement was initially hampered because of a rift with the Mahavihara , and he succeeded only after a reconciliation was affected . Some rulers patronized only one sect , but this often led to unrest in the country and most rulers equally supported all sects . Despite this , religious establishments were often plundered during times of internal strife by the rulers themselves , such as during the reigns of Dathopatissa I ( 639 – 650 ) and Kashyapa II ( 650 – 659 ) .
= = = Law = = =
Customs , traditions and moral principles based on Buddhism were used as the bases of law . Specific laws were eventually developed and adopted . Samantapasadika , a 5th @-@ century commentary , gives details of complex regulations on the theft of fish . The chief judicial officer was known as viniccayamacca and there were several judicial officers under him , known as vinicchayaka . Apart from them , village headmen and provincial governors were also given the power to issue judgments . The king was the final judge in legal disputes , and all cases against members of the royal family and high dignitaries of the state were judged by him . However , the king had to exercise this power with care and after consulting with his advisers . Udaya I recorded judgments that were regarded as important precedents in the royal library in order to maintain uniformity in judicial decisions .
Initially , the administration of justice at village level was the responsibility of village assemblies , which usually consisted of the elders of the village . However , towards the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom a group of ten villages , known as dasagam , was responsible for upholding justice in that area . The laws and legal measures to be followed by them were proclaimed by the king . Several rock inscriptions that record these proclamations have been found in archaeological excavations . Punishments differed from ruler to ruler . Some kings , such as Sanghabodhi ( 247 – 249 ) and Voharika Tissa ( 209 – 231 ) were lenient in this aspect , while rulers like Ilanaga ( 33 – 43 ) and Jetthatissa I ( 263 – 273 ) were harsher . However , crimes such as treason , murder and slaughter of cattle were generally punishable by death .
= = Economy = =
The economy of the Anuradhapura Kingdom was based mainly on agriculture . The main agricultural product was rice , the cultivation of which was supported by an intricate irrigation network . Rice cultivation began around the Malvatu oya , Deduru oya and Mahaweli river and spread throughout the country . Shifting cultivation was also done during the rainy seasons . Rice was produced in two main seasons named Yala and Maha . Due to the extensive production of rice , the country was mostly self @-@ sufficient . Cotton was grown extensively to meet the requirements of cloth . Sugarcane and Sesame were also grown and there are frequent references in classical literature to these agricultural products . Finger millet was grown as a substitute for rice , particularly in the dry zone of the country . Surpluses of these products , mainly rice , were exported .
The primary goods exported during the Anuradhapura period are gemstones , spices , pearls and elephants , while ceramic ware , silks , perfumes and wines were imported from other countries . Foreign merchants , mainly Arabs , often acted as middlemen in these imports and exports . Luxury cloth was also imported from Eastern India and China . A stone inscription in Anuradhapura implies that the market or bazaar was an important functionality in the city . Trade was limited in villages since they were mostly self @-@ sufficient , but essential commodities such as salt and metal had to be obtained from outside . The country 's position in the Indian Ocean and its natural bays made it a centre of international trade transit . Ports such as Mahatittha ( Mannar ) and Gokanna ( Trincomalee ) were used as trading ports during the Anuradhapura Kingdom .
Currency was often used for settling judicial fines , taxes and payments for goods or services . However , remuneration for services to the king , officials and temples were often made in the form of land revenue . The oldest coins found at Anuradhapura date up to 200 BC . These earliest coins were punch marked rectangular pieces of silver known as kahavanu . These eventually became circular in shape , which were in turn followed by die struck coins . Uncoined metals , particularly gold and silver , were used for trading as well . Patterns of elephants , horses , swastika and Dharmacakra were commonly imprinted on the coins of this period .
The primary tax of this period was named bojakapati ( grain tax ) and charged for land used for cultivation . A water tax , named dakapati was also charged for the water used from reservoirs . Customs duties were also imposed in ports . Those unable to pay these taxes in cash were expected to take part in services such as repairing reservoirs . The administration of taxes was the duty of Badagarika , the king 's treasurer .
= = Culture = =
Culture in the Anuradhapura Kingdom was largely based on Buddhism with the slaughter of animals for food considered low and unclean . As a result , animal husbandry , except for the rearing of buffalo and cattle , was uncommon . Elephants and horses were prestige symbols , and could only be afforded by the nobility . The skills needed to train and care for these animals were highly regarded . Cattle and buffalo were used for ploughing and preparing paddy fields . Dairy products formed an important part of people 's diets while Pali and Sinhala literature often refer to five products obtained from the cow : milk , curd , buttermilk , ghee and butter . Bullocks and bullock carts were also used for transport .
Metalwork was an important and well @-@ developed craft , and metal tools such as axes , mammoties and hoes were widely used . Weapons and tools of iron and steel were produced in large scale for the military . A good indication of the development of metalwork of this period is the Lovamahapaya , which had been roofed entirely with copper .
Villages were usually concentrated around irrigation reservoirs to enable easy access to water for agriculture . Houses stood immediately below the reservoir embankment , between the water and the paddy fields below . This facilitated easy control of the water supply to the fields and also supported maintenance of domestic gardens for fruit and vegetable production . A village typically consisted of a cluster of dwellings , paddy fields , a reservoir , a grazing ground , shift crop reserves and a village forest . In areas of high rainfall , a perennial watercourse often took the place of the reservoir . Inland fishing was widespread during the Anuradhapura Kingdom period because of the numerous reservoirs . Although not entirely absent , sea fishing was not common during this period mainly because of the rudimentary nature of transporting sea fish to cities which were located far inland .
Women appear to have been allowed considerable freedom and independence during this period . Dutthagamani frequently sought his mother 's advice during his military campaign . Rock inscriptions show that women donated caves and temples for the use of the sangha . However , there are no records of women holding any administrative posts . It is not clear if women were given equal footing with men , but they did have complete freedom in religious matters .
= = = Religion = = =
After the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa , it spread throughout the country under his patronage . After this , the rulers were expected to be the protectors of Buddhism in the country and it became a legitimizing factor of royal authority . Three fraternities of Buddhism had come into existence by the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom ; Mahavihara , Abhayagiri and Jetavana . Mahavihara was established immediately after the introduction of Buddhism to the country . Representing the Theravada teachings , it remained strictly conventional throughout the Anuradhapura Kingdom . The Abhayagiri fraternity , established after Abhayagiriya was built , represented several schools of Buddhist thought . It did not restrict itself to Theravada and accepted Mahayana and Tantric ideas as well . Little evidence exists on the Jetavana fraternity which was established after the Jetavanaramaya was built , later than the other two . However , it too was receptive to new and more liberal views regarding Buddhism .
Rulers sponsored Theravada and often took steps to stop the spreading of Mahayana beliefs . Rulers such as Aggabodhi I , Kashyapa V ( 914 – 923 ) and Mahinda IV ( 956 – 972 ) promulgated disciplinary rules for the proper conduct of the Sangha . Voharika Tissa and Gothabhaya ( 249 – 262 ) expelled several monks from the order for supporting such views . A change in this occurred when Mahasena embraced Mahayana teachings and acted against Theravada institutions . However , he too accommodated Theravada teachings after the population rebelled against him . As the kingdom and the authority or kings declined , Mahayana and Tantric doctrines again began to spread , however , Theravada remained the main and most widespread doctrine .
Followers of Hinduism were also present to some extent during the Anuradhapura Kingdom . There were a number of them in Rajarata during Elara 's reign . Mahasen destroyed several Hindu temples during his reign in the 2nd century . Particularly Indian merchant communities living near ports such as Mahatittha and Gokanna were followers of Hinduism and Hindu temples were constructed in these areas . By the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom , large Hindu temples such as the Konesvaram temple had been constructed . Historical sources indicate that there were also Jains in Anuradhapura during the reign of Valagamba .
= = = Literature = = =
from the 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD , inscriptions are recorded in the Brāhmī script . This gradually developed into the modern sinhala script , but this was not complete by the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom . The first reference in historical sources to any written work is about 80 BC , but both Sinhala and Pali literature existed even two centuries before this , if not earlier . The oldest Sinhala literature is found at Sigiriya . Poems written from the 6th century to the end of the Anuradhaura kingdom are found among the graffiti on the mirror wall at Sigiriya . Most of these verses are describing or even addressed to the female figures depicted in the frescoes of Sigiriya . The majority of these poems have been written between the 8th and 10th centuries .
Only three Sinhala books survive from the Anuradhapura period . One of them , Siyabaslakara , was written in the 9th or 10th century on the art of poetry and is based on the Sanskrit Kavyadarsha . Dampiya Atuva Gatapadaya is another , and is a glossary for the Pali Dhammapadatthakatha , providing Sinhala words and synonyms for Pali words . The third book is Mula Sikha Ha Sikhavalanda , a set of disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks . Both these have been written during the last two centuries of the Anuradhapura period .
During the reign of Valagamba , the Pali Tripitaka was written in palm leaves . Several commentaries on Buddhism , known as Atthakatha have also been written during the reign of Mahanama ( 406 – 428 ) . Pali chronicles such as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa have been written during the Anuradhapura Kingdom , and are still useful as resources for studying the history of the country .
= = = Art = = =
The Sigiriya Frescoes found at Sigiriya , Sri Lanka were painted during the reign of King Kashyapa I ( ruled 477 — 495 AD ) . Depicting female figures carrying flowers , they are the oldest surviving paintings of the Anuradhapura period . Various theories exist as to who are shown in these paintings . Some suggest that they are apsaras ( celestial nymphs ) , others suggest that they are the ladies of the king 's court or even a representation of lightning and rain clouds . Although they bear some similarity to the paintings of Ajanta in India , there are significant differences in style and composition suggesting that these are examples of a distinctive Sri Lankan school of art .
Paintings from a cave at Hindagala date back to the late Anuradhapura period , and may even belong to the same period as the Sigiriya paintings . The paintings of Sigiriya and Hindagala are the only surviving specimens of art of the Anuradhapura Kingdom . However , remnants of paintings indicate that walls and ceilings of some buildings and the inside walls of stupas and vahalkadas were also painted . Saddhatissa had employed painters to decorate the Ruwanweli Seya when his brother Dutthagamani wanted to see it on his death bed .
Statue making , most noticeably statues of the Buddha , was an art perfected by the Sri Lankan sculptors during the Anuradhapura Kingdom . The earliest Buddha statues belonging to the Anuradhapura period date back to the 1st century AD . Standard postures such as Abhaya Mudra , Dhyana Mudra , Vitarka Mudra and Kataka Mudra were used when making these statues . The Samadhi statue in Anuradhapura , considered one of the finest examples of ancient Sri Lankan art , shows the Buddha in a seated position in deep meditation , and is sculpted from dolomite marble and is datable to the 4th century . The Toluvila statue is similar to this , and dates to the later stages of the Anuradhapura Kingdom . Notable standing Buddha statues dating from the Anuradhapura period include the ones at Avukana , Maligavila and Buduruvagala . The Buduruvagala statue is the tallest in the country , standing at 50 feet ( 15 m ) . All these statues are carved out of rock .
The carvings at Isurumuniya are some of the best examples of the stone carving art of the Anuradhapura Kingdom . Skill in arts was a respected and valued trait during this period and artists were well rewarded by the rulers . The Mahavamsa records that Jetthatissa II ( 328 – 337 ) was himself skilled in stone and ivory carving .
= = = Architecture = = =
The construction of stupas was noticeable not only during the Anuradhapura Kingdom but throughout the history of Sri Lanka . Stupas were built enshrining an object of worship . The stupa of Thuparamaya , built by Devanampiya Tissa , is one of the earliest built and was constructed immediately after the arrival of Buddhism . The construction of large stupas was begun by King Dutthagamani with the construction of the Ruwanweli Seya , standing 300 feet ( 91 m ) high with a circumference of 298 feet ( 91 m ) .
The Anuradhapura dagabas which date from the early centuries of the Anuradhapura period , are of such colossal proportions that they constitute the largest structures of their type anywhere in the Buddhist World , even rivaling the Pyramids of Egypt in size .
The Abhayagiri stupa in the Abhayagiriya monastic complex is another large stupa of the Anuradhapura period the original height of which was 350 feet ( 110 m ) . The Jetavana stupa , constructed by Mahasen , is the largest in the country . Stupas had deep and well constructed foundations , and the builders were clearly aware of the attributes of the materials used for construction . Suitable methods for each type of material have been used to lay foundations on a firm basis .
All buildings have been adorned with elaborate carvings and sculptures and were supported by large stone columns . These stone columns can be seen in several buildings such as the Lovamahapaya ( brazen palace ) . Drainage systems of these buildings are also well planned , and terra cotta pipes were used to carry water to drainage pits . Large ponds were attached to some monasteries , such as the Kuttam Pokuna ( twin pond ) . Hospital complexes have also been found close to monasteries . Buildings were constructed using timber , bricks and stones . Stones were used for foundations and columns , while brick were used for walls . Lime mortar was used for plastering walls .
= = Irrigation and water management = =
Rainfall in the dry zone of Sri Lanka is limited to 50 @-@ 75 inches . Under these conditions , rain fed cultivation was difficult , forcing early settlers to develop means to store water in order to maintain a constant supply of water for their cultivations . Small irrigation tanks were constructed at village level , to support the cultivations of that village . The earliest medium @-@ scale irrigation tank is the Basawakkulama reservoir built by King Pandukabhaya . Nuwara wewa and Tissa Wewa reservoirs were constructed a century later . These reservoirs were enlarged in subsequent years by various rulers .
Construction of large scale reservoirs began in the 1st century AD under the direction of Vasabha . The Alahara canal , constructed by damming the Amban river to divert water to the west for 30 miles ( 48 km ) , was constructed during this period . Among the reservoirs constructed during the reign of Vasabha , Mahavilacchiya and Nocchipotana reservoirs both have circumferences of about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . During the reign of Mahasen , the Alahara canal was widened and lengthened to supply water to the newly constructed Minneriya tank , which covered 4 @,@ 670 acres ( 18 @.@ 9 km2 ) and had a 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) long and 44 feet ( 13 m ) high embankment . He was named Minneri Deiyo ( god of Minneriya ) for this construction and is still referred to as such by the people in that area . The Kavudulu reservoir , Pabbatanta canal and Hurulu reservoir were among the large irrigation constructions carried out during this period . These constructions contributed immensely to the improvement of agriculture in the northern and eastern parts of the dry zone . Reservoirs were also constructed using tributaries of the Daduru Oya during this period , thereby supplying water to the south western part of the dry zone . This conservation and distribution of water resources ensured that the water supply was sufficient throughout the dry zone . James Emerson Tennent described the ancient irrigation network as :
... there seems every reason to believe that from their own subsequent experience and the prodigious extent to which they occupied themselves in the formulation of works of this kind , they attained a facility unsurpassed by the people of any other country .
The water resources of the dry zone were further exploited during the times of Upatissa I and Dhatusena . The construction of the Kala wewa , covering an area of 6 @,@ 380 acres ( 25 @.@ 8 km2 ) with an embankment 3 @.@ 75 miles ( 6 @.@ 04 km ) long and 40 feet ( 12 m ) high , was done during Dhatusena 's reign . A 54 miles ( 87 km ) canal named the Jayaganga carries water from the Kala wewa to the Tissa Wewa and feeds a network of smaller canals . The construction of this network is also attributed to Dhatusena . The Jayaganga supplied water to 180 square kilometres of paddy fields . By the end of the 5th century , two major irrigation networks , one supported by the Mahaweli river and the other by Malvatu Oya and Kala Oya , were covering the Rajarata area . The Mahavamsa records that many other rulers constructed a number of irrigation tanks , some of which have not yet been identified . By the 8th century , large tanks such as Padaviya , Naccaduva , Kantale and Giritale had come into existence , further expanding the irrgiation network . However , from the 8th century to the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom , there wasn 't much activity in construction of irrigation works .
= = = Technology = = =
Advanced technology was required for the planning and construction of large reservoirs and canals . When constructing reservoirs , the gaps between low ridges in the dry zone plains were used for damming water courses . Two different techniques were used in construction ; one method involved making an embankment using natural rock formations across a valley and the other involved diverting water courses through constructed canals to reservoirs . All the reservoirs and canals in an area were interconnected by an intricate network , so that excess water from one will flow into the other . The locations of these constructions indicate that the ancient engineers were aware of geological formations in the sites as well , and made effective use of them . Underground conduits have also been constructed to supply water to and from artificial ponds , such as in the Kuttam Pokuna and the ponds at Sigiriya .
The 54 miles ( 87 km ) long Jayaganga has a gradient of six inches to the mile , which indicates that the builders had expert knowledge and accurate measuring devices to achieve the minimum gradient in the water flow . The construction of Bisokotuva , a cistern sluice used to control the outward flow of water in reservoirs , indicates a major advancement in irrigation technology . Since the 3rd century , these sluices , made of brick and stone , were placed at various levels in the embankments of reservoirs .
= = Military = =
During the early stages , the Anuradhapura Kingdom did not have a strong regular army except for a small body of soldiers . These were assigned for guarding the capital and the royal palace . The King had the right to demand an able bodied son for military service from every family in his kingdom . In times of war , a larger army was formed using this method . An army consisted of four main divisions ; an elephant corps , cavalry , chariots and infantry . This combination was called Chaturangani Sena ( fourfold army ) . However , the majority of the army was infantry composed of swordsmen , spearmen and archers .
When such an army was prepared , it was commanded by several generals . The Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the army was usually a member of nobility . The King and his generals led the army from the front during battles , mounted on elephants . The major cities of the kingdom were defended with defensive walls and moats . Sieges , often lasting several months , were common during warfare . Single combat between the opposing kings or commanders , mounted on elephants , often decided the outcome of the battle .
South Indian mercenaries were often employed in the armies of the Anuradhapura Kingdom during its latter stages . Manavamma and Moggallana I ( 491 – 508 ) obtained the assistance of the Pallavas during succession disputes to secure the throne . However , the Anuradhapura kingdom appears to have had strong armies during some periods , such as when Sena II sent his armies to South India against the Pandyan king . Gajabahu I also launched an invasion against South India to rescue 12 @,@ 000 captives , and brought back 12 @,@ 000 prisoners as well as the freed captives . Surprisingly however , a navy was not considered important during the Anuradhapura Kingdom , and one was rarely maintained . This would have been the first line of defence for the island nation and would also have been helpful in dealing with invasions from South India .
= Graduados =
Graduados ( English : The Graduates ) is a 2012 Argentine telenovela which was broadcast by Telefe from March 12 to December 19 . The plot concerns a group of people who graduated from high school in 1989 and reunite twenty years later . The main character , Andrés Goddzer ( Daniel Hendler ) , discovers that María Laura Falsini ( Nancy Dupláa ) was pregnant in 1989 and married Pablo Catáneo ( Luciano Cáceres ) , who thought that he was the child 's father . The resulting parental dispute , the love triangle of the main characters and 1980s nostalgia are frequent plot elements , and story arcs related to school bullying and LGBT rights are also featured . The frequent flashbacks of the characters to their high @-@ school days use the same actors , playing teenagers .
The series , written by Sebastián Ortega , was produced by Endemol and Underground producciones . Although Andy Kusnetzoff was offered the lead @-@ character role , Hendler was cast when Kusnetzoff turned it down ( the latter joined the cast several months later as another character ) . The telenovela featured cameos and guest appearances by Argentine rock musicians and other celebrities . Graduados was widely successful , prevailing in the ratings over the blockbuster competitive dance program Showmatch and the telenovela Sos mi hombre . Although it received the 2012 Golden Martín Fierro award , seven other Martín Fierro Awards and ten Tato Awards ( including Program of the Year ) , plans for theatrical and film adaptions were abandoned . The telenovela 's proposed second season was renamed Viudas e hijos del Rock and Roll , with most of the cast and similar storylines . Local versions of the series have been made in Chile , Colombia and Greece .
= = Plot = =
A group of high @-@ school students graduates in 1989 . María Laura Falsini ( Nancy Dupláa ) is the girlfriend of Pablo Catáneo ( Luciano Cáceres ) , the school bully . When María Laura sees Pablo having sex in the bathroom with another girl during the graduation party , she leaves the party . Andrés Goddzer ( Daniel Hendler ) accompanies her , and they have sex in his car . María Laura becomes pregnant and her father , Clemente Falsini ( Juan Leyrado ) , owner of McCan , a successful dog @-@ food company , orders her to marry Pablo — unaware of her encounter with Andrés .
The first episode then makes a timeskip from 1989 to 2012 . Pablo works for Clemente 's company , and Andrés is a slacker without a stable job who works as dog walker . María Laura hires Andrés by chance , and remembers their 1989 encounter ; a DNA test confirms that Andrés ( not Pablo ) is the father of her son , Martín . These events give the series its basic plot : Andrés tries to adjust to his newly discovered paternity , Pablo resents his intrusion , Martín tries to stay on good terms with both of them and María Laura begins a romance with Andrés . Pablo cheats on her with Patricia Longo ( Isabel Macedo ) , Clemente 's wife and secretary . She becomes pregnant by Pablo , but claims that Clemente is her son 's father .
Andrés ' family is Jewish . His parents are Elías ( Roberto Carnaghi ) and Dana ( Mirta Busnelli ) , and his sister Gabriela ( Violeta Urtizberea ) works at McCan and has been unlucky in love . Andrés maintains his friendship with two high @-@ school classmates : Benjamín " Tuca " Pardo ( Mex Urtizberea ) and Verónica Diorio ( Julieta Ortega ) , who runs a radio station which plays 1980s Argentine rock music . María Laura keeps in touch with her best friend in high school : psychiatrist Victoria Lauría ( Paola Barrientos ) , a single woman looking for a couple with whom to have a surrogate child . Guillermo Almada ( Juan Gil Navarro ) , another classmate , takes a job at McCan and comes out during a meeting of the graduates . Clemente 's wife Patricia is , unknown to everybody else , another classmate . Obese at school , she lost weight and changed her face and name .
Patricia 's secret is slowly revealed to the other characters . Pablo learns her true identity in the series finale , and they stay together . Andrés and Maria Laura leave the city ; Victoria has a son with Tuca ; Elías and Dana open a knish shop and Gabriela marries her neighbor , Marito ( Alan Sabbagh ) . The series ends with a party hosted by the school for the 1989 graduates , similar to the graduation party in the first episode .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Graduados refers frequently to the 1980s ( the decade in which the main characters attended high school ) , using 1980s Argentine slang and flashbacks to evoke nostalgia . The series uses 1980s music — in particular , Argentine rock — and several Argentine musicians made cameo appearances . Graduados was part of a trend in 2012 Argentine television toward nostalgia . According to Argentine consumer @-@ trends consultant Ximena Díaz Alarcón , " The 80s are nowadays far enough to be idealized and close enough to laugh about the earlier versions of oneself " . Psychologist and consumer @-@ trends consultant Mariela Mociulsky also suggested that the show 's structure invited viewers to compare their lives with the plans they made when they were younger .
Graduados had scripts written by Ernesto Korovsky , Silvina Frejdkes and Alejandro Quesada . Although it was primarily a comedy , it also had a dramatic approach to LGBT rights and school bullying . In Clarín , Adriana Schettini praised its transitions from dramatic to comic scenes , its acting and scripts and its faithfulness to the characters ' profiles .
= = = Creation and cast = = =
Graduados was created by Sebastián Ortega with the working title of El paseaperros ( Spanish : The Dog Walker ) , a planned miniseries about a character and his group of friends . The writers gradually expanded the storyline , incorporating more characters and story arcs . Although Andy Kusnetzoff turned down a starring role in the show because of his work at Radio Metro , he made cameo appearances in six episodes and later became a regular character . Mike Amigorena was offered the lead @-@ protagonist and lead @-@ antagonist roles , but declined both . Relative unknown Daniel Hendler was finally selected to play Andrés ; he had already been cast as the secondary character Tuca , who was played by Mex Urtizberea after Hendler was recast as Andrés . The character of Verónica Diorio was initially written for actress Verónica Lozano , who turned down the role . Julieta Ortega , initially cast as Victoria Lauría , replaced Lozano and Victoria was played by stage actress Paola Barrientos . Érica Rivas and Ludovico Di Santo also turned down roles in the series and their characters were played by Nancy Dupláa and Marco Antonio Caponi , respectively .
Juan Leyrado played a grandfather for the first time in his career . Unlike the usual telenovela grandfather ( a secondary character ) , his character has a prominent role and his own story arcs . Leyrado , who was 60 years old when the series was made , said that he was still active in his personal life and played the character according to his own experiences . Korean @-@ Argentine Chang Kim Sung , who played Walter Mao , said he was proud that his character did not conform to stereotypes of Asian people .
Although Mex and Violeta Urtizberea are father and daughter , Violeta accepted a role in the series without knowing that her father was also part of the cast and asked him to respect her space . Although they played characters of similar ages , they rarely have joint scenes . Julieta Ortega said that she has nothing in common with her character in the series . Juan Gil Navarro , who appeared in the television drama La Dueña at the same time , said that although he does not normally appear in comedies he followed his wife 's suggestion .
Isabel Macedo had played several villains , including in Floricienta , and took the Patricia Longo @-@ Jimena Benitez role because it was something she had not done before . Although Patricia 's past identity as Jimena was intended to be a secret for only ten episodes , Macedo insisted that the mystery should be maintained for a longer time . She read about victims of school bullying to inform her character and declined other work during the year to stay focused on the series , becoming emotionally attached to her character .
= = = Recurring elements = = =
= = = = Drama = = = =
The series includes a homosexual character , Guillermo Almada ( Juan Gil Navarro ) , who came out in the early episodes and later married his partner in a ceremony featuring guest appearances by Evangelina Salazar and Luis Brandoni . This was the first fictional same @-@ sex marriage on Argentine television since it was legalized in 2010 , reflected the growing acceptance of sexual freedom in Argentina . Another character , Patricia Longo , was an obese girl who was a victim of school bullying . Isabel Macedo had to be heavily made up to appear obese for the flashbacks . Patricia was initially the telenovela 's villain , with the bullying her motivation for inflicting revenge on her former classmates . The episode in which she reveals her true identity was well received .
= = = = Flashbacks = = = =
The high @-@ school years of the main characters are depicted in flashbacks , a recurring element . For comic effect , the flashbacks were filmed with the actors who played the adult characters instead of younger actors . One episode includes a reenactment of the 1980s game show Feliz domingo para la juventud , with an appearance by host Silvio Soldán . This episode also features a guest appearance by Andy Kusnetzoff , who later joined the regular cast . Another episode has a flashback set in Italpark , an Argentine theme park which closed in 1990 . Since the Italpark rides are now in Luján , the production moved there to shoot those scenes .
One episode includes a flashback to San Carlos de Bariloche , the location of the graduation trip ( an Argentine prom tradition ) . Pablo Echarri made a guest appearance as the trip 's coordinator , and fans of the show were selected in an internet competition to join the trip to Bariloche as extras . Another flashback features the Pumper Nic fast @-@ food restaurant and a guest appearance by sportswriter Juan Pablo Varsky . Not all flashbacks are focused on the 1980s or high school ; some are events from a character 's adolescence , such as the shotgun wedding of María Laura and Pablo or her 15th birthday .
= = = = Music = = = =
The program uses 1980s music ( usually Argentine rock ) extensively , and several Argentine musicians from the decade were invited to make cameo appearances . Charly García appears in one episode , discussing the lyrics of his song " Inconciente colectivo " ( " Collective Unconscious " ) with the characters . Fito Páez appears in a flashback , meeting María Laura during a sound check and asking her opinion of his new song " 11 y 6 " . Páez resurrected his 1980s look , which differs slightly from his current appearance .
Musician Emanuel Ortega , brother of producer Sebastián Ortega , appeared ( as himself ) as Victoria Lauría 's patient . Similar plots were used in other episodes , with guest stars appearing as themselves ; Victoria Lauría 's character became a psychologist with famous clients , such as soccer player Martín Palermo , tennis player Gastón Gaudio , model Luciana Salazar and soccer agent Guillermo Coppola . All performing members of the Ortega family made cameos on the series .
Bahiano , the former singer of Los Pericos , made a cameo appearance in the Spring Day episode and played " El ritual de la banana " ( " Ritual of the Banana " , Los Pericos ' first hit ) . Bahiano left the band in 2005 , and did not maintain a good relationship with them . Los Pericos sent a cease and desist letter to the production team and complained on Twitter about the episode . Bahiano dismissed their reaction as jealousy . The Spring Day episode also included a cameo by Los Twist , who played their hit " El estudiante " ( " The Student " ) . The scene , filmed in Tigre , also included a cameo by Lalo Mir .
= = = = Holidays and observances = = = =
Holidays ( such as Spring Day ) were part of the plot of an episode aired that day , unless the holiday fell over a weekend . Since the Goddzers are a Jewish family , Jewish holidays are included . On July 18 the 1994 AMIA bombing , when the Argentine Israelite Mutual Association was destroyed in a terrorist attack , was mentioned when Elías said he would attend the annual protest of the unsolved case 's handling . Minor Jewish characters ( such as relatives and friends ) returned for Rosh Hashanah , the Jewish New Year celebration . Its Jewish characters and the number of Argentine and Latin American expatriates in Israel helped Graduados obtain good ratings in Israel .
= = Reception = =
The first episode of Graduados was a ratings success , scoring nearly 28 points . Subsequent episodes continued to receive high ratings and El Trece , Telefe 's main rival for prime @-@ time ratings , competed with Graduados by moving its blockbuster program Showmatch an hour earlier ( opposite Graduados ) . The move was unsuccessful , with Graduados more highly rated than Showmatch before and after the change . Showmatch returned to its original time slot and El Trece aired a new series , Sos mi hombre , opposite Graduados . Sos mi hombre 's premiere episode was outscored by Graduados , 26 to 18 @.@ 4 ; according to El Trece this was not a disappointment , since its target rating was 17 @-@ 19 points . Graduados maintained its lead in the ratings for the rest of the season .
It was a multi @-@ target success , with an audience not limited to viewers in their forties as the focus on 1980s nostalgia might have indicated . This countered a contemporary trend in series television to target a specific audience demographic . The plots include characters and situations for all ages , and the series ' general tone is family @-@ friendly . Although it includes a number of flashbacks , the scripts did not limit the actors to a 1980s viewpoint ; according to consultant Mariela Mociulsky , the show reflects more modern realities ( such as men showing their emotions and women having greater autonomy in their lives ) than TV shows of the 1980s did .
The series finale was broadcast from the Gran Rex Theater in a ceremony attended by fans who obtained tickets in a raffle on the Telefe website . The cast ( except for Ortega and Urtizberea , who were out of the country ) attended the performance , watching the episode from a VIP room in the theater , appearing on stage after the episode ended to thank the audience . Also in attendance were actors and musicians who had made guest appearances on the show during the year , including Pablo Ruiz ( the singer of Vilma Palma e Vampiros ) , Sandra Mihanovich , Luciana Salazar , Luisa Albinoni and Max Berliner .
In February 2013 Sebastian Ortega and the cast agreed to produce another season of Graduados after a year off , and Telefe had begun negotiations to bring the series back . The project became a new telenovela , Viudas e hijos del Rock and Roll , which would employ similar themes and most of the cast . Nancy Dupláa left the project , with Paola Barrientos replacing her as the female lead .
= = = Awards = = =
Graduados received 12 Tato Awards from 20 nominations on November 17 , 2012 , including the special award for Television program of the year . Graduados was nominated for daily serial , fiction production , actress in a daily serial ( Nancy Dupláa ) , arts and images in a fiction program and soundtrack , winning in all those categories . Nominations for new actor , actor in a daily serial , supporting actor in a daily serial and supporting actress in a daily serial were shared . The new @-@ actor award nominees from Graduados were Mercedes Scapola , Gastón Soffritti and the winner , Chang Kim Sung . Luciano Cáceres and Daniel Hendler were nominated for the actor in daily drama award , won by Hendler . Roberto Carnaghi , nominated with Juan Leyrado and Mex Urtizberea , received the Best Supporting Actor in a Daily Serial Award . Paola Barrientos was the best supporting actress in a daily serial ; her fellow nominees were Isabel Macedo , Mirta Busnelli and Violeta Urtizberea . The series was nominated for the best fiction director and script awards , both won by the telenovela El hombre de tu vida . Producer Sebastian Ortega refused to attend the ceremony to avoid Marcelo Tinelli , with whom he had an ongoing dispute . With a total of 11 awards Graduados was the most successful production at the ceremony , followed by El hombre de tu vida and La voz argentina with four awards each .
The series received 14 nominations for Martín Fierro Awards and won eight , including the Golden Award . It won awards for best daily serial , production , writing and opening theme , and was nominated for best direction ( won by Juan José Campanella for El hombre de tu vida ) . Daniel Hendler and Luciano Cáceres were nominated for best lead actor in a daily serial , which Hendler won . Paola Barrientos was the best supporting actress in a daily serial , with Mirta Busnelli also nominated . Isabel Macedo and Nancy Dupláa were nominated as best lead actress in a daily serial , and Macedo ( not Dupláa , as expected by the cast ) won . Chang Sung Kim , Jenny Williams ( new actor ) , Andy Kusnetzoff , Betiana Blum ( guest appearance ) , Mex Urtizberea and Roberto Carnaghi ( supporting actor in daily drama ) also received nominations .
= = = Internet = = =
In 2012 the use of hashtags in television was new in Argentina , and programs had limited interaction with social networks . Although in August 2012 Showmatch had a higher number of tweets than Graduados ( despite trailing it in the ratings ) , by October Graduados was the 2012 Argentine TV program with the highest number of tweets ( averaging 244 @,@ 540 per episode ) . Showmatch was second , with an average of 203 @,@ 922 tweets per episode . As of October 14 , September 3 was the day with the greatest number of tweets for a single episode ( 47 @,@ 357 ) .
A September 2012 analysis of tweets found that Graduados was the Argentine television program most frequently mentioned . The most popular characters were Vero Diorio , Dany Goddzer , Pablo Catáneo , Guillermo Almada , Tuca and Vicky Lauría . Several unofficial Twitter accounts were created by fans and modeled after the characters ; the best known was @ Jimena _ Benitez _ ( Patricia Longo 's supposed account ) , with 12 @,@ 765 followers .
= = Other media = =
The producers of Graduados released a compilation album of music used in the series . It features the theme song , composed by Tan Biónica , and 1980s Argentine rock hits as background music . Musicians appearing on the album are Soda Stereo , Los Fabulosos Cadillacs , Charly García , Sumo , Virus , Raúl Porchetto , Andrés Calamaro , Los Violadores , Suéter and Los Ratones Paranoicos . The first CD went gold in Argentina , encouraging Telefe and Sony Music Entertainment to release a second CD of soft songs by international artists . Artists on the second CD are Bonnie Tyler , Europe , Paul Young , Jimmy Harnen , Spandau Ballet , Dover , Martika , The Alan Parsons Project , Toto , The Bangles , Cyndi Lauper , Bad English , Air Supply and Billy Joel .
As the series wound down , Telefe considered a theatrical version for the 2013 summer season . It would have been similar to a 2010 version by the producers of Valientes , but the cast had other commitments . Telefe then asked series creator Sebastian Ortega to make a film . Negotiations were confirmed by producer Pablo Culell , who said that although Underground produces television series it can also produce stage plays and films .
Chilevisión produced a Chilean version of the series , Graduados , historias que no se olvidan ( Graduates : Unforgettable Stories ) . The first remake produced by the station , it starred Fernanda Urrejola , Marcial Tagle and Ricardo Fernández and its soundtrack features Chilean bands ( such as Upa and Los Prisioneros ) and Argentine bands successful in Chile ( such as Soda Stereo , Charly García and Virus ) . The production tries to reflect 1980s Chilean life in a broad appeal to audiences . A Colombian version debuted on RCN Televisión on September 18 , 2014 to low ratings . Symmathites , a Greek version , airs on Antenna TV . In Mexico , TV Azteca bought the rights for a local version in production as of November 2013 . The original telenovela has aired in Panama , El Salvador and Nicaragua .
= Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp =
" Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " is the eighteenth episode of the third season of the American television series 30 Rock . It was directed by series producer Don Scardino , and written by executive story editor Kay Cannon and script co @-@ coordinator Tracey Wigfield . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on April 16 , 2009 . Guest stars in the episode include Todd Buonopane , Kerry Butler , Danielle Flora , Mary Catherine Garrison , Christina Gausas , and Elizabeth Marvel .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) meets a new group of friends ( Butler , Garrison , Gausas , and Marvel ) while on suspension from work . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) is worried that Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) Janis Joplin biographical film will not get released and tries to promote the movie at the Kids ' Choice Awards . However , following a mix @-@ up , the world believes Jenna is dead and Jack tries to use her death to further hype the film .
" Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " received generally positive reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 7 @.@ 324 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 3 @.@ 5 rating / 9 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
A sexual harassment lawsuit was filed against Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) in the previous episode , and she must take a sexual harassment training as a result . In addition , she cannot return to work until she is done with her training . Liz , however , cannot handle life without work , as she needs the stress . Her attitude changes when she meets one of her neighbors , Emily ( Elizabeth Marvel ) . She understands how Liz feels because she was just like Liz and tells her there are better ways to live . Liz hangs out with Emily and her friends ( Mary Catherine Garrison , Kerry Butler , and Christina Gausas ) , who spend majority of their time getting spa treatments and going shopping . Liz gets so caught up in their lifestyle that she forgets to watch her show , The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) . Not wanting to come back to work — as she is intrigued by her new friends ' lifestyle — Liz sexually harasses her counselor , Jeffrey Weinerslav ( Todd Buonopane ) . She goes back to hanging out with Emily and her friends , but soon discovers that they are a Girl Fight Club , which disappoints Liz . In order for her to get out , Liz needs to fight them .
Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) informs Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) that her unlicensed Janis Joplin biopic is hard to sell due to test audiences not liking it . They decide to up the PR by going to the Kids Choice Awards where Jenna discovers that she is dead . She is accidentally put in the memorial montage at the show , which Jack decides to use as an advantage for the film . He tells her that all she has to do is stay out of the public eye until he sells the movie . At the same time , all employees from the 30 Rock building need to disclose any inter @-@ office relationships . NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) discloses that he fantasizes about marrying a TGS dancer , named Daphne ( Danielle Flora ) , but discovers that " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) is dating her . A minor conflict ensues between them , but ends when Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) decides to mediate this . As a result , Tracy fires Daphne , but this backfires when the other dancers refuse to work . This prompts Tracy to solve this problem by hiring new dancers .
Jack tells TGS producer , Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , to do an on air tribute of Jenna on the show . On the TGS set , a huge poster of Jenna is hung with her real birthday and death date . When Jenna sees that her real birth date is displayed , she comes out of hiding and appears on stage to cover the poster . After witnessing this , Liz confronts Jenna and Tracy for their behavior , but is glad to be back at work .
= = Production = =
" Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " was directed by series producer Don Scardino , and written by executive story editor Kay Cannon and script co @-@ coordinator Tracey Wigfield . This was Cannon 's fourth writing credit , having written the episodes " Black Tie " , " Somebody to Love " , and " Christmas Special " , and was Wigfield 's first writing credit . This was Scardino 's nineteenth directed episode . " Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " originally aired on April 16 , 2009 , on NBC in the United States as the eighteenth episode of the show 's third season .
" Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " was filmed on February 11 , 2009 . This was the last time the show referenced Jenna trying to play singer Janis Joplin in a feature film . This plot first began in the January 8 , 2009 , episode " Señor Macho Solo " in which Jenna auditions to play the singer in a biographical movie . This was actor Todd Buonopane 's third appearance as the character Jeffrey Weinerslav , an NBC Human Resource mediator . Buonopane previously appeared in the season three episodes " Believe in the Stars " and " Cutbacks " . In this episode , Today show co @-@ host Meredith Vieira is referenced , in which Kenneth reveals that Vieira made him eat an unripe banana in front of her , which Kenneth believes was sexual harassment . Vieira has played herself in the series numerous times . During the on air tribute for Jenna in " Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " , a 1980s Cling Free commercial featuring Jane Krakowski aired as part of Jenna 's youth as a child star .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " was watched by 7 @.@ 324 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It also achieved a 3 @.@ 5 rating / 9 share in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This episode went up 7 percent from the previous episode , " Cutbacks " , and was the sixth highest @-@ rated show on the NBC network that week .
" Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " was well received among television critics . Entertainment Weekly 's Aly Semingran thought that the episode " had the most laughs @-@ per @-@ minute than any other episode this season " . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger praised " Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " , describing it as " one of the better 30 Rock 's of late " and said that it featured " a good character arc " for Liz , " a too @-@ rare pairing " between Jenna and Jack , and a " great tie @-@ it @-@ all @-@ together climax " in which Liz " giddy and bruised " terrifies Jenna and Tracy upon her return . The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin felt that it was " very solid " and gave it a B + . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad said it was " great to see " the show carry its two plots , from previous episodes — Liz 's sexual harassment and Jenna 's movie — in " Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " . Rick Porter of Zap2it was complimentary towards the episode , citing that it was a " pretty absurd episode of the show and [ made ] it all that much funnier . " Porter enjoyed Jenna 's story , including the pairing of her and Jack , writing that it " worked really well " and " played both to Jenna 's endless well of vanity and her utter ignorance of how to work the PR machine " . He opined that this episode " better showcased " Jane Krakowski in the season .
= Admiral David G. Farragut ( Ream statue ) =
Admiral David G. Farragut is a statue in Washington , D.C. honoring David Farragut , a career military officer who served as the first admiral in the United States Navy . The monument is sited in the center of Farragut Square , a city square in downtown Washington , D.C. The statue was sculpted by female artist Vinnie Ream , whose best known works include a statue of Abraham Lincoln and several statues in the National Statuary Hall Collection . The monument was dedicated in 1881 in an extravagant ceremony attended by President James A. Garfield , members of his cabinet , and thousands of spectators . It was the first monument erected in Washington , D.C. in honor of a naval war hero .
The statue is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , which were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 . The bronze statue , which rests on a granite base , was cast from the USS Hartford bronze propellers and not from enemy cannon like most Civil War monuments in the city . The monument and surrounding park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
David Farragut ( 1801 – 1870 ) was a career military officer who first saw combat during the War of 1812 at the age of 9 . He served on the USS Essex and was captured by the British . After the war , Farragut fought pirates in the West Indies on the ship USS Ferret , his first command of a United States Navy vessel . He also fought in the Mexican – American War and oversaw the construction of the Mare Island Naval Shipyard in San Francisco . Although Farragut and his wife were Southerners , they remained loyal to the United States during the Civil War . His success in capturing New Orleans resulted in Farragut being honored with a new title created by the Navy , rear admiral . He continued to have great success in defeating Confederate forces , most notably at the Battle of Mobile Bay , where he uttered his famous phrase " Damn the torpedoes ! Full speed ahead ! " Following the war , President Andrew Johnson promoted Farragut to admiral , the first U.S. naval officer to receive the title .
Soon after Farragut 's death in 1870 , there were calls
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for a memorial to honor the naval hero . Representative Nathaniel P. Banks introduced a resolution in Congress for the erection of a monument to Farragut . The resolution stated that the statue was to be " after a design molded from life " , a subtle caveat intended to assist someone Banks already had in mind to create the statue , sculptor Horatio Stone of Washington , D.C. , who claimed to have met Farragut and had already begun working on a statue . Bank 's resolution was referred to the Joint Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds , where the committee chose to hold a competition , much to the dismay of Stone . Sculptors were only given sixty days to submit models of the statue , but when the congressional act approving the monument passed on April 16 , 1872 , the resolution was amended and the deadline for design submissions was extended by nine months .
Vinnie Ream ( 1847 – 1914 ) , a sculptor who at age nineteen had received the first government commission ever granted a female artist when she created a bust of President Abraham Lincoln , began working on a bust of Farragut , whom she had met several times . Farragut 's widow , Virginia , admired Ream 's design and became a strong advocate for the artist 's model to be selected . Virginia wrote letters of endorsement to committee members and supplied Ream with the names of Farragut 's friends so that they too would offer their endorsements to the committee . There were thirteen artists who submitted models with Ream being the only woman . Their designs were displayed in the basement of the United States Capitol and several were severely criticized by the press , most notably the models by J. Wilson MacDonald , Randolph Rogers , and Edward Watson .
Stone and Ream 's model received the most praise . Stone 's model was praised by several naval officers who called it " true to life " and " unsurpassed by similar works . " Ream 's model received praise from several high profile individuals , most notably President Ulysses S. Grant , who called it " first rate " . Admiral David Dixon Porter said the model " of Miss Vinnie Ream is the only likeness in the lot . " General William Tecumseh Sherman , who was reportedly infatuated with Ream , also became a strong advocate for her model . He wrote to the committee that " the plaster model of Vinnie Ream struck me decidedly as the best likeness , and recalled the memory of the Admiral 's face and figure more perfectly than any other model there on exhibition . " The decision by the committee ultimately ended in a three @-@ way tie between Ream , Stone , and MacDonald . The project stalled until the next Congress convened in 1874 . A commission to select the winning model was created and consisted of Virginia , Sherman , and Secretary of the Navy George M. Robeson . Virginia and Sherman voted to approve Ream 's design , though Robeson refused to accept the result and tried in vain to convince Virginia to change her mind . Two months after the vote , Robeson relented and Ream 's model was officially selected .
Ream was awarded $ 20 @,@ 000 for the design and worked on the statue for the next few years . She consulted Virginia and incorporated her suggestions , much to the delight of Virginia . In 1879 , Ream announced that the model was ready to be cast and that the process would take place at the Washington Navy Yard , which had never before cast such a large statue . She continued to perfect the model while at the Navy Yard , much to the delight of the sailors . Although many of the city 's statues of military heroes were cast from captured enemy cannon , Farragut 's statue was cast from the USS Hartford bronze propellers that were removed and shipped to the Navy Yard . The amount of bronze yielded from the propellers was enough not only for the statue , but the four mortars on the corners of the statue base .
The site chosen for the statue was Farragut Square , a park renamed in honor of the admiral shortly after his death . The original dedication date , March 4 , 1881 , was pushed back because the statue base wasn 't ready . The base did not arrive until April 20 , five days before the dedication , resulting in Ream 's husband , Lieutenant Richard L. Hoxie , working around the clock with a crew of workers to make sure the site was ready . The base was completed and statue erected just hours before the ceremony began .
= = = Dedication = = =
The statue was dedicated at 1 pm on April 25 , 1881 , becoming the first monument erected in Washington , D.C. in honor of a naval war hero . Government employees were dismissed at noon , the same time a procession began at the base of Capitol Hill . The military contingent , led by Commodore Charles H. Baldwin , moved west on Pennsylvania Avenue , where houses were decorated with bunting , and past the White House , before heading north on Connecticut Avenue . The homes surrounding the square were decorated with streamers and flags . Nearly 4 @,@ 000 invited guests , including members of the Grand Army of the Republic and fellow sailors who served alongside Farragut , listened to John Philip Sousa conduct the Marine Band as they filled three temporary stands that were built on three sides of the statue . Distinguished guests included President James A. Garfield and his wife , Lucretia , members of the President 's cabinet , Virginia Farragut , and Ream .
An opening prayer was led by Reverend Arthur Brooks followed by the statue being unveiled by two members of Farragut 's Hartford crew , Quartermaster C. B. Knowles and Boatswain James Wiley . When the statue was unveiled , the Marine Band began playing a march and a seventeen gun salute was fired from nearby Lafayette Square . Secretary of the Navy William H. Hunt then introduced the President , who formally accepted the statue on behalf of the American people and gave a brief address . He stated : " Today we come to hail this hero , who comes from the sea , down from the shrouds of his flagship , wreathed with the smoke and glory of victory , bringing 60 years of national life and honor , to take his place as an honored compatriot and perpetual guardian of his Nation 's glory . In the name of the Nation I accept this noble statue , and his country will guard it as he guarded his country . " Speeches were then given by former Postmaster General Horace Maynard and Senator Daniel W. Voorhees followed by the Marine Band playing " Hail to the Chief " and another seventeen gun salute . At the conclusion of the ceremony , the military procession saluted the statue as they marched back down Connecticut Avenue , past the White House , and down Pennsylvania Avenue .
= = = Later history = = =
The Farragut statue is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , which were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 20 , 1978 , and the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites on March 3 , 1979 . It is one of the few Civil War monuments that is a not an equestrian sculpture . The others are the Dupont Circle Fountain , Stephenson Grand Army of the Republic Memorial , Nuns of the Battlefield , the Peace Monument , and statues of Brigadier General Albert Pike and General John A. Rawlins . The monument and park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = Design and location = =
The statue is located in the center of Farragut Square , a park in downtown Washington , D.C. , bordered by K Street ( north ) , I Street ( south ) , and 17th Street NW ( east and west ) . Two sidewalks bisect the park from the northwest to southeast corners , running along either side of the statue , on axis with Connecticut Avenue . Another sidewalk leads from the northeast to southwest corners and runs along the statue . A small , ornamental iron fence surrounds the statue base .
The bronze statue measures 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) tall , 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide , and 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) long . Farragut is depicted in his military uniform and standing on the deck of his ship , facing south towards the White House . His right knee is bent as his right foot rests on a capstan . He is holding a telescope with both hands . The base , made of granite from Rockland , Maine , is 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) tall , 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) long , and 24 ft ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide . It is a square , three @-@ tiered base with a chopped mortar on each corner . The inscription " FARRAGUT " is on the front of the base . Inside the base is a box containing documents related to Farragut 's career , a history of the sculpture , a copy of the Army and Navy Register , and a bronze model of the propeller used to cast the statue and mortars .
= Blonde on Blonde =
Blonde on Blonde is the seventh studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Bob Dylan , released on May 16 , 1966 , on Columbia Records . Recording sessions began in New York in October 1965 with numerous backing musicians , including members of Dylan 's live backing band , the Hawks . Though sessions continued until January 1966 , they yielded only one track that made it onto the final album — " One of Us Must Know ( Sooner or Later ) " . At producer Bob Johnston 's suggestion , Dylan , keyboardist Al Kooper , and guitarist Robbie Robertson moved to the CBS studios in Nashville , Tennessee . These sessions , augmented by some of Nashville 's top session musicians , were more fruitful , and in February and March all the remaining songs for the album were recorded .
Blonde on Blonde completed the trilogy of rock albums that Dylan recorded in 1965 and 1966 , starting with Bringing It All Back Home and Highway 61 Revisited . Critics often rank Blonde on Blonde as one of the greatest albums of all time . Combining the expertise of Nashville session musicians with a modernist literary sensibility , the album 's songs have been described as operating on a grand scale musically , while featuring lyrics one critic called " a unique mixture of the visionary and the colloquial " . It was one of the first double albums in rock music .
The album peaked at number nine on the Billboard 200 chart in the US , where it eventually was certified double platinum , and it reached number three in the UK . Blonde on Blonde spawned two singles that were top @-@ twenty hits in the US : " Rainy Day Women # 12 & 35 " and " I Want You " . Two additional songs , " Just Like a Woman " and " Visions of Johanna " , have been named as among Dylan 's greatest compositions and were featured in Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list .
= = Recording sessions = =
= = = Background = = =
After the release of Highway 61 Revisited in August 1965 , Dylan set about hiring a touring band . Guitarist Mike Bloomfield and keyboard player Al Kooper had backed Dylan on his new album and at Dylan 's controversial electric debut at the 1965 Newport Folk Festival . Bloomfield chose not to tour with Dylan , preferring to remain with the Paul Butterfield Blues Band . After backing him at concerts in late August and early September , Kooper informed Dylan he did not wish to continue touring with him . Dylan 's manager , Albert Grossman , was in the process of setting up a grueling concert schedule that would keep Dylan on the road for the next nine months , touring the U.S. , Australia , and Europe . Dylan contacted a group who were performing as Levon and the Hawks , consisting of Levon Helm from Arkansas and four Canadian musicians : Robbie Robertson , Rick Danko , Richard Manuel and Garth Hudson . They had come together as a band in Canada , backing American rocker Ronnie Hawkins . Two people had strongly recommended the Hawks to Dylan : Mary Martin , the executive secretary of Albert Grossman , and blues singer John Hammond , Jr . , son of record producer John Hammond , who had signed Dylan to Columbia Records in 1961 ; the Hawks had backed the younger Hammond on his 1965 album So Many Roads .
Dylan rehearsed with the Hawks in Toronto on September 15 , where they were playing a hometown residency at Friar 's Club , and on September 24 , they made their debut in Austin , Texas . Two weeks later , encouraged by the success of their Texas performance , Dylan took the Hawks into Studio A of Columbia Records in New York City . Their immediate task was to record a hit single as the follow @-@ up to " Positively 4th Street " , but Dylan was already shaping his next album , the third one that year backed by rock musicians .
= = = New York sessions = = =
Producer Bob Johnston , who had overseen the recording of Highway 61 Revisited , started work with Dylan and the Hawks at Columbia Studio A , 799 Seventh Avenue , New York , on October 5 . They concentrated on a new arrangement of " Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window ? " , a song recorded during the Highway 61 Revisited sessions but not included on that album . Three further numbers were attempted , but none progressed into completed songs . Both the fragmentary " Jet Pilot " and " I Wanna Be Your Lover " , a quasi @-@ parody of the Beatles ' " I Wanna Be Your Man " , finally appeared on the 1985 box set retrospective , Biograph . Also attempted were two takes of " Medicine Sunday " , a song that later evolved into " Temporary Like Achilles " .
On November 30 , the Hawks joined Dylan again at Studio A , but drummer Bobby Gregg replaced Levon Helm , who had tired of playing in a backing band and quit . They began work on a new composition , " Freeze Out " , which was later retitled " Visions of Johanna " , but Dylan wasn 't satisfied with the results . One of the November 30 recordings was eventually released on The Bootleg Series Vol . 7 : No Direction Home : The Soundtrack in 2005 . At this session , they completed " Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window ? " The song was released as a single in December , but only reached number 58 on the American charts .
Dylan spent most of December in California , performing a dozen concerts with his band , and then took a break through the third week in January following the birth of his son Jesse . On January 21 , 1966 , he returned to Columbia 's Studio A to record another long composition , " She 's Your Lover Now " , accompanied by the Hawks ( this time with Sandy Konikoff on drums ) . Despite nineteen takes , the session failed to yield any complete recordings . Dylan did not attempt the song again , but one of the outtakes from the January 21 session finally appeared 25 years later on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 ( Rare & Unreleased ) 1961 – 1991 . ( Although the song breaks down at the start of the last verse , Columbia released it as the most complete take from the session . )
Around this time , Dylan became disillusioned about using the Hawks in the studio . He recorded more material at Studio A on January 25 , backed by drummer Bobby Gregg , bassist Rick Danko ( or Bill Lee ) , guitarist Robbie Robertson , pianist Paul Griffin , and organist Al Kooper . Two more new compositions were attempted : " Leopard @-@ Skin Pill @-@ Box Hat " and " One of Us Must Know ( Sooner or Later ) " . Dylan was satisfied with " One of Us Must Know " ; the January 25 take was released as a single a few weeks later and was subsequently selected for the album .
Another session took place on January 27 , this time with Robertson , Danko , Kooper and Gregg . Dylan and his band recorded " Leopard @-@ Skin Pill @-@ Box Hat " and " One of Us Must Know ( Sooner or Later ) " again , but Dylan was not satisfied with the recorded performance of either song . Also at this session Dylan attempted a rough performance of " I 'll Keep It With Mine " , a song which he had already recorded twice as a demo . The musicians added some tentative backing in a rendering biographer Clinton Heylin described as " cursory " . The recording was ultimately released on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 in 1991 .
A shortage of new material and the slow progress of the sessions contributed to Dylan 's decision to cancel three additional recording dates . Six weeks later Dylan confided to critic Robert Shelton , " Oh , I was really down . I mean , in ten recording sessions , man , we didn 't get one song ... It was the band . But you see , I didn 't know that . I didn 't want to think that " .
= = = Move to Nashville = = =
Recognizing Dylan 's dissatisfaction with the progress of the recordings , producer Bob Johnston suggested that they move the sessions to Nashville . Johnston lived there and had extensive experience working with Nashville session musicians . He recalled how Dylan manager Albert Grossman , was hostile to the idea : " Grossman came up to me and said ' If you ever mention Nashville to Dylan again , you 're gone . ' I said , ' What do you mean ? ' He said , ' You heard me . We got a thing going here ' " . Despite Grossman 's opposition , Dylan agreed to Johnston 's suggestion , and preparations were made to record the album at Columbia 's A Studio on Nashville 's Music Row in February 1966 .
In addition to Kooper and Robertson , who accompanied Dylan from New York , Johnston recruited harmonica player , guitarist and bassist Charlie McCoy , guitarist Wayne Moss , guitarist and bassist Joe South , and drummer Kenny Buttrey . At Dylan 's request , Johnston removed the baffles — partitions separating the musicians so that there was " an ambience fit for an ensemble " . Buttrey credited the distinctive sound of the album to Johnston 's re @-@ arrangement of the studio , " as if we were on a tight stage , as opposed to playing in a big hall where you 're ninety miles apart " . Dylan had a piano installed in his Nashville hotel room which Kooper would play to help Dylan write lyrics . Kooper would then teach the tunes to the musicians before Dylan arrived for the sessions .
On the first Nashville session , on February 14 , Dylan successfully recorded " Visions of Johanna " , which he had attempted several times in New York . Also recorded was a take of " 4th Time Around " which made it onto the album and a take of " Leopard @-@ Skin Pill @-@ Box Hat " which did not .
On February 15 the session began at 6 p.m. but Dylan simply sat in the studio working on his lyrics while the musicians played cards , napped and chatted . Finally , at 4 a.m. , Dylan called the musicians in and outlined the structure of the song . Dylan counted off and the musicians fell in , as he attempted his epic composition " Sad Eyed Lady of the Lowlands " . Kenny Buttrey recalled , " If you notice that record , that thing after like the second chorus starts building and building like crazy , and everybody 's just peaking it up ' cause we thought , Man , this is it ... This is gonna be the last chorus and we 've gotta put everything into it we can . And he played another harmonica solo and went back down to another verse and the dynamics had to drop back down to a verse kind of feel ... After about ten minutes of this thing we 're cracking up at each other , at what we were doing . I mean , we peaked five minutes ago . Where do we go from here ? " The finished song clocked in at 11 minutes , 23 seconds , and would occupy the entire fourth side of the album .
The next session began similarly — Dylan spent the afternoon writing lyrics , and the session continued into the early hours of February 17 , when the musicians began to record " Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again " . After several musical revisions and false starts , the fourteenth take was the version selected for the album .
= = = Recording sessions in Nashville = = =
Most accounts of recording Blonde on Blonde , including those by Dylan scholars Clinton Heylin and Michael Gray , agree that there were two blocks of recording sessions : February 14 – 17 and March 8 – 10 , 1966 . This chronology is based on the logs and files kept by Columbia Records .
Dylan and the Hawks performed concerts in Ottawa , Montreal , and Philadelphia in February and March , and then Dylan resumed recording in Nashville on March 8 . On that date , Dylan and the musicians recorded the take of " Absolutely Sweet Marie " that Dylan selected for the album . Historian Sean Wilentz observed that " with the sound of ' Sweet Marie ' , Blonde on Blonde entered fully and sublimely into what is now considered classic rock and roll " . The same day saw the successful takes of " Just Like a Woman " , and " Pledging My Time " , the latter " driven by Robertson 's screaming guitar " .
According to Wilentz the final recording session , on March 9 – 10 , produced six songs in 13 hours of studio time . The first number to be recorded to Dylan 's satisfaction was " Most Likely You Go Your Way And I 'll Go Mine " , when McCoy reinforced on trumpet a musical phrase Dylan played on his harmonica , changing the sound of the song radically . Dylan and his band then quickly recorded " Temporary Like Achilles " . The session atmosphere began to " get giddy " around midnight when Dylan roughed out " Rainy Day Women # 12 & 35 " on the piano . Johnston recalled commenting ; " That sounds like the damn Salvation Army band " . Dylan replied ; " Can you get one ? " Johnston then telephoned trombonist Wayne Butler , the only additional musician required , and Dylan and the band , with McCoy again on trumpet , played a high @-@ spirited version of the song .
In quick succession Dylan and the musicians then recorded " Obviously 5 Believers " and a final take of " Leopard @-@ Skin Pill @-@ Box Hat " powered by Robertson 's lead guitar . The session concluded with " I Want You " on which , as Wilentz notes , " Wayne Moss 's rapid @-@ fire sixteenth notes on the guitar " are an impressive element of the recording .
= = = = Disagreement over Nashville recording dates = = = =
Al Kooper , who played keyboards on every track of Blonde on Blonde , has contested the conventional account that there were two blocks of recording sessions in Nashville . In comments on Michael Gray 's website , Kooper wrote : " There was only ONE trip to Nashville for Robbie and I , and ALL THE TRACKS were cut in that one visit " , stating that Dylan merely broke for an outstanding concert . Charlie McCoy agreed with Kooper 's version . Wilentz analyzed the recording of Blonde on Blonde in his book Bob Dylan In America , concluding that the " official " documented version fits Dylan 's known touring schedule , and notes that five of the eight songs first recorded after " Stuck Inside of Mobile With The Memphis Blues Again " , but none of those recorded earlier , include a middle @-@ eight section — Dylan 's first extensive foray as a writer into that conventional structure " .
= = = Mixing and album title = = =
Dylan mixed the album in Los Angeles in early April , before he departed on the Australian leg of his 1966 world tour . Wilentz writes that it was at this point it became " obvious that the riches of the Nashville sessions could not fit onto a single LP " , and they had " produced enough solid material to demand an oddly configured double album , the first of its kind in contemporary popular music " . According to producer Steve Berkowitz , who supervised the reissue of Dylan 's LPs in mono as The Original Mono Recordings in 2010 , Johnston told him that they carefully worked on the mono mix for about three or four days whereas the stereo mix was finished in about four hours .
Al Kooper recalled that both the album title , Blonde on Blonde , and song titles arrived during the mixing sessions . " When they were mixing it , we were sitting around and Bob Johnston came in and said , ' What do you want to call this ? ' And [ Bob ] just like said them out one at a time ... Free association and silliness , I 'm sure , played a big role . " Another Dylan chronicler , Oliver Trager , notes that besides spelling out the initials of Dylan 's first name , the album title is also a riff on Brecht on Brecht , a stage production based on works by German playwright Bertolt Brecht that had influenced his early songwriting . Dylan himself has said of the title : " Well , I don 't even recall exactly how it came up , but I know it was all in good faith ... I don 't know who thought of that . I certainly didn 't . "
= = Songs = =
" Rainy Day Women # 12 & 35 "
According to author Andy Gill , by starting his new album with what sounded like " a demented marching @-@ band ... staffed by crazy people out of their mind on loco @-@ weed " , Dylan delivered his biggest shock yet for his former folkie fans . The elaborate puns on getting stoned combine a sense of paranoiac persecution with " nudge @-@ nudge wink @-@ wink bohemian hedonism " . Heylin points out that the Old Testament connotations of getting stoned made the Salvation Army @-@ style musical backing seem like a good joke . The enigmatic title came about , Heylin suggests , because Dylan knew a song entitled " everybody must get stoned " would be kept off the airwaves . Heylin links the title to the Book of Proverbs , chapter 27 , verse 15 : " A continual dropping in a very rainy day and a contentious woman are alike . " Released as a single on March 22 , 1966 , " Rainy Day Women " reached number two on the Billboard singles chart , and number seven in the UK .
" Pledging My Time "
Following the good @-@ time fun of " Rainy Day Women # 12 & 35 " , the Chicago blues @-@ influenced " Pledging My Time " sets the somber tone that runs through the album . It draws on several traditional blues songs , including Elmore James ' recording of " It Hurts Me Too " . For critic Michael Gray , the lines " Somebody got lucky but it was an accident " echo the lines " Some joker got lucky , stole her back again " from Robert Johnson 's " Come On in My Kitchen " , which is itself an echo of the Skip James 1931 recording " Devil Got My Woman " . Gray suggests that " the gulping movements of the melodic phrases " derive from the melody of " Sitting on Top of the World " , recorded by the Mississippi Sheiks in 1930 . The couplet at the end of each verse expresses the theme : a pledge made to a prospective lover in hopes she " will come through , too " . Besides Dylan 's vocals and improvised harmonica breaks , the song 's sound is defined by Robbie Robertson 's guitar , Hargus " Pig " Robbins 's blues piano and Ken Buttrey 's snare drum rolls . The song was released in edited form as the B @-@ side of " Rainy Day Women # 12 & 35 " in March .
" Visions of Johanna "
Considered by many critics as one of Dylan 's masterpieces , " Visions of Johanna " proved difficult to capture on tape . Heylin places the writing in the fall of 1965 , when Dylan was living in the Chelsea Hotel with his wife Sara . In the New York recording studio , on November 30 , Dylan announced his epic composition : " This is called ' Freeze Out ' . " Gill notes that this working title captures the " air of nocturnal suspension in which the verse tableaux are sketched ... full of whispering and muttering . " Wilentz relates how Dylan guided his backing musicians through fourteen takes , trying to sketch out how he wanted it played , saying at one point , " it 's not hard rock , The only thing in it that 's hard is Robbie . " Wilentz notes that , as Dylan quiets things down , he inches closer to what will appear on the album .
Ten weeks later , " Visions of Johanna " fell into place quickly in the Nashville studio . Kooper recalled that he and Robertson had become adept at responding to Dylan 's vocal and also singled out Joe South 's contribution of " this throbbing ... rhythmically amazing bass part " . Gill comments that the song begins by contrasting two lovers , the carnal Louise , and " the more spiritual but unattainable " Johanna . Ultimately , for Gill , the song seeks to convey how the artist is compelled to keep striving to pursue some elusive vision of perfection . For Heylin , the triumph of the song is in " the way Dylan manages to write about the most inchoate feelings in such a vivid , immediate way . "
" One of Us Must Know ( Sooner or Later ) "
When Dylan arrived at the studio on January 25 , 1966 , he had yet to work out the lyrics and title for what was to become the closing track on Blonde on Blonde 's first side . With Dylan piecing together the song 's sections , and the chorus that gives the song its title only emerging on take five , the session stretched through the night and into the next morning . It was not until the fifteenth take that a full version was recorded . Dylan and the band persisted until they recorded take 24 which closed the session and made it onto the album four months later . Critic Jonathan Singer credits Griffin 's piano for binding the song together : " At the chorus , Griffin unleashes a symphony ; hammering his way up and down the keyboard , half Gershwin , half gospel , all heart . The follow @-@ up , a killer left hand figure that links the chorus to the verse , releases none of the song 's tension . "
" One of Us Must Know " is a straightforward account of a burned @-@ out relationship . Dissecting what went wrong , the narrator takes a defensive attitude in a one @-@ sided conversation with his former lover . As he presents his case in the opening verse , it appears he is incapable of either acknowledging his part or limiting the abuse : " I didn 't mean to treat you so bad . You don 't have to take it so personal . I didn 't mean to make you so sad . You just happened to be there , that 's all . " " One of Us Must Know " was the first recording completed for Blonde on Blonde and the only one selected from the New York sessions . The song was released as the first single from the album on February 14 , the same day Dylan began to record in Nashville . It failed to appear on the American charts , but reached number 33 in the UK .
" I Want You "
Andy Gill notes that the song displays a tension between the very direct tone of the chorus , the repeated phrase " I want you " , and a weird and complex cast of characters , " too numerous to inhabit the song 's three minutes comfortably " , including a guilty undertaker , a lonesome organ grinder , weeping fathers , mothers , sleeping saviors , the Queen of Spades , and the " dancing child with his Chinese suit " . Analyzing the evolution of the lyrics through successive drafts , Wilentz writes that there are numerous failures , " about deputies asking him his name ... lines about fathers going down hugging one another and about their daughters putting him down because he isn 't their brother " . Finally Dylan arrives at the right formula .
Heylin points out that the gorgeous tune illustrates what Dylan explained to a reporter in 1966 : " It 's not just pretty words to a tune or putting tunes to words ... [ It 's ] the words and the music [ together ] — I can hear the sound of what I want to say . " Al Kooper has said that of all the songs that Dylan had outlined to him in his hotel , this was his favorite , so Dylan delayed recording it to the very end of the Nashville sessions , " just to bug him " . Released as a single in June 1966 , shortly before the album Blonde on Blonde , " I Want You " reached number 20 in the USA , and number 16 in the UK .
" Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again "
Recorded at the third Nashville session , this song was the culmination of another epic of simultaneous writing and recording in the studio . Wilentz describes how the lyrics evolved through a surviving part @-@ typed , part @-@ handwritten manuscript page , " which begins ' honey but it 's just too hard ' ( a line that had survived from the very first New York session with the Hawks ) . Then the words meander through random combinations and disconnected fragments and images ( ' people just get uglier ' ; ' banjo eyes ' ; ' he was carrying a 22 but it was only a single shot ' ) , before , in Dylan 's own hand , amid many crossings @-@ out , there appears ' Oh MAMA you 're here IN MOBILE ALABAMA with the Memphis blues again ' . "
Inside the studio , the song evolved through several musical revisions . Heylin writes , " It is the song 's arrangement , and not its lyrics , that occupies the musicians through the wee small hours . " On the fifth take , released in 2005 on the No Direction Home Soundtrack , midtake Dylan stumbles on the formula " Stuck inside of Mobile " on the fourth verse , and never goes back . The song contains two oft @-@ quoted pieces of Dylan 's philosophy : " Your debutante just knows what you need / But I know what you want " and " here I sit so patiently / Waiting to find out what price / You have to pay to get out of / Going through all these things twice " .
" Leopard @-@ Skin Pill @-@ Box Hat "
" Leopard @-@ Skin Pill @-@ Box Hat " is a sarcastic satire on materialism , fashion and faddism . Done in Chicago @-@ blues style , the song derives its melody and part of its lyrics from Lightnin ' Hopkins 's " Automobile ( Blues ) " . Paul Williams writes that its misogynistic attitude is " moderated slightly when one realizes that jealous pique is the underlying emotion " . In the lyrics , the narrator observes his former lover in various situations wearing her " brand new leopard @-@ skin pill @-@ box hat " , at one point finding his doctor with her and later spying her making love with a new boyfriend because she " forgot to close the garage door " . In the closing lines , the narrator says he knows what her boyfriend really loves her for — her hat .
The song evolved over the course of six takes in New York , 13 in the first Nashville session , and then one try on March 10 , the take used for the album . Dylan , who gets credit on the liner notes as lead guitarist , opens the song playing lead ( on the center @-@ right stereo channel ) ; however , Robertson handles the solos with a " searing " performance ( on the left stereo channel ) . A year following the recording , " Leopard @-@ Skin Pill @-@ Box Hat " became the fifth single released from Blonde on Blonde , making it to number 81 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
" Just Like a Woman "
According to Wilentz 's analysis of the session 's tapes , Dylan felt his way into the lyrics of one of his most popular songs , singing " disconnected lines and semi @-@ gibberish " during the earlier takes . He was unsure what the person described in the song does that is just like a woman , rejecting " shakes " , " wakes " , and " makes mistakes " . This exploration of female wiles and feminine vulnerability was widely rumored — " not least by her acquaintances among Andy Warhol 's Factory retinue " — to be about Edie Sedgwick . The reference to Baby 's penchant for " fog ... amphetamine and ... pearls " suggests Sedgwick or some similar debutante , according to Heylin .
Discussing the lyrics , literary critic Christopher Ricks detects a " note of social exclusion " in the line " I was hungry and it was your world " . In response to the accusation that Dylan 's depiction of female strategies is misogynistic , Ricks asks , " Could there ever be any challenging art about men and women where the accusation just didn 't arise ? " The song reached number 33 in the US .
" Most Likely You Go Your Way And I 'll Go Mine "
A bright blues " stomper " about lovers parting , " Most Likely You Go Your Way And I 'll Go Mine " is one of the more literal songs Dylan recorded in his 1965 – 66 period . The narrator has tired of carrying his lover and is going to let her " pass " . As in " Just Like a Woman " and " Absolutely Sweet Marie " , he waits until the end of each verse to deliver the punch line , which in this case comes from the title . " Most Likely You Go Your Way " was issued as a single a year later , in March 1967 , on the B @-@ side of " Leopard @-@ Skin Pill @-@ Box Hat " .
" Temporary Like Achilles "
This slow @-@ moving blues number is highlighted by Hargus " Pig " Robbins 's " dusky barrelhouse piano " and Dylan 's " brief wheeze of harmonica " . In the song , the narrator has been spurned by his lover , who has already taken up with her latest boyfriend . Referring to his rival as " Achilles " , the narrator senses the new suitor may end up being discarded as quickly as he was . The refrain that ends each of the main verses — " Honey , why are you so hard ? " — is a double entendre Dylan had been wanting to work into a song .
" Absolutely Sweet Marie "
This song , described as " up @-@ tempo blues shuffle , pure Memphis " and an example of " obvious pop sensibility and compulsive melody " , was recorded in four takes on March 7 , 1966 . Gill sees the lyrics as a series of sexual metaphors , including " beating on my trumpet " and keys to locked gates , many deriving from traditional blues . Nonetheless , the song contains what has been termed " one of the most oft @-@ repeated of Dylan 's life lessons " , the thought that " to live outside the law you must be honest " , which was later invoked in many bohemian and counter @-@ cultural contexts .
" 4th Time Around "
When The Beatles released their sixth studio album , Rubber Soul , in December 1965 , John Lennon 's song " Norwegian Wood " attracted attention for the way in which Lennon disguised his account of an illicit affair in cryptic , Dylanesque language . Dylan sketched out a response to the song , also in 3 / 4 time , copying the tune and circular structure , but taking Lennon 's tale in a darker direction . Wilentz describes the result as sounding " like Bob Dylan impersonating John Lennon impersonating Bob Dylan " .
" Obviously 5 Believers "
" Obviously 5 Believers " , Blonde on Blonde 's second @-@ to @-@ last track , is a roadhouse blues love song similar in melody and structure to Memphis Minnie 's " Me and My Chauffeur Blues " , and was described by Robert Shelton as " the best R & B song on the album " . Recorded in the early morning hours of the March 9 – 10 Nashville session under the working title " Black Dog Blues " , the song is driven by Robertson 's guitar , Charley McCoy 's harmonica and Ken Buttrey 's drumming . After an initial breakdown , Dylan complained to the band that the song was " very easy , man " and that he didn 't want to spend much time on it . Within four takes , the recording was done .
" Sad Eyed Lady of the Lowlands "
Written in the CBS recording studio in Nashville over the space of eight hours on the night of February 15 – 16 , " Sad Eyed Lady " eventually occupied the whole of side four of Blonde On Blonde . Critics have observed that " Lowlands " hints at " Lownds " , and Dylan biographer Robert Shelton wrote that this was a " wedding song " for Sara Lownds , whom Dylan had married just three months earlier . In his paean to his wife , " Sara " , written in 1975 , Dylan amends history slightly to claim that he stayed " up for days in the Chelsea Hotel / Writin ' ' Sad @-@ Eyed Lady of the Lowlands ' for you " .
When Dylan played Shelton the song , shortly after recording it , he claimed , " This is the best song I 've ever written . " Around the same time , Dylan enthused to journalist Jules Siegel , " Just listen to that ! That 's old @-@ time religious carnival music ! " However , in 1969 , Dylan confessed to Rolling Stone 's editor , Jann Wenner , " I just sat down at a table and started writing ... And I just got carried away with the whole thing ... I just started writing and I couldn 't stop . After a period of time , I forgot what it was all about , and I started trying to get back to the beginning [ laughs ] . "
Heard by some listeners as a hymn to an other @-@ worldly woman , for Shelton " her travails seem beyond endurance , yet she radiates an inner strength , an ability to be reborn . This is Dylan at his most romantic . " Wilentz comments that Dylan 's writing had shifted from the days when he asked questions and supplied answers . Like the verses of William Blake 's " Tyger " , Dylan asks a series of questions about the " Sad Eyed Lady " but never supplies any answers .
= = = Outtakes and The Cutting Edge = = =
The following outtakes were recorded during the Blonde on Blonde sessions .
In 2015 , Dylan released Volume 12 of his Bootleg Series , The Cutting Edge , in three different formats . The 18 @-@ disc Collector 's Edition was described as including " every note recorded during the 1965 – 1966 sessions , every alternate take and alternate lyric . " The 18 CDs contain every take of every song recorded in the studio during the Blonde on Blonde sessions , from October 5 , 1965 , to March 10 , 1966 .
The New York sessions comprise : two takes of " Medicine Sunday " , one take of " Jet Pilot " , twelve takes of " Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window ? " , seven takes of " I Wanna Be Your Lover " , fourteen takes of " Visions of Johanna " , sixteen takes of " She 's Your Lover Now " , four takes of " Leopard @-@ Skin Pill @-@ Box Hat " , twenty @-@ four takes of " One of Us Must Know ( Sooner or Later ) " , one take of " I 'll Keep It with Mine " , and one take of " Lunatic Princess " .
The Nashville sessions comprise : twenty takes of " Fourth Time Around " , four takes of " Visions of Johanna " , fourteen takes of " Leopard @-@ Skin Pill @-@ Box Hat " , four takes of " Sad @-@ Eyed Lady of the Lowlands " , fifteen takes of " Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again " , three takes of " Absolutely Sweet Marie " , eighteen takes of " Just Like a Woman " , three takes of " Pledging My Time " , six takes of " Most Likely You Go Your Way ( And I 'll Go Mine ) " , four takes of " Temporary Like Achilles " , four takes of " Obviously Five Believers " , five takes of " I Want You " , and one take of " Rainy Day Women # 12 & 35 " . The 18 CDs also contain brief recordings of guitar and keyboard inserts .
Describing the process of listening to all these alternative versions , Neil McCormick wrote : " The Cutting Edge allows fans to bear witness to perhaps the most astonishing explosion of language and sound in rock history , a new approach to song being forged before our very ears . "
= = Cover photo = =
The cover photo of Blonde on Blonde shows a 12 @-@ by @-@ 12 inch close @-@ up portrait of Dylan . The double album gatefold sleeve opens to form a 12 @-@ by @-@ 26 inch photo of the artist , at three quarter length . The artist 's name and the album 's title only appear on the spine . A sticker was applied to the shrink wrap to promote the release 's two hit singles , " I Want You " and " Rainy Day Women # 12 & 35 " .
The cover shows Dylan in front of a brick building , wearing a suede jacket and a black and white checkered scarf . The jacket is the same one he wore on his next two albums , John Wesley Harding and Nashville Skyline . The photographer , Jerry Schatzberg , described how the photo was taken :
I wanted to find an interesting location outside of the studio . We went to the west side , where the Chelsea art galleries are now . At the time it was the meat packing district of New York and I liked the look of it . It was freezing and we were very cold . The frame he chose for the cover is blurred and out of focus . Of course everyone was trying to interpret the meaning , saying it must represent getting high on an LSD trip . It was none of the above ; we were just cold and the two of us were shivering . There were other images that were sharp and in focus but , to his credit , Dylan liked that photograph .
Research by rock historian Bob Egan suggests the location of the cover photo was at 375 West Street , at the extreme west of Greenwich Village . The original inside gatefold featured nine black @-@ and @-@ white photos , all taken by Schatzberg and selected for the sleeve by Dylan himself . A shot of actress Claudia Cardinale from Schatzberg 's portfolio was included but later withdrawn because it had been used without her authorization and Cardinale 's representatives threatened to sue , making the original record sleeve a collector 's item . Dylan included a self @-@ portrait by Schatzberg as a credit to the photographer . The photos , for Gill , added up to " a shadowy glimpse of [ Dylan 's ] life , including an enigmatic posed shot of Dylan holding a small portrait of a woman in one hand and a pair of pliers in the other : they all contributed to the album 's air of reclusive yet sybaritic genius . "
= = Release = =
Blonde on Blonde reached the Top 10 in both the US and UK album charts , and also spawned a number of hits that restored Dylan to the upper echelons of the singles charts . In August 1967 , the album was certified as a gold disc .
Pete Johnson in the Los Angeles Times wrote , " Dylan is a superbly eloquent writer of pop and folk songs with an unmatched ability to press complex ideas and iconoclastic philosophy into brief poetic lines and startling images . " The editor of Crawdaddy ! , Paul Williams , reviewed Blonde on Blonde in July 1966 : " It is a cache of emotion , a well handled package of excellent music and better poetry , blended and meshed and ready to become part of your reality . Here is a man who will speak to you , a 1960s bard with electric lyre and color slides , but a truthful man with x @-@ ray eyes you can look through if you want . All you have to do is listen . "
To accompany the songbook of Blonde on Blonde , Paul Nelson wrote an introduction stating , " The very title suggests the singularity and the duality we expect from Dylan . For Dylan 's music of illusion and delusion — with the tramp as explorer and the clown as happy victim , where the greatest crimes are lifelessness and the inability to see oneself as a circus performer in the show of life — has always carried within it its own inherent tensions ... Dylan in the end truly UNDERSTANDS situations , and once one truly understands anything , there can no longer be anger , no longer be moralizing , but only humor and compassion , only pity . "
= = = Date uncertainty = = =
The dating of the album 's release is uncertain . May 16 , 1966 , has been widely accepted as the official release date ; however , Michael Gray , author of The Bob Dylan Encyclopedia , disputes this . Gray maintains the earliest Blonde on Blonde was available was late June or early July . This coincides with the album 's promotion in Billboard , which carried a full @-@ page Columbia advertisement on June 25 , selected the album as a " New Action LP " on July 9 , and ran a review and article on July 16 . The album debuted on Billboard 's Top LP 's chart on July 23 at # 101 — just six days before Dylan 's motorcycle accident in Woodstock removed him from public view . Roger Ford posits it highly unlikely that a new Bob Dylan album in the mid @-@ 1960s would take a full two months to finally rack up enough weekly sales to appear on the album chart ; another iconic contemporary LP which also has an official 1966 release date of May 16 , Pet Sounds by The Beach Boys , entered the Billboard LP chart less than two weeks after release on May 28 at # 105 . Clinton Heylin argues that early July is the probable release date , stating that an overdub on " Fourth Time Around " was recorded in June . Blonde on Blonde has been described as rock 's first studio double LP by a major artist .
= = Retrospective assessment and legacy = =
Twelve years after its release , Dylan said : " The closest I ever got to the sound I hear in my mind was on individual bands in the Blonde on Blonde album . It 's that thin , that wild mercury sound . It 's metallic and bright gold , with whatever that conjures up . " For critics , the double album was seen as the last installment in Dylan 's trilogy of mid @-@ 1960s rock albums . As Janet Maslin wrote , " The three albums of this period — Bringing It All Back Home and Highway 61 Revisited both released in 1965 , and Blonde on Blonde from 1966 — used their electric instrumentation and rock arrangements to achieve a crashing exuberance Dylan hadn 't approached before . " Mike Marqusee has described Dylan 's output between late 1964 and the summer of 1966 , when he recorded these three albums , as " a body of work that remains unique in popular music . " For Patrick Humphries , " Dylan 's body of work during the 14 @-@ months period ... stands unequalled in rock 's 30 @-@ year history . In substance , style , ambition and achievement , no one has even come close to matching Bringing It All Back Home , Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde . "
Dylan scholar Michael Gray wrote : " To have followed up one masterpiece with another was Dylan 's history making achievement here ... Where Highway 61 Revisited has Dylan exposing and confronting like a laser beam in surgery , descending from outside the sickness , Blonde on Blonde offers a persona awash inside the chaos ... We 're tossed from song to song ... The feel and the music are on a grand scale , and the language and delivery are a unique mixture of the visionary and the colloquial . " Critic Tim Riley wrote : " A sprawling abstraction of eccentric blues revisionism , Blonde on Blonde confirms Dylan 's stature as the greatest American rock presence since Elvis Presley . " Biographer Robert Shelton saw the album as " a hallmark collection that completes his first major rock cycle , which began with Bringing It All Back Home " . Summing up the album 's achievement , Shelton wrote that Blonde on Blonde " begins with a joke and ends with a hymn ; in between wit alternates with a dominant theme of entrapment by circumstances , love , society , and unrealized hope ... There 's a remarkable marriage of funky , bluesy rock expressionism , and Rimbaud @-@ like visions of discontinuity , chaos , emptiness , loss , being ' stuck ' . "
That sense of crossing cultural boundaries was , for Al Kooper , at the heart of Blonde on Blonde : " [ Bob Dylan ] was the quintessential New York hipster — what was he doing in Nashville ? It didn 't make any sense whatsoever . But you take those two elements , pour them into a test tube , and it just exploded . " For Mike Marqusee , Dylan had succeeded in combining traditional blues material with modernist literary techniques : " [ Dylan ] took inherited idioms and boosted them into a modernist stratosphere . ' Pledging My Time ' and ' Obviously 5 Believers ' adhered to blues patterns that were venerable when Dylan first encountered them in the mid @-@ fifties ( both begin with the ritual Delta invocation of " early in the mornin " ) . Yet like ' Visions of Johanna ' or ' Memphis Blues Again ' , these songs are beyond category . They are allusive , repetitive , jaggedly abstract compositions that defy reduction . "
Blonde on Blonde has been consistently highly placed in polls of the greatest albums of all time . In 1974 , the writers of NME voted Blonde on Blonde the number @-@ two album of all time . Demonstrating the transitory nature of such polls , in 1997 the album was placed at number 16 in a " Music of the Millennium " poll conducted by HMV , Channel 4 , The Guardian and Classic FM . In 2006 , TIME magazine included the record on their 100 All @-@ TIME Albums list . In 2003 , the album was ranked number nine on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . In 2004 , two songs from the album also appeared on the magazine 's list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " : " Just Like a Woman " ranked number 230 and " Visions of Johanna " number 404 . ( When Rolling Stone updated this list in 2010 , " Just Like a Woman " dropped to number 232 and " Visions of Johanna " to number 413 . ) The album was additionally included in critic Robert Dimery 's book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Bob Dylan .
= = Personnel = =
The personnel involved in making Blonde on Blonde is subject to some discrepancy :
Bob Dylan – vocals , guitar , harmonica , piano
Additional musicians
Bill Aikins – keyboards
Wayne Butler – trombone
Kenneth Buttrey – drums
Rick Danko or Bill Lee – bass guitar ( New York )
Bobby Gregg – drums ( New York )
Paul Griffin – piano ( New York )
Jerry Kennedy – guitar
Al Kooper – organ , guitar
Charlie McCoy – bass guitar , guitar , harmonica , trumpet
Wayne Moss – guitar , vocals
Hargus " Pig " Robbins – piano , keyboards
Robbie Robertson – guitar , vocals
Henry Strzelecki – bass guitar
Joe South – bass guitar , guitar
Technical personnel
Bob Johnston – production
Jerry Schatzberg – cover photographer
= = Charts = =
Singles
= 2015 Football League Cup Final =
The 2015 Football League Cup Final was a football match that took place on 1 March 2015 at Wembley Stadium , London . It was the final match of the 2014 – 15 Football League Cup , the 55th season of the Football League Cup , a competition for the 92 teams in the Premier League and the Football League .
It was contested by Chelsea and Tottenham Hotspur in a repeat of the 2008 Football League Cup Final , which the latter team won . Chelsea won 2 – 0 in the 2015 final , with a goal from captain John Terry at the end of the first half , and a second from Diego Costa in the 56th minute . It was Chelsea 's fifth League Cup win , and their first silverware in the second managerial spell of José Mourinho at the club . Chelsea qualified for the next season 's UEFA Europa League by winning the match , but eventually qualified for the UEFA Champions League by winning the Premier League . The Europa League place went to Liverpool , who finished sixth in the Premier League .
Mourinho expressed delight in winning another trophy in his career , while Terry spoke of optimism for Chelsea 's future prospects . Tottenham manager Mauricio Pochettino declared pride in his side despite their defeat .
= = Background = =
Chelsea were playing in their seventh League Cup final , having won four , most recently in 2007 . Their most recent appearance in the final was the first at Wembley , which they lost in 2008 to Tottenham . The game was Chelsea 's first domestic cup final since their victory in the 2012 FA Cup Final . Incumbent Chelsea manager José Mourinho was in charge in their League Cup wins in 2005 and 2007 , and squad
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members Petr Čech , John Terry and Didier Drogba played in both finals , with the latter scoring in both victories . All three also played in the 2008 defeat by Tottenham .
Tottenham were making their eighth appearance in the final , having won four previous times , last of which was in 2008 . The 2008 final was the first at Wembley and was won against Chelsea . Tottenham 's most recent appearance was a defeat against Manchester United in a penalty shootout the following year . Of their squad in the 2014 – 15 season , captain Younès Kaboul was an extra @-@ time substitute in their 2008 victory , while Aaron Lennon – on loan at Everton at the time of the 2015 final – started that match and the defeat in 2009 .
The two teams also played at the old Wembley in the 1967 FA Cup Final , which Tottenham won 2 – 1 . Tottenham 's most recent appearance at Wembley was also against Chelsea , a 5 – 1 defeat in an FA Cup semi @-@ final in 2012 .
By the time of the final , Chelsea and Tottenham had already played each other twice during the league season . On 3 December 2014 , Chelsea hosted a 3 – 0 win , with goals from Eden Hazard , Didier Drogba and substitute Loïc Rémy , despite missing leading scorer Diego Costa through suspension . Tottenham won the reverse fixture 5 – 3 only 29 days later , with Harry Kane scoring twice among further goals from Danny Rose , Andros Townsend ( penalty ) and Nacer Chadli .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Chelsea = = =
Chelsea , of the Premier League , began their League Cup campaign in the third round , where they were drawn at home against Bolton Wanderers of the Championship . Defender Kurt Zouma , making his debut , opened the scoring , but Bolton equalised six minutes later through a Matt Mills header . Ten minutes after the start of the second half , Oscar put Chelsea back into the lead and they won 2 – 1 , dominating the match with 28 shots to Bolton 's 3 .
In the fourth round , Chelsea travelled to the New Meadow to face Shrewsbury Town of League Two . Three minutes after play resumed from a goalless first half , Didier Drogba 's half @-@ volley gave Chelsea the lead , but Shrewsbury gained an equaliser from substitute Andy Mangan . With nine minutes to play , Chelsea regained the advantage when Shrewsbury defender Jermaine Grandison deflected a shot from Willian .
Chelsea again were the away team to a lower opponent in the quarter @-@ finals , facing Derby County of the Championship . In the first half , Eden Hazard gave Chelsea the lead , later doubled by a Filipe Luís free kick , the full @-@ back 's first for Chelsea . Craig Bryson halved the deficit for Derby , but soon afterwards defender Jake Buxton was sent off for a foul on Loïc Rémy and André Schürrle scored the final goal of a 3 – 1 Chelsea win . In the semi @-@ final , Chelsea beat Liverpool 2 – 1 on aggregate after Branislav Ivanović scored the winning goal in the first half of extra time in the second leg , heading in Willian 's free kick .
= = = Tottenham Hotspur = = =
Tottenham , also of the Premier League , began by facing Nottingham Forest at White Hart Lane . After a goalless first half , Jorge Grant gave the visitors from the Championship the lead in the 65th minute . Substitute Ryan Mason equalised six minutes later , and Spurs eventually won 3 – 1 after two late goals from Roberto Soldado and another substitute , Harry Kane .
Tottenham hosted another second @-@ tier opponent in the fourth round , Brighton & Hove Albion , and went into the lead through Érik Lamela , a half @-@ time replacement for Aaron Lennon . Kane later confirmed a 2 – 0 victory .
In the quarter @-@ finals , Tottenham again played at home , against top @-@ flight Newcastle United . Away goalkeeper Jak Alnwick made a mistake which allowed Nabil Bentaleb to give Spurs a half @-@ time lead . Nacer Chadli doubled it 36 seconds into the second half . Kane and his replacement Soldado also scored in the 4 – 0 victory . Tottenham 's semi @-@ final against League One club Sheffield United started with a 1 – 0 home win , Andros Townsend converting a penalty won by Jay McEveley 's handball . A week later in the second leg at Bramall Lane , Tottenham doubled their aggregate lead with Christian Eriksen 's free kick , but in the second half 18 @-@ year @-@ old substitute Che Adams scored twice to equalise the aggregate . With two minutes remaining , Eriksen scored his second to put Tottenham into the final .
= = Match = =
= = = Officials = = =
Anthony Taylor was the referee for the final . It was his first match involving Chelsea since December 2014 , when he erroneously booked Cesc Fàbregas for diving when he had been fouled by Southampton 's Matt Targett ; Taylor apologised to Chelsea for that decision .
= = = Pre @-@ match = = =
Tottenham were eliminated from the last 32 of the 2014 – 15 UEFA Europa League by Fiorentina three days before the final , leading manager Mauricio Pochettino to say that the team needed to recover quickly .
Chelsea manager José Mourinho used his pre @-@ match interview to state that his previous wins in the tournament had changed the way that clubs approach the League Cup : " Lots of teams have followed us since then when we took the League Cup as a real competition , as a real challenge . It is a big competition . " He separated the final from the league season , saying , " I don 't think if we win the cup final we will win the league , or if we lose it we will lose the league . " He refused to discuss the suspension of Matić , dismissing it with " If I speak to you about that , I promise you I will be in big trouble " . Despite opining that the two teams and the match officials would act fairly , he criticised players who dive , despite not naming any names . Mourinho also claimed that in after leaving Chelsea for the first time in September 2007 , he was approached to manage Tottenham by chairman Daniel Levy , and again in 2012 .
= = = Team selection = = =
Chelsea midfielder Nemanja Matić was suspended for the final , due to a two @-@ match ban he received for pushing over Burnley 's Ashley Barnes in a league match on 21 February 2015 . Another central midfielder for the club , John Obi Mikel , missed the match through a knee injury . Due to Matić 's absence , Kurt Zouma – usually a central defender – moved into defensive midfield , with Gary Cahill introduced into Zouma 's previous position . Chelsea made four other changes from their draw with Burnley : Petr Čech started in goal in place of Thibaut Courtois , César Azpilicueta at left @-@ back instead of Filipe Luís , and Ramires and Willian came into the midfield at the expense of Juan Cuadrado and Oscar . Chelsea set up with a three @-@ man attack , with Eden Hazard and Willian wide of Diego Costa .
Tottenham 's second @-@ choice goalkeeper Michel Vorm had played all of their fixtures on their way to the final , but was dropped to the bench and replaced with Hugo Lloris for the decisive game . Compared to their defeat at Fiorentina , Tottenham made three changes in defence , with only Jan Vertonghen retaining his place – Vlad Chiricheș , Federico Fazio and Ben Davies were replaced by Kyle Walker , Eric Dier and Danny Rose , with Chiricheș not even featuring on the substitutes ' bench . Defensive midfielder Benjamin Stambouli and attacking midfielder Érik Lamela were replaced by Ryan Mason and Andros Townsend respectively , with the lone striker position changing from Roberto Soldado to Harry Kane .
= = = Summary = = =
In the 10th minute , Christian Eriksen had the first meaningful shot , hitting the crossbar with a 25 @-@ yard free kick for Tottenham . Twenty minutes later , Eric Dier was given the game 's first yellow card for a foul on Diego Costa . At the end of the first half , Chelsea won a free kick on their right side when Branislav Ivanović was pulled down by Nacer Chadli . Willian took the free kick , which arrived at Kurt Zouma , played it down to captain John Terry . Terry 's shot – Chelsea 's first on target – went past Hugo Lloris due to a deflection by Dier . In added time at the end of the first half , Gary Cahill had a header from a corner , which was caught by Lloris .
Neither side made a substitution at half time . In the 56th minute , Cesc Fàbregas – who had a bicycle kick saved by Lloris – set up Diego Costa , whose shot from the left of the area deflected off Tottenham right @-@ back Kyle Walker and into the net to double Chelsea 's advantage . After conceding their second goal , Tottenham made a series of attacking substitutions – Andros Townsend , Ryan Mason and Chadli made way for Mousa Dembélé , Érik Lamela and Roberto Soldado respectively – but could not change the score . In the 74th minute , Dier 's knee caught César Azpilicueta , drawing blood ; the Chelsea left @-@ back left the pitch to be bandaged and returned two minutes later . There were four minutes of added time , in which Chelsea substituted Costa for Didier Drogba .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Mourinho was pleased to have won the final , earning the 21st trophy of his managerial career : " I am like a kid winning the first one , it 's hard for me to live without titles . I need to feed myself with them . " Terry was optimistic about the club 's prospects for the future , saying , " It is the start of something ... we 've got a great squad , with some great young players , and hungry and experienced players too . It 's a great mix . " Although praising the atmosphere at Wembley , Terry ruled out returning to the England team , for whom he had not played since 2012 . Despite losing , Pochettino expressed pride in his team 's performance .
Matić took part in Chelsea 's trophy ceremony in full kit despite being suspended , similar to what Terry had done after Chelsea won the 2012 UEFA Champions League Final with him suspended . Mourinho did not concur with the official man of the match award going to Terry , stating that the honour should have gone to Thibaut Courtois and Filipe Luís for their performances against Liverpool , and Andreas Christensen for his performance against Shrewsbury Town .
Chelsea qualified for the next season 's UEFA Europa League by winning the match . As they qualified for the UEFA Champions League by winning the Premier League , the Europa League place went to Liverpool , who finished sixth in the Premier League .
= Battle of Jumonville Glen =
The Battle of Jumonville Glen , also known as the Jumonville affair , was the opening battle of the French and Indian War fought on May 28 , 1754 near what is present @-@ day Hopwood and Uniontown in Fayette County , Pennsylvania . A company of colonial militia from Virginia under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Washington , and a small number of Mingo warriors led by Tanacharison ( also known as " Half King " ) , ambushed a force of 35 Canadiens under the command of Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville .
The British colonial force had been sent to protect a fort under construction under the auspices of the Ohio Company at the location of present @-@ day Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . A larger Canadien force had driven off the small construction crew , and sent Jumonville to warn Washington about encroaching on French @-@ claimed territory . Washington was alerted to Jumonville 's presence by Tanacharison , and they joined forces to surround the Canadian camp . Some of the Canadians were killed in the ambush , and most of the others were captured . Jumonville was among the slain , although the exact circumstances of his death are a subject of historical controversy and debate .
Since Britain and France were not then at war , the event had international repercussions , and was a contributing factor in the start of the Seven Years ' War in 1756 . After the action , Washington retreated to Fort Necessity , where Canadian forces from Fort Duquesne compelled his surrender . The terms of Washington 's surrender included a statement ( written in French , a language Washington did not read ) admitting that Jumonville was assassinated . This document and others were used by the French and Canadiens to level accusations that Washington had ordered Jumonville 's slaying .
= = Background = =
Throughout the 1740s and early 1750s , British and Canadian traders had increasingly come into contact in the Ohio Country , including the upper watershed of the Ohio River in what is now western Pennsylvania . Authorities in New France became more aggressive in their efforts to expel British traders and colonists from this area , and in 1753 began construction of a series of fortifications in the area .
The French action drew the attention of not just the British , but also the Indian tribes of the area . Despite good Franco @-@ Indian relations , British traders had become highly successful in convincing the Indians to trade with them in preference to the Canadiens , and the planned large @-@ scale advance was not well received by all . In particular , Tanacharison , a Mingo chief also known as the " Half King " , became decidedly anti @-@ French as a consequence . In a meeting with Paul Marin de la Malgue , commander of the French and Canadien construction force , the latter reportedly lost his temper , and shouted at the Indian chief , " I tell you , down the river I will go . If the river is blocked up , I have the forces to burst it open and tread under my feet all that oppose me . I despise all the stupid things you have said . " He then threw down some wampum that Tanacharison had offered as a good will gesture . Marin died not long after , and command of the operations was turned over to Jacques Legardeur de Saint @-@ Pierre .
Virginia Royal Governor Robert Dinwiddie sent militia Major George Washington to the Ohio Country ( a territory that was claimed by several of the British colonies , including Virginia ) as an emissary in December of 1753 , to tell the French to leave . Saint @-@ Pierre politely informed Washington that he was there pursuant to orders , that Washington 's letter should have been addressed to his commanding officer in Canada , and that he had no intention of leaving .
Washington returned to Williamsburg and informed Governor Dinwiddie that the French refused to leave . Dinwiddie commissioned Washington a lieutenant colonel , and ordered him to begin raising a militia regiment to hold the Forks of the Ohio , a site Washington had identified as a fine location for a fortress . The governor also issued a captain 's commission to Ohio Company employee William Trent , with instructions to raise a small force and immediately begin construction of the fort . Dinwiddie issued these instructions on his own authority , without even asking for funding from the Virginia House of Burgesses until after the fact . Trent 's company arrived on site in February 1754 , and began construction of a storehouse and stockade with the assistance of Tanacharison and the Mingos . That same month a force of 800 Canadien militia and French troupes de la marine departed Montreal for the Ohio River valley under the command of the Canadien Claude @-@ Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur , who took over command from Saint @-@ Pierre . When Contrecœur learned of Trent 's activity , he led a force of about 500 men ( troupes de la marine , militia , and Indians ) to drive them off ( rumors reaching Trent 's men put its size at 1 @,@ 000 ) . On April 16 , Contrecœur 's force arrived at the forks ; the next day , Trent 's force of 36 men , led by Ensign Edward Ward in Trent 's absence , agreed to leave the site . The French then began construction of the fort they called Fort Duquesne .
= = Prelude = =
In March 1754 , Governor Dinwiddie ordered Washington back to the frontier with instructions to " act on the [ defensive ] , but in Case any Attempts are made to obstruct the Works or interrupt our [ settlements ] by any Persons whatsoever , You are to restrain all such Offenders , & in Case of resistance to make Prisoners of or kill & destroy them . " Historian Fred Anderson describes Dinwiddie 's instructions , which were issued without the knowledge or direction of the British government in London , as " an invitation to start a war . " Washington was ordered to gather up as many supplies and paid volunteers as he could along the way . By the time he left for the frontier on April 2 , he had recruited fewer than 160 men .
Along their march through the forests of the frontier , Washington was joined by more men at Winchester . At this point he learned from Captain Trent of the French advance . Trent also brought a message from Tanacharison , who promised warriors to assist the British . To keep Tanacharison 's support , Washington decided not to turn back , choosing instead to advance . He reached a place known as the Great Meadows ( now in Fayette County , Pennsylvania ) , about 37 miles ( 60 km ) south of the forks , began construction of a small fort and awaited further news or instructions .
Contrecœur operated under orders that forbade attacks by his force unless they were provoked . On May 23 , he sent Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville with 35 soldiers ( principally Canadian recruits , but also including French recruits and officers ) to see if Washington had entered French territory , and with a summons to order Washington 's troops out ; this summons was similar in nature to the one Washington had delivered to them four months earlier .
On May 27 , Washington was informed by Christopher Gist , a settler who had accompanied him on the 1753 expedition , that a Canadian party numbering about 50 was in the area . In response , Washington sent 75 men with Gist to find them . That evening , Washington received a message from Tanacharison , informing him that he had found the Canadien camp , and that the two of them should meet . Despite the fact that he had just sent another group in pursuit of the Canadians , Washington went with a detachment of 40 men to meet with Tanacharison . The Mingo leader had with him 12 warriors , two of whom were boys . After discussing the matter , the two leaders agreed to make an attack on the Canadians . The attackers took up positions behind rocks around the Canadian camp , counting not more than 40 Canadiens .
= = Battle = =
Exactly what happened next has been a subject of controversy and debate . The few primary accounts of the affair agree on a number of facts , and disagree on others . They agree that the battle lasted about 15 minutes , that Jumonville was killed , and that most of his party were either killed or taken prisoner . According to Canadian records , most of the dead were colonials : Desroussel and Caron from Québec City , Charles Bois from Pointe @-@ Claire , Jérôme from La Prairie , L 'Enfant from Montréal , Paris from Mille @-@ Isles , Languedoc and Martin from Boucherville , and LaBatterie from Trois @-@ Rivières .
Washington 's accounts of the battle exist in several versions ; they are consistent with each other , but short on details . He wrote in his diary , " We were advanced pretty near to them ... when they discovered us ; whereupon I ordered my company to fire ... [ Wagonner 's ] Company ... received the whole Fire of the French , during the greatest Part of the Action , which only lasted a Quarter of an Hour , before the Enemy was routed . We killed Mr. de Jumonville , the commander ... also nine others ; we wounded one , and made Twenty @-@ one Prisoners " .
Contrecœur prepared an official report of the action that was based on two sources . Most of it came from a Canadien named Monceau who escaped the action but apparently did not witness Jumonville 's slaying : " [ Jumonville 's party ] saw themselves surrounded by the English on one side and the Indians on the Other . The English gave them two volleys , but the Indians did not fire . Mr. de Jumonville , by his interpreter , told them to desist , that he had something to tell them . Upon which they ceased firing . Then Mr. de Jumonville ordered the Summons which I had sent them to retire , to be read ... Monceau saw all our Frenchmen coming up close to Mr. de Jumonville , whilst they were reading the Summons ... during which Time , said Monceau made the best of his Way to us " . Contrecœur 's second source was an Indian from Tanacharison 's camp , who reported that " Mr. de Jumonville was killed by a Musket @-@ Shot in the Head , whilst they were reading the Summons " . The same Indian claimed that the Indians then rushed in to prevent the Englishmen from slaughtering the Frenchmen .
A third account was made by a private named John Shaw who was in Washington 's regiment , but not present at the affair . His account , based on detailed accounts from others who were present , was made in a sworn statement on August 21 ; the details on Tanacharison 's role in the affair are confirmed in a newspaper account printed on June 27 . In his account , the French were surrounded while some still slept . Alerted by a noise , one of the Frenchmen " fired a Gun upon which Col. Washington gave the Word for all his Men to fire . Several of them being killed , the rest betook themselves to flight , but our Indians haveing gone round the French ... they fled back to the English and delivered up their Arms ... Some Time after [ , ] the Indians came up [ , ] the Half King took his Tomahawk and split the Head of the French Captain haveing first asked if he was an Englishman and haveing been told he was a French Man . He then took his Brains and washed his Hands with them and then scalped him . All this ... [ Shaw ] has heard and never heard it contradicted but knows nothing of it from his own Knowledge " . Shaw 's narrative is substantially correct on a number of other details , including the size and composition of both forces . Shaw also claimed to have seen and counted the dead , numbering 13 or 14 .
Historian Fred Anderson documents a fourth account , by a deserter from the British @-@ Indian camp named Denis Kaninguen ; Anderson speculates that he was one of Tanacharison 's followers . His report to the French commanders echoed that of Shaw : " notwithstanding the discharge of musket fire that [ Washington ] had made upon him , he [ Washington ] intended to read [ the summons ] and had withdrawn himself to his people , whom he had [ previously ] ordered to fire upon the French [ . T ] hat [ Tanacharison ] , a savage , came up to [ the wounded Jumonville ] and had said , Thou are not yet dead , my father , and struck several hatchet blows with which he killed him . " Anderson notes that Kaninguen apparently understood what Tanacharison said , and understood it to be a ritual slaying . Kaninguen reported that 30 men were taken prisoner , and 10 to 12 had been killed . The British colonists suffered only one killed and two or three wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
Washington wrote a letter to his brother after the battle , in which he said " I can with truth assure you , I heard bullets whistle and believe me , there was something charming in the sound . " Following the battle , Washington returned to the Great Meadows and pushed onward the construction of a fort , which was called Fort Necessity . The dead were left on the field or buried in shallow graves , where they were later found by the French .
On June 28 , 1754 , a combined force of 600 French , Canadien and Indian soldiers under the command of Jumonville 's brother , Louis Coulon de Villiers , left Fort Duquesne . On July 3 , they captured Fort Necessity in the Battle of the Great Meadows , forcing Washington to negotiate a withdrawal under arms . The capitulation document Washington signed , which was written in French ( a language Washington did not know how to read , and may have been poorly translated for him ) , included language claiming that Jumonville and his men were assassinated .
= = = Escalation = = =
When news of the two battles reached England in August , the government of the Duke of Newcastle , after several months of negotiations , decided to send an army expedition the following year to dislodge the French . Major General Edward Braddock was chosen to lead the expedition . He was defeated at the Battle of the Monongahela , and the French remained in control of Fort Duquesne until 1758 , when an expedition under General John Forbes finally succeeded in taking the fort .
Word of the British military plans leaked to France well before Braddock 's departure for North America , and King Louis XV dispatched a much larger body of troops to Canada in 1755 . Although they arrived too late to participate in Braddock 's defeat , the French troop presence led to a string of French victories in the following years . In a second British act of aggression , Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide in a naval action on June 8 , 1755 , capturing her and two troop ships carrying some of those troops . Military matters escalated on both North American soil and at sea until France and Britain declared war on each other in spring 1756 , marking the formal start of the Seven Years ' War .
= = Propaganda and analysis = =
Because of the inconsistent nature of the record of the action , contemporary and historical coverage of it has been easily colored by preferences for one account over another . Francis Parkman , for example , accepted Washington 's account , and was highly dismissive of the accounts by Monceau and the Indian .
French authorities assembled a dossier of documents to counter British accounts of the affair . Entitled " Mémoire contenant le précis des faits , avec leurs pièces justificatives , pour servir de réponse aux ' Observations ' envoyées par les Ministres d 'Angleterre , dans les cours de l 'Europe " , a copy was intercepted in 1756 , translated , and published as " A memorial containing a summary view of facts , with their authorities , in answer to observations sent by the English ministry to the courts of Europe " . It used Washington 's capitulation statement and other documents , including extracts of Washington 's journal taken at Fort Necessity , to suggest that Washington had actually ordered the assassination of Jumonville . But not all Frenchmen agreed with the story : the Chevalier de Lévis called it a " pretended assassination " . The French story contrasted with that of the British account . Based on Washington 's report , the British suggested that Jumonville , rather than being engaged on a diplomatic mission , was spying on them . Jumonville 's orders included specific instructions to notify Contrecœur if the summons was read , so that additional forces might be sent if needed .
Historian Fred Anderson theorizes about the reasons for Tanacharison 's action in the killing , and provides a possible explanation for why one of Tanacharison 's men reports the event as a British killing of a Frenchman . Tanacharison had lost influence over some of the local tribes ( specifically the Delawares ) , and may have thought that conflict between the British and French would bring them back under his influence as allies of the British . According to Parkman , after the Indians scalped the French , they sent a scalp to the Delawares , in essence offering them the opportunity to " take up the hatchet " with the British and against the French .
= = Legacy = =
A portion of the battlefield , along with the Great Meadows where Fort Necessity was located , has been preserved as a part of Fort Necessity National Battlefield . Jumonville 's name has been given to a Christian retreat center near the site . The non @-@ profit Braddock Road Preservation Association , named for the road General Braddock constructed to reach Fort Duquesne , sponsors research and promotes the French and Indian War history of the area .
= New York State Route 5 =
New York State Route 5 ( NY 5 ) is a state highway that extends for 370 @.@ 87 miles ( 596 @.@ 86 km ) across the state of New York in the United States . It begins at the Pennsylvania state line in the Chautauqua County town of Ripley and passes through Buffalo , Syracuse , Utica , Schenectady , and several other smaller cities and communities on its way to downtown Albany in Albany County , where it terminates at U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) , here routed along the service roads for Interstate 787 ( I @-@ 787 ) . Prior to the construction of the New York State Thruway , it was one of two main east – west highways traversing upstate New York , the other being US 20 . West of New York , NY 5 continues as Pennsylvania Route 5 ( PA 5 ) to Erie .
NY 5 overlaps with US 20 twice along its routing . The second , a 68 @-@ mile ( 109 km ) overlap through western and central New York , is the second @-@ longest concurrency in the state , stretching from Avon east to the city of Auburn in Cayuga County . The concurrency is known locally as " Routes 5 and 20 " . As the route proceeds across the state , it also directly or indirectly meets every major north – south highway in upstate New York , including all three north – south Interstate Highways ( I @-@ 390 in Avon , I @-@ 81 in Syracuse via US 11 , and I @-@ 87 in Albany ) .
NY 5 was assigned in 1924 as a true cross @-@ state highway , extending from the Pennsylvania state line in the west to the Massachusetts state line in the east , mostly by way of modern US 20 . At the time , modern NY 5 between Buffalo and Albany was designated as New York State Route 5A . By 1926 , NY 5 was moved onto the routing of NY 5A while the old routing of NY 5 became NY 7 . It was truncated in 1927 to Athol Springs in the west and Albany in the east following the assignment of US 20 , and again in 1930 to downtown Buffalo . NY 5 was reextended to the Pennsylvania state line c . 1932 by way of its old routing to Athol Springs , an old alignment of US 20 , and a lakeside spur route of US 20 that had been assigned in 1930 . Only local realignments have occurred since .
= = Route description = =
Although it is no longer commonly used for long distance travel , NY 5 is still regionally important . NY 5 is named Main Street in Buffalo , Erie Boulevard and West Genesee Street in Syracuse , State Street in Schenectady , and Central Avenue in Albany , the state capital . It is a major local road in many other locations along its path . NY 5 runs concurrent to US 20 twice between its endpoints : for three miles ( 5 km ) between Silver Creek and Irving and for 68 miles ( 109 km ) across western and central New York . At 67 @.@ 6 miles ( 108 km ) in length , the eastern overlap between US 20 and NY 5 is the longest surface @-@ road concurrency in New York state , behind only the concurrency of I @-@ 86 and NY 17 in the Southern Tier .
Maintenance of the majority of NY 5 's 371 miles ( 597 km ) is performed by the New York State Department of Transportation . However , locally owned and maintained sections exist in six cities . The city @-@ maintained sections of NY 5 are in Buffalo from NY 16 north to the city line ( except of the Goodell Street portion , which is state @-@ maintained ) ; in Syracuse between the western city line and just west of NY 635 ; in Utica from Leland Avenue east to the city line ; in Amsterdam between Division and West Main streets ; in Schenectady from Washington Avenue to the eastern city line ; and the entirety of NY 5 within Albany .
= = = Pennsylvania to Buffalo = = =
At the New York – Pennsylvania border in Ripley , PA 5 becomes NY 5 upon entering New York . It very closely follows the shore of Lake Erie through all of Chautauqua County . Once reaching the village of Silver Creek it briefly overlaps US 20 until entering Erie County at the Cattaraugus Reservation and NY 438 where the roads once again split . Once in Erie County it pulls slightly inward from the lake shore from Brant to the hamlet of Wanakah . Once past Wanakah , the road once again closely borders the lake shore and goes through steadily more heavily developed areas , particularly the Ford Stamping Plant and the Bethlehem Steel plant in the city of Lackawanna where the road is called the Hamburg Turnpike and eight wind powered turbines , which pump power into the national grid are visible . Near the northern edge of the city , NY 5 begins to ascend onto an elevated roadway as it connects to Ridge Road and the Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens by way of an interchange . Here , the route becomes the Buffalo Skyway , a limited @-@ access highway with exits for Ohio and Tifft streets and Fuhrmann Boulevard . After a quarter @-@ mile , NY 5 passes seamlessly into the city of Buffalo .
A short distance past the city line , NY 5 passes over the Union Ship Canal on a span of the elevated road known as the Father Baker Bridge . North of the waterway , the Skyway gains a pair of frontage roads , both named Fuhrmann Boulevard . Both the service roads and the Skyway run parallel to Lake Erie until the northern end of the Buffalo Outer Harbor . Here , the frontage roads end while NY 5 turns to the northeast , crossing the Buffalo River and entering downtown . On the north bank , the Skyway returns to a northerly routing as it passes First Niagara Center , located directly to the east , and Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park , situated to the west , and meets I @-@ 190 at exit 7 . Past the interchange , the Skyway ends and the route descends in elevation , becoming an at @-@ grade roadway once more at Church Street in the shadow of Buffalo City Hall . NY 384 begins here , following Delaware Avenue north into the heart of downtown , while NY 5 turns east onto Church .
At Main Street , Church Street splits into a pair of one @-@ way streets and becomes North and South Division Street . The route follows South Division eastward for two blocks to an intersection with Ellicott Street located one block north of Coca @-@ Cola Field . At the junction , which includes the northern terminus of NY 16 , NY 5 turns northward , rejoining NY 5 westbound one block later at North Division . The route continues on Ellicott for nine blocks to the unidirectional East Tupper Street , where NY 5 westbound separates from the route once more . NY 5 eastbound , however , continues north on Ellicott for an additional block to the one @-@ way Goodell Street . NY 5 heads west on Goodell for two blocks before turning north onto Main Street , rejoining NY 5 westbound at the intersection .
The route continues along Main Street throughout the remainder of its length in Buffalo , cutting through the city diagonally from southwest to northeast until it enters the town of Amherst at the intersection of Bailey Avenue ( US 62 ) at the south campus of the University at Buffalo .
= = = Buffalo to Avon = = =
Once leaving the city of Buffalo , NY 5 heads east through the densely populated suburban town of Amherst , including the hamlets of Snyder and Eggertsville and the village of Williamsville and is heavily developed through the entire length of the town , particularly at the intersection with Transit Road ( NY 78 ) . In the town of Clarence , the road dips into a significant depression known as Clarence Hollow . Once leaving Clarence , NY 5 goes through predominantly rural areas until reaching the city of Batavia in Genesee County , closely paralleling the New York State Thruway through much of the county . The road travels eastward until reaching Livingston County and the village of Caledonia .
NY 5 heads southeast from the village of Caledonia , paralleling the former right @-@ of @-@ way of an Erie – Lackawanna Railroad branch line that connected the villages of Caledonia and Avon as it heads through spacious fields containing little more than farmland . At a rural intersection controlled by single @-@ head flashing traffic signals west of Avon , NY 5 meets US 20 for the second time . The routes embark on a second concurrency , merging onto the right @-@ of @-@ way of NY 5 as they cross the Genesee River and enter both the town and village of Avon .
= = = Avon to Ontario County = = =
US 20 and NY 5 become West Main Street upon entering the village , underscoring the road 's status as the primary east – west highway through the town . The route continues southeast from the Genesee , passing through the forested but sparsely populated western area of the village . As the route approaches the Livonia , Avon and Lakeville Railroad ( LAL ) grade crossing , the number of homes increases rapidly , only to be replaced by businesses in the area surrounding the LAL mainline . Located on the western edge of this transition is NY 39 , which terminates at this junction . Past the tracks , West Main intersects Rochester Street , a locally important north – south two @-@ lane arterial that continues north of the village to the Rochester suburb of Brighton as East River Road . Shortly after this intersection , the homes return , following US 20 and NY 5 as West Main enters the heart of the village .
In the center of Avon , West Main feeds into Park Place , a large traffic circle providing access to two local streets from US 20 and NY 5 . The routes follow the circle counterclockwise , departing the roundabout on East Main Street . The street proceeds east , passing through four blocks of densely populated neighborhoods before exiting the village and abruptly entering vast , barren fields to the east . US 20 and NY 5 , now named Avon – Lima Road , intersects NY 15 two miles ( 3 km ) to the east in East Avon , a community based around the intersection and the streets comprising it , and connects to I @-@ 390 at exit 10 a half @-@ mile from NY 15 . Continuing on , the road intersects a number of county routes over the next four miles ( 6 km ) before becoming West Main Street once more , this time for the village of Lima . At an intersection with NY 15A in the village center , US 20 and NY 5 become East Main Street , retaining the name to the Ontario County line at Honeoye Creek .
= = = Western Ontario County = = =
In the town of West Bloomfield , US 20 and NY 5 go unnamed as they proceed eastward . Roughly one mile from the county line in the hamlet of West Bloomfield , US 20 and NY 5 meet the southern terminus of NY 65 . Exiting the hamlet , US 20 and NY 5 head through another area dominated by open land , intersecting Elton Road before passing seamlessly into East Bloomfield . A mile and a half from the town line , US 20 and NY 5 intersect NY 64 , a road running northwest – southeast from the Monroe County line south to US 20 and NY 5 . NY 64 , whose right @-@ of @-@ way ends at US 20 and NY 5 at the foot of a small hill , joins the two routes eastward on a triple overlap , entering the village of Bloomfield and intersecting the southern terminus of NY 444 south of the portion of Bloomfield once known as Holcomb . Near the junction with NY 444 , US 20 , NY 5 and NY 64 take on a due east alignment , absorbing the routing used by Gauss Road west of this point .
A mile to the east at Whalen Road , NY 64 separates from US 20 and NY 5 , following the road , and US 20A , which has its eastern terminus at this intersection , south toward Bristol . US 20 and NY 5 continue on through rural Ontario County before splitting from its easterly alignment at an intersection four miles ( 6 km ) east of US 20A and NY 64 in the town of Canandaigua . West Avenue , the former routing of US 20 and NY 5 into downtown Canandaigua , continues east from the junction while US 20 and NY 5 turn south onto a bypass around Canandaigua .
= = = = Canandaigua area = = = =
Half a mile from the start of the bypass and a short distance before the arterial makes a turn eastward to traverse Canandaigua Lake to the southeast , US 20 and NY 5 meet NY 21 at a four @-@ way intersection . Like US 20 and NY 5 , NY 21 once continued directly into downtown , in this instance via Bristol Street to the east of the junction , but now follows US 20 and NY 5 along the east – west leg of the bypass . Past Bristol Street , the bypass widens from two to four lanes and , after meeting two local streets , enters the city of Canandaigua as the limited @-@ access Western Boulevard , albeit with no exits . The route loses this distinction prior to intersecting South Main Street , where US 20 , NY 5 and NY 21 meet the southern terminus of NY 332 . NY 21 departs the bypass , following NY 332 into downtown , while US 20 and NY 5 continue onto the four @-@ laned , median separated Eastern Boulevard , the original section of the US 20 and NY 5 bypass of Canandaigua . The roadway acts a center of commerce for the city , sporting restaurants , hotels , and supermarkets along its length within the city limits .
Upon exiting the city , the establishments become a pair of shopping plazas centered around the intersection with the northern terminus of NY 364 . Across the town line in Hopewell a quarter @-@ mile to the east , a third plaza , anchored by Runnings , formerly a Walmart , dominates the northeast corner of CR 10 and Eastern Boulevard . On the adjacent parcel is another plaza containing the current Walmart . At the entrance to the second plaza , US 20 and NY 5 intersect Lakeshore Drive , the former routing of US 20 and NY 5 to the south of the bypass . Past the junction , the divided highway comes to an end and , after another half @-@ mile , narrows to two lanes .
= = = Canandaigua to Auburn = = =
Deeper into Hopewell , the area surrounding US 20 and NY 5 become rural once more . Roughly 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the end of the bypass , US 20 and NY 5 meet NY 247 . After 10 @.@ 3 miles ( 16 @.@ 6 km ) of eastward progression through open land , the routes meet the northern terminus of both NY 14A and NY 245 , concurrent at this location , in the town of Geneva . A half @-@ mile past NY 14A and NY 245 , US 20 and NY 5 enter the city of Geneva and widens into a four lane road . In the city , US 20 and NY 5 intersect NY 14 by way of a pseudo @-@ interchange on the bank of Seneca Lake . US 20 and NY 5 turn into a divided highway again at this point . At the interchange , NY 14 Truck joins US 20 and NY 5 , bypassing a sharp turn on NY 14 downtown . US 20 and NY 5 continues as a divided highway around the northern tip of Seneca Lake , crossing the Preemption Line and entering Seneca County at its midpoint . A mile to the east in East Geneva , just east of a railroad underpass , US 20 and NY 5 meet the northern terminus of NY 96A at a former trumpet interchange that has been converted to an intersection with a traffic signal .
From NY 96A east to the village of Waterloo , a distance of roughly four miles , US 20 and NY 5 become a two lane road and run parallel to the Cayuga – Seneca Canal . In Waterloo , the concurrency meets NY 96 in the village center . East of the village , the distance between the canal and the roadway decreases , making US 20 and NY 5 the closest road to the water for the next one and a half miles to NY 414 in the town of Seneca Falls . NY 414 joins US 20 and NY 5 , overlapping the road for 4 @.@ 3 miles ( 6 @.@ 9 km ) into the hamlet of Seneca Falls . At Cayuga Street , NY 414 turns south , crossing the water body that is the canal and the Seneca River and becoming Ovid Street while US 20 and NY 5 turn north onto Cayuga , following the street around the small Van Cleef Lake , through the Finger Lakes Railway grade crossing , and exiting the hamlet . Three miles from NY 414 , just west of Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge , US 20 and NY 5 meet NY 318 and NY 89 at intersections just 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) apart . The intersection with NY 89 has a traffic signal .
About three miles ( 5 km ) later , after entering Cayuga County over the Seneca River / Cayuga and Seneca Canal , just north of Cayuga Lake , the two routes meet NY 90 in the town of Aurelius , at a traffic signal . A few miles east of that intersection , the highway meets the Finger Lakes Railway again , but crosses it via an overpass . The routes continue eastward through Aurelius to the city of Auburn where it turns into a divided four @-@ lane highway again . On the western edge of the city , just after passing Finger Lakes Mall , US 20 and NY 5 meet the eastern terminus of
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segment was completed and opened with the tunnel and its approach highways in November 1957 . The Glen Burnie Bypass was constructed with five interchanges : a partial cloverleaf interchange at MD 3 Business and New Cut Road ; a tighter four @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf interchange at MD 174 ; a diamond interchange at MD 176 ; the current four @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf interchange at MD 648 ; and a half @-@ cloverleaf interchange at I @-@ 695 allowing full access between the Glen Burnie Bypass and Beltway but no access between the Beltway and the Harbor Tunnel Thruway .
US 301 was expanded to a divided highway from the southern end of the Glen Burnie Bypass to Benfield in 1956 and 1957 . The highway 's second set of lanes , including a new bridge across Severn Run , was constructed and the existing roadway was reconstructed from Benfield to Millersville between 1957 and 1960 . The second set of lanes was built on the west side of what became a very wide median , which allowed businesses to site themselves in the median between the northbound and southbound lanes . During construction of the Benfield – Millersville stretch , US 301 was relocated to its present course from Bowie to the Eastern Shore and replaced with MD 3 . A pair of ramps between the Glen Burnie Bypass and MD 177 's freeway southern bypass of Glen Burnie ( now MD 100 ) were constructed between 1963 and 1965 . The first section of highway south of Dorrs Corner was built between 1969 and 1972 as a two @-@ lane segment of MD 32 from east of Odenton to MD 178 in Crownsville . The highway used what are now the ramps of I @-@ 97 's partial interchange with MD 178 and had a five @-@ ramp interchange with MD 3 in Millersville that lacked access from northbound MD 3 to eastbound MD 32 and from westbound MD 32 to southbound MD 3 .
= = = Interstate designation and construction = = =
Despite the existence or upcoming construction of two divided highway corridors between Baltimore and Annapolis , a freeway connecting I @-@ 695 and US 50 was proposed as early as 1956 in the form of the Arundel Expressway , which would relieve congestion on MD 2 . The portion of the Arundel Expressway that is today MD 10 was constructed from I @-@ 695 to MD 648 in Pasadena between 1970 and 1978 . MD 10 was proposed to continued south of Pasadena as a toll road to US 50 , but the section of the freeway south of MD 100 was removed from state plans by 1975 . MD 10 was completed to its present end in Pasadena in 1991 . The state of Maryland unsuccessfully petitioned the Federal Highway Administration for an Interstate designation for a Baltimore – Annapolis freeway after passage of the Federal @-@ Aid Highway Act of 1968 . However , the state was successful in obtaining Interstate mileage for the Baltimore – Annapolis corridor through the 1968 Howard – Cramer amendment , which provided for minor adjustments to the Interstate System if no additional costs were incurred . Much of the mileage of what became I @-@ 97 was reallocated from canceled Interstate Highways in Baltimore and the Washington area .
With Interstate funding assured , MDSHA commissioned the Baltimore – Annapolis Transportation Corridor Study in 1973 to figure out , among other things , the best route for the Baltimore – Annapolis Interstate . The study discovered a western route following the MD 3 and MD 178 corridors would be less disruptive and require fewer acquisitions of homes and businesses compared to an extension of the Arundel Expressway south along the MD 2 corridor . In June 1979 , MDSHA announced plans for I @-@ 97 . The original route numbering plan , which was approved by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) at its November 1975 meeting , was for I @-@ 97 to include its current route plus US 50 from Parole west to I @-@ 95 ( Capital Beltway ) . That proposal included two auxiliary Interstate highways . I @-@ 197 would follow US 50 and US 301 east from I @-@ 97 to just west of the Severn River . I @-@ 297 would follow MD 3 between a pair of intersections with I @-@ 97 in Millersville and Bowie . AASHTO rescinded its approval of the 1975 plan at its June 1981 meeting , then approved what was essentially the original 1975 plan at its June 1982 meeting . The east – west segment of I @-@ 97 and I @-@ 197 was replaced by I @-@ 68 . I @-@ 297 was withdrawn by request of the state of Maryland in 1983 . The 1982 concept of I @-@ 68 became unsigned I @-@ 595 and I @-@ 68 was applied to the National Freeway in Western Maryland in 1991 after AASHTO approved the new designations at its June 1989 meeting .
The first portion of I @-@ 97 proper to be constructed was the section south of Millersville , which was placed under construction in three sections in March 1985 . The first section of the highway , from US 50 and US 301 to Millersville Road west of the MD 178 interchange , opened in December 1987 . Construction of I @-@ 97 from Millersville Road to the intersection of MD 3 and MD 178 at Dorrs Corner started in July 1987 . The Interstate through Millersville opened in April 1989 . The interchange at I @-@ 97 's southern terminus was originally constructed as a partial interchange , with I @-@ 97 tying into what are now the collector @-@ distributor lanes of US 50 and US 301 . The ramps from eastbound US 50 and US 301 to I @-@ 97 and from I @-@ 97 to the westbound U.S. Highways were added during the reconstruction of US 50 and US 301 in 1992 and 1993 .
= = = Reconstruction of existing highway = = =
Reconstruction of the MD 3 divided highway and the Glen Burnie Bypass was a complex operation that involved many temporary openings , lane shifts , construction of new roadways , and reconstruction of existing roadways over several phases over several years . The first improvement was the reconstruction of the I @-@ 695 interchange between 1987 and 1991 . The modern ramps from I @-@ 97 to westbound I @-@ 695 and from eastbound I @-@ 695 to I @-@ 97 were built , eastbound I @-@ 695 's ramp over these two ramps was constructed , and the loop ramp from I @-@ 97 to westbound I @-@ 695 was removed . I @-@ 97 from its interchange with MD 648 to the new Beltway ramps was reconstructed to Interstate Highway standards and expanded to six lanes between May 1993 and August 1995 . Part of the functionality of the loop ramp to westbound I @-@ 695 was restored in October 1995 when another ramp from the Harbor Tunnel Thruway approach to westbound I @-@ 695 was added to allow access from I @-@ 97 to MD 648 .
Reconstruction of the MD 3 divided highway from Millersville to MD 3 Business began in 1987 over two sections . The first section , from north of MD 3 Business to north of Benfield Boulevard , began in 1987 . The work included the construction of the flyover ramp from northbound I @-@ 97 to Veterans Highway just south of MD 3 Business . The section from north of Benfield Boulevard to MD 178 at Dorrs Corner was reconstructed starting in 1989 . The second section included construction of the Benfield Boulevard interchange . The southbound MD 3 roadway was rebuilt in place as the southbound lanes of I @-@ 97 . New northbound lanes were built immediately to the east of the southbound lanes . In February 1991 , the new northbound lanes opened and access from I @-@ 97 to Veterans Highway was removed at Dorrs Corner . The old northbound lanes were reconstructed and re @-@ purposed as a two @-@ lane road , Veterans Highway , later that year . Anne Arundel County agreed to accept Veterans Highway for maintenance after the I @-@ 97 – related construction concluded in a road transfer agreement on July 21 , 1988 . MD 3 was truncated at Millersville after I @-@ 97 opened in October 1991 ; signage for MD 3 on I @-@ 695 was removed by 1993 .
Before reconstruction of the Glen Burnie Bypass from MD 3 Business to MD 648 began in November 1993 , the Stewart Avenue bridge across the Interstate just south of the MD 100 interchange was replaced and ramps from northbound I @-@ 97 to eastbound MD 100 and from westbound MD 100 to southbound I @-@ 97 were added between 1990 and 1992 . The freeway was reconstructed to Interstate standards in three sections . The middle section from MD 174 to MD 176 was reconstructed concurrently with the segment of MD 100 west from I @-@ 97 to MD 295 starting in 1993 . That segment of MD 100 , including the MD 100 – I @-@ 97 interchange , opened in November 1996 , and the reconstruction of the middle section of I @-@ 96 was finished in July 1997 . The sections of I @-@ 97 from MD 3 Business to MD 174 and from MD 176 to MD 648 and were reconstructed starting in January 1994 . The MD 176 – MD 648 roadway section was completed in March 1996 . The northern half of the MD 176 interchange was reconstructed as part of the latter project . The new loop ramp from northbound I @-@ 97 to westbound MD 176 and the new ramp from MD 176 to northbound I @-@ 97 were completed in 1995 . The ramp from southbound I @-@ 97 to MD 176 was removed during the widening project . The pair of ramps between southbound I @-@ 97 and MD 162 to replace the removed ramp were constructed between 1996 and 1998 . The final piece of construction on I @-@ 97 was the reconstruction of its interchange with MD 174 , which began in 2002 and concluded in 2005 .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Anne Arundel County .
= 2008 Indian Premier League Final =
The 2008 Indian Premier League Final was a day / night Twenty20 cricket match played between the Rajasthan Royals and the Chennai Super Kings on 1 June 2008 at the DY Patil Stadium , Navi Mumbai to determine the winner of the 2008 Indian Premier League , a professional Twenty20 cricket league in India . It ended as the Royals defeated the Super Kings by three wickets .
The Royals , captained by Shane Warne , topped the group stage table , whereas the Super Kings , led by Mahendra Singh Dhoni , stood at the third position . They had defeated the Delhi Daredevils and the Kings XI Punjab respectively in the semi @-@ finals .
Winning the toss , Royals ' captain Shane Warne opted to field first . The Super Kings scored 163 runs in 20 overs with a loss of 5 wickets . Batting at number three , Suresh Raina top scored for the Super Kings with 43 runs . Royals ' bowler Yusuf Pathan took three wickets for 22 runs . The Royals failed to build a good opening partnership . However , due to contributions from the middle order , it reached the winning total in the last ball and earned the 2008 Indian Premier League title . Pathan , who was the best performer for the Royals with both bat and ball , was named the man of the match .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Group stage = = =
The Super Kings started its campaign with four consecutive wins , but lost its next three matches to the Daredevils , the Royals and the Deccan Chargers . It qualified for the semifinals after winning four of its last seven league matches . The Royals lost its first match in the group stage to the Daredevils . However , it won all of its next five matches . Then , it suffered a defeat against the Mumbai Indians , but went on to win its next six matches . It lost the last group stage match against the Kings XI .
The two teams faced each other in two matches of the group stage , both of which were won by the Royals . The Royals had played a match in the tournament before at the DY Patil Stadium ; it lost the match by seven wickets . The Super Kings played at the stadium for the first time in the finals .
= = = Semi @-@ finals = = =
The Royals played the Daredevils in the first semi @-@ final . The Daredevils won the toss and decided to field first . The Royals got an opening partnership of 65 runs . Its middle @-@ order batsmen Shane Watson and Yusuf Pathan scored 52 and 45 runs respectively to help it amass 192 runs for the loss of 9 wickets . Batting second , the Daredevils lost its first five batsmen for just 55 runs . Tillakaratne Dilshan top @-@ scored for the Daredevils with 33 runs . The Daredevils was bowled out in the 17th over for just 87 runs , and gave its counterpart a 105 @-@ run victory . Watson , who took 3 / 10 , had the best bowling figures for the Royals , and was awarded the man of the match for his all @-@ round performance .
In the second semi @-@ final , Super Kings played the Kings XI . The Kings XI won the toss and elected to bat first , but its top six batsman failed and only one of them reached double figures . However , due to significant contributions from the lower @-@ order , Punjab managed to reach a total of 112 / 8 . Super Kings fast bowler Manpreet Gony took 3 wickets by conceding just 14 runs . In reply , Super Kings lost its first wicket when Vidyut Sivaramakrishnan were dismissed for 6 runs . However , both Parthiv Patel and Suresh Raina scored a half century each and took the Super Kings to the target with 31 balls to spare . The Super Kings won the match by nine wickets , and Makhaya Ntini was given the man of the match award .
= = Buildup = =
The match was hosted by Mumbai because the franchise owner of the Mumbai Indians placed the highest bid for acquisition , which was US $ 111 @.@ 9 million . Before the match , ESPNCricinfo assistant editor Nagraj Gollapudi identified the Royals as the most likely winner . Despite being seen as the underdogs , the Royals finished at the top of the league table , and won 11 matches out of 14 with 22 points . The Super Kings stood third , behind Kings XI , getting 16 points from eight wins . There were two changes in the Royals ' playing eleven for the final ; Graeme Smith and Mahesh Rawat were replaced by Kamran Akmal and Niraj Patel . Smith was ruled out of the match as he was suffering from a hamstring injury . The Super Kings fielded the same side as in its semi @-@ final win over the Kings XI .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
Despite the fact that the home team Mumbai Indians was not playing , the match attracted a huge number of spectators . They were exposed to performances by Amrita Arora , Shamita Shetty , Dia Mirza , Salman Khan and Cirque du Soleil . Then a laser show was organised . The match was a day / night match , and started at 20 : 18 Indian Standard Time ( IST ) ( UTC + 05 : 30 ) . The toss took place at 20 : 00 IST in the presence of Lalit Modi and match referee Javagal Srinath . Modi flipped the coin , and Royals ' captain Warne called heads ; the coin turned out to be heads , and Warne won the toss .
Sunil Gavaskar had said in his match report that the batsmen will be required to play more on the front foot because of the inconstant bounce . The pitch was patchy , and Warne chose to field first . The Super Kings lost its first batsman as Sivaramakrishnan went out for 16 runs . He was caught by Ravindra Jadeja when Pathan was up . Sivaramakrishnan pulled a fast ball to deep mid @-@ wicket , and Jadeja took a " well @-@ judged catch " . Sivaramakrishnan made 16 runs in 14 balls at a strike rate of 114 @.@ 28 , and played an opening partnership of 39 runs with P. Patel . After that , Raina joined P. Patel , and both of them made 25 runs for the second wicket partnership with a run rate of 6 @.@ 81 . P. Patel was caught in the last ball of the ninth over . Similar to the previous wicket , Pathan bowled a flat and fast ball , P. Patel tried to play it towards the third man . However , the ball edged towards the wicket @-@ keeper Akmal , who initially dropped the ball , but caught it afterwards . P. Patel made 38 runs in 33 balls and hit five boundaries . The next wicket was of Albie Morkel , who made 16 runs out of 13 balls . Pathan again bowled a flat fast ball , which was top edged by Morkel . The ball went into the air , and was eventually caught by Akmal . However this resulted in the collision of Akmal and Mohammad Kaif as both were trying to take the catch , and both of them got injured . Four overs later , Jadeja caught Raina on Watson , breaking a 33 runs fourth wicket partnership between him and captain Mahendra Singh Dhoni . Watson bowled a full length ball outside off stump . Raina played it towards long off , but failed to get enough distance and Jadeja caught the ball at the boundary . Chamara Kapugedera joined Dhoni after the dismissal of Raina , a decision which " punctured " the momentum in the slog overs . Kapugedera made eight runs by acing 12 balls , before being caught by Swapnil Asnodkar on Sohail Tanvir . Tanvir bowled an angling slower ball , which was lofted on the front foot by Kapugedera . The ball was caught by long @-@ on fielder Asnodkar . With the last five balls remaining in the innings , Dhoni and Subramaniam Badrinath together made 15 runs , and Badrinath made six runs off two balls . Dhoni made 29 runs not out , facing 17 balls , in which he hit two fours and one six . Pathan had the best figures with the ball for the Royals , as he took three wickets for 22 runs in four overs . Tanvir and Watson got one wicket each and gave 40 and 29 runs respectively . Warne gave 34 runs in his four overs , but failed to get any wicket . Munaf Patel and Siddharth Trivedi gave 14 and 21 runs respectively in their two overs each .
In reply , the Royals lost its first batsman as N. Patel went out after scoring two runs in 11 balls . Manpreet Gony bowled a full length ball outside the off stump , which hit the leg stump after getting an inside edge as N. Patel opted to pull it . He went out in the first ball of the fourth over , leaving his team at 19 runs with loss of one wicket . The Royals lost its second opener when Raina caught Asnodkar as he hit a full and wide ball by Morkel to point . He made 28 runs facing 20 balls . In the same over , Makhaya Ntini ran out Akmal with a direct hit . Akmal played the ball to mid @-@ on , but Ntini glided downwards and threw the ball at the stumps . After the fall of Akmal 's wicket , Watson and Pathan started playing more aggressively , and scored 65 runs for a fourth wicket partnership at a run rate of 8 @.@ 66 ; this was also the highest partnership of the match . In the eleventh over , Raina dropped Pathan on Murlitharan at deep midwicket . At the end of the thirteenth over , the Royals reached a score of 100 runs . In the fifteenth over , Muralitharan broke the partnership as he bowled Watson ; the ball hit the leg stump . The next wicket was of Kaif , who was caught by Dhoni on Muralitharan . Kaif pushed a flat doosra , and Dhoni took a simple catch at cover . In the next ball , Jadeja went out for a golden duck . Morkel bowled a short ball , and Jadeja tried to pull it . However the ball went to mid @-@ on , and Kapugedera caught the ball after running towards his left . In the same over , Raina ran out Pathan with a direct hit at the stumps . Morkel bowled a full ball which was pushed by Warne to point . He ran for a single , but Raina hit the stumps , running out off @-@ striker Pathan . Pathan went out scoring a half @-@ century ; he made 56 runs out off 39 balls with a strike rate of 143 @.@ 58 and hit three fours and four sixes . The Royals needed 18 runs at the end of the eighteenth over . The second last over was bowled by Ntini , in which he gave up ten runs . In the last ball of the over , Ntini bowled a good length ball , and Warne hit a four by Warne at cover . In the last over , the Royals required eight runs , and Dhoni gave the ball to Lakshmipathy Balaji . Six runs were required from the last three balls , but Balaji bowled a wide outside off stump , which was missed by the wicket @-@ keeper P. Patel . This resulted in two extra runs . In the next ball , Warne hit a full ball for a run . The Royals needed three runs from the last two balls . Tanvir played the fifth legal delivery of the over , which was an angling full toss . Tanvir hit the ball at the long leg , and ran two runs . The Royals needed one more run off the last ball , with Tanvir on strike ; Balaji bowled him a short ball . Warne had already covered the half distance of the pitch when Tanvir hit the ball . The two batsmen ran for a single and the Royals won the match . Both of them remained not out with nine runs each . Morkel and Muralitharan got two wickets each , giving 25 and 39 runs respectively . Gony got one wicket , whereas Ntini and Balaji had none .
Pathan received the award for maximum sixes in a match ; he hit four sixes in the match . He was also named the man of the Match .
= = = Scorecard = = =
On @-@ field umpires : Billy Bowden ( New Zealand ) , Rudi Koertzen ( South Africa )
Third umpire : Daryl Harper ( Australia )
Match referee : Javagal Srinath ( India )
Reserve umpire : MR Singh ( India )
Toss : Royals elected to field first
Result : Royals won by three wickets
League impact : Royals won the 2008 Indian Premier League
Key
* – Captain
– Wicket @-@ keeper
c Fielder – the batsman was dismissed by a catch by the named fielder
b Bowler – the bowler who gains credit for the dismissal
lbw – the batsman was dismissed leg before wicket
Total runs are in the format : score / wickets
= = Aftermatch = =
The Royals received ₹ 48 million ( US $ 710 @,@ 000 ) and a trophy for being the champions . Royals ' players received their medals from Sharad Pawar in the post @-@ match ceremony . Warne said :
It 's been a fantastic journey . We 're gelled together really quickly . It makes me proud to see so many young guys learning and executing their skills in the middle . I think the crowds all over India have made the atmosphere amazing . Congratulations to Chennai . It 's been a wonderful ride for us .
Royals ' Tanvir was given the purple cap for getting the highest number of wickets in the league . Watson was declared as the man of the series ; he scored 474 runs and took 17 wickets in the season . The Super Kings received ₹ 24 million ( US $ 360 @,@ 000 ) for being the runners @-@ up . Dhoni said :
I think the standard of our cricket was really good . We were up to the mark in the finals . We lost as a team . There were a few errors in batting and bowling . We 're not really unhappy or bogged down by it . We 'll go back to our hotel and enjoy it . That 's what sport is all about. the response from our team was great. even the guys who didn 't get a chance were completely behind the team . So the spirit was great . "
Both teams qualified for the 2008 Champions League Twenty20 . However , the tournament was cancelled due to the 2008 Mumbai attacks and both teams were given ₹ 220 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 3 million ) each as compensation .
= Mirror 's Edge =
Mirror 's Edge is an action @-@ adventure platformer developed by EA DICE and published by Electronic Arts . The game was announced on July 10 , 2007 , and was released for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 in November 2008 . A Microsoft Windows version was released on January 13 , 2009 . Mirror 's Edge is powered by the Unreal Engine 3 , with the addition of a new lighting solution , developed by Illuminate Labs in association with DICE .
Mirror 's Edge is set in a quasi @-@ futuristic dystopian society , in which a network of ' runners ' , including the main character , Faith , act as couriers to transmit messages while evading government surveillance . In the style of a three @-@ dimensional platform game , the player guides Faith over rooftops , across walls , through ventilation shafts , and otherwise within urban environments , negotiating obstacles using movements inspired by parkour . The game has a brightly colored style and differs from most previous first @-@ person perspective video games in allowing for a greater freedom of movement with regard to its 3D environment , allowing for a wider range of actions — such as sliding under barriers , tumbling , wall @-@ running , and shimmying across ledges ; in having no heads @-@ up display ; and in allowing a range of vision which incorporated the legs , arms , and torso of the character as frequently visible elements on @-@ screen .
Mirror 's Edge has received positive reviews , with the PC version garnering a Metacritic aggregated score of 81 . The game 's uniqueness and its expansive environments have received praise , while criticism has centred on its weakness of plot , trial and error gameplay and short length . The game won the Annual Interactive Achievement Award for Adventure Game of the Year . A soundtrack featuring remixes of the final credits song " Still Alive " by Swedish singer Lisa Miskovsky was also released . A side @-@ scroller mobile game , also titled Mirror 's Edge , was released for iPad on April 1 , 2010 , and for the iPhone on September 2 , 2010 . A port of the game was released for Windows Phone on July 13 , 2012 , with an initial exclusivity period for owners of Nokia Lumia phones . A reboot , Mirror 's Edge Catalyst , was officially announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2013 and was released on June 7 , 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
In Mirror 's Edge , the player controls the protagonist , Faith , from a first @-@ person perspective as she is challenged to navigate across a gleaming city , by jumping between rooftops , running across walls , and gaining access to buildings through ventilation shafts . This is accomplished by use of techniques and movements inspired by the discipline of parkour . According to senior producer Owen O 'Brien , Mirror 's Edge aims to " convey [ ... ] strain and physical contact with the environment " , with the goal of allowing a freedom of movement previously unseen in the first @-@ person genre . In order to achieve this , camera movement pays more attention to character movement . For example , as Faith 's speed builds up while running , the rate at which the camera bobs up and down increases as well . When a roll is executed , the camera spins with the character . Faith 's arms , legs , and torso are prominent and their visibility is used to convey movement and momentum . The character 's arms pump and the length of her steps increase with her gait , and her legs cycle and arms flail during long jumps .
In gameplay , the character 's momentum becomes an asset . The player must attempt to conserve it through fluidity of physical actions , encouraging the creation of chains of moves . If Faith does not have the momentum required to traverse an object , she will fall off or short of it . Controls are simplified by being context @-@ sensitive ; the " upwards movement " button will cause Faith to traverse an obstacle by passing over it ( i.e. , by jumping , vaulting , climbing , or grabbing set pieces like zip @-@ lines ) while the " downwards movement " button will cause her to perform other manoeuvres like sliding , rolling , or crouching . To assist the player in creating these chains of moves , the game employs a system called " Runner Vision " , which emphasises environmental pieces useful for progression . Certain pipes , ramps , and doors are highlighted in red as Faith approaches , allowing the player to instantly recognize paths and escape routes . Further along in the game , the number of these visual hints is reduced to only the end goal , and the player can opt to turn off this hint system entirely . It is also used to create puzzles in which the player must figure out how to combine the highlighted set pieces into a chain of moves in order to reach the target . Another means of assistance to the player is a system called " Reaction Time " , a form of bullet time activated by the player , slowing down time and allowing the player to plan and time their next move without losing momentum or tactical advantage .
The player character can hold weapons , but O 'Brien stressed that " this is an action adventure . We 're not positioning this as a shooter – the focus isn 't on the gun , it 's on the person . " Gameplay in Mirror 's Edge focuses on finding the best route through the game 's environments while combat takes a secondary role . Completing the game without shooting a single enemy unlocks an achievement for the player . Consequently , guns may be obtained by disarming an enemy , but when the magazine is empty , it will need to be discarded . Additionally , carrying a weapon slows Faith down ; the heavier the gun , the more it hinders her movement . This introduces an element of strategy in determining when to trade agility for short @-@ term firepower .
Along with the campaign mode , Mirror 's Edge features a time attack mode , where the player must try to complete one of a set of special maps in the shortest amount of time . Best times can be uploaded to online leaderboards , where players can also download ghosts of other players to compete against . The maps are unlocked by playing through the campaign mode . According to producer Tom Ferrer , the time trial portions of Mirror 's Edge are " bite @-@ sized and short so you can grind them and play them and get faster and faster . It 's not like playing an entire level . "
The mobile phone port includes many parkour moves from the PC and console versions , however , the perspective is shifted from first person to third person . The game does not feature cutscenes , and the plot is explained with scrolling text in between levels . The iOS version has since been removed from the app store due to problems with the game on iOS 8 .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Mirror 's Edge takes place in Glass , a ' utopian ' city where life is comfortable and crime almost non @-@ existent . But the city 's state of bliss is the achievement of a domineering and totalitarian regime which monitors all communication , controls the media , spies on its citizens and has policies which include the outright prohibition of smoking and alcohol . The City also operates sham trials , and runs on a sham democracy . Eighteen years before the events of the game they had opened fire on a protest against their rule , killing many civilians .
As the story begins the mayoral elections are near and a new candidate , Robert Pope , is challenging the incumbent Mayor Callaghan on a platform of deregulation .
= = = Themes = = =
According to senior producer Owen O 'Brien , " [ Mirror 's Edge ] asks how much of your personal freedom are you willing to give up for a comfortable life . It 's not one girl against this police @-@ state dictatorship . It 's more subtle than that . "
American TV series Firefly and film spin @-@ off Serenity were cited by O 'Brien as inspirations . " Our other theme is you can 't force other people to live by your rules and your society , even if your society is better , " he said . " In Serenity The Operative actually says , ' This is not an evil empire . We just don 't understand why you don 't want to be part of our happy club . ' Obviously they take it too far , and that 's kind of what happens in our game as well . "
Writer Rhianna Pratchett has said that the game 's story examined why citizens would accept a life in a society where their personal choices were very limited . It also looked at reasons people might have for attempting to live outside the system and what could result from this . The society portrayed in the game was somewhere between what George Orwell described as an ' anti @-@ utopia ' and a Nanny State .
= = = Characters = = =
The protagonist of Mirror 's Edge is 24 @-@ year @-@ old Faith Connors ( voiced by Jules de Jongh ) , who has a distinctive tattoo around her right eye , imitated by the game 's logo . Faith earns her living as a " Runner " , a courier who carries physical communiqués around the city , her services retained by revolutionary groups who avoid communicating via highly monitored telephone and e @-@ mail channels . Faith 's attitude towards the totalitarian government is rooted in her past ; her parents were active in protest movements when she was young , campaigning to keep the city from shifting to the oppressive regime . Her mother was killed during the " November riots " — peaceful protests gone wrong — and Faith ran away from home when she was 16 , living a thief 's life on the city streets . Faith became a Runner after meeting Mercury ( or Merc ) , a former Runner who now trains new hires , sources jobs for them , and provides them with intelligence and radio support while on the job . Other characters include Faith 's sister , Kate Connors , an officer with the city police ; Drake , another Runner @-@ trainer ; Faith 's friends Celeste and Kreeg , another pair of Merc 's Runners ; and Jacknife , a former Runner .
= = = Story = = =
Faith , after completing a delivery to fellow Runner Celeste , learns that her sister Kate may be in trouble at Pope 's office . When she arrives , she finds Kate standing beside Pope 's body , insisting she has been framed for murder and requesting Faith to discover the cause . Faith finds a piece of paper with the name " Icarus " on it in Pope 's hand . Kate refuses to flee with Faith , saying it would only make her look guilty , and is arrested . From a former Runner , Jacknife , Faith learns that Pope 's head of security , former wrestler Travis " Ropeburn " Burfield , may be connected to Pope 's murder . Faith meets Lt. Miller , at Kate 's behest , narrowly avoiding arrest . At Ropeburn 's office , she overhears him setting up a meeting at a new place downtown . At the meeting , Ropeburn discovers Faith 's presence and attacks her , but Faith gains the upper hand and throws him off the roof . As he is hanging above a long drop , she tries to interrogate Ropeburn , but before he can reveal anything he is killed by an unknown assassin .
Lacking other leads , Faith investigates the security firm that has begun aiding the police force in their crackdown of Runners . She finds they are behind " Project Icarus " , a program designed to train their forces in parkour style to oppose the Runners , giving them the ability to chase down and eliminate the Runners . Faith follows the trail of Ropeburn 's killer to a boat in port ; after chasing the unknown person , Faith discovers the assassin is actually Celeste , who is colluding with Project Icarus to keep herself safe , and Celeste warns Faith to consider the same . The arrival of the police allows Celeste to escape .
With Kate convicted for Pope 's murder , Merc plans a way for Faith to ambush the police convoy transporting her to prison , and Faith helps to free Kate . She gives Kate her comms unit that she and Merc use and tells her that he will guide her back to his hideout . When Faith returns to the hideout , she finds it in ruins , with Merc dying and Kate recaptured . In his dying words , Merc tells Faith that Kate is now at the Shard , which contains Mayor Callaghan 's office and the servers that run the city 's surveillance systems . With Miller 's help , Faith is able to enter the Mayor 's private offices , destroying many of the servers to gain access to the roof . On the roof , she finds Kate held at gunpoint by Jacknife . Jacknife reveals that he too is part of Project Icarus , and has been part of the plan all along to lure the Runners out of hiding . When Jacknife tries to take Kate onto a waiting helicopter , Faith jumps on before it can leave , knocking Jacknife out of the helicopter to fall to his death but also damaging the helicopter in the process . Faith helps Kate to escape safely from the falling helicopter .
During the end credits , the media reports that Faith 's actions have only served to intensify Project Icarus , and Faith and Kate are still wanted for Pope 's murder . However , with the surveillance infrastructure damaged , the population is cautioned to avoid using electronic means of communications until their " security " is restored , with the location of Faith and Kate remaining unknown .
= = Development and release = =
In 2007 , DICE creative director Ben Cousins told GamesIndustry.biz that the studio was looking to create " something fresh and interesting " , anticipating a need to diversify away from the successful Battlefield franchise the studio was known for .
In June 2007 , Computer and Video Games magazine revealed that DICE was working on a game called Mirror 's Edge , which was expected to " shake up the [ first @-@ person shooter ] genre " . On July 10 , 2007 , Mirror 's Edge was officially announced by Electronic Arts , and at the Game Developers Conference in San Francisco in February 2008 , the first demonstration of gameplay was shown . A video featuring entirely in @-@ game footage was released at the Sony PlayStation Day in London on May 6 , 2008 .
Mirror 's Edge has a distinct visual style , with the outdoor environments predominantly featuring white and distinctively lacking in green ( for example , trees and foliage would appear completely white instead of in their natural colors ) , punctuated by deliberate use of strong primary colours . According to Senior Producer Owen O 'Brien , the stylistic choice allows the player to focus on the Runner Vision guidance , as well as serving as a health meter ; the colours become less saturated as Faith starts to take damage . Because development of Mirror 's Edge began before DICE 's own Frostbite was completed , the game uses Epic 's Unreal Engine 3 . A lighting system called " Beast " was developed for the Unreal Engine by Illuminate Labs in association with DICE . The new software would accentuate the different art style of Mirror 's Edge , by allowing for the reflection of colours as well as light . In order to address the issue of simulation sickness associated with the free movement of the camera in first @-@ person view , a small reticle was placed in the centre of the screen . The reticle serves as an aiming and focal point , preventing dizziness in similar fashion to the dance technique called spotting . Aside from this reticle ( which can be hidden by the player ) , no heads @-@ up display exists in the game .
The demo for Mirror 's Edge , consisting of the game 's prologue chapter , was released via the PlayStation Store on October 30 , 2008 , followed by the Xbox LIVE Marketplace on October 31 . On November 7 , 2008 , DICE announced that Mirror 's Edge had achieved gold status , and PS3 and Xbox 360 versions would be shipping to retailers on November 13 . On January 16 , 2009 , a Microsoft Windows version of the game was released . The PC version features support for NVIDIA 's PhysX , adding detail and physics to glass , smoke and soft materials . The game includes the SecuROM v7.x ( activation based ) DRM software , unless bought from Steam .
The game was at the centre of EA 's conflict with EDGE Games , a California @-@ based development studio . EDGE Games is not related to Edge magazine beyond the licensing of its trademark . In September 2009 , EA petitioned to have EDGE Games ' trademarks cancelled , alleging continued threats of legal action . Tim Langdell , president of EDGE responded by accusing EA of engaging EDGE in settlement talks as a " play for time " . Langdell 's company claimed true legal ownership of the phrase " Mirror 's Edge " among other variations of " Edge " . After a court found that EDGE 's claims were " suspect " , the company settled with EA and surrendered many of its trademarks .
= = = Marketing campaign = = =
Buyers who pre @-@ ordered Mirror 's Edge at Game Crazy received a code that unlocked a time trial portion of the demo , as well as a Mirror 's Edge @-@ themed t @-@ shirt . A time trial code was also included in GameStop preorders , along with a yellow " Runner Bag " resembling the messenger bags used in the game . Preorders from UK retailer GAME included a Mirror 's Edge @-@ edition Fenchurch t @-@ shirt . The game could also be bought through the Electronic Arts website , where a package deal with a red Timbuk2 messenger bag was available . The bag featured the game 's logo on the outside , while the inside featured a portrait of Faith .
= = = Comics = = =
During Comic @-@ Con 2008 , DICE announced it would create a limited @-@ run comic book adaptation of the game together with DC Comics division WildStorm . The six @-@ issue comic is drawn by Matthew Dow Smith and written by Rhianna Pratchett .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
In May , the Mirror 's Edge Original Videogame Score was released in online @-@ only form . The album was composed by Swedish electronic musician Magnus Birgersson , also known as Solar Fields , who stated that " the music should reflect the environment , the story , the gameplay and Faith 's mood " and that the soundtrack is a mixture of electronic and ambiental music .
On October 7 , 2008 , EA announced the release of a remix album featuring the Mirror 's Edge theme song " Still Alive " by Swedish musician Lisa Miskovsky . Contributing artists included Benny Benassi , Junkie XL , Paul van Dyk , Teddybears and Armand Van Helden . Although " Still Alive " is also the name of the closing credits song of 2007 game Portal , the two tracks are unrelated . The album , titled Still Alive – the Remixes , was released on November 11 , 2008 . The album was included free in the standard game in later releases for all platforms .
= = Reception = =
Mirror 's Edge has received mostly positive reviews , with score aggregator Metacritic reporting scores of 81 / 100 for the PC version and 79 / 100 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions . Official Xbox Magazine gave the game 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 , praising its " brilliant sense of motion and gameplay " . Play awarded it 9 out of 10 , while GameTrailers.com gave it 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 . Computer and Video Games was also positive , calling it " A brilliant and unique experience , even if the small shooting parts aren 't quite up to scratch . " IGN awarded the game 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 , calling it a " thrilling and stylish venture " , but " the first chapter of a franchise that 's still finding its feet . " GameSpot praised the immersive gameplay environments , but criticised the inconsistency of gameplay speed . Ian Bogost of Gamasutra commended the game for being unconventional , calling it " a shooter that makes you hate to shoot " .
Edge gave the game 5 out of 10 , stating that the levels felt contrived and that there was no true freedom through the levels , merely multiple preordained paths . The Guardian noted the game 's short length , and many reviews criticised the " trial and error " nature of the play . Despite giving the game a score of 8 out of 10 , Eurogamer dismissed the storyline as rambling , adding that " [ Mirror 's Edge ] is going to divide audiences down the middle ... Some will be able to overlook the gaping flaws , but others will never appreciate its moments of brilliance , and both positions are justifiable ... " Other issues raised were the stylistic choice of animated cutscenes , and the " cramped " feel of some of the levels .
The developers initially projected a total of three million copies of Mirror 's Edge to be sold , but in February 2009 , Electronic Arts reported sales of over one million . According to an October 2010 court document pertaining to the legal conflict between EA and Edge Games ( see Mirror 's Edge : Development and release ) , Mirror 's Edge has sold more than two million copies worldwide , with more than 750 @,@ 000 of those copies having been sold in North America . The iPhone @-@ compatible version of the game has sold more than 37 @,@ 000 copies . In June 2013 , the executive vice president of the EA Games revealed the game has sold " about 2 @.@ 5 million units " .
= = Expansions and sequels = =
On December 4 , 2008 , EA announced the creation of seven all @-@ new time trial maps for Mirror 's Edge , slated for release in January 2009 . According to Owen O 'Brien , Senior Producer for DICE , “ The freedom of movement and control in first person has been the most popular aspect of Mirror 's Edge so we decided to distill these down to their purest form for this map pack ... We deliberately chose a more abstract aesthetic that is still within our distinctive art style and then focused on flow and gameplay to create an experience and challenge very different from the main game . ” In January 2009 , the release date was specified as January 29 . The release was delayed until February 19 , 2009 , when the " Time Trial Map Pack " was made available as downloadable content for the Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 and PC . An eighth map is available exclusively for the PlayStation 3 version of the game . The time trials DLC has proven to be incompatible with versions of Mirror 's Edge purchased from Steam .
A side @-@ scrolling browser game interpretation of Mirror 's Edge titled Mirror 's Edge 2D was released by Electronic Arts in conjunction with independent developer Borne Games . The game is similar to and uses the modified engine of Borne 's popular game Fancy Pants Adventures . A one @-@ level beta was released on November 11 , 2008 , with an expanded three @-@ level beta released on February 24 , 2009 . The developer 's site states that " the full Mirror 's Edge 2D has been released , but we 're still in beta . "
A version of Mirror 's Edge for the iPhone and iPod Touch was announced on December 2 , 2009 . It is a side @-@ scrolling game with 3D graphics , featuring 14 levels and dynamic camera angles , and was scheduled for release in January 2010 . It was then later revealed that the iPhone and iPod Touch versions were pushed back to an April release . EA Mobile released Mirror 's Edge for iPhone and iPod touch on September 1 , 2010 . An iPad version was released on April 1 , 2010 . The game was also ported to Windows Phone in 2012 .
= = = Mirror 's Edge Catalyst = = =
A second game was officially revealed at the Electronic Arts ' press event at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2013 to be released on Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One at an undetermined time . The game has been confirmed to be a prequel to Mirror 's Edge showcasing the origins of Faith , and will use the newer Frostbite 3 engine . Electronic Arts later confirmed that the game will be an " open @-@ world action adventure " . According to DICE 's general manager Karl Magnus Troedsson , the prequel will have combat mechanics that are more refined than those in the first game . In January 2014 , writer Rhianna Pratchett had announced on Twitter that neither she nor any other members of the first game 's writing team would be involved with the new game 's development . Some early developments of the game were featured at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014 . On June 8 , 2015 , EA filed a trademark for the upcoming Mirror 's Edge game Mirror 's Edge : Catalyst which was later confirmed as the game 's official title the next day on June 9 . At Gamescom 2015 it was revealed that this will be a reboot of the Mirror 's Edge universe .
= = In other media = =
In May 2016 , Endemol Shine North America announced that they are producing a TV show based on the Mirror 's Edge franchise .
= Guillermo Mota =
Guillermo Reynoso Mota ( born July 25 , 1973 ) is a former Dominican professional baseball relief pitcher in Major League Baseball . In his career , he pitched for the Montreal Expos , Los Angeles Dodgers , Florida Marlins , Cleveland Indians , New York Mets , Milwaukee Brewers and San Francisco Giants . Mota stands 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) tall and weighs 240 pounds ( 110 kg ) . He throws and bats right @-@ handed . He throws three pitches : a fastball , a slider , and a circle changeup .
Mota was originally signed by the New York Mets in 1990 as an infielder . After several years in their organization , he was drafted by the Montreal Expos in the Rule 5 draft in 1996 and converted into a pitcher in 1997 . Mota had a 2 @.@ 96 ERA in 1999 , his rookie season , but he struggled in his next two seasons and was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers prior to 2002 . His struggles continued in his first year with the Dodgers , but Mota had a career year in 2003 , as he had a 6 – 3 record with a 1 @.@ 97 ERA in 76 games . He became the setup man to closer Éric Gagné in 2004 , but was traded to the Florida Marlins midseason . Mota started 2005 as their closer , but Todd Jones took over the role when Mota got hurt in April . Following the year , Mota was traded to the Boston Red Sox .
Before Mota ever played for the Red Sox , however , he was traded again to the Cleveland Indians . He struggled in his time with the Indians in 2006 and was designated for assignment by them in August . The New York Mets acquired him , and Mota improved mightily upon joining them . Following the season , he became a free agent , but he again signed with the Mets . After struggling in 2007 , he was traded to the Milwaukee Brewers . He got off to a poor start with Milwaukee in 2008 but improved in the second half . Following the season , Mota became a free agent and signed with the Dodgers again . He had his best year since 2004 and became a free agent again after the season . For the first time in his career , in 2010 he signed a minor league contract with the San Francisco Giants . After making the team out of spring training , Mota won his first career World Series despite struggling at times during the season . Following the season , he signed another minor league contract with the Giants and made the team out of spring training again . During the 2012 season , Mota became one of three players in league history to fail a drug test twice when it was shown he tested positive for Clenbuterol , a performance @-@ enhancing drug .
= = Early years = =
Mota was born on July 25 , 1973 , in San Pedro de Macorís , in the Dominican Republic . As a youth , he attended Jose Joaquin Perez High School . After high school , he was signed by the New York Mets on September 7 , 1990 , by scout Eddy Toledo .
= = Minor league career = =
After two years playing baseball in the Dominican Republic , Mota was assigned to the rookie @-@ league Gulf Coast League Mets in 1993 as a third baseman . He had a batting average of .249 with one home run and one stolen base and amassed a .934 fielding percentage in 43 games . The next season , he spent most of the year with the rookie @-@ league Kingsport Mets of the Appalachian League , although he went hitless in four at bats in one game with the St. Lucie Mets of the single @-@ A advanced Florida State League . With Kingsport , he batted .245 while he struck out 78 times in 245 at @-@ bats .
In 1995 , Mota was moved to the shortstop position and assigned to the single @-@ A Capital City Bombers of the South Atlantic League . With the Bombers , he batted .243 and struck out 127 times in 400 at @-@ bats while committing 40 errors at shortstop . In 1996 , he returned to the St. Lucie Mets , where he batted .234 with 90 strikeouts in 304 at @-@ bats while committing 21 errors . Following the season , he was selected by the Montreal Expos in the Rule 5 draft .
The Expos converted Mota to a pitcher in 1997 and assigned him to the Cape Fear Crocs of the South Atlantic League . Starting 23 of his 25 games for the Crocs , he had a 5 – 10 record with a 4 @.@ 36 earned run average ( ERA ) and 112 strikeouts in 126 innings .
In 1998 , the Expos moved Mota to the bullpen , and he began the season with the single @-@ A advanced Jupiter Hammerheads of the Florida State League . He posted a 3 – 2 record with a 0 @.@ 66 ERA and two saves in 20 games and was promoted to the Harrisburg Senators of the double @-@ A Eastern League during the season . With the Senators , he had a 2 – 0 record with a 1 @.@ 06 ERA and four saves in 12 games .
Mota began the 1999 season with the Ottawa Lynx of the triple @-@ A International League . With the Lynx , he had a 2 – 0 record with a 1 @.@ 89 ERA and five saves in 14 games .
= = Major league career = =
= = = Montreal Expos = = =
= = = = 1999 = = = =
Mota was called up to the Expos on May 2 to replace relief pitcher Shayne Bennett , who had been demoted to Ottawa after struggling in his first four games . Mota made his major league debut the same day , pitching a scoreless inning in an 8 – 7 loss to the St. Louis Cardinals . He got his first major league decision on May 11 , when , after pitching 2 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings , he gave up a walk @-@ off home run in the tenth inning to Luis Gonzalez in a 4 – 3 loss to the Arizona Diamondbacks . On June 1 , he won his first major league game , also against Arizona after pitching three scoreless innings in the Expos ' 10 – 8 victory on June 1 . On June 9 , he hit a three @-@ run home run in his first major league at bat ( against Mark Guthrie ) in a 13 – 1 victory over the Boston Red Sox . On August 29 , he allowed one run in one inning and was the winning pitcher in an 8 – 6 victory over the Cincinnati Reds . The win ( the Expos ' eighteenth in August ) set a new Expos ' record for wins in a month . Mota had a 1 @.@ 49 ERA over his first 32 games of the year , but a 15 @.@ 00 ERA over his next six games brought his ERA for the season to 3 @.@ 40 . However , he collected a 1 @.@ 38 ERA over his final 12 games to bring his ERA for the season down to 2 @.@ 93 , and he finished the year with a 2 – 4 record in 51 games .
= = = = 2000 = = = =
The Expos sent Mota to Ottawa to begin the 2000 season . However , he was called up to the Expos in May . On May 20 , his first game of the season with them , he gave up one run in one inning in an 8 – 7 victory over the Houston Astros . On June 11 , he was the losing pitcher when he pitched 1 ⁄ 3 inning and gave up two runs in an 8 – 3 loss to the Toronto Blue Jays . He was returned to Ottawa on June 17 after posting a 12 @.@ 60 ERA in his first 12 games with the Expos . Mota was recalled at the end of the month , but after appearing in one game ( on July 1 ) , he was returned to the Lynx . However , he was recalled on July 19 after Tony Armas , Jr. was placed on the disabled list . Mota was returned to the minor leagues on July 27 when Hideki Irabu returned from the disabled list , but he was recalled soon after . However , Mota appeared in only one game before he was again returned to the minors , and he did not return to the Expos again until the beginning of September . At this point , he had a 9 @.@ 98 ERA through 17 games . On September 11 , in the second game of a doubleheader against the Philadelphia Phillies , he got his only win of the year by pitching one @-@ third of an inning in a 7 – 6 victory . He had a 1 @.@ 84 ERA over his final 12 games to finish the year with a 1 – 1 record and a 6 @.@ 00 ERA in 29 games . With Ottawa , he had a 4 – 5 record with a 2 @.@ 29 ERA and seven saves in 35 games .
= = = = 2001 = = = =
In 2001 , Mota made the Expos out of spring training for the first time in his career . On May 12 , he had a 1 @.@ 59 ERA through his first 20 games of
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by volunteers . On Saturday , there is a regatta at West Mersea , followed by a selection of water sports and a firework display at dusk . One of the popular events on Saturday is walking a greasy pole rigged over the side of the hosting Thames sailing barge .
The Mersea Island Food , Drink & Leisure Festival takes place in May in the Mersea Vineyard . It combines a food theatre showing various meals , particularly oysters , with local live music and storytelling .
The island is home to Mersea Island F.C. , who compete in the Essex and Suffolk Border Football League Division 1 . There is a youth football team , Oyster F.C.
= Group 12 element =
Group 12 , by modern IUPAC numbering , is a group of chemical elements in the periodic table . It includes zinc ( Zn ) , cadmium ( Cd ) and mercury ( Hg ) . The further inclusion of copernicium ( Cn ) in group 12 is supported by recent experiments on individual copernicium atoms . Group 12 is also known as the volatile metals , although this can also more generally refer to any metal ( which need not be in group 12 ) that has high volatility , such as polonium or flerovium . Formerly this group was named IIB ( pronounced as " group two B " , as the " II " is a Roman numeral ) by CAS and old IUPAC system .
The three group 12 elements that occur naturally are zinc , cadmium and mercury . They are all widely used in electric and electronic applications , as well as in various alloys . The first two members of the group share similar properties as they are solid metals under standard conditions . Mercury is the only metal that is a liquid at room temperature . While zinc is very important in the biochemistry of living organisms , cadmium and mercury are both highly toxic . As copernicium does not occur in nature , it has to be synthesized in the laboratory .
= = Physical and atomic properties = =
Like other groups of the periodic table , the members of group 12 show patterns in its electron configuration , especially the outermost shells , which result in trends in their chemical behavior :
Group 12 elements are all soft , diamagnetic , divalent metals . They have the lowest melting points among all transition metals . Zinc is bluish @-@ white and lustrous , though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish . Zinc is also referred to in nonscientific contexts as spelter . Cadmium is soft , malleable , ductile , and with a bluish @-@ white color . Mercury is a liquid , heavy , silvery @-@ white metal . It is the only common liquid metal at ordinary temperatures , and as compared to other metals , it is a poor conductor of heat , but a fair conductor of electricity .
The table below is a summary of the key physical properties of the group 12 elements . Very little is known about copernicium , and none of its physical properties have been confirmed except for its boiling point ( tentative ) .
Zinc is somewhat less dense than iron and has a hexagonal crystal structure . The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 ° C. Above 210 ° C , the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating . Zinc is a fair conductor of electricity . For a metal , zinc has relatively low melting ( 419 @.@ 5 ° C , 787 @.@ 1 F ) and boiling points ( 907 ° C ) . Cadmium is similar in many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds . Unlike other metals , cadmium is resistant to corrosion and as a result it is used as a protective layer when deposited on other metals . As a bulk metal , cadmium is insoluble in water and is not flammable ; however , in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic fumes . Mercury has an exceptionally low melting temperature for a d @-@ block metal . A complete explanation of this fact requires a deep excursion into quantum physics , but it can be summarized as follows : mercury has a unique electronic configuration where electrons fill up all the available 1s , 2s , 2p , 3s , 3p , 3d , 4s , 4p , 4d , 4f , 5s , 5p , 5d and 6s subshells . As such configuration strongly resists removal of an electron , mercury behaves similarly to noble gas elements , which form weak bonds and thus easily melting solids . The stability of the 6s shell is due to the presence of a filled 4f shell . An f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the 6s shell and the nucleus ( see lanthanide contraction ) . The absence of a filled inner f shell is the reason for the somewhat higher melting temperature of cadmium and zinc , although both these metals still melt easily and , in addition , have unusually low boiling points . Gold has atoms with one less 6s electron than mercury . Those electrons are more easily removed and are shared between the gold atoms forming relatively strong metallic bonds .
Zinc , cadmium and mercury form a large range of alloys . Among the zinc containing ones , brass is an alloy of zinc and copper . Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium , antimony , bismuth , gold , iron , lead , mercury , silver , tin , magnesium , cobalt , nickel , tellurium and sodium . While neither zinc nor zirconium are ferromagnetic , their alloy ZrZn
2 exhibits ferromagnetism below 35 K. Cadmium is used in many kinds of solder and bearing alloys , due to a low coefficient of friction and fatigue resistance . It is also found in some of the lowest @-@ melting alloys , such as Wood 's metal . Because it is a liquid , mercury dissolves other metals and the alloys that are formed are called amalgams . For example , such amalgams are known with gold , zinc , sodium , and many other metals . Because iron is an exception , iron flasks have been traditionally used to trade mercury . Other metals that do not form amalgams with mercury include tantalum , tungsten and platinum . Sodium amalgam is a common reducing agent in organic synthesis , and is also used in high @-@ pressure sodium lamps . Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury @-@ aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact . Since the amalgam reacts with air to give aluminium oxide , small amounts of mercury corrode aluminium . For this reason , mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft .
= = Chemistry = =
Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first three members of the group 12 . The chemistry of copernicium is not well established and therefore the rest of the section deals only with zinc , cadmium and mercury .
= = = Periodic trends = = =
All elements in this group are metals . The similarity of the metallic radii of cadmium and mercury is an effect of the lanthanide contraction . So , the trend in this group is unlike the trend in group 2 , the alkaline earths , where metallic radius increases smoothly from top to bottom of the group . All three metals have relatively low melting and boiling points , indicating that the metallic bond is relatively weak , with relatively little overlap between the valence band and the conduction band . Thus , zinc is close to the boundary between metallic and metalloid elements , which is usually placed between gallium and germanium , though gallium participates in semi @-@ conductors such as gallium arsenide .
Zinc and cadmium are electropositive while mercury is not . As a result , zinc and cadmium metal are good reducing agents . The elements of group 12 have an oxidation state of + 2 in which the ions have the rather stable d10 electronic configuration , with a full sub @-@ shell . However , mercury can easily be reduced to the + 1 oxidation state ; usually , as in the ion Hg2 +
2 , two mercury ( I ) ions come together to form a metal @-@ metal bond and a diamagnetic species . Cadmium can also form species such as [ Cd2Cl6 ] 4 − in which the metal 's oxidation state is + 1 . Just as with mercury , the formation of a metal @-@ metal bond results in a diamagnetic compound in which there are no unpaired electrons ; thus , making the species very reactive . Zinc ( I ) is known only in the gas phase , in such compounds as linear Zn2Cl2 , analogous to calomel .
= = = Classification = = =
The elements in group 12 are usually considered to be d @-@ block elements , but not transition elements as the d @-@ shell is full . Some authors classify these elements as main @-@ group elements because the valence electrons are in ns2 orbitals . Nevertheless , they share many characteristics with the neighboring group 11 elements on the periodic table , which are almost universally considered to be transition elements . For example , zinc shares many characteristics with the neighboring transition metal , copper . Zinc complexes merit inclusion in the Irving @-@ Williams series as zinc forms many complexes with the same stoichiometry as complexes of copper ( II ) , albeit with smaller stability constants . There is little similarity between cadmium and silver as compounds of silver ( II ) are rare and those that do exist are very strong oxidizing agents . Likewise the common oxidation state for gold is + 3 , which precludes there being much common chemistry between mercury and gold , though there are similarities between mercury ( I ) and gold ( I ) such as the formation of linear dicyano complexes , [ M ( CN ) 2 ] − . According to IUPAC 's definition of transition metal as an element whose atom has an incomplete d sub @-@ shell , or which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d sub @-@ shell , zinc and cadmium are not transition metals , while mercury is . This is because only mercury is known to have a compound where its oxidation state is higher than + 2 , in mercury ( IV ) fluoride . However , this classification is based on one highly atypical compound seen at non @-@ equilibrium conditions and is at odds to mercury 's more typical chemistry , and Jensen has suggested that it would be better to regard mercury as not being a transition metal .
= = = Relationship with the alkaline earth metals = = =
Although group 12 lies in the d @-@ block of the modern 18 @-@ column periodic table , the d electrons of zinc , cadmium , and ( almost always ) mercury behave as core electrons and do not take part in bonding . This behavior is similar to that of the main @-@ group elements , but is in stark contrast to that of the neighboring group 11 elements ( copper , silver , and gold ) , which also have filled d @-@ subshells in their ground @-@ state electron configuration but behave chemically as transition metals . For example , the bonding in chromium ( II ) sulfide ( CrS ) involves mainly the 3d electrons ; that in iron ( II ) sulfide ( FeS ) involves both the 3d and 4s electrons ; but that of zinc sulfide ( ZnS ) involves only the 4s electrons and the 3d electrons behave as core electrons . Indeed , useful comparison can be made between their properties and the first two members of group 2 , beryllium and magnesium , and in earlier short @-@ form periodic table layouts , this relationship is illustrated more clearly . For instance , zinc and cadmium are similar to beryllium and magnesium in their atomic radii , ionic radii , electronegativities , and also in the structure of their binary compounds and their ability to form complex ions with many nitrogen and oxygen ligands , such as complex hydrides and amines . However , beryllium and magnesium are small atoms , unlike the heavier alkaline earth metals and like the group 12 elements ( which have a greater nuclear charge but the same number of valence electrons ) , and the periodic trends down group 2 from beryllium to radium ( similar to that of the alkali metals ) are not as smooth when going down from beryllium to mercury ( which is more similar to that of the p @-@ block main groups ) due to the d @-@ block and lanthanide contractions . It is also the d @-@ block and lanthanide contractions that give mercury many of its distinctive properties .
= = = Compounds = = =
All three metal ions form many tetrahedral species , such as MCl2 −
4 . Both zinc and cadmium can also form octahedral complexes such as the aqua ions [ M ( H2O ) 6 ] 2 + which are present in aqueous solutions of salts of these metals . Covalent character is achieved by using the s and possibly p orbitals . Mercury , however , rarely exceeds a coordination number of four . Coordination numbers of 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 and 8 are also known .
= = Extensions = =
Although copernicium is the heaviest known group 12 element , there has been some theoretical work regarding possible heavier group 12 elements . Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table would put element 162 , unhexbium ( Uhb ) , under copernicium , relativistic Dirac @-@ Fock calculations predict that the next group 12 element after copernicium should actually be element 164 , unhexquadium ( Uhq ) , which is predicted to have an electron configuration of [ Uuo ] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p1 / 22 . The 8s and 8p1 / 2 orbitals are predicted to be so strongly stabilized relativistically that they become core electrons and do not participate in chemical reactions , unlike the earlier group 12 elements where the s electrons behave as valence electrons . However , the 9s and 9p1 / 2 levels are expected to be readily available for hybridization and bonding , so that unhexquadium should still behave chemically like a normal transition metal . Calculations predict that the 7d electrons of unhexquadium should participate very readily in chemical reactions , so that unhexquadium should be able to show stable + 6 and + 4 oxidation states in addition to the normal + 2 state in aqueous solutions with strong ligands . Unhexquadium should thus be able to form compounds like Uhq ( CO ) 4 , Uhq ( PF3 ) 4 ( both tetrahedral ) , and Uhq ( CN ) 2 −
2 ( linear ) , which is very different behavior from that of lead , which unhexquadium would be a heavier homologue of if not for relativistic effects . Nevertheless , the divalent state would be the main one in aqueous solution , and unhexquadium ( II ) should behave more similarly to lead than unhexquadium ( IV ) and unhexquadium ( VI ) .
Unhexquadium should be a soft metal like mercury , and metallic unhexquadium should have a high melting point as it is predicted to bond covalently . It is also expected to be a soft Lewis acid and have Ahrlands softness parameter close to 4 eV . It should also have some similarities to ununoctium as well as to the other group 12 elements . Unhexquadium should be at most moderately reactive , having a first ionization energy that should be around 685 kJ / mol , comparable to that of molybdenum . Due to the lanthanide , actinide , and superactinide contractions , unhexquadium should have a metallic radius of only 158 pm , very close to that of the much lighter magnesium , despite its being expected to have an atomic weight of around 474 u , about 19 @.@ 5 times as much as that of magnesium . This small radius and high weight cause it to be expected to have an extremely high density of around 46 g · cm − 3 , over twice that of osmium , currently the most dense element known , at 22 @.@ 61 g · cm − 3 ; unhexquadium should be the second most dense element in the first 9 periods of the periodic table , with only its neighbour unhextrium ( element 163 ) being more dense ( at 47 g · cm − 3 ) . Metallic unhexquadium should be quite stable , as the 8s and 8p1 / 2 electrons are very deeply buried in the electron core and only the 7d electrons are available for bonding . Metallic unhexquadium should have a very large cohesive energy due to its covalent bonds , most probably resulting in a high melting point .
Theoretical interest in the chemistry of unhexquadium is largely motivated by theoretical predictions that it , especially the isotope 482Uhq ( with 164 protons and 318 neutrons ) , would be at the center of a hypothetical second island of stability ( the first being centered around 306Ubb , with 122 protons and 184 neutrons ) .
= = History = =
The elements of group 12 have been found throughout history , being used since ancient times to being discovered in laboratories . The group itself has not acquired a trivial name , but it has been called group IIB in the past .
= = = Zinc = = =
Zinc has been found being used in impure forms in ancient times as well as in alloys such as brass that have been found to be over 2000 years old . Zinc was distinctly recognized as a metal under the designation of Fasada in the medical Lexicon ascribed to the Hindu king Madanapala and written about the year 1374 . The metal was also of use to alchemists . The name of the metal was first documented in the 16th century , and is probably derived from the German zinke for the needle @-@ like appearance of metallic crystals .
The isolation of metallic zinc in the West may have been achieved independently by several people in the 17th century . German chemist Andreas Marggraf is usually given credit for discovering pure metallic zinc in a 1746 experiment by heating a mixture of calamine and charcoal in a closed vessel without copper to obtain a metal . Experiments on frogs by the Italian doctor Luigi Galvani in 1780 with brass paved the way for the discovery of electrical batteries , galvanization and cathodic protection . In 1880 , Galvani 's friend , Alessandro Volta , invented the Voltaic pile . The biological importance of zinc was not discovered until 1940 when carbonic anhydrase , an enzyme that scrubs carbon dioxide from blood , was shown to have zinc in its active site .
= = = Cadmium = = =
In 1817 , cadmium was discovered in Germany as an impurity in zinc carbonate minerals ( calamine ) by Friedrich Stromeyer and Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann . It was named after the Latin cadmia for " calamine " , a cadmium @-@ bearing mixture of minerals , which was in turn named after the Greek mythological character , Κάδμος Cadmus , the founder of Thebes . Stromeyer eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and reduction of the sulfide .
In 1927 , the International Conference on Weights and Measures redefined the meter in terms of a red cadmium spectral line ( 1 m = 1 @,@ 553 @,@ 164 @.@ 13 wavelengths ) . This definition has since been changed ( see krypton ) . At the same time , the International Prototype Meter was used as standard for the length of a meter until 1960 , when at the General Conference on Weights and Measures the meter was defined in terms of the orange @-@ red emission line in the electromagnetic spectrum of the krypton @-@ 86 atom in vacuum .
= = = Mercury = = =
Mercury has been found in Egyptian tombs which have been dated back to 1500 BC , where mercury was used in cosmetics . It was also used by the ancient Chinese who believed it would improve and prolong health . By 500 BC mercury was used to make amalgams ( Medieval Latin amalgama , " alloy of mercury " ) with other metals . Alchemists thought of mercury as the First Matter from which all metals were formed . They believed that different metals could be produced by varying the quality and quantity of sulfur contained within the mercury . The purest of these was gold , and mercury was called for in attempts at the transmutation of base ( or impure ) metals into gold , which was the goal of many alchemists .
Hg is the modern chemical symbol for mercury . It comes from hydrargyrum , a Latinized form of the Greek word Ύδραργυρος ( hydrargyros ) , which is a compound word meaning " water @-@ silver " ( hydr-
= water , argyros =
silver ) — since it is liquid like water and shiny like silver . The element was named after the Roman god Mercury , known for speed and mobility . It is associated with the planet Mercury ; the astrological symbol for the planet is also one of the alchemical symbols for the metal . Mercury is the only metal for which the alchemical planetary name became the common name .
= = = Copernicium = = =
The heaviest known group 12 element , copernicium , was first created on February 9 , 1996 , at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung ( GSI ) located in Darmstadt , Germany by Sigurd Hofmann , Victor Ninov et al . It was then officially named by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry after Nicolaus Copernicus on February 19 , 2010 , the 537th anniversary of Copernicus ' birth .
= = Occurrence = =
Like in most other d @-@ block groups , the abundance in Earth 's crust of group 12 elements decreases with higher atomic number . Zinc is with 65 parts per million ( ppm ) the most abundant in the group while cadmium with 0 @.@ 1 ppm and mercury with 0 @.@ 08 ppm are orders of magnitude less abundant . Copernicium , as a synthetic element with a half @-@ life of a few minutes , may only be present in the laboratories where it was produced .
Group 12 metals are chalcophiles , meaning the elements have low affinities for oxides and prefer to bond with sulfides . Chalcophiles formed as the crust solidified under the reducing conditions of the early Earth 's atmosphere . The commercially most important minerals of group 12 elements are sulfide minerals . Sphalerite , which is a form of zinc sulfide , is the most heavily mined zinc @-@ containing ore because its concentrate contains 60 – 62 % zinc . No significant deposits of cadmium @-@ containing ores are known . Greenockite ( CdS ) , the only cadmium mineral of importance , is nearly always associated with sphalerite ( ZnS ) . This association is caused by the geochemical similarity between zinc and cadmium which makes geological separation unlikely . As a consequence , cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct from mining , smelting , and refining sulfidic ores of zinc , and , to a lesser degree , lead and copper . One place where metallic cadmium can be found is the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia . Although mercury is an extremely rare element in the Earth 's crust , because it does not blend geochemically with those elements that constitute the majority of the crustal mass , mercury ores can be highly concentrated considering the element 's abundance in ordinary rock . The richest mercury ores contain up to 2 @.@ 5 % mercury by mass , and even the leanest concentrated deposits are at least 0 @.@ 1 % mercury ( 12 @,@ 000 times average crustal abundance ) . It is found either as a native metal ( rare ) or in cinnabar ( HgS ) , corderoite , livingstonite and other minerals , with cinnabar being the most common ore .
While mercury and zinc minerals are found in large enough quantities to be mined , cadmium is too similar to zinc and therefore is always present in small quantities in zinc ores from where it is recovered . Identified world zinc resources total about 1 @.@ 9 billion tonnes . Large deposits are in Australia , Canada and the United States with the largest reserves in Iran . At the current rate of consumption , these reserves are estimated to be depleted sometime between 2027 and 2055 . About 346 million tonnes have been extracted throughout history to 2002 , and one estimate found that about 109 million tonnes of that remains in use . In 2005 , China was the top producer of mercury with almost two @-@ thirds global share followed by Kyrgyzstan . Several other countries are believed to have unrecorded production of mercury from copper electrowinning processes and by recovery from effluents . Because of the high toxicity of mercury , both the mining of cinnabar and refining for mercury are hazardous and historic causes of mercury poisoning .
= = Production = =
Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use , trailing only iron , aluminium , and copper with an annual production of about 10 million tonnes . Worldwide , 95 % of the zinc is mined from sulfidic ore deposits , in which sphalerite ( ZnS ) is nearly always mixed with the sulfides of copper , lead and iron . Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy . Roasting converts the zinc sulfide concentrate produced during processing to zinc oxide : For further processing two basic methods are used : pyrometallurgy or electrowinning . Pyrometallurgy processing reduces zinc oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide at 950 ° C ( 1 @,@ 740 ° F ) into the metal , which is distilled as zinc vapor . The zinc vapor is collected in a condenser . Electrowinning processing leaches zinc from the ore concentrate by sulfuric acid : After this step electrolysis is used to produce zinc metal .
Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores , and it is most isolated during the production of zinc . Some zinc ores concentrates from sulfidic zinc ores contain up to 1 @.@ 4 % of cadmium . Cadmium is isolated from the zinc produced from the flue dust by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted , or cadmium sulfate is precipitated out of the electrolysis solution .
The richest mercury ores contain up to 2 @.@ 5 % mercury by mass , and even the leanest concentrated deposits are at least 0 @.@ 1 % mercury , with cinnabar ( HgS ) being the most common ore in the deposits . Mercury is extracted by heating cinnabar in a current of air and condensing the vapor .
Super @-@ heavy elements such as copernicium are produced by bombarding lighter elements in particle accelerators that induces fusion reactions . Whereas most of the isotopes of copernicium can be synthesized directly this way , some heavier ones have only been observed as decay products of elements with higher atomic numbers . The first fusion reaction to produce copernicium was performed by GSI in 1996 , who reported the detection of two decay chains of copernicium @-@ 277 .
208
82Pb + 70
30Zn → 277
112Cn + n
In total , approximately 75 atoms of copernicium have been prepared using various nuclear reactions .
= = Applications = =
Due to the physical similarities which they share , the group 12 elements can be found in many common situations . Zinc and cadmium are commonly used as anti @-@ corrosion ( galvanization ) agents as they will attract all local oxidation until they completely corrode . These protective coatings can be applied to other metals through by hot @-@ dip galvanizing a substance into the molten form of the metal , or through the process of electroplating which may be passivated by the use of chromate salts . Group 12 elements are also used in electrochemistry as they may act as an alternative to the standard hydrogen electrode in addition to being a secondary reference electrode .
In the US , zinc is used predominantly for galvanizing ( 55 % ) and for brass , bronze and other alloys ( 37 % ) . The relative reactivity of zinc and its ability to attract oxidation to itself makes it an efficient sacrificial anode in cathodic protection ( CP ) . For example , cathodic protection of a buried pipeline can be achieved by connecting anodes made from zinc to the pipe . Zinc acts as the anode ( negative terminus ) by slowly corroding away as it passes electric current to the steel pipeline . Zinc is also used to cathodically protect metals that are exposed to sea water from corrosion . Zinc is also used as an anode material for batteries such as in zinc – carbon batteries or zinc @-@ air battery / fuel cells . A widely used alloy which contains zinc is brass , in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 3 % to 45 % zinc , depending upon the type of brass . Brass is generally more ductile and stronger than copper and has superior corrosion resistance . These properties make it useful in communication equipment , hardware , musical instruments , and water valves . Other widely used alloys that contain zinc include nickel silver , typewriter metal , soft and aluminium solder , and commercial bronze . Alloys of primarily zinc with small amounts of copper , aluminium , and magnesium are useful in die casting as well as spin casting , especially in the automotive , electrical , and hardware industries . These alloys are marketed under the name Zamak . Roughly one quarter of all zinc output , in the United States ( 2009 ) , is consumed in the form of zinc compounds , a variety of which are used industrially .
Cadmium has many common industrial uses as it is a key component in battery production , is present in cadmium pigments , coatings , and is commonly used in electroplating . In 2009 , 86 % of cadmium was used in batteries , predominantly in rechargeable nickel @-@ cadmium batteries . The European Union banned the use of cadmium in electronics in 2004 with several exceptions but reduced the allowed content of cadmium in electronics to 0 @.@ 002 % . Cadmium electroplating , consuming 6 % of the global production , can be found in the aircraft industry due to the ability to resist corrosion when applied to steel components .
Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications . It is used in some thermometers , especially ones which are used to measure high temperatures . A still increasing amount is used as gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps , while most of the other applications are slowly phased out due to health and safety regulations , and is in some applications replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive Galinstan alloy . Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine , although they are much less common today than they once were , now that the toxic effects of mercury and its compounds are more widely understood . It is still used as an ingredient in dental amalgams . In the late 20th century the largest use of mercury was in the mercury cell process ( also called the Castner @-@ Kellner process ) in the production of chlorine and caustic soda .
= = Biological role and toxicity = =
The group 12 elements have multiple effects on biological organisms as cadmium and mercury are toxic while zinc is required by most plants and animals in trace amounts .
Zinc is an essential trace element , necessary for plants , animals , and microorganisms . It is " typically the second most abundant transition metal in organisms " after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes . There are 2 – 4 grams of zinc distributed throughout the human body , and it plays " ubiquitous biological roles " . A 2006 study estimated that about 10 % of human proteins ( 2800 ) potentially bind zinc , in addition to hundreds which transport and traffic zinc . In the U.S. , the Recommended Dietary Allowance ( RDA ) is 8 mg / day for women and 11 mg / day for men . Harmful excessive supplementation may be a problem and should probably not exceed 20 mg / day in healthy people , although the U.S. National Research Council set a Tolerable Upper Intake of 40 mg / day .
Mercury and cadmium are toxic and may cause environmental damage if they enter rivers or rain water . This may result in contaminated crops as well as the bioaccumulation of mercury in a food chain leading to an increase in illnesses caused by mercury and cadmium poisoning .
= Romford =
Romford is a large town in East London , England , and the administrative centre of the London Borough of Havering . It is located 14 @.@ 1 miles ( 22 @.@ 7 km ) northeast of Charing Cross and is one of the major metropolitan centres identified in the London Plan . It was historically a market town in the county of Essex and formed the administrative centre of the liberty of Havering , until it was dissolved in 1892 . Good road links and the opening of the railway station in 1839 were key to the development of the town and the economic history of Romford is underpinned by a shift from agriculture to light industry and then to retail and commerce . As part of the suburban growth of London in the 20th century , Romford significantly expanded and increased in population , becoming a municipal borough in 1937 and has formed part of Greater London since 1965 . It now forms one of the largest commercial , retail , entertainment and leisure districts outside central London and has a developed night time economy .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Romford is first recorded in 1177 as Romfort , which is formed from Old English ' rūm ' and ' ford ' and means " the wide or spacious ford " . The naming of the River Rom is a local ' back @-@ formation ' from the name of the town ; and the river is elsewhere known as the Beam . The ford most likely existed on the main London to Colchester road where it crossed that river .
The original site of the town was to the south , in an area still known as Oldchurch . It was moved northwards to the present site in the later medieval period to avoid the frequent flooding of the River Rom . The first building on the new site was the parish church of Saint Edward the Confessor .
= = = Economic development = = =
The town developed in the Middle Ages on the main road to London and the regionally significant Romford Market was established in 1247 . The early history of Romford and the immediate area is agricultural and it is recorded as being the location of a number of mills used to grind corn . The area was a focus of the leather industry from the 15th to the early 19th centuries and there is record of a wide range of industries such as cloth making , weaving , charcoal burning , metal working and brewing . Communications played an important part in its development ; the main road to London was maintained by the Middlesex and Essex Turnpike Trust from 1721 and Romford became a coaching town in the 18th century . Several failed attempts were made in the early 19th century to connect the town to the Thames via a Romford Canal . Initially intended to transport agricultural products to London and later intended to serve growing industrial sites in Romford , only two miles of canal were constructed and the canal company were unable to reach the town .
The development of the town was accelerated by the opening of the railway station in 1839 which stimulated the local economy and was key to the development of the Star Brewery . Initially Eastern Counties Railway services operated between Mile End and Romford , with extensions to Brentwood and to Shoreditch in 1840 . A second station was opened on South Street in 1892 by the London , Tilbury and Southend Railway on the line to Upminster and Grays , giving Romford a rail connection to Tilbury Docks . The two stations were combined into one in 1934 . Light industry slowly developed , reaching a peak in the 1970s with a number of factories on the edge of town , such as the Roneo Vickers office machinery company , Colvern manufacturers of wireless components , May 's Sheet Metal Works and brush manufacturers Betterware . Suburban expansion increased the population and reinforced Romford 's position as a significant regional town centre . The Liberty Shopping Centre was constructed in the 1960s , and has been modernised and supplemented with further shopping centres throughout the town , including The Mall , opened in 1990 ( as ' Liberty 2 ' ) ; and The Brewery , opened in 2000 on the site of the old Star Brewery .
= = = Local government = = =
Romford formed a chapelry in the large ancient parish of Hornchurch in the Becontree hundred of Essex ; as well as the town it included the wards of Collier Row , Harold Wood , and Noak Hill . Through ancient custom the area enjoyed special status and a charter in 1465 removed the parish from the Becontree hundred and the county of Essex and it instead formed the independent liberty of Havering . Over time the vestry of Romford chapelry absorbed the local powers that would usually be held by the parish authorities and in 1849 Romford became a separate parish within the liberty . Improvement commissioners were set up in 1819 for paving , lighting , watching , and cleansing of the marketplace and main streets . As the town grew this arrangement became ineffective at controlling sanitation and in 1851 a local board of health was set up for the parish ; although its area was reduced in 1855 to cover only the town ward . The remainder of the parish became part of the Romford rural sanitary district in 1875 . These changes and the introduction of the Romford Poor Law Union in 1836 eroded the powers of the liberty and it was finally abolished in 1892 and reincorporated into Essex .
The Local Government Act 1894 reformed local government and created the Romford Urban District and Romford Rural District to replace the local board and sanitary district ; and the Romford parish was split into Romford Urban and Romford Rural along the lines of the urban district . In 1900 the parish was recombined and the urban district expanded to cover all of the former area of the historic chapelry , except for Noak Hill which remained in the rural district and had become a parish in its own right in 1895 . The enlarged urban district formed part of the London Traffic Area from 1924 and the London Passenger Transport Area from 1933 . The suburban expansion of London caused an increase in population during the 1930s and the urban district was expanded further in 1934 , taking in the parishes of Havering @-@ atte @-@ Bower and Noak Hill . It was incorporated as the Municipal Borough of Romford in 1937 . In 1965 the municipal borough was abolished and its former area was combined with that of Hornchurch Urban District ; it was again removed from Essex and since then has formed the northern part of the London Borough of Havering in Greater London .
= = = Suburban expansion = = =
There was early expansion in the 1840s in the area now occupied by the Waterloo estate , and then known as New Romford , where 200 cottages were built . To the east of the market place from 1850 middle class suburban housing was constructed with a much larger area of 200 acres ( 81 ha ) built @-@ over to the south of the railway from 1851 . Through a gradual process of selling off former manors , houses were built radiating from the town in all directions for about a mile . More significant growth occurred between 1910 and 1911 with the construction of Gidea Park Garden Suburb , which included Raphael Park and Gidea Park railway station . Large sections of land to the north of the town at Collier Row were developed in the interwar period and after World War II , the London County Council built the Harold Hill estate to the north east from 1948 to 1958 .
The right to supply electricity to the town was secured by the County of London Electricity Supply Company in 1913 . Initially power was generated within the Star Brewery site , with the supply switching to Barking Power Station in 1925 . Gas supply began in 1825 with gas works of 25 acres ( 10 ha ) constructed by 1938 . Following the Telegraph Act 1899 Romford became part of the Post Office London telephone area and the Romford exchange was recorded as having 240 subscribers in 1916 . The town water supply initially came from the Havering Well , and 1859 a new public well and pump was built at the east end of the market . The South Essex Waterworks Company started installing mains water supply in 1863 and had offices in South Street . By 1905 its supply was serving Ilford , Collier Row , Ardleigh Green , Brentwood , and Hornchurch . Sewage works were installed by the local board at Oldchurch in 1862 , with further works built in Hornchurch in 1869 .
= = Governance = =
The Romford UK Parliament constituency consists of the Havering wards of Brooklands , Havering Park , Mawneys , Pettits , Romford Town , and Squirrel 's Heath . In 2001 it had a population of 76 @,@ 323 . The current MP is Andrew Rosindell , a native of the town . Romford forms part of the Havering and Redbridge London Assembly constituency and the London European Parliament constituency . Each ward elects three councillors to Havering London Borough Council . From the next UK general election the constituency will also include the Hylands ward . The councillors elected in 2006 were : Brooklands – 3 Conservative ; Havering Park – 2 Conservative and 1 Collier Row and Mawneys Residents Association ; Mawneys – 3 Conservative ; Pettits – 3 Conservative ; Romford Town – 3 Conservative ; Squirrel 's Heath – 3 Conservative after 2007 by @-@ election ; and Hylands – 3 Conservative .
= = Geography = =
The town centre is about 50 feet ( 15 m ) above sea level on a gravel terrace rising from the River Thames . The north of the town has developed on London Clay and is situated as much as 150 feet ( 46 m ) above sea level . The town centre is for the most part contained within a ring road formed of St Edwards Way , Mercury Gardens , Thurloe Gardens , Oldchurch Road and Waterloo Road . The market place and much of South Street and the High Street are pedestrianised . The railway cuts through the town from east to west on a viaduct , with the bulk of the central Romford area to its north . The River Rom flows through the town in underground channels and joins the Thames after flowing through Hornchurch ; elsewhere along its course it is known as the River Beam and forms part of the strategic waterways Blue Ribbon Network . Romford has formed part of the continuously built @-@ up area of London since the 1930s and is contiguous with Rush Green to the west , Collier Row to the north , Gidea Park to the east and Hornchurch to the south east . The Romford post town covers all of the former municipal borough and extends over a much wider area , including parts of Barking and Dagenham and Epping Forest . Climate data for Romford is taken from the nearest weather station at Greenwich , around 10 miles ( 16 @.@ 1 km ) south west of the marketplace :
= = Demography = =
The Havering committee area for Romford is defined as the wards of Romford Town and Brooklands . Demographic data is produced by the Office for National Statistics for these wards . In 2001 the population of Romford Town was 13 @,@ 200 and Brooklands was 13 @,@ 024 , giving a total population of 26 @,@ 224 . In contrast , the approximate population of the area within the 2005 Romford Urban Strategy was estimated to be 36 @,@ 500 . 71 @.@ 52 % in Romford Town and 70 @.@ 48 % in Brooklands report their religion as Christian , compared to 76 @.@ 13 % for Havering , 58 @.@ 23 % in London and 71 @.@ 74 % in England . 15 @.@ 71 % in Romford Town and 16 @.@ 62 % in Brooklands report having no religion , compared to 13 @.@ 18 % in Havering , 15 @.@ 76 % in London and 14 @.@ 59 % in England .
According to UK polling report , Romford is 82 % White British , 5 @.@ 8 % Asian , 5 % Other White and 4 @.@ 7 % Black ( 2011 ) .
= = Economy = =
Romford is recognised in the London Plan as one of 13 regionally significant metropolitan centres in Greater London , with a considerable catchment area . The total commercial floorspace in the town was 353 @,@ 258 square metres ( 3 @,@ 802 @,@ 440 sq ft ) in 2002 , of which 147 @,@ 627 square metres ( 1 @,@ 589 @,@ 040 sq ft ) was retail space and 63 @,@ 357 square metres ( 681 @,@ 970 sq ft ) was offices . The retail space is growing and in 2005 consisted of 190 @,@ 000 square metres ( 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The retail economy is complemented by a central business district close to the railway station , where the offices of employers such as Aon are located . Employment in the town centre was categorised in 2002 as approximately 40 % commercial office , 40 % comparison retail , 10 % hospitality , 5 % public sector , 2 @.@ 5 % service retail and 2 @.@ 5 % arts and entertainment . Compared to the similar east London areas of Ilford , Stratford and Barking , there is more comparison retail and commercial office employment in Romford and less public sector work . The total turnover of £ 413 @,@ 395 @,@ 000 in 2002 for Romford was larger than any other comparable town centre in east London and approximately 70 % came from the commercial office businesses . There is a developed night time economy , greater than in any other metropolitan centre in Greater London , with 8 @,@ 360 square metres ( 90 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of cinemas , theatres and concert hall space ; 9 @,@ 530 square metres ( 102 @,@ 600 sq ft ) of bars and pubs ; 5 @,@ 510 square metres ( 59 @,@ 300 sq ft ) of cafés and restaurants ; and 2 @,@ 680 square metres ( 28 @,@ 800 sq ft ) of fast food and take away venues . The night time economy is almost as significant as the day economy with around 12 @,@ 000 visits to Romford during the day and 11 @,@ 000 visits to pubs , clubs and bars at night .
= = Transport = =
= = = Roads = = =
Romford 's road centre is a dual @-@ carriageway ring @-@ road with three designations :
North from The Brewery roundabout along St Edwards Way to The Mercury Mall it is the A118
South from The Brewery roundabout to Oldchurch Roundabout it is the A125
East from Oldchurch Roundabout to The Mercury Mall it is the A1251
Radiating from the Ring Road :
The A118 runs east to west from Stratford in East London to the Gallows Corner . At the Gallows Corner , the road intersects with the A127 road to Southend and the A12 trunk road between London and East Anglia .
The A125 runs north to south , from the A12 trunk road traffic lights with the B175 , to the A1306 near Rainham . At Rush Green the road intersects with the A124 which runs from Canning Town to Upminster .
Inside the Ring Road , the area is now heavily pedestrianized , with key roads no longer thoroughfares .
South Street was originally the A125 main road connecting the A12 trunk road and the A13 trunk road
High Street and Market Place was originally the A12 trunk road between London and East Anglia .
The east to west road was originally the A12 , with the existing A12 trunk road being the old A106 from Wanstead to Gallows Corner
= = = Buses = = =
Romford is a hub of the London Buses network with services to Canning Town , Stratford , Leytonstone and Dagenham as well as feeder services from the large housing developments at Collier Row and Harold Hill . There are night bus services to Stratford , Harold Hill and Paddington . Romford town centre has a very high Public Transport Accessibility Level score of 6 .
= = = Coaches = = =
National Express operate a daily 481 service from London to Ipswich via Colchester , and a daily 484 service from London to Walton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Naze via Colchester and Clacton .
= = = Railway = = =
The town is served by Romford railway station on the TfL Rail in London fare zone 6 . Trains calling at the station are formed of the high @-@ frequency Liverpool Street @-@ Shenfield local TfL Rail service . Some Abellio Greater Anglia services to / from Southend Victoria and Colchester Town also call at the station . A branch line shuttle on the Romford to Upminster Line connects Romford to Upminster , operated by London Overground .
It is planned that the Liverpool Street @-@ Shenfield service will be replaced by Crossrail in 2018 and there is a proposal that Romford will be served by a future extension of the East London Transit .
= = = Air = = =
Romford had an airport for passenger flights in the early 1930s located at Maylands Aerodrome . This is now the site of Maylands Golf Club on the A12 .
Regular services to Clacton were operated by E.H. Hillman using Puss Moth and Fox Moth aircraft and The Midland & Scottish Air Ferries operated regular flights from Romford to Glasgow . There were expansion plans for E.H. Hillman to expand services to Paris , Glasgow and Belfast , but operations moved from Romford to Stapleford Aerodrome in the mid 1930s . A conflict of interest between The Midland & Scottish Air Ferries and Scottish Motor Traction saw services cease in the mid 1930s .
= = Religion = =
There are several churches in Romford . Confusingly , two of them are dedicated to Edward the Confessor , one of England 's two kings that were made saints , and who lived at Havering @-@ atte @-@ Bower nearby . The main church , which is Anglican , is Romford 's original church and situated in Market Place , in the heart of the town . The other one , which is Roman Catholic , is located to the north of the town centre , in Park End Road .
Other churches in the town centre include Trinity Methodist Church , in Angel Way ; Salem Baptist Chapel in London Road ; and another Anglican church , Saint Andrew 's , in Saint Andrew 's Road . All are located to the west .
Romford also has a synagogue , in Eastern Road , consecrated on 25 May 1956 .
= = = Saint Edward the Confessor 's Church ( Church of England ) = = =
The current church building , with its prominent spire , dates from 1850 , and was designed by John Johnson . It is located on Market Place and replaced an earlier church of 1410 . It has several monuments to the Hervey and Cooke families .
= = = Saint Edward the Confessor 's Church ( Roman Catholic ) = = =
This church replaced a temporary building which stood on the site from 1854 , and was built with money and on land donated by William Petre , 12th Baron Petre , who was from a prominent Catholic family ; he was also responsible for other churches in Essex at Barking , Ongar , Brentwood and Chelmsford . Of relatively modest size and in a then rural location , St Edward ’ s was amongst the first 19th century churches built in Essex under the Catholic Diocese of Westminster , established in 1850 . The church was dedicated in May 1856 by Nicholas Wiseman , the first Archbishop of Westminster , and designed by the London @-@ based architect Daniel Cubitt Nichols .
In 1917 , a gallery was added to the west end of the chancel , and in 1934 the North Chapel was added .
The Church is built in the 13th century English Gothic style in coursed ragstone with a red @-@ tiled roof and a central wooden belfry , topped by a splayed @-@ foot spire and small dormers at the west end . The plan is of an aisle @-@ less nave with a lower chancel , north chapel and south porch with a stair tower for the gallery ( all at the west end of the church ) , with a sacristy linking it to the presbytery in the north @-@ east corner . The windows are of Bath stone .
= = = Saint Andrew 's Church = = =
Saint Andrew 's Church was built to cope with the growing population of Romford in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries . It was built in 1861 @-@ 2 by John Johnson , the same architect who designed the present Saint Edward the Confessor 's Church .
= = = Trinity Methodist Church = = =
The red brick Trinity Methodist Church was completed in 1888 . It has survived many troubles , including flooding in its opening year , damage on the night of 8 / 9 December 1940 by enemy action , and an arson attack on Christmas Eve 1980 , when the church was only just saved from complete destruction by the presence of a police officer in a patrol car nearby , who managed to call the fire brigade .
= = = Salem Baptist Chapel = = =
Salem Chapel stands on land which had been part of the old Napoleonic Barrack Ground . Hence the name for the nearby Waterloo Road . The land was auctioned in 1839 , and in the following year the purchaser , a Mr George Gould , himself a Baptist , sold two plots fronting the London Road for the erection of a Baptist Chapel . The land was purchased and fenced for the sum of £ 300 which was raised by way of a mortgage . The original meeting room , ( now the Church Parlour ) was built and opened in July 1840 . The present chapel was completed and opened in 1847 .
= = Culture = =
Havering Council 's urban strategy aims to make Romford a cultural destination , whilst recognising that Hornchurch forms the main cultural hub of the borough with a large theatre and arts spaces . As a former market and coaching town , Romford is well served by public houses and two that are located in the market place are listed buildings . The market and adjacent streets also form a conservation area .
Mass entertainment facilities in the town include the Brookside Theatre , Romford Greyhound Stadium , one of the few remaining dog racing tracks in London ; 2 multi @-@ screen cinemas ; and until April 2013 Romford Ice Arena , which was home to the local Romford Raiders ice hockey team . The Dolphin Centre was a popular swimming and leisure facility located in the town from 1982 to 1995 , but the site was redeveloped into the current Axis residential tower block and Asda superstore in the mid @-@ 2000s . There is also a Romford F.C. associated with the town . Romford Bowls Club , the premier bowls club in Essex , is based in Lodge Farm Park . The town is strongly associated with the electronic music group Underworld .
Romford 's position as a focus for electronic music production was reinforced by the presence of the Strictly Underground and Suburban Base record labels , with Suburban Base developing from the Boogie Times record store . According to a Billboard article in 1992 , Romford @-@ produced dance music formed part of a trend favouring suburban and provincial " bedroom " record labels over those in central London .
= = Local media = =
The local newspapers for the town and the borough of Havering are the Romford Recorder , Romford and Havering Post and Romford Yellow Advertiser . Two radio stations are located in the area : Time 107.5FM and Bedrock ( hospital radio )
In 2013 the film Death Walks was filmed in Romford over a four @-@ month period .
The cult TV series Garth Marenghi 's Darkplace was set in the fictional Darkplace hospital , in Romford .
= Marine Parade Community Building =
Marine Parade Community Building ( Chinese : 马林百列社区综合大厦 ; pinyin : Mǎlín Bǎiliè shèqū zhōnghé dàshà ) is a community building located in Marine Parade , Singapore . Opened in 2000 , the building houses the formerly separate Marine Parade Community Centre and Marine Parade Public Library , as well as a performing arts group , The Necessary Stage . Designed by William Lim Associates , one of the distinguishing features of the postmodern building is the mural cladding called the " Texturefulness of Life " , the largest piece of installation art in Singapore .
= = History = =
The current building sits on reclaimed land first occupied by the Marine Parade Community Centre , which was built in the early 1980s and later renamed to Marine Parade Community Club . In March 1995 , the People 's Association ( PA ) announced plans to spend S $ 9 @.@ 56 million to upgrade 54 community centres and clubs that were over ten years old , adding facilities such as lifts , dance studios , karaoke rooms and multi @-@ purpose air @-@ conditioned activities rooms , to make community centres more user @-@ friendly , with open concept offices and reception areas .
In June 1995 , then @-@ Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong asked PA to study the idea of having community centres share their premises with other civil users such as libraries , government offices and commercial developments . Goh , who is also a Member of Parliament for Marine Parade Group Representation Constituency , suggested combining the Marine Parade Community Club , which was slated for upgrading , with the National Library branch in Marine Parade , in a six @-@ storey building with three floors for the community club and three for the library . In June 1996 , Wong Kan Seng , PA 's deputy chairman , announced that due to the scarcity of land in Singapore , eight of the redeveloped community centres , including Marine Parade Community Club , would be located with other civil users .
As 30 % of the upgrading cost had to be paid by the community club , several fundraising activities were carried out for the redevelopment . These activities , which included music concerts , golf tournaments and cyclethons , raised a total of S $ 6 million . The old club building was demolished in 1997 and construction of the Marine Parade Community Building began the same year . SAL Construction was the project 's main contractor . Built at a cost of S $ 30 million , the new building was completed in January 2000 , and was open to the public on 6 March 2000 . It was officially opened by Goh Chok Tong on 28 May 2000 .
= = Facilities = =
The Marine Parade Community Building currently houses the Marine Parade Community Club , the Marine Parade Community Library and a professional theatre company , The Necessary Stage . It also originally had an al fresco Starbucks café on the ground floor .
= = = Marine Parade Community Club = = =
Opened on 6 March 2000 , the Marine Parade Community Club is equipped with a glass @-@ walled gymnasium overlooking part of the East Coast Parkway , a covered basketball court on the rooftop and an air @-@ conditioned sports hall . There are also a 263 @-@ seat theatrette , a roof terrace for gatherings , and music , study and activity rooms .
= = = Marine Parade Community Library = = =
Opened on 10 November 1978 , the Marine Parade Community Library was originally located at the town centre of Marine Parade Housing Estate before it shifted to its new premises at the community building . The library is Singapore 's second @-@ oldest community library and the only one built on reclaimed land . It started moving in stages to the community building in April 2000 , and was officially opened by Goh Chok Tong on 28 May 2000 . The Marine Parade Community Library is the first public library in Singapore to be housed together with a community club and an arts group . The library 's old premises was renovated for an NTUC FairPrice supermarket .
The library is spread over four floors of the Marine Parade Community Building , with a floor area of 3 @,@ 500 square metres ( 37 @,@ 675 square feet ) . As one of the first neighbourhood libraries , the library 's entire second floor is its children 's book section , featuring murals , trivia and multimedia tools . The library has more than 150 @,@ 000 books and 2 @,@ 500 videos available for loan . There is a café on the ground floor , and the library is fitted with numerous couches and benches for the public 's use . Other facilities include multimedia stations , do @-@ it @-@ yourself service stations , and music posts equipped with headphones .
= = = The Necessary Stage = = =
The Necessary Stage was the first arts group to be housed in a community building with a community club by Singapore 's National Arts Council ( NAC ) . The move was part of the NAC 's Arts Housing Scheme that offered alternative locations to arts groups besides old vacant buildings , in line with PA 's plan to repackage its community clubs as fashionable multi @-@ purpose spaces . The Necessary Stage 's 672 @-@ square metre ( 7 @,@ 467 square feet ) premises at the basement of the community building was about three times the size of its old premises at Cairnhill Arts Centre , which did not have a proper theatre space for productions . The arts group 's facility at the community building features a " Black Box " , a stage @-@ less theatre with flexible seating . The NAC spent S $ 2 @.@ 1 million on construction costs for the unit at Marine Parade , which includes a foyer and the 120 @-@ seat Black Box .
= = Architecture = =
Overall , the architectural form of the Marine Parade Community Building has been described as a " dragon " , with the roof as a crest and the artwork as the eye of the dragon . The horizontal louvres on the library block was seen as the tail fins of the dragon , an auspicious beast in Chinese culture .
= = = Design concept = = =
Sited adjacent to Housing and Development Board apartment blocks of the Marine Parade Housing Estate , the Marine Parade Community Building could be seen as an attempt to engage the wider community . The activities of the community building were planned to overlap and to coalesce , as a one @-@ stop destination for the entire family . The rich congruence of the multiple programmes for the building is expressed architecturally as a collage of diverse elements . The building was designed by a local architectural firm , William Lim Associates , which adopted a postmodern pluralist approach , expressed through a multiplicity of materials and forms .
= = = Wall mural = = =
The community building is clad in a huge wall mural , a commissioned work of art by Thai architect Surachai Yeamsiri . The mural is Singapore 's largest piece of installation art , measuring 63 metres by 12 metres ( 207 feet by 39 feet ) , and covers the curved north- and east @-@ facing façade of the community building . Called the " Texturefulness of Life " , the artwork made use of a variety of materials such as glass and wood . The artwork 's centrepiece resembles a huge human eye plastered on a wall , made up of tiny mosaic tiles arranged by computer @-@ aided design .
Surachai 's abstract piece was the winner in the " Art on Wall " design competition , organised by the Marine Parade Community Club Management Committee in 1998 . A panel of international judges picked the winning design from a total of 66 entries submitted by artists , architects and designers from all over Southeast Asia , including 40 entries from Singapore . Led by local art historian T. K. Sabapathy , the panel felt that the winning entry best reflected the contest 's themes of dynamism , interaction , fusion and harmony . The mural was installed on the curved facade of the community building at a cost of S $ 50 @,@ 000 .
= = = Other features = = =
The library block is predominantly clad in glass , fitted with horizontal fins , on its frontage with the main road . The alfresco café had a street frontage and was spread into the shared forecourt . The roof of the community building resembles the leaves of a palm tree , and covers the community club 's rooftop basketball court . The court 's location on the roof level was a departure from the norm , as in other community centres then , the basketball court occupies space on the ground floor .
= Arisa ( manga ) =
Arisa ( Japanese : アリサ ) is a Japanese mystery shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga series written and illustrated by Natsumi Ando . It appeared as a serial in the monthly manga magazine Nakayoshi from the February 2009 issue to the September 2012 issue . Kodansha published the chapters in twelve bound volumes , from April 2009 to
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such as The Individual and Family Grant Program had distributed over $ 400 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD ; $ 469 @,@ 000 2007 USD ) in checks , and over $ 1 million ( 2002 USD ; $ 1 @.@ 2 million 2007 USD ) in relief funds . The Small Business Administration also funded over $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD ; $ 294 @,@ 000 2007 USD ) in relief aid . After Tropical Storm Fay , the Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) announced that they would apply special tax relief for the nine counties in Texas that were declared disaster areas .
= Attarintiki Daredi =
Attarintiki Daredi ( English : Which Path Leads to My Aunt 's House ? ) is a 2013 Indian Telugu @-@ language drama film written and directed by Trivikram Srinivas . It stars Pawan Kalyan , Samantha Ruth Prabhu and Pranitha Subhash in the lead roles with Nadhiya , Boman Irani and Brahmanandam in supporting roles .
The film was produced by B. V. S. N. Prasad under the banner Sri Venkateswara Cine Chitra in association with Reliance Entertainment . The soundtrack album and background score were composed by Devi Sri Prasad . Prasad Murella was the cinematographer . The film focuses on Gautham Nanda , a business heir who acts as a driver in his estranged aunt Sunanda 's house to mend her strained relationship with his grandfather Raghunandan who expelled her for marrying against his wishes years before .
Attarintiki Daredi was made with a budget of ₹ 550 million . Principal photography began in January 2013 and ended in July 2013 , with the film being primarily shot in and around Hyderabad . Significant portions were shot in Pollachi and Europe . The film was released on 27 September 2013 and received positive critical reception . It earned a worldwide share of ₹ 748 @.@ 8 million , grossed nearly ₹ 1 @.@ 3 — 1 @.@ 87 billion , and emerged as the highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of all time until it was surpassed by Baahubali : The Beginning ( 2015 ) .
The film won four Filmfare Awards , six SIIMA Awards and six Santosham Film Awards apart from the B. Nagi Reddy Memorial Award . The film was dubbed into Hindi as Daring Baaz and was remade into Kannada as Ranna with Sudeep , Rachita Ram and Haripriya in the lead roles . And in Bangladesh as Purnodoirgho Prem Kahini ( 2013 ) is inspired from this movie , starring Shakib Khan and Joya Ahsan. and to release 2013 .
= = Plot = =
Raghunandan is a rich , unhappy businessman based in Milan . He wishes to reconcile with his estranged daughter Sunanda whom he expelled because she married Rajasekhar against his wishes . His grandson Gautham Nanda promises Raghunandan that he will bring her back to their home on his 80th birthday . Sunanda has three daughters : Two of them are Prameela and Sashi . Gautham enters the house as Siddhu , a driver who was appointed by Rajasekhar after saving him from a heart attack . Gautham tries to woo Prameela but gives up when he learns that Prameela is in love with another man . Sashi hates Gautham and is suspicious of him and Paddu , his friend and a nurse who is appointed to take care of Rajasekhar .
Sunanda later reveals to Gautham that she is aware of his real identity much before the incidents and warns him to abstain from doing anything with the intention of taking her back to Raghunandan .
To save Prameela 's love , Gautham and Paddu go to a village and accidentally Sashi falls into the jeep due to a head injury thus suffering with amnesia . Gautham introduces himself as her lover for the time being . Sashi believes it . The trio go to the venue ; Gautham and Paddu enter the house . They and the bridegroom escape from there and reach Sunanda 's home after a violent altercation with the family members of the bridegroom where Sashi 's memory is revived . The bride 's father Siddhappa asks for compensation for the damage caused by Siddhu , to which Sunanda promises Sashi 's marriage with Siddhappa 's elder son . To avoid complications , Rajasekhar fires Gautham . Gautham later learns that Sashi loved him from the beginning but was hesitant to express her feelings . He traps Baddham Bhaskar , a rich NRI staying in Uganda who has a penchant for women , and enters Sunanda 's home as his assistant .
Bhaskar falls for Sashi but his attempts are repeatedly thwarted by Gautham . On the day of her marriage , Sashi elopes with Gautham . While waiting with him for the train to Chennai , Siddhappa 's men reach the station to stop them only to be trashed by Gautham and his assistants , led by Balu . Through Balu , Sashi comes to know Gautham 's real motive . An angry Rajasekhar , with Sunanda , arrive to shoot Gautham but Rajasekhar is taken aback after knowing his true identity . Gautham reveals that the day Sunanda left the house , Raghunandan tried to commit suicide but accidentally killed Gautham 's mother . He says that he chose to love his grandfather though he killed his mother . Sunanda chose to hate him as he injured Rajasekhar and expelled them .
Sunanda and Rajasekhar realise their folly and reconcile with Gautham . Sashi is kidnapped by four henchmen appointed by Bhaskar where she narrates the story to the henchmen . Gautham and Paddu reach the spot and Sashi reconciles with Gautham . Bhaskar 's wealth is seized by the government of Uganda and he is left with the same amount with which he ran away from Rajasekhar 's house when he assisted him in the past . Raghunandan reconciles with Sunanda and Gautham is unanimously appointed as the CEO of the company thanks to the support of Sunanda and Raghunandan . The film ends with Gautham holding Raghunandan 's hand with affection .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Trivikram Srinivas planned to direct Pawan Kalyan in a film produced by D. V. V. Danayya and narrated the script in late January 2011 . However Trivikram Srinivas later began Julai ( 2012 ) while Kalyan was working on Gabbar Singh ( 2012 ) and Cameraman Gangatho Rambabu ( 2012 ) . The technical crew of Kalyan 's and Srinivas 's previous collaboration , Jalsa ( 2008 ) , were selected to work on the film . B. V. S. N. Prasad was expected to produce Attarintiki Daredi while Kalyan was expected to allot dates in his schedule from October 2012 . Trivikram Srinivas gave finishing touches to the script in late September 2012 and Reliance Entertainment was confirmed to co @-@ produce . Devi Sri Prasad was selected as the music director and the music sittings were held at Barcelona during the location scout in December 2012 .
Attarintiki Daredi was launched on 23 November 2012 at Venkateswara temple in Film Nagar . The film was reported to be on the lines of Nuvvu Naaku Nachav ( 2001 ) for which Trivikram Srinivas wrote the dialogues and the story . Trivikram Srinivas further hinted that the script will depict the Telugu culture and traditions with a strong message . Prasad Murella handled the cinematography and few sequences were shot using a Milo robotic camera which B. V. S. N. Prasad brought in from Mumbai as it was unavailable in Hyderabad . In mid July 2013 , the title was confirmed to be Attarintiki Daredi .
= = = Casting = = =
Pawan Kalyan opted for a complete makeover and sported a look resembling the one he sported in his previous films Kushi ( 2001 ) and Jalsa . After Trivikram Srinivas narrated the script to Kalyan , he asked him who would play the role of his aunt. and Trivikram Srinivas replied it would be Nadhiya . Kalyan gave his approval for Srinivas 's selection and Nadhiya was selected before she signed her comeback film in Telugu , Mirchi ( 2013 ) . Trivikram Srinivas narrated the script in a conversation with her over the telephone . After she accepted , he said that he would ask her dates after their schedules were planned . She later revealed that she was scared of being typecast but did the role only on Trivikram Srinivas ' persistence and added that the character ’ s emotions were set quite well .
Trivikram Srinivas decided to cast Ileana D 'Cruz as the female lead who worked with him on Jalsa and Julai . Samantha Ruth Prabhu was confirmed as the female lead in late October 2012 which marked her first collaboration with Kalyan . The second female lead was yet to be selected . By the end of December 2012 , most of the films which were in pre @-@ production phase were confirming their female leads . Because of this the production unit decided to begin the shoot without confirming the other heroine .
Pranitha Subhash was selected as the second female lead in early January 2013 and was confirmed to play Samantha 's sister . Pranitha called it a lifetime opportunity and said that she would be seen in a " very sweet , girl @-@ next @-@ door character . " Boman Irani made his debut in Telugu with Attarintiki Daredi ; he played Raghunandan , the grandfather of Kalyan 's character . Kota Srinivasa Rao played the role of Sidhappa Naidu for which he sported a realistic and rugged look . Navika Kotia was selected for the role of the younger sister of Samantha and Pranitha in April 2013 .
Trivikram Srinivas did not cast his regular associate Sunil in the film . Since Sunil 's success of Maryada Ramanna ( 2010 ) and Poola Rangadu ( 2012 ) as a lead actor , Srinivas felt that it would not be fair to make him play a comedian . Rao Ramesh , Mukesh Rishi , Brahmanandam , Ali , M. S. Narayana and Posani Krishna Murali were cast in supporting roles .
Mumtaj and Hamsa Nandini were confirmed to make special appearances in the song " Its Time To Party " marking the former 's comeback in Telugu cinema after 12 years after anchor Anasuya refused the offer .
= = = Filming = = =
B. V. S. N. Prasad stated during the film 's launch that principal photography would begin in mid @-@ December 2012 . Kalyan searched for new locations in Spain as the story demanded a foreign location and around 30 to 45 days of shooting schedule was planned there . It was the first time Pawan Kalyan went for a location hunt and returned in the last week of December 2012 . Due to unknown reasons , the film 's shoot was postponed to 8 January 2013 in late December 2012 .
Shooting finally commenced from 24 January 2013 at a private hotel in Hyderabad . The team planned a new schedule from 4 February 2013 in Pollachi where scenes on Kalyan , Samantha and other support cast were planned to be shot . The schedule was postponed to 15 February 2013 and Trivikram Srinivas continued the shoot in Hyderabad . After shooting for a few days in Hyderabad at a private mall , the planned schedule at Pollachi began from 12 February 2013 .
An action sequence featuring Kalyan and other cast members was shot in late February 2013 . The next schedule commenced from 1 March 2013 at a specially erected set at Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad where scenes featuring Kalyan and the other cast members were shot . A few crucial scenes featuring the lead actors were shot there in early April 2013 . Art director Ravindar supervised for the special set , which was worth ₹ 30 million . By mid @-@ April 2013 , a major portion of the film was shot there . Kalyan and the film 's unit planned to leave for Spain to shoot important sequences .
Scenes featuring the lead cast were shot in the end of April 2013 in a railway station set erected at Ramoji Film City . A new schedule began at Ramoji Film City from 2 May 2013 . That schedule ended on 28 May 2013 . Samantha informed .the media that the film 's speaking portions had been completed and that an overseas schedule was remaining .
Filming then moved to Europe on 5 June 2013 for a long schedule in which three songs , a few speaking portions and an action sequence were planned to be shot . Kalyan 's introduction scene was shot in Switzerland which cost around ₹ 20 million . The introduction scene , which was also an action sequence , was shot on an island located in Spain using helicopters under the supervision of Peter Hein . Post @-@ production activities were done simultaneously and dubbing for the film 's first half was completed . The team returned from Milan on 2 July 2013 .
The song " Its Time to Party " , which primarily features Kalyan , Samantha , Pranitha , Mumtaj and Hamsa Nandini was choreographed by Ganesh and was shot in a pub set erected by Anand Sai at Annapurna 7 Acres Studios . Principal photography wrapped on 14 July 2013 .
= = Themes and influences = =
Attarintiki Daredi focuses on a young man 's journey trying to convince his grandfather 's estranged daughter to rejoin the family . In its review , Sify felt that the film 's story was a reversal of Nuvvu Naaku Nachav ( 2001 ) and Parugu ( 2008 ) . Kalyan 's character , Gautham , is shown watching a few films , where the protagonist is in disguise trying to win over people who matter to him . In the film , Brahmanandam 's character spoofs the Ridley Scott film , Gladiator ( 2000 ) named Radiator and wins the Bascar awards found by himself after being inspired from the Academy Awards .
The mythological tale of Indra seducing Ahalya after disguising as her husband Gautama and the curse cast by Gautama on them is parodied in the film with Brahmanandam playing a key role . Two songs were parodied : one of them being a devotional song " Kaatama Rayuda " written by the poet Etla Ramadasa and composed by Chittoor V. Nagaiah for the film Sumangali ( 1940 ) , and the other an item number " Kevvu Keka " written by Sahithi and composed by Devi Sri Prasad for the film Gabbar Singh ( 2012 ) . A scene from the film , popularly known as the " badam tree " episode , was based on a similar scene from the 2012 English film A Thousand Words .
= = Music = =
Devi Sri Prasad composed the soundtrack album which consists of 6 songs . Sri Mani , Ramajogayya Sastry and Prasad himself wrote the lyrics for the soundtrack album , which was marketed by Aditya Music . The album was released on 19 July 2013 in a promotional event at the Shilpakala Vedika with the film 's cast and crew attending the event . The soundtrack album received positive reviews from critics .
= = Release = =
In late April 2013 , Attarintiki Daredi was expected to release on 7 August 2013 . It was then scheduled for a release on 9 August 2013 on the eve of India 's Independence Day . But due to the then @-@ ongoing Telangana movement , the release was put on hold . Later B. V. S. N. Prasad officially announced that the film would release on 9 October 2013 along with Ramayya Vasthavayya ( 2013 ) . But the makers were forced to reschedule the release date to 27 September 2013 after 90 minutes of the footage was leaked onto the internet . On an average , 80 % of the film 's tickets were sold out in all screens for the first three days in Hyderabad . Apart from India , the film released in United States , United Kingdom , Germany , Canada and Dubai .
= = = Distribution = = =
The theatrical rights in the Nizam region were acquired by Global Cinemas in late April 2013 for a then undisclosed record price , which was revealed later as ₹ 120 million in early June 2013 . My3 Movies announced on 26 April 2013 that they acquired the overseas distribution and DVD rights of the film . Y. Naveen , who financed several overseas distribution firms , acquired this film 's overseas rights on behalf of My3 Movies for ₹ 70 million which , according to Sify , was " a big gamble " . Colours Media acquired the distribution rights in the United Kingdom from My3 Movies in late July 2013 . Lorgan Entertainments acquired the theatrical distribution rights in Australia in early August 2013 .
= = = Marketing = = =
Sai Gopal , who assisted Trivikram since Swayamvaram ( 1999 ) , was in @-@ charge of the film 's promotional activities . The first look poster featuring Kalyan in a red shirt and dark cargo pants was unveiled on 13 July 2013 . The first look teaser of 23 seconds was released a day later . Within a day of its release , the video posted by idlebrainlive on YouTube fetched more than 190 @,@ 000 hits and around 6 @,@ 200 likes . As of 16 July 2013 , the teaser fetched over 300 @,@ 000 million hits and about 9 @,@ 000 likes thus setting a record for any Telugu video uploaded on YouTube at that time . By the end of the next day , the teaser was viewed 706 @,@ 927 times and received more than 6 @,@ 000 comments .
The theatrical trailer was released on 19 July 2013 to positive reviews . IANS wrote in its trailer review , " High on commercial value , the slick trailer of Attarintiki Daaredhi is a mix of action , comedy , romance and drama in appropriate proportions . Trivikram hasn 't compromised on anything , including special punch lines for Pawan Kalyan , which he mouths in his signature style with a hint of sarcasm . " Oneindia Entertainment wrote " Attarintiki Daredi appears to be an out @-@ and @-@ out entertainer with an apt tag @-@ line ' celebration of entertainment ' . It is also going to be high in entertainment quotient as some noted comedians Bramhanandam , Srinivas Reddy , Ali tickle the funny bones of the audiences " .
The video featuring Kalyan recording the song " Kaatama Rayuda " was released on 4 August 2013 . The video received positive response and according to a report by The Times of India , Pawan Kalyan 's fans opined that the song composed by Devi Sri Prasad reminded them of the song sung by Kalyan in the film Thammudu ( 1999 ) . In late October 2013 , the makers planned to add two more scenes as a promotional stunt to discourage copyright infringement . Six minutes of footage were added to the film this version was screened from 31 October 2013 .
= = = Copyright infringement = = =
On the night of 22 September 2013 , a 90 @-@ minute piece of footage was leaked online and became viral . B. V. S. N. Prasad filed a complaint the following day against the copyright violation , and sought cyber @-@ protection for Attarintiki Daredi . Because of this incident , the film 's release was delayed to 27 September 2013 . The film 's female lead , Samantha , as well as other celebrities such as Siddharth , Harish Shankar , S. S. Rajamouli , Ram Gopal Varma and Nithiin , condemned the unauthorised distribution act . However , police initially suspected that the incident might be a publicity stunt enacted by people who invested in the film .
On being informed about the alleged sale of the movie in different electronic formats in the CD and mobile shops in Pedana town , Superintendent of Police J. Prabhakara Rao deployed a special team , led by Pedana Rural Circle Inspector A. Pallapu Raju , to investigate the issue . The police launched a hunt for unlicensed compact discs in the CD shops across the district . CDs and hard disks from video parlours and shops renting CDs in the Krishna district were seized , and some of the shop owners were taken into custody for questioning . Pavan Kalyan fans went out into the streets , with signs containing slogans protesting the piracy . Subsequent to their investigation , the police arrested five people , in addition to production assistant Cheekati Arunkumar , and recovered several illegitimate copies of the film on 20 September 2013 . Arunkumar had worked as a production assistant for the films Oosaravelli ( 2011 ) and Ongole Githa ( 2013 ) , both of which were produced by B. V. S. N. Prasad .
Prabhakara Rao told the media that Arunkumar had given a copy of the DVD to his friend and Hyderabad @-@ based APSP constable , Katta Ravi , who sent it to his friend , V. Sudheer Kumar , on 14 September 2013 . Pedana @-@ based videographer Poranki Suresh got the DVD from Sudheer Kumar , and later gave it to Kollipalli Anil Kumar , who owns the Devi Mobiles and Cell repair shop in Pedana . Anil Kumar had uploaded the two @-@ part movie into his system , and sold the 60 @-@ minute part @-@ one of the movie to his customers in different formats . Anil Kumar deleted the original file in his system after learning about the police raids . However , he confessed to the crime during the investigation . Based on the information given by Anil Kumar , a special team led by Machilipatnam DSP K.V. Srinivasa Rao , with the support of the Crime Investigation Department , Hyderabad , arrested the suspects in Hyderabad . The police filed charges on 24 September 2013 , against the five suspects under clauses 63 , 65 and 66 of the Copyright ( Amendment Bill ) 2010 and 429 IPC .
Kalyan and Trivikram Srinivas decided to return a significant portion of their remuneration to help Prasad overcome the financial crisis caused by the leak . Samantha returned her entire salary to the producers . Kalyan remained silent during the entire issue , but finally spoke at length about the episode at the " Thank You Meet " of the film on 14 October 2013 . He said that this was a conspiracy and not piracy . He added that he was very well aware of the facts as to who was behind the leak of the film and will not spare anyone and will strike when the time is right .
= = = Home media = = =
The Television broadcast rights were sold to an unknown channel in mid June 2013 for an amount of ₹ 90 million which happened to be the highest amount that a television channel paid for the telecast rights of a Telugu film till the sale of rights of Aagadu ( 2014 ) to Gemini TV in June 2014 . The film 's television premier was announced in mid December 2013 to be held on 11 January 2014 in MAA TV . The film registered a TRP rating of 19 @.@ 04 which was the highest for any Telugu film till date . The Indian DVD and Blu @-@ ray were marketed by Volga Videos . The overseas DVD and Blu @-@ ray were marketed by Bhavani Videos .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Attarinitki Daredi received positive reviews from critics according to International Business Times India who called the film a " perfect family entertainer " in their review roundup . Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu praised the film 's climax scene , while also stating that Trivikram Srinivas makes his presence felt before concluding that the film is , " A good dose of fun , tailored for the box office . " Ch . Sushil Rao of The Times of India rated the film 4 out of 5 and wrote " The movie is a worth watch . The reasons : Pawan Kalyan 's comedy , fights composed by Peter Hein , Trivikram Srinivas ' writing skills , Prasad Murella 's cinematography , and Devi Sri Prasad 's music . That there is promise in the movie is a feel one gets right from the opening scenes which are dramatic " . Sify rated the film 4 out of 5 and stated " If you are looking for sheer entertainment , know that Pawan Kalyan and Trivikram have gift packed for you with high dose of comedy . It is entertainment , entertainment and entertainment . Pawan Kalyan`s histrionics , his performances and Trivikram`s handling of the simple story in effective way is what makes Attharintiki Daaredhi a big entertainer " .
Shekhar of Oneindia Entertainment rated the film 4 out of 5 , calling it " a must watch film for the fans of Pawan Kalyan and Trivikram . " Jeevi of Idlebrain.com rated the film 4 out of 5 and praised Trivikram Srinivas 's script and added that Kalyan 's performance and Trivikram Srinivas ' story telling skill " makes sure that your heart is touched at times and heartily laugh all the time while watching the movie " . IndiaGlitz rated the film 4 out of 5 and praised Kalyan 's performance in the film 's climax , calling it " an unseen angle " before conlcuding that the film " is a treat for the family audience " .
In contrast , Sridhar Vivan of Bangalore Mirror rated the film 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 and criticised the film 's first half and felt that the " real entertainment " began only after the entry of Brahmanandam 's character . He too praised Kalyan 's performance and the film 's climax and Trivikram Srinivas 's direction . Radhika Rajamani of Rediff.com rated the film 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 ; she praised the performances of the cast but called Attarintiki Daredi , " a stylish film which does not rise above being a routine family entertainer . " IANS rated the film 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 and wrote " Unfortunately , Trivikram succumbs to star pressure and churns out a highly disappointing product . At nearly three hours , the film makes you cringe in your seats , especially with the emotional punch it delivers in the climax " . Sandeep Atreysa of Deccan Chronicle rated the film 1 @.@ 5 out of 5 and felt that the film was made only for Kalyan 's passionate fans and for others , this film would appear to be " high on style and low on content " . He called Kalyan 's performance as the only " silver lining " .
= = = Box office = = =
The film collected ₹ 335 @.@ 2 million by the end of its three @-@ day first weekend . By the end of its first week , the film collected over ₹ 490 million at the worldwide box office . The film managed to perform well despite facing competition from Ramayya Vasthavayya and collected ₹ 603 @.@ 4 million in two weeks at the worldwide box office . Trade analyst Taran Adarsh reported that till 13 October 2013 , the film collected ₹ 633 @.@ 1 million at worldwide box office . The film collected ₹ 655 million in 19 days at worldwide box office . The film collected ₹ 701 @.@ 8 million in 24 days at the worldwide box office and became the second Telugu film to cross ₹ 700 million after Magadheera ( 2009 ) . It collected ₹ 712 @.@ 4 million at the worldwide box office by the end of the fourth week . The film collected ₹ 733 @.@ 8 million at the worldwide box office in 39 days . The film collected ₹ 733 @.@ 6 million at the worldwide box office in six weeks . The film collected ₹ 739 million at the worldwide box office by the end of its seventh weekend . The film became the highest grossing Telugu film of all time surpassing Magadheera . Attarintiki Daredi collected a worldwide share of ₹ 748 @.@ 8 million and grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 3 — 1 @.@ 87 billion in its lifetime . However , after the four @-@ day run of Baahubali : The Beginning ( 2015 ) , it became the second highest grossing Telugu film of all time .
= = = = India = = = =
Attarinitki Daredi collected ₹ 108 @.@ 9 million on its first day at the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions breaking the previous opening day record set by Baadshah . According to Adarsh , the film collected ₹ 107 @.@ 2 million on its first day at the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions . He added that the film collected the highest collections amounting to ₹ 32 @.@ 8 million from Nizam region followed by Ceded region with ₹ 21 @.@ 5 million , Guntur district with ₹ 14 million , East area with ₹ 10 @.@ 4 million , Vishakhapatnam district with ₹ 8 @.@ 2 million , West area with ₹ 7 @.@ 5 million , Krishna district with ₹ 7 @.@ 1 million and Nellore district with ₹ 5 @.@ 7 million . According to Adarsh , the film collected ₹ 54 @.@ 7 million at the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions . The film collected ₹ 227 @.@ 1 million at the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions , ₹ 30 million together in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and ₹ 16 @.@ 6 million in the rest of India by the end of its three @-@ day first weekend taking its worldwide total to ₹ 335 @.@ 2 million . The film collected ₹ 37 @.@ 3 million taking its four @-@ day total in the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions to ₹ 259 @.@ 3 million , thereby overtaking the first week totals of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu and Mirchi .
By the end of its first week , the film collected ₹ 350 @.@ 5 million at the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions and ₹ 50 million from other states . The film grossed ₹ 10 @.@ 8 million in its first weekend and ₹ 14 @.@ 5 million in its first week with a net collection of ₹ 10 @.@ 5 million and distributor share of approximately ₹ 5 million at Tamil Nadu Box office thus creating a then all @-@ time record for a Telugu film in the state according to trade analyst Sreedhar Pillai who felt that the film 's collections had dropped due to the release of Raja Rani and Idharkuthane Aasaipattai Balakumara in the same week . The film earned ₹ 25 million in its first weekend and ₹ 41 @.@ 1 million nett in its first week at Karnataka and also created an all @-@ time record for a Telugu film . Adarsh reported that the Attarintiki Daredi earned ₹ 15 @.@ 8 million in Mumbai and Kerala . The collections dropped as result of protests in Seemandhra over the bifurcation of the state of Andhra Pradesh including in key areas like Nizam and Ceded . Adarsh reported that till 13 October 2013 , the film collected ₹ 473 @.@ 5 million at the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions . The film was declared a blockbuster at the box office .
The film collected over ₹ 13 million on its 19th day making its total in the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions cross the ₹ 500 million mark . It stood in the third spot in the list of top 10 highest grossing ( share ) Telugu films in the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions preceded by Magadheera and Gabbar Singh . The film crossed the ₹ 200 million mark in the Nizam region and ₹ 90 million in the Ceded region in 20 days . The film collected ₹ 9 @.@ 5 million on its 24th day taking its total in the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions to ₹ 546 million , thereby leading to Gabbar Singh dropping to third place in the list of films with the highest distributors ' share in Andhra Pradesh . Gabbar Singh had collected ₹ 508 @.@ 5 million in the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions in its lifetime . The film completed its 25 @-@ day run on 21 October 2013 . The film collected ₹ 550 million at the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions , ₹ 52 @.@ 2 million at Karnataka and ₹ 15 million from the rest of the country by the end of its fourth week . The film crossed ₹ 230 million in the Nizam region in its fifth weekend . The film collected ₹ 577 @.@ 3 million at the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions in 39 days .
The film collected ₹ 580 @.@ 1 million at the Andhra Pradesh and Nizam regions in six weeks . The film completed a 50 @-@ day run in around 170 theatres on 15 November 2013 . The film completed a 100 @-@ day run in 32 theatres on 4 January 2014 . On the 100th day of its theatrical run , Attarintiki Daredi was screened in four centres in Nizam , eleven in Ceded , one in Vishakhapatnam , four each in Krishna and Guntur , six and two centres in East and West Godavari respectively .
= = = = Overseas = = = =
According to Adarsh , the film collected ₹ 26 @.@ 7 million from paid previews in the United States box office . The film collected more than $ 345 @,@ 000 and grossed more than the other releases of 2013 , Baadshah and Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu , at the United States box office . He stated that the film collected $ 429 @,@ 000 from Thursday 's preview in the United States , thereby overtaking the collections of paid previews of Chennai Express ( 2013 ) in the country . Adarsh reported that the film collected $ 495 @,@ 000 on Friday taking its two @-@ day total to $ 924 @,@ 000 which was equivalent to approximately ₹ 50 million . The film collected ₹ 61 @.@ 5 million in the first three days at United States box office . The film collected ₹ 109 @.@ 1 million in its first weekend at the United States box office . According to Adarsh , the film was the third biggest opener in the United States in 2013 after Chennai Express and Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani and was the only Indian film apart from the other two to feature in the list of top 15 openers of 2013 in the country .
The film grossed over $ 1 @.@ 5 million within three days overtaking the preview collections of Baadshah in the United States and was expected to cross the $ 2 million mark there . By the end of its fifth weekend , the film collected $ 2 million from the theatres included by the measurement and research company , Rentrak and $ 0 @.@ 3 million from theatres not included by Rentrak at the United States box office taking the film 's total to ₹ 140 million . It collected a total ₹ 60 million from United Kingdom , Australia , New Zealand , Middle East region , Canada , Singapore and others , taking its total to ₹ 200 million , which made it the highest grossing Telugu film overseas .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Remakes = =
The film was remade into Kannada as Ranna in 2014 by Nanda Kishore with Sudeep , Rachita Ram and Haripriya in the lead roles .
= Safety Training =
" Safety Training " is the twentieth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office . Written by B. J. Novak , who also acts in the show as sales representative Ryan Howard , and directed by Caddyshack and National Lampoon 's Vacation director Harold Ramis , the episode aired in the United States on April 12 , 2007 on NBC .
In the episode , Michael attempts to prove life in an office is dangerous after Darryl berates him about the dangers of the warehouse . The attempts lead him to the roof of the building , where he tries to show that depression caused by an office can lead to desperate circumstances . Meanwhile , gambling between the other employees of the office leads Karen to discover that she is still an outsider .
= = Plot = =
When Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) repeatedly disrupts Darryl Philbin 's ( Craig Robinson ) warehouse safety training session , Lonny Collins ( Patrice O 'Neal ) and Darryl mock the office workers ' safety session in retaliation , claiming that office work does not entail physical danger . Offended by Darryl 's disdain for office safety training , Michael decides to demonstrate the risk of depression and suicide by jumping off the roof , landing on a hidden trampoline . When Michael tests out the trampoline by dropping a watermelon from the roof , it bounces off and hits an office worker 's car , prompting it to be replaced by a bouncy castle hidden from the general view of the parking lot . From the roof of the building , Michael talks dramatically about the dangers of depression . When the bouncy castle is discovered , Jim and Pam realize that Michael is " going to kill himself pretending to kill himself . " The employees collectively talk Michael down from the roof , with Darryl doing most of the talking , to assure Michael that he is brave simply by living as himself . At the end , the car that was hit by the watermelon is revealed to be Stanley 's ( Leslie David Baker ) , who is shocked to see the mess .
Meanwhile , the office staff begins betting on various things , from counting the jelly beans in Pam Beesly 's ( Jenna Fischer ) candy dish to whether Creed Bratton ( portrayed by the actor of the same name ) will notice that his apple has been replaced with a potato . Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) loses every bet and realizes that she is still an outsider . Also , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) returns to the office after several weeks in anger management training , determined to make a fresh start with his co @-@ workers . His attempts to go by the name Drew are unsuccessful , and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) decides to shun Andy for three years , although he often " unshuns " him to inform him of Michael 's plans .
= = Production = =
" Safety Training " was the second episode of the series directed by Harold Ramis . Ramis had previously directed the episode " A Benihana Christmas " earlier in the third season . The episode was the sixth of the series written by B. J. Novak . Novak also acts in the show as Ryan Howard .
Brian Baumgartner , who portrays accountant Kevin Malone , stated that while director Harold Ramis didn 't make any major changes in the script of " Safety Training " , his input changed other points of the script . Baumgartner said that " ... our structure and how the show is written is all there and pretty much doesn 't change . Harold ( Ramis ) might have ideas or specific changes that would change a moment . " The hand movement used by Dwight Schrute to " shun " , and then " un @-@ shun " Andy Bernard was improvised by Rainn Wilson .
= = Reception = =
" Safety Training " received a 4 @.@ 1 / 11 in the Nielsen ratings among people ages 18 – 49 , meaning that 4 @.@ 1 percent of all people 18 – 49 watched the episode , and 11 percent of all people 18 – 49 watching TV at the time viewed the episode . " Safety Training " received 7 @.@ 7 million viewers overall .
The episode was almost universally praised by critics . Abby West of Entertainment Weekly complimented the writing of B.J. Novak in the episode , saying that " This was another gem ... [ Novak ] kept a very nice light touch on the whole love triangle thing , only giving us that one wonderfully uncomfortable moment at Pam 's desk when they were betting on how many jelly beans were in the container . " IGN 's Brian Zoromski rated it 10 out of 10 , making it only one of two third season episodes he deemed a " masterpiece " . He stated that " Another truly brilliant episode of The Office aired this week , with more humor packed into the half @-@ hour than you get in many feature @-@ length comedies . " Zoromski also praised the acting by minor characters , such as Creed Bratton and Mindy Kaling , who portrays customer service representative Kelly Kapoor .
BuddyTV Senior Writer Oscar Dahl stated that " What can you say ? The Office is , if anything , only getting better . Last week 's super @-@ sized episode was absolutely spectacular , but tonight 's might have been even better . Dahl went on to say that both storylines of the episode were the main contributors to the success of the episode . In a poll taken by OfficeTally.com , an Office fansite , " Safety Training " was ranked by viewers of the show as the 19th most popular episode of season three .
= White @-@ necked rockfowl =
The white @-@ necked rockfowl ( Picathartes gymnocephalus ) is a medium @-@ sized bird in the family Picathartidae , with a long neck and tail . Also known as the white @-@ necked picathartes , this passerine is mainly found in rocky forested areas at higher altitudes in West Africa from Guinea to Ghana . Its distribution is patchy , with populations often being isolated from each other . The rockfowl typically chooses to live near streams and inselbergs . It has no recognized subspecies , though some believe that it forms a superspecies with the grey @-@ necked rockfowl . The white @-@ necked rockfowl has greyish @-@ black upperparts and white underparts . Its unusually long , dark brown tail is used for balance , and its thighs are muscular . The head is nearly featherless , with the exposed skin being bright yellow except for two large , circular black patches located just behind the eyes . Though the bird is usually silent , some calls are known .
These rockfowl feed primarily on insects , though parents feed small frogs to their young . One feeding strategy involves following Dorylus army ant swarms , feeding on insects flushed by the ants . Rockfowl move through the forest primarily through a series of hops and bounds or short flights in low vegetation . This species rarely flies for long distances . The white @-@ necked rockfowl is monogamous and pairs nest either alone or in the vicinity of other pairs , sometimes in colonies with as many as eight nests . These nests are constructed out of mud formed into a deep cup and are built on rock surfaces , typically in caves . Two eggs are laid twice a year . Though the birds breed in colonies , infanticide is fairly common in this species , with rockfowl attempting to kill the young of other pairs . Nestlings mature in about a month . This bird is long @-@ lived .
This species is classified as Vulnerable as its dwindling and fragmented populations are threatened by habitat destruction . Conservation efforts are underway in parts of its range in the form of habitat protection , education efforts , and new laws . Some of the indigenous peoples of Sierra Leone considered the species to be a protector of the home of their ancestral spirits . This rockfowl is considered one of Africa 's most desirable birds by birders and is a symbol of ecotourism across its range .
= = Taxonomy = =
This species was first described by Coenraad Jacob Temminck in 1825 from a specimen collected on the Guinean coast . He published his description in the 2nd volume of Nouveau recueil de planches coloriées d 'oiseaux and described it as Corvus gymnocephalus , placing it in the crow genus Corvus . The species name is derived from the Ancient Greek words gymnos " naked " , and kephalē " head " . However , only three years later the bird was removed from the genus Corvus by Ren
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High Court and Resident Magistrate 's divisions of the Gun Court until 1999 , when they were converted to a " Peace Centre " dedicated to pursuing community mediation of disputes . The High Court division now sits in the Supreme Court building , and the Resident Magistrate 's division sits in the Half Way Tree Courthouse . The prison itself remains in operation as the South Camp Adult Correctional Centre , housing inmates convicted by the Gun Court .
= = Criticism = =
The Gun Court has faced criticism on several fronts , most notably for its departure from traditional practices , for its large backlog of cases , and for the continuing escalation in gun violence since its institution .
At the time of the 1976 amendments to the Act , the Jamaican Bar Association protested against the lack of jury trials and the harsh mandatory sentences . According to a report in the Virgin Islands Daily News , the Association 's Bar Council objected to the possibility that children as young as 12 could be imprisoned for life , without release or appeal , for small offences such as being found with used ammunition . The abrogation of jury trial has also been criticized by attorney and law professor David Rowe , the son of the Appeals Court justice who wrote the decision in the Stone case upholding the practice . Rowe argues that the common @-@ law right to a jury trial is implied in the Constitutional provision for " a fair hearing within a reasonable time , by an independent and impartial court established by law , " concluding that the Constitution had been " shorn of its most potent and ancient safeguard , trial by jury . "
The 1993 County Report on Human Rights Practices in Jamaica from the United States Department of State noted the denial of a " fair public trial " and alleged that Gun Court trials observe " less rigorous rules of evidence than in regular court proceedings . " The Canadian Bar Association 's Jamaican Justice System Reform Task Force , in its preliminary recommendations , noted that the Gun Court is overloaded , that defendants are not well represented , and Crown attorneys are often inexperienced . The report recommended that trials no longer be held in camera , and that cases be moved to the ordinary Circuit Court to relieve the overburdened Gun Court . It did not take issue with non @-@ jury trials , suggesting that the same practice might be used in more types of cases for greater efficiency .
Although the Gun Court was intended to expedite cases , bringing defendants to trial within seven days , defendants now often wait several years . The backlog was nearing 1000 cases in 1998 , and in the 2003 @-@ 2004 court year , the High Court division carried forward 3 @,@ 367 cases already on the docket , added 613 new cases , and concluded 462 . Senior Resident Magistrate Glenn Brown expressed dissatisfaction with the public prosecutors for taking too long to prepare cases , often because of difficulty in finding and bringing witnesses . Brown noted that " Seventy per cent of the persons who are before the courts have been here for an inordinately long period of time - three to four years . "
The Gun Court system has been put forth by gun ownership advocates as an example of a failed regime of gun control . In an essay in the National Review in 2001 , Dave Kopel argued that " [ t ] he Gun Court took guns only out of the hands of Jamaica 's law @-@ abiding , leaving them at the mercy of the criminals and the state . " John R. Lott has argued that " gun @-@ control laws have failed to deliver as promised , " noting that the murder rate in Jamaica was lower before the introduction of stricter gun control : it rose from 11 @.@ 5 to 19 @.@ 5 per 100 @,@ 000 between 1973 and 1977 , and reached 41 @.@ 7 per 100 @,@ 000 in 1980 . By 2007 the rate had risen to 1 @,@ 574 murders in the calendar year , or 59 per 100 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
= = Gun Court in music = =
Several Jamaican musicians have sung about the Gun Court , including Junior Reed ( Gun Court , 1993 ) and the dance hall artist Ranking Joe , whose first single release was " Gun Court Law " in 1974 . The reggae musician Jah Cure released his first album , Free Jah 's Cure , from Tower Street Prison in 2000 after having been convicted before the Gun Court in 1998 . Jah Cure continued to deny the charges of illegal firearms , rape , and robbery , and he attracted widespread support for his release , including " Free Jah Cure " campaigns and petition drives , until his release in 2007 .
The French singer Bernard Lavilliers sings about Gun Court in the song Stand the Ghetto released in 1980 . He says , in French " pour le flingue dans ta poche , t 'es coincé à Gun Court " ( because of the gun in your pocket , you are stuck at Gun Court ) .
= Chien @-@ Shiung Wu =
Chien @-@ Shiung Wu ( simplified Chinese : 吴健雄 ; traditional Chinese : 吳健雄 ; pinyin : Wú Jiànxióng , May 31 , 1912 – February 16 , 1997 ) was a Chinese American experimental physicist who made significant contributions in the field of nuclear physics . Wu worked on the Manhattan Project , where she helped develop the process for separating uranium metal into uranium @-@ 235 and uranium @-@ 238 isotopes by gaseous diffusion . She is best known for conducting the Wu experiment , which contradicted the hypothetical law of conservation of parity . This discovery resulted in her colleagues Tsung @-@ Dao Lee and Chen @-@ Ning Yang winning the 1957 Nobel Prize in physics , and also earned Wu the inaugural Wolf Prize in Physics in 1978 . Her expertise in experimental physics evoked comparisons to Marie Curie . Her nicknames include " the First Lady of Physics " , " the Chinese Madame Curie " , and the " Queen of Nuclear Research " .
= = Early life and education = =
Chien @-@ Shiung Wu was born in the town of Liuhe in Taicang , Jiangsu province , China , on May 31 , 1912 , the second of three children of Wu Zhong @-@ Yi ( 吳仲裔 ) and Fan Fu @-@ Hua . The family custom was that children of this generation had Chien as the first character of their forename , followed by the characters in the phrase Ying @-@ Shiung @-@ Hao @-@ Jie , which means " heroes and outstanding figures " . Accordingly , she had an older brother , Chien @-@ Ying , and a younger brother , Chien @-@ Hao . Wu and her father were extremely close and he encouraged her interests passionately , creating an environment where she was surrounded by books , magazines , and newspapers .
Wu received her elementary school education at Ming De School , a school for girls founded by her father . She left her hometown in 1923 at the age of 11 to go to the Suzhou Women 's Normal School No. 2 . This was a boarding school with classes for teacher training as well as for regular high school . Admission to teacher training was more competitive , as it did not charge for tuition or board , and guaranteed a job on graduation . Although her family could have afforded to pay , Wu chose the more competitive option , and was ranked ninth among around 10 @,@ 000 applicants .
In 1929 Wu graduated at the top of her class , and was admitted to the National Central University in Nanjing . According to the governmental regulations of the time , teacher @-@ training college students wanting to move on to the universities needed to serve as schoolteachers for one year . In Wu 's case , this was only nominally enforced . She went to teach at the Public School of China in Shanghai , the president of which at the time was the philosopher Hu Shih , whose class she took .
From 1930 to 1934 , Wu studied at the National Central University ( later renamed Nanjing University and reinstated in Taiwan ) , first in mathematics , but later transferring to physics . She became involved in student politics . Relations between China and Japan were tense at this time , and students were urging the government to take a stronger line with Japan . Wu was elected as one of the student leaders by her colleagues because they felt that since she was one of the top students at the university , her involvement would be forgiven , or at least overlooked , by the authorities . That being the case , she was careful not to neglect her studies . She led protests that included a sit @-@ in at the Presidential Palace in Nanjing , where the students were met by Chiang Kai @-@ shek .
For two years after graduation , she did graduate @-@ level study in physics and worked as an assistant at the Zhejiang University . She became a researcher at the Institute of Physics of the Academia Sinica . Her supervisor was Professor Gu Jing @-@ Wei , who had earned her PhD abroad at the University of Michigan , and encouraged Wu to do the same . Wu was accepted by the University of Michigan , and her uncle , Wu Zhou @-@ Zhi , provided the necessary funds . She embarked for the United States with a female friend , Dong Ruo @-@ Fen ( 董若芬 ) , a chemist from Taicang , on the SS President Hoover in August 1936 . Her parents and uncle saw her off . She would never see her parents again .
= = Berkeley = =
The two women arrived in San Francisco , where Wu 's plans for graduate study changed after visiting the University of California , Berkeley . She met physicist Luke Chia @-@ Liu Yuan , a grandson of Yuan Shikai , the first President of the Republic of China and self @-@ proclaimed Emperor of China . Yuan showed her the Radiation Laboratory , where the director was Ernest O. Lawrence , who would soon win the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1939 for his invention of the cyclotron particle accelerator .
Wu heard that at Michigan women were not even allowed to use the front entrance , and decided that she would prefer to study at Berkeley . Yuan took her to see Raymond T. Birge , the head of the physics department , and he offered Wu a place in the graduate school despite the fact that the academic year had already commenced . Wu then abandoned her plans to study at Michigan and enrolled at Berkeley . Her Berkeley classmates included Robert R. Wilson and George Volkoff ; her friends included Ursula Schaefer , a history student who chose to remain in the United States rather than return to Nazi Germany , and Margaret Lewis , an American post @-@ doctoral student . Wu applied for a scholarship at the end of her first year , but there was prejudice against Asian students , and Wu and Yuan were instead offered a readership with a lower stipend . Yuan then applied for , and secured , a scholarship at Caltech .
Wu made rapid progress in her education and her research . Although Lawrence was officially her supervisor , she also worked closely with Emilio Segrè . Her thesis had two separate parts . The first was on bremsstrahlung , the electromagnetic radiation produced by the deceleration of a charged particle when deflected by another charged particle , typically an electron by an atomic nucleus . She investigated this using beta @-@ emitting phosphorus @-@ 32 , a radioactive isotope easily produced in the cyclotron that Lawrence and his brother John H. Lawrence were evaluating for use in cancer treatment and as a radioactive tracer . This marked Wu 's first work with beta decay , a subject on which she would become an authority . The second part of the thesis was about the production of radioactive isotopes of xenon produced by the nuclear fission of uranium with the 37 @-@ inch and 60 @-@ inch cyclotrons at the Radiation Laboratory . She completed her Ph.D. in June 1940 , but in spite of Lawrence and Segrè 's recommendations , she could not secure a position at a university , so she remained at the Radiation Laboratory as a post @-@ doctoral fellow .
= = World War II = =
Wu and Yuan were married at the home of Robert Millikan , Yuan 's academic supervisor and the President of Caltech , on May 30 , 1942 . Neither the bride 's nor the groom 's families were able to attend due to the outbreak of the Pacific War . Wu and Yuan moved to the East Coast of the United States , where Wu became a faculty member at Smith College , a prestigious private women 's college in Northampton , Massachusetts , while Yuan worked on radar for RCA . She found the job frustrating , as her duties involved teaching only , and there was no opportunity for research . She appealed to Lawrence , who wrote letters of recommendation to a number of universities . Smith responded by making Wu an associate professor , and increasing her salary . She accepted a job from Princeton University in New Jersey as an instructor for Naval officers .
In March 1944 , Wu joined the Manhattan Project 's Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories at Columbia University . She lived in dormitory there , returning to Princeton on the weekends . The role of the SAM Laboratories , headed by Harold Urey , was to support the Manhattan Project 's gaseous diffusion ( K @-@ 25 ) program for uranium enrichment . Wu worked alongside James Rainwater in a group led by William W. Havens , Jr . , whose task was to develop radiation detector instrumentation .
In September 1944 , Wu was contacted by the Manhattan District Engineer , Colonel Kenneth Nichols . The newly commissioned B Reactor at the Hanford Site had run into an unexpected problem , starting up and shutting down at regular intervals . John Archibald Wheeler suspected that a fission product , xenon @-@ 135 , with a half @-@ life of 9 @.@ 4 hours , was the culprit , and might be a neutron poison . Segrè then remembered the work that Wu had done at Berkeley on the radioactive isotopes of xenon . The paper on the subject was still unpublished , but Wu and Nichols went to her dorm room , and collected the typewritten draft prepared for the Physical Review . Xenon @-@ 135 was indeed the culprit ; it turned out to have an unexpectedly large neutron absorption cross @-@ section .
After the end of the war in August 1945 , Wu accepted an offer of a position as an associate research professor at Columbia . Communication with China was restored , and Wu received a letter from her family , but plans to visit China were disrupted by the Chinese Civil War , and the birth in 1947 of a son , Vincent Yuan ( 袁緯承 ) , who would grow up to become a physicist like his parents . In 1949 , Yuan joined the Brookhaven National Laboratory , and the family moved to Long Island . After the communists came to power in China that year , Wu 's father wrote urging her not to return . Since her passport had been issued by the Kuomintang government , she found it difficult to travel abroad . This eventually led to her decision to take out US citizenship in 1954 . She would remain at Columbia for the rest of her career . She became an associate professor in 1952 , a full professor in 1958 , and the Michael I. Pupin Professor of Physics in 1973 . Her students called her the Dragon Lady , after the character of that name in the comic strip Terry and the Pirates .
= = Beta decay and the conservation of parity = =
In her post @-@ war research , Wu continued to investigate beta decay . Enrico Fermi had published his theory of Beta decay in 1934 , but an experiment by Luis Walter Alvarez had produced results at variance with the theory . Wu set out to repeat the experiment and verify the result . She suspected that the problem was that a thick and uneven film of copper sulphate ( CuSO
4 ) was being used as a copper @-@ 64 beta ray source , which was causing the emitted electrons to lose energy . To get around this , she adapted an older form of spectrometer , a solenoidal spectrometer . She added detergent to the copper sulphate to produce a thin and even film . She was then able to demonstrate that the discrepancies observed were the result of experimental error ; her results were consistent with Fermi 's theory .
At Columbia Wu knew the Chinese @-@ born theoretical physicist Tsung @-@ Dao Lee personally . In the mid @-@ 1950s , Lee and another Chinese theoretical physicist , Chen Ning Yang , grew to question a hypothetical law of elementary particle physics , the " law of conservation of parity " . One example highlighting the problem was the puzzle of the theta and tau particles , two apparently different charged , strange mesons . They were so similar that they would ordinarily be considered to be the same particle ; but different decay modes resulting in two different parity states were observed , suggesting that Θ + and τ + were different particles , if parity is conserved :
Lee and Yang 's research into existing experimental results convinced them that parity was conserved for electromagnetic interactions and for the strong interaction . For this reason , scientists had expected that it would also be true for the weak interaction , but it had not been tested , and Lee and Yang 's theoretical studies showed that it might not hold true for the weak interaction . Lee and Yang worked out a pencil @-@ and @-@ paper design of an experiment for testing conservation of parity in the laboratory . Lee then turned to Wu for her expertise in choosing and then working out the hardware manufacture , set @-@ up , and laboratory procedures for carrying out this experiment .
Wu chose to do this by taking a sample of radioactive cobalt @-@ 60 and cooling it to cryogenic temperatures with liquid gases . Cobalt @-@ 60 is an isotope that decays by beta particle emission , and Wu was also an expert on beta decay . The extremely low temperatures were needed to reduce the amount of thermal vibration of the cobalt atoms to practically nil . Also , Wu needed to apply a constant and uniform magnetic field across the sample of cobalt @-@ 60 in order to cause the spin axes of the atomic nuclei to line up in the same direction . For this cryogenic work , she needed the facilities of the National Bureau of Standards and its expertise in working with liquid gases , and traveled to its headquarters in Maryland with her equipment to carry out the experiments .
Lee and Yang 's theoretical calculations predicted that the beta particles from the cobalt @-@ 60 atoms would be emitted asymmetrically and the hypothetical " law of conservation of parity " was invalid . Wu 's experiment showed that this is indeed the case : parity is not conserved under the weak nuclear interactions . Θ + and τ + are indeed the same particle , which is today known as a kaon , K + . This result was soon confirmed by her colleagues at Columbia University in different experiments , and as soon as all of these results were published — in two different research papers in the same issue of the same physics journal — the results were also confirmed at many other laboratories and in many different experiments .
The discovery of parity violation was a major contribution to particle physics and the development of the Standard Model . In recognition of their theoretical work , Lee and Yang were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1957 .
= = Later life = =
In 1963 , Wu investigated and confirmed the Conserved Vector Current hypothesis of Richard Feynman and Murray Gell @-@ Mann . Another milestone on the road to the Standard Model , it postulated a universal form of Fermi 's beta decay model . Her demonstration that parity was not conserved brought other assumptions that physicists had made about the weak interaction into question . If parity is not conserved in weak force interaction , what about charge conjugation ? This was an effect that held true for electromagnetism , gravity and the strong interaction , so it had been assumed that it would hold for the weak interaction too . Wu conducted a series of experiments on double beta decay in a salt mine under Lake Erie that proved that charge conjugation was not conserved either .
Another important experiment carried out by Wu was the confirmation of the E. M. L. Pryce and John Clive Ward 's calculations on the correlation of the quantum polarizations of two photons propagating in opposite directions . This was the first experimental confirmation of quantum results relevant to a pair of entangled photons as applicable to the Einstein @-@ Podolsky @-@ Rosen ( EPR ) paradox . Wu later conducted research into the molecular changes in the deformation of hemoglobins that cause sickle @-@ cell disease . She also did research on magnetism , and on the Mössbauer effect during the 1960s . She wrote a textbook with Steven Moszkowski , Beta Decay , which was published in 1966 , and became a standard reference on the subject .
Wu 's older brother died in 1958 , her father in 1959 and her mother in 1962 . At that time the United States government had severe restrictions on its citizens ' ability to travel abroad , so she was not permitted to visit China to attend their funerals . She saw her uncle Wu Zhou @-@ Zhi and younger brother Wu Chien @-@ Hao again on a trip to Hong Kong in 1965 . After the 1972 Nixon visit to China , relations between the two countries improved , and she was able to visit China again in 1973 . By this time her uncle and brother had perished in the Cultural Revolution , and the tombs of her parents had been destroyed . She was greeted by Chou En @-@ Lai , who personally apologized for the destruction of the tombs . After this , she returned to China a number of times .
In later life , Wu became more outspoken . She protested the imprisonment in Taiwan of relatives of physicist Kerson Huang in 1959 , and of the journalist Lei Chen in 1960 . In 1964 , she spoke out against gender discrimination at a symposium at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . " I wonder " , she asked her audience , " whether the tiny atoms and nuclei , or the mathematical symbols , or the DNA molecules have any preference for either masculine or feminine treatment . " When men referred to her as Professor Yuan , she immediately corrected them and told them that she was Professor Wu . In 1975 , Robert Serber , the new chairman of the Physics Department Columbia University , adjusted her pay to make it equal to that of her male counterparts . She protested the crackdown in China that followed the Tiananmen Square massacre of 1989 .
Wu retired in 1981 , and became a professor emerita . She died on February 16 , 1997 , in New York City at the age of 84 after suffering a stroke . An ambulance rushed her to St. Luke 's – Roosevelt Hospital Center but she was pronounced dead on arrival . She was survived by her husband and son . In accordance with her wishes , her ashes were buried in the courtyard of the Ming De School that her father had founded , and that she had attended as a girl .
= = Honors , awards and distinctions = =
Elected a fellow of the American Physical Society ( 1948 )
Elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences ( 1958 )
First woman with an honorary doctorate from Princeton University ( 1958 )
Achievement Award , American Association of University Women ( 1959 )
Research Corporation Award ( 1959 )
John Price Wetherill Medal , The Franklin Institute ( 1962 )
American Association of University Women Woman of the Year Award ( 1962 )
Comstock Prize in Physics , National Academy of Sciences ( 1964 )
Chi @-@ Tsin Achievement Award , Chi @-@ Tsin Culture Foundation ( 1965 )
Honorary Fellow Royal Society of Edinburgh ( 1969 )
Scientist of the Year Award , Industrial Research Magazine ( 1974 )
Tom W. Bonner Prize , American Physical Society ( 1975 )
First female President of the American Physical Society ( 1975 )
National Medal of Science ( 1975 )
First person selected to receive the Wolf Prize in Physics ( 1978 )
Ellis Island Medal of Honor ( 1986 )
First living scientist to have an asteroid ( 2752 Wu Chien @-@ Shiung ) named after her ( 1990 )
Pupin Medal ( 1991 )
Elected one of the first foreign academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences ( 1994 )
= The Cockroaches =
The Cockroaches are an Australian pub rock group active throughout the 1980s . The band was founded in 1979 by the Field brothers − Paul ( lead vocals ) , John ( rhythm guitar , vocals ) , and Anthony Field ( lead guitar , vocals ) − and Tony Henry on drums and Joseph Hallion on saxophone . They were joined in 1981 by Jeff Fatt on keyboards . In 1986 they signed with an independent label , Regular Records , which issued their first three albums , including The Cockroaches ( March 1987 ) , which peaked at No. 9 on the Australian Kent Music Report Albums Chart ; it sold 70 @,@ 000 copies and was certified platinum by their label . The album spawned the single " She 's the One " , which became the band 's biggest hit when it peaked at No. 9 on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart in April 1987 . In 1988 , The Daily Telegraph declared The Cockroaches , who played over 300 gigs a year , the " Hardest Working Rock 'n'Roll Band " in the country .
The Cockroaches released their third album , Positive , in June 1991 and left their label by the end of that year . In March 1994 they issued their fourth album , St. Patrick 's Day 10am , on their own Roach Records . Australian musicologist Glenn A. Baker described their sound as " rangy , loose @-@ limbed , good @-@ natured , energetic , self @-@ effacing , intuitive , harmonic , melodic , enduring , soused and fiercely frantic " .
In September 1988 , the band were promoting their second album , Fingertips , when Paul 's infant daughter died of SIDS . Although devastated , the group continued with a lower profile , and Anthony left to resume his university studies yet returned periodically to record their later studio albums . Early in 1991 Anthony and Fatt founded a children 's music group , The Wiggles . The Cockroaches alumni served as musical and performing support for the new group ; John wrote much of their music , Paul became their manager , and Henry performed with them . The Wiggles used many of The Cockroaches ' business practices and reworked some of their songs into the children 's music genre .
Members of The Cockroaches have pursued other music careers with John and Paul forming The Field Brothers , John forming his own band called the John Field Band and writing plays and musicals , and Henry being a session musician . A compilation album , Hey Let 's Go – The Best of the Cockroaches was released by Festival Records in 1999 , and they were due to stage two reunion shows in June 2014 , to mark the release of Hey Let 's Go , a greatest hits album .
= = Formation = =
The Cockroaches ( also called " The Cockies " ) were founded in 1979 by the Field brothers ( Paul on lead vocals , John on rhythm guitar and vocals , and Anthony ( or " Tony " ) on lead guitar and vocals ) , while they were students at St. Joseph 's College , a Sydney boarding school . According to Paul Field , the Field brothers grew @-@ up in a large family , with seven children . The brothers were each born one year apart , so they were very close . Paul said that he and all their siblings were taught music from a young age . Religion was an important part of their family as well ; their entire family were involved in their local Catholic parish , which included playing music for services .
Other founders of The Cockroaches were Tony Henry on drums and Joseph Hallion on saxophone ; they were joined by Bruce Hatfield on bass guitar by mid @-@ 1980 . After Paul introduced his brothers to The Rolling Stones , the band took their name from an obscure alias used by Keith Richards during the 1960s because , according to Anthony Field , " it sounded kind of punkish and that scene was blossoming in Sydney at the time " . Australian rock historian Ian McFarlane called the band 's name " a fitting choice , due mostly to the good @-@ time R & B material that The Cockroaches played during their formative years " . One of their first gigs was at their school ; Paul convinced the Marist Brothers , who ran St. Joseph 's , to allow a charge for the performance . Their proceeds were " donated to ' the missions ' " . Paul booked their initial performances at local pubs , which , despite some of the member 's under @-@ age status , allowed them to perform . Anthony later said , " It was insane , it was fantastic . It was frightening . We didn 't realise our playing was so rudimentary , but it didn 't matter ... Our inadequacies were made up by our spirit " . According to band member Daniel Fallon , The Cockroaches honed their craft as they performed on stage .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
By early 1980 , The Cockroaches began writing their own music as well as covering various 1960s rock ' n ' roll artists , especially The Rolling Stones . In July 1980 , they issued their debut single , " I Want a Leather Jacket " , on the Refugee Records label . The song was written by Paul , was produced by Greg Owens and the band , and was recorded at their school and at Studio B in Bondi . According to Australian musicologist , Glenn A. Baker , the track provided " the aura of a rockabilly band ... [ but ] they have always been much closer in style to the original cocky , bluesy , strident Stones " . When they recorded their second single , " Bingo Bango " in June 1981 , Hatfield had been replaced by Geoff O 'Reagan on bass guitar . This song was written by John and Anthony , was produced by Owens and was recorded at Wirra @-@ Willa Studios . By August of that year Jeff Fatt had joined on keyboards and Phil Robinson became their bass guitarist . According to Anthony , Fatt had been a member of " a seminal Sydney rockabilly band called the Roadmasters " , and had joined " to fight boredom " . They had hired Fatt and his brother to manage their sound system during gigs . Anthony declared this began " a beautiful three @-@ decade relationship that has made him a very wealthy man " . Their early road manager was Graham Kennedy , former guitarist @-@ vocalist for the hard rock band , Finch .
According to Anthony , Paul was " a picture of professional efficiency " , whereas John , one of the top Under @-@ 19 New South Wales cricketers , was the showman of the group . John 's performances on @-@ stage built The Cockroaches ' reputation for being a party @-@ band , even though alcohol and drug use was not part of their personal lifestyles . Paul , who returned to St Andrews as a teacher , noted about the band 's early days , " We had a good following around the unis , pubs and colleges . We had a reputation as a good live act " . Anthony credited Paul and John for the band 's reputation . He described Paul as " very serious , straight up and down and a really solid rock singer " who was known for his jumps and acrobatics on stage , and John as carefree , charismatic , a talented pop music writer , and a natural leader of both the band and their audience . Paul reported that the 1980s was an vibrant time for local music in Sydney , and that the group gained additional exposure by performing on TV shows like Simon Townsend and Hey , Hey it 's Saturday . Their success forced Paul to give up teaching to devote his energies on touring full @-@ time .
The group released five further singles on a range of labels : EMI , Phantom , Powderworks , and Possum Records . One of these , " See You in Spain " , with Powderworks , appeared on the Australian Kent Music Report Singles Chart Top 100 in July 1984 . " See You in Spain " was written by Fatt , Robinson and John ; it was produced by Robert Moss at Emerald City Studios . In 1986 , The Cockroaches signed with an independent label , Regular Records , and were distributed by Festival Records . By that time , Phil Carson had replaced Robinson as their bass guitarist .
= = = Rise to success = = =
The group 's first single with Regular , " Wait Up " ( September 1986 ) , reached No. 28 on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart and No. 13 in the Sydney charts .
The band 's debut album , The Cockroaches was released in March 1987 and featured Robinson on bass guitar . The album was produced by Charles Fisher , who had worked with other artists such as Radio Birdman , Hoodoo Gurus , Martin Plaza ; one track was produced by Roy Nicholson . Other singles included : " She 's the One " , which appeared on the charts in January ; " Some Kind of Girl " , in May ; and " Double Shot ( Of My Baby 's Love ) " , a cover version of the 1964 single by Dick Holler & the Holidays ) in August . The album sold 10 @,@ 000 in its first 10 days after its release , reached No. 9 on the Kent Music Report Albums Chart , and in 1988 , was awarded a platinum certification by their record label for sales of 70 @,@ 000 copies . " She 's the One " became the band 's biggest hit when it peaked at No. 9 in April 1987 . " Some Kind of Girl " and " Double Shot ( Of My Baby 's Love ) " also made the Top 40 . Peter Mackie replaced Carson during 1987 . Phillip McIntyre of Texas and the Big Beat Radio website described Mackie 's time with The Cockroaches as " [ h ] is most successful period as a player " .
According to Anthony , in the late 1980s , the group averaged over 300 gigs a year throughout Australia . They performed at town halls , concert halls , Bachelor and Spinster ( B & S ) balls , parties , and pubs ; and were " one of the biggest crowd @-@ drawing groups in Australia " . They toured with Mental As Anything , the Hoodoo Gurus , and INXS . In 1988 , The Daily Telegraph surveyed booking agencies and determined that The Cockroaches were the " Hardest Working Rock 'n'Roll Band in the Country " . Australian musicologist Ian McFarlane described The Cockroaches as " an in @-@ demand pub band [ that built ] a sweaty , frenzied atmosphere with good old @-@ fashioned showmanship and unpretentious , energetic rock 'n'pop " . Paul said that the group " rode the last wave of the pub rock era " . Anthony claimed they were " shunned " by the major record companies in Australia . Even after their debut album was certified gold , they remained independent : they organised their own shows and paid expenses from their own accounts .
= = = Later years = = =
The Cockroaches recorded their second album , Fingertips , in 1988 . Fisher producing the album with Festival , at Alberts Digital Studios in Trafalgar . The album peaked at No. 32 on the ARIA Albums Chart . The line @-@ up consisted of the three Field Brothers , Fatt , Henry and Mackie . According to Anthony , they were disappointed with the album and regretted giving over much of its sound to the producers , but toured heavily to promote it . Fingertips produced their next four singles , including " Hey What Now ! " – written by John – which reached the Top 40 . The group appeared at the World Expo 88 in May 1988 , before a crowd of 92 @,@ 000 attendees . In September that year , while the band were touring for the album , Paul Field 's eight @-@ month @-@ old daughter , Bernadette , died of SIDS . Paul recalled , " Nothing was the same after [ my daughter 's death ] , it crushed me and left us all wounded " . Anthony left the group to return to Macquarie University and continue his studies early childhood education , but Paul returned to performing " in order to feed his family , sometimes with some of the original band members , other times not " . Early in 1989 , The Cockroaches toured in Australia with Mental As Anything , also produced by the Regular label .
The group recorded a third album , Positive , which came out in June 1991 . It was produced by Mark Moffatt , who had also worked with Mental As Anything and Jenny Morris . The album produced three singles , including the gospel @-@ flavoured track , " Hope " ( August 1990 ) , " I Must Have Been Blind " ( May 1991 ) , and a cover of the Brenda Lee song , " Here Comes That Feeling " ( August 1991 ) . Their version of the Brenda Lee song was featured in the 1990 film , The Crossing , starring Russell Crowe and Danielle Spencer . According to McFarlane , " By the end of the year ... The Cockroaches as a band concept had run its course " . However , journalist Glenn A. Baker , in the liner notes for the group 's March 1994 album , St. Patrick 's Day 10am , states , " The Cockroaches never went away , they just keep playing , very much in the mode of their earlier days " . He also declared , " The sound of the Cockies seems to embody all of the basic concepts of rock 'n'roll as we 've always known and loved it . Its rangy , loose @-@ limbed , good @-@ natured , energetic , self @-@ effacing , intuitive , harmonic , melodic , enduring , soused and fiercely frantic " . The performers for the album were : the three Field brothers ; Fatt on Hammond organ , keyboards and cow noises ; Henry on drums and cabasa ; Mackie on bass guitar and backing vocals ; with additional backing vocals by Jane Bezzina , Greg Truman and Steve Pomfrett . It was recorded at the Tracking Station and Noisegate Studios , was mixed by Pomfrett and John , was engineered by Pomfrett , and was produced by the band .
In November 1999 Festival Records issued a compilation album , Hey Let 's Go – The Best of the Cockroaches , which included a newly recorded track , " Something Good This Way Comes " .
= = Afterwards and The Wiggles = =
In early 1991 , Anthony Field founded The Wiggles , a children 's music group , with fellow university students Murray Cook and Greg Page , Phillip Wilcher ( from Macquarie University 's music department ) and The Cockroaches ' band mate , Jeff Fatt . In July , they issued their debut album , The Wiggles , which was dedicated to Paul Field 's daughter and sold 70 @,@ 000 copies . The Wiggles went on to become " a global powerhouse in children 's entertainment " . They used former The Cockroaches ' members for musical and performing support : Paul , John , and Henry ( The Wiggles ' character Henry the Octopus was named after him ) performed with them on their CDs , DVDs , and stage shows . John helped them write many of their songs . Many early The Wiggles ' songs were The Cockroaches ' tunes reworked to fit the genre of children 's music . According to Anthony , " The Wiggles music isn 't all that far removed from what we did in The Cockroaches , just a different subject matter ... The Cockroaches sing about girls and love and stuff like that ; The Wiggles sing about hot potatoes and cold spaghetti " . Paul worked for James Roland Wood , Chief Judge at Common Law , for three years after the band stopped regularly performing and during The Wiggles ' formation , which he said gave Anthony time to develop his new band alone , without much input from his brothers . In the mid @-@ 1990s , Paul became The Wiggles ' talent manager .
In addition to his work with The Wiggles , John founded The John Field Band , an eight @-@ piece covers band with John on lead vocals , Bernadette Cogin on lead vocals ( later replaced by Bronwyn Mulcahy ) , Dom Lindsay on trumpet , former Cockroaches member Dan Fallon on tenor saxophone , Roy Ferin on trombone , Mark Rohanna on piano , Matt Morrison on drums , and Chris Lupton on bass guitar . John wrote the musicals Evie and The Birdman ( July 2001 ) and Who Loves Me .
Since 2006 , Tony Henry has been a manager in the student services office at International College of Management , Sydney and has performed drums for The Wiggles ' recordings . As a session musician Henry has worked for Ross Wilson , Slim Dusty , Crowded House and Mental As Anything . As of 2008 , Peter Mackie has recorded three solo albums : What – Me Sing ? ! ( 2001 ) , Late Starter ( 2003 ) , and The Spinning Man ( 2006 ) .
On 29 January 2005 , The Cockroaches reunited for a one @-@ time performance at the Hills for Hope concert as a benefit for the Boxing Day Tsunami survivors . Also on the roster were The Greg Page Band , Mental As Anything and Hush . In 2011 , Paul and John Field founded The Field Brothers as a duo and recorded their debut album , 1964 . Some of The Cockroaches ' songs were re @-@ recorded as country songs , including " She 's Some Kind of Girl " , " Rely on Me " , and " Permanently Single " . The album included duets with other country music artists : Troy Cassar @-@ Daley , Shane Nicholson , Amber Lawrence , and Dianna Corcoran .
= = 2014 reunion = =
The band , with its original line @-@ up , reunited for two shows in June 2014 at RSL clubs in Sydney . Hey Let 's Go ! , a new greatest hits album covering their 1984 – 94 material , is set for release on 13 June through ABC / Universal . The album , along with the group 's entire catalogue , will be released digitally .
= = Personnel = =
Current Members
Paul Field – lead vocals ( 1979 – present )
John Field – rhythm guitar , vocals ( 1979 – present )
Anthony " Tony " Field – lead guitar , vocals ( 1979 – 1988 , 1991 , 1994 , 2014 @-@ present )
Tony Henry – drums ( 1979 – present )
Jeff Fatt – keyboards ( 1981 – 1988 , 1991 , 1994 , 2014 @-@ present )
Phil Robinson – bass guitar ( 1981 – present )
Peter Mackie – bass guitar ( 1988 – present )
Former Members
Paul Dunworth – bass guitar ( 1979 – 1981 )
Joseph Hallion – saxophone ( 1979 – 1985 )
Bruce Hatfield – bass guitar ( 1980 )
Geoff O 'Reagan – bass guitar ( 1981 )
Phil Carson – bass guitar ( 1986 – 1987 )
Phil Carson – bass guitar ( 1986 – 1987 )
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= Stephen Jay Gould =
Stephen Jay Gould ( / ɡuːld / ; September 10 , 1941 – May 20 , 2002 ) was an American paleontologist , evolutionary biologist , and historian of science . He was also one of the most influential and widely read writers of popular science of his generation . Gould spent most of his career teaching at Harvard University and working at the American Museum of Natural History in New York . In 1996 Gould was also hired as the Vincent Astor Visiting Research Professor of Biology at New York University , where he divided his time teaching there and at Harvard .
Gould 's most significant contribution to evolutionary biology was the theory of punctuated equilibrium , which he developed with Niles Eldredge in 1972 . The theory proposes that most evolution is characterized by long periods of evolutionary stability , which is infrequently punctuated by swift periods of branching evolution . The theory was contrasted against phyletic gradualism , the popular idea that evolutionary change is marked by a pattern of smooth and continuous change in the fossil record .
Most of Gould 's empirical research was based on the land snail genera Poecilozonites and Cerion . He also contributed to evolutionary developmental biology , and has received wide praise for his book Ontogeny and Phylogeny . In evolutionary theory he opposed strict selectionism , sociobiology as applied to humans , and evolutionary psychology . He campaigned against creationism and proposed that science and religion should be considered two distinct fields ( or " magisteria " ) whose authorities do not overlap .
Gould was known by the general public mainly from his 300 popular essays in the magazine Natural History , and his books written for both the specialist and non @-@ specialist . In April 2000 , the US Library of Congress named him a " Living Legend " .
= = Biography = =
Stephen Jay Gould was born and raised in the community of Bayside , a neighborhood of the northeastern section of Queens in New York City . His father Leonard was a court stenographer and a Navy veteran of World War II . His mother Eleanor was an artist whose parents were Jewish immigrants living and working in the city 's Garment District . When Gould was five years old his father took him to the Hall of Dinosaurs in the American Museum of Natural History , where he first encountered Tyrannosaurus rex . " I had no idea there were such things — I was awestruck , " Gould once recalled . It was in that moment that he decided to become a paleontologist .
Raised in a secular Jewish home , Gould did not formally practice religion and preferred to be called an agnostic . When asked directly if he was an agnostic in Skeptic magazine , he responded :
" If you absolutely forced me to bet on the existence of a conventional anthropomorphic deity , of course I 'd bet no . But , basically , Huxley was right when he said that agnosticism is the only honorable position because we really cannot know . And that 's right . I 'd be real surprised if there turned out to be a conventional God . "
Though he " had been brought up by a Marxist father " he stated that his father 's politics were " very different " from his own . In describing his own political views , he has said they " tend to the left of center . " According to Gould the most influential political books he read were C. Wright Mills ' The Power Elite and the political writings of Noam Chomsky .
While attending Antioch College in the early 1960s , Gould was active in the civil rights movement and often campaigned for social justice . When he attended the University of Leeds as a visiting undergraduate , he organized weekly demonstrations outside a Bradford dance hall which refused to admit Blacks . Gould continued these demonstrations until the policy was revoked . Throughout his career and writings , he spoke out against cultural oppression in all its forms , especially what he saw as the pseudoscience used in the service of racism and sexism .
Interspersed throughout his scientific essays for Natural History magazine , Gould frequently referred to his nonscientific interests and pastimes . As a boy he collected baseball cards and remained a New York Yankees fan throughout his life . As an adult he was fond of science fiction movies , but often deplored their poor storytelling and presentation of science . His other interests included singing baritone in the Boston Cecilia , and he was a great aficionado of Gilbert and Sullivan operas . He collected rare antiquarian books , possessed an enthusiasm for architecture , and enjoyed city walks . He often traveled to Europe , and spoke French , German , Russian , and Italian . He sometimes alluded ruefully to his tendency to put on weight .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
Gould married artist Deborah Lee on October 3 , 1965 . Gould met Lee while they were students together at Antioch College . They had two sons , Jesse and Ethan , and were married for 30 years . His second marriage in 1995 was to artist and sculptor Rhonda Roland Shearer .
= = = First bout of cancer = = =
In July 1982 , Gould was diagnosed with peritoneal mesothelioma , a deadly form of cancer affecting the abdominal lining and frequently found in people who have been exposed to asbestos or rock dust . After a difficult two @-@ year recovery , Gould published a column for Discover magazine entitled , " The Median Isn 't the Message " , which discusses his stunned reaction to discovering that , " mesothelioma is incurable , with a median mortality of only eight months after discovery . " He then describes the true significance behind this number , and his relief upon realizing that statistical averages are merely useful abstractions , and by themselves do not encompass the full range of variation .
The median is the halfway point , which means that 50 % of people will die before eight months , but the other half will live longer , potentially much longer . He then needed to determine where his personal characteristics placed him within this range . Given that the cancer was detected early , he was young , optimistic , and had the best treatments available , Gould reasoned that he should be in the favorable half of the upper statistical range . After an experimental treatment of radiation , chemotherapy , and surgery , Gould made a full recovery , and his column became a source of comfort for many cancer patients .
Gould was also an advocate of medical cannabis . When undergoing his cancer treatments he smoked marijuana to help alleviate the long periods of intense and uncontrollable nausea . According to Gould , the drug had a " most important effect " on his eventual recovery . He later complained that he could not understand how " any humane person would withhold such a beneficial substance from people in such great need simply because others use it for different purposes . " On August 5 , 1998 Gould 's testimony assisted in the successful lawsuit of HIV activist Jim Wakeford , who sued the Government of Canada for the right to cultivate , possess , and use marijuana for medical purposes .
= = = Final illness and death = = =
Gould survived for 20 years until another cancer ended his life . Gould died on May 20 , 2002 , from a metastatic adenocarcinoma of the lung , a form of cancer which had spread to his brain , liver , and spleen . This cancer was unrelated to his abdominal cancer . He died in his home " in a bed set up in the library of his SoHo loft , surrounded by his wife Rhonda , his mother Eleanor , and the many books he loved . "
= = Scientific career = =
Gould began his higher education at Antioch College , graduating with a double major in geology and philosophy in 1963 . During this time , he also studied at the University of Leeds in the United Kingdom . After completing graduate work at Columbia University in 1967 under the guidance of Norman Newell , he was immediately hired by Harvard University where he worked until the end of his life ( 1967 – 2002 ) . In 1973 , Harvard promoted him to professor of geology and curator of invertebrate paleontology at the institution 's Museum of Comparative Zoology .
In 1982 Harvard awarded him the title of Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology . The following year , 1983 , he was awarded a fellowship at the American Association for the Advancement of Science , where he later served as president ( 1999 – 2001 ) . The AAAS news release cited his " numerous contributions to both scientific progress and the public understanding of science . " He also served as president of the Paleontological Society ( 1985 – 1986 ) and of the Society for the Study of Evolution ( 1990 – 1991 ) .
In 1989 Gould was elected into the body of the National Academy of Sciences . Through 1996 – 2002 Gould was Vincent Astor Visiting Research Professor of Biology at New York University . In 2001 , the American Humanist Association named him the Humanist of the Year for his lifetime of work . In 2008 , he was posthumously awarded the Darwin @-@ Wallace Medal , along with 12 other recipients . ( Until 2008 , this medal had been awarded every 50 years by the Linnean Society of London . )
= = = Punctuated equilibrium = = =
Early in his career , Gould and Niles Eldredge developed the theory of punctuated equilibrium , according to which evolutionary change occurs relatively rapidly , alternating with longer periods of relative evolutionary stability . Although Gould coined the term " punctuated equilibria " , the idea was first presented in Eldredge 's doctoral dissertation on Devonian trilobites and in an article published the previous year on allopatric speciation . According to Gould , punctuated equilibrium revised a key pillar " in the central logic of Darwinian theory . "
Some evolutionary biologists have argued that while punctuated equilibrium was " of great interest to biology generally , " it merely modified neo @-@ Darwinism in a manner that was fully compatible with what had been known before . Comparisons were made to George Gaylord Simpson 's work in Tempo and Mode in Evolution ( 1941 ) , which describes the paleontological record as being characterized by mostly gradual change ( horotely ) , but also included slow ( bradytely ) or rapid ( tachytely ) rates of evolution . Other biologists emphasize the theoretical novelty of punctuated equilibrium , and argued that evolutionary stasis had been " unexpected by most evolutionary biologists " and " had a major impact on paleontology and evolutionary biology . " Some critics jokingly referred to the theory of punctuated equilibrium as " evolution by jerks " , which prompted Gould to describe phyletic gradualism as " evolution by creeps . "
= = = Evolutionary developmental biology = = =
Gould made significant contributions to evolutionary developmental biology , especially in his work Ontogeny and Phylogeny . In this book he emphasized the process of heterochrony , which encompasses two distinct processes : neoteny and terminal additions . Neoteny is the process where ontogeny is slowed down and the organism does not reach the end of its development . Terminal addition is the process by which an organism adds to its development by speeding and shortening earlier stages in the developmental process . Gould 's influence in the field of evolutionary developmental biology continues to be seen in such areas as the study of evolution of feathers .
= = = Selectionism and sociobiology = = =
Gould was a champion of biological constraints , internal limitations upon developmental pathways , as well as other non @-@ selectionist forces in evolution . Rather than direct adaptations , he considered many higher functions of the human brain to be the unintended side consequence of natural selection . To describe such co @-@ opted features , he coined the term exaptation with paleontologist Elisabeth Vrba . Gould believed this feature of human mentality undermines an essential premise of human sociobiology and evolutionary psychology .
= = = = Against " Sociobiology " = = = =
In 1975 , Gould 's Harvard colleague E. O. Wilson introduced his analysis of animal behavior ( including human behavior ) based on a sociobiological framework that suggested that many social behaviors have a strong evolutionary basis . In response , Gould , Richard Lewontin , and others from the Boston area wrote the subsequently well @-@ referenced letter to The New York Review of Books entitled , " Against ' Sociobiology ' " . This open letter criticized Wilson 's notion of a " deterministic view of human society and human action . "
But Gould did not rule out sociobiological explanations for many aspects of animal behavior , and later wrote : " Sociobiologists have broadened their range of selective stories by invoking concepts of inclusive fitness and kin selection to solve ( successfully I think ) the vexatious problem of altruism — previously the greatest stumbling block to a Darwinian theory of social behavior ... Here sociobiology has had and will continue to have success . And here I wish it well . For it represents an extension of basic Darwinism to a realm where it should apply . "
= = = = Spandrels and the Panglossian Paradigm = = = =
With Richard Lewontin , Gould wrote an influential 1979 paper entitled , " The Spandrels of San Marco and the panglossian paradigm " , which introduced the architectural term " spandrel " into evolutionary biology . In architecture , a spandrel is a curved area of masonry which exists between arches supporting a dome . Spandrels , also called pendentives in this context , are found particularly in Gothic churches .
When visiting Venice in 1978 , Gould noted that the spandrels of the San Marco cathedral , while quite beautiful , were not spaces planned by the architect . Rather the spaces arise as " necessary architectural byproducts of mounting a dome on rounded arches . " Gould and Lewontin thus defined " spandrels " in the evolutionary biology context , to mean any biological feature of an organism that arises as a necessary side consequence of other features , which is not directly selected for by natural selection . Proposed examples include the " masculinized genitalia in female hyenas , exaptive use of an umbilicus as a brooding chamber by snails , the shoulder hump of the giant Irish deer , and several key features of human mentality . "
In Voltaire 's Candide , Dr. Pangloss is portrayed as a clueless scholar who , despite the evidence , insists that " all is for the best in this best of all possible worlds " . Gould and Lewontin asserted that it is Panglossian for evolutionary biologists to view all traits as atomized things that had been naturally selected for , and criticised biologists for not granting theoretical space to other causes , such as phyletic and developmental constraints . The relative frequency of spandrels , so defined , versus adaptive features in nature , remains a controversial topic in evolutionary biology . An illustrative example of Gould 's approach can be found in Elisabeth Lloyd 's case study suggesting that the female orgasm is a by @-@ product of shared developmental pathways . Gould also wrote on this topic in his essay " Male Nipples and Clitoral Ripples " , prompted by Lloyd 's earlier work .
= = = Evolutionary progress = = =
Gould favored the argument that evolution has no inherent drive towards long @-@ term " progress " . Uncritical commentaries often portray evolution as a ladder of progress , leading towards bigger , faster , and smarter organisms , the assumption being that evolution is somehow driving organisms to get more complex and ultimately more like humankind . Gould argued that evolution 's drive was not towards complexity , but towards diversification . Because life is constrained to begin with a simple starting point ( like bacteria ) , any diversity resulting from this start , by random walk , will have a skewed distribution and therefore be perceived to move in the direction of higher complexity . But life , Gould argued , can also easily adapt towards simplification , as is often the case with parasites .
In a review of Full House , Richard Dawkins approved of Gould 's general argument , but suggested that he saw evidence of a " tendency for lineages to improve cumulatively their adaptive fit to their particular way of life , by increasing the numbers of features which combine together in adaptive complexes . ... By this definition , adaptive evolution is not just incidentally progressive , it is deeply , dyed @-@ in @-@ the @-@ wool , indispensably progressive . "
= = = Cladistics = = =
Gould never embraced cladistics as a method of investigating evolutionary lineages and process , possibly because he was concerned that such investigations would lead to neglect of the details in historical biology , which he considered all @-@ important . In the early 1990s this led him into a debate with Derek Briggs , who had begun to apply quantitative cladistic techniques to the Burgess Shale fossils , about the methods to be used in interpreting these fossils . Around this time cladistics rapidly became the dominant method of classification in evolutionary biology . Inexpensive but increasingly powerful personal computers made it possible to process large quantities of data about organisms and their characteristics . Around the same time the development of effective polymerase chain reaction techniques made it possible to apply cladistic methods of analysis to biochemical and genetic features as well .
= = = Technical work on land snails = = =
Most of Gould 's empirical research pertained to land snails . He focused his early work on the Bermudian genus Poecilozonites , while his later work concentrated on the West Indian genus Cerion . According to Gould " Cerion is the land snail of maximal diversity in form throughout the entire world . There are 600 described species of this single genus . In fact , they 're not really species , they all interbreed , but the names exist to express a real phenomenon which is this incredible morphological diversity . Some are shaped like golf balls , some are shaped like pencils . ... Now my main subject is the evolution of form , and the problem of how it is that you can get this diversity amid so little genetic difference , so far as we can tell , is a very interesting one . And if we could solve this we 'd learn something general about the evolution of form . "
Given Cerion 's extensive geographic diversity , Gould later lamented that if Christopher Columbus had only cataloged a single Cerion it would have ended the scholarly debate about which island Columbus had first set foot on in America .
= = = Influence = = =
Gould is one of the most frequently cited scientists in the field of evolutionary theory . His 1979 " spandrels " paper has been cited more than 5 @,@ 000 times . In Paleobiology — the flagship journal of his own speciality — only Charles Darwin and George Gaylord Simpson have been cited more often . Gould was also a considerably respected historian of science . Historian Ronald Numbers has been quoted as saying : " I can 't say much about Gould 's strengths as a scientist , but for a long time I 've regarded him as the second most influential historian of science ( next to Thomas Kuhn ) . "
= = = The Structure of Evolutionary Theory = = =
Shortly before his death , Gould published The Structure of Evolutionary Theory ( 2002 ) , a long treatise recapitulating his version of modern evolutionary theory . In the film Beauty and Consolation Gould remarked , " In a couple of years I will be able to gather in one volume my view of how evolution works . It is to me a great consolation because it represents the putting together of a lifetime of thinking into one source . That book will never be particularly widely read . It 's going to be far too long , and it 's only for a few thousand professionals — very different from my popular science writings — but it is of greater consolation to me because it is a chance to put into one place a whole way of thinking about evolution that I 've struggled with all my life . "
= = = As a public figure = = =
Gould became widely known through his popular essays on evolution in the Natural History magazine . His essays were published in a series titled This View of Life ( a phrase from the concluding paragraph of Charles Darwin 's Origin of Species ) starting from January 1974 and ended in January 2001 , amounting to a continuous publication of 300 essays . Many of his essays were reprinted in collected volumes that became bestselling books such as Ever Since Darwin and The Panda 's Thumb , Hen 's Teeth and Horse 's Toes , and The Flamingo 's Smile .
A passionate advocate of evolutionary theory , Gould wrote prolifically on the subject , trying to communicate his understanding of contemporary evolutionary biology to a wide audience . A recurring theme in his writings is the history and development of pre @-@ evolutionary and evolutionary thought . He was also an enthusiastic baseball fan and sabermetrician ( analyst of baseball statistics ) , and made frequent reference to the sport in his essays . Many of his baseball essays were anthologized in his posthumously published book Triumph and Tragedy in Mudville ( 2003 ) .
Although a proud Darwinist , Gould 's emphasis was less gradualist and reductionist than most neo @-@ Darwinists . He fiercely opposed many aspects of sociobiology and its intellectual descendant evolutionary psychology . He devoted considerable time to fighting against creationism , creation science , and intelligent design . Most notably
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an extratropical storm while located more than 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) northeast of St. John 's on September 5 . Ella threatened to pass within 50 mi ( 80 km ) of North Carolina . Because of this , a hurricane watch being issued for the Outer Banks of North Carolina during Labor Day Weekend , resulting in a significant drop in tourism occurred . However , because the storm veered northeastward , little effects other than 5 to 9 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 7 m ) waves , minor beach erosion , and light winds in coastal portions of North Carolina . In Newfoundland , Ella produced rainfall amounts reaching 2 @.@ 39 in ( 61 mm ) and wind gusts up to 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) .
= = = Hurricane Flossie = = =
A tropical wave passed westward across Dakar , Senegal on August 31 and entered the Atlantic Ocean later that day . Convection markedly increased over the next few days and by 0000 UTC on September 4 , the wave developed into a tropical depression while located about midway between Africa and the Lesser Antilles . Later that day , the Hong Kong Merchant reported tropical storm force winds , thus the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Flossie . It initially tracked northwestward at 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) and minimal strengthening occurred , possibly due to rapid forward speeds . On September 5 , the storm curved westward , until turning north on September 7 . A high pressure area transitioned into a trough , causing Flossie to re @-@ curve northeastward and generating strong upper @-@ level winds .
On September 8 , Flossie was downgraded to a tropical depression . After the trough began weakening , favorable conditions returned , allowing Flossie to re @-@ strengthen into a tropical storm on September 10 . Flossie then decelerated and became nearly stationary on September 12 . Around that time , the storm was upgraded to a hurricane . Further intensification continued , and Flossie peaked with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) early on September 13 . The storm began turned nearly due northward and began weakening . Flossie accelerated to the northeast and eventually transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) north of the Azores on September 15 . The strong extratropical cyclone brought winds as high as 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) to Fair Isle , Great Britain .
= = = Hurricane Greta = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression near Trinidad on September 13 . By the following day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Greta . It headed westward to west @-@ northwestward across the Caribbean Sea and slowly intensified , becoming a hurricane on September 16 . The rate of intensification increased as Greta was approaching the northwestern Caribbean Sea . Greta briefly peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 947 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) , while brushing northeastern Honduras . Although the storm remained offshore , land interaction caused significant weakening . On September 19 , Greta made landfall in Stann Creek District , Belize with winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . The storm rapidly weakened inland over Central America , but survived its passage and eventually became Hurricane Olivia in the Eastern Pacific Ocean .
Early in its duration , Greta produced heavy rainfall in the Netherlands Antilles . With a similar path to Hurricane Fifi four years prior , Greta threatened to reproduce the devastating effects of the catastrophic storm ; however , damage and loss of life was significantly less than feared . In Honduras , about 1 @,@ 200 homes were damaged , about half of which in towns along the coastline . The storm damaged about 75 % of the houses on Roatán along the offshore Bay Islands , and there was one death in the country . In the Belize Barrier Reef , Greta downed trees and produced high waves , while on the mainland , there was minimal flooding despite a high storm surge . In Dangriga where it made landfall , the hurricane damaged or destroyed 125 houses and the primary hospital . In Belize City , a tornado flipped over a truck and damaged four houses . Damage in Belize was estimated at $ 25 million , and there were four deaths .
= = = Tropical Storm Hope = = =
A mid @-@ tropospheric low pressure area developed over the Southeastern United States on September 10 . The system developed into a subtropical depression early on September 12 , while located about 75 mi ( 121 km ) east of St. Augustine , Florida . Over the next few days , the depression tracked east @-@ northeastward to eastward . While strengthening into a subtropical storm on September 15 , it passed just north of Bermuda , but produced only 1 @.@ 07 in ( 27 mm ) of rain on the island . The storm then made a brief dip to the east @-@ southeast , before resuming its east @-@ northeastward course on September 16 . Beginning on the following day , satellite imagery indicated that the system was acquiring tropical characteristics . As a result , it was reclassified as Tropical Storm Hope at 0600 UTC on September 17 .
Because Hope remained out of range of reconnaissance aircraft flights , the National Hurricane Center relied on ships and satellite estimates . After becoming a tropical cyclone , Hope began to accelerate while slowly intensifying . Satellite estimates at 1200 UTC on September 19 indicated that the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 987 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) , recorded by the S.S. Banglar Mann . While located hundreds of miles north of the Azores on September 20 , the storm turned northward and began crossing into sea surface temperatures of 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) . By 1200 UTC on September 21 , Hope transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and was absorbed by another extratropical storm while situated about 220 mi ( 350 km ) south of Reykjavík , Iceland .
= = = Tropical Storm Irma = = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Irma were from a subtropical depression that formed about 500 mi ( 800 km ) south of the Azores on October 2 . During the next two days , thunderstorm activity gradually increased around the circulation center as the storm drifted northward . On October 2 , the storm had taken the appearance of a tropical storm on satellite photographs , and upper @-@ level anticyclonic flow over the center of the storm was evident on satellite time @-@ lapse movies . By the afternoon of October 4 , the system had acquired the characteristics of a tropical storm and was named Irma ; gale @-@ force winds extended 150 mi ( 240 km ) from the center of circulation .
Six hours after being named , Irma reached its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . On October 5 , Irma turned towards the north @-@ northeast and passed about midway between the central and western Azores . Shortly thereafter , Irma became less organized , and that evening was absorbed into an approaching cold front , about 450 mi ( 720 km ) northeast of the Azores . Although Irma passed near parts of the western and central Azores with gale @-@ force winds in some areas , no reports of damage or casualties caused by Irma were received . Several nearby ships reported winds around 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . It was noted that heavy rains may have occurred on some of the mountainous islands as Irma passed .
= = = Tropical Storm Juliet = = =
A weak tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 30 . The wave moved west @-@ northwestward and was centered well east of the Leeward Islands on October 6 , when satellite imagery indicated that deep convection became much more concentrated . The following day , ship reports noted that a closed circulation was developing . The system was classified as a tropical depression beginning at 1800 UTC on October 7 , while located about 600 mi ( 970 km ) east of Puerto Rico . Around midday on October 8 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Juliet .
After peaking with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) early on October 9 , Juliet passed north of Puerto Rico . The storm brought light rainfall to the island , peaking at 4 @.@ 51 in ( 115 mm ) at Toro Negro Plant . The storm then accelerated and curved northwestward , northward , and then northeastward . On October 11 , Juliet merged with a frontal zone , while located west @-@ southwest of Bermuda . Later that day , the remnants moved across the island and produced up to 3 in ( 76 mm ) of rainfall .
= = = Hurricane Kendra = = =
In late October , a tropical wave and an area of disturbed weather combined in the northwestern Caribbean , before crossing Puerto Rico . The system moved northwest and by late on October 28 , it became a tropical depression while located about 80 miles ( 130 km ) north of Mayaguana in The Bahamas . Early on the following day , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Kendra . The storm quickly intensified while moving either north or north @-@ northwestward and became a hurricane late on October 29 . After peaking with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) on October 30 , Kendra weakened significantly to a 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) tropical storm in only 12 hours . Kendra continued north @-@ northeastward or northeastward , before being absorbed by an extratropical cyclone while located west @-@ northwest of Bermuda early on November 1 .
The precursor system dropped rainfall across much of southern Puerto Rico was at least 7 in ( 180 mm ) , with a peak at 20 @.@ 43 in ( 519 mm ) in Pico del Este . Mudslides and flooding from the heavy precipitation left many roads impassable , washed out or collapsed several bridges , and caused considerable damage to agriculture , especially livestock . Additionally , one fatality occurred and 1 @,@ 710 families fled their homes for shelters . Damage in Puerto Rico reached $ 6 million . A high @-@ pressure area and Kendra combined produced strong winds and abnormally high tides along the East Coast of the United States , though no damage was reported .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the 12 other tropical cyclones , there were several tropical depressions that developed during the season . The first of which formed over the central Gulf of Mexico on June 21 . The depression moved northeastward toward Florida and strengthened slightly . It dissipated by late on June 22 . Another tropical depression developed about 175 mi ( 282 km ) southwest of Porto Novo , Cape Verde on July 10 . The system moved generally westward and intensified into a strong tropical depression , before dissipating two days later . Tropical Depression Four formed about 465 mi ( 748 km ) east of Barbados on August 7 . It tracked westward without significantly intensifying , and passed through the Windward Islands over Bequia on the following day . The depression continued westward and passed near Aruba on August 9 . It eventually traversed the Caribbean Sea , and made landfall to the south of Bluefields , Nicaragua on August 11 . The depression dissipated shortly thereafter .
A tropical depression formed in the central Gulf of Mexico on August 9 . The storm moved northward and struck southeastern Plaquemines Parish , Louisiana before dissipating the next day . By August 30 , another depression developed in the north @-@ central Gulf of Mexico . The system tracked generally eastward and avoided landfall . It dissipated around midday on September 1 . Tropical Depression Eight developed over western Senegal around 1200 UTC on September 3 . The depression initially headed west @-@ southwestward and soon entered the Atlantic Ocean . Between late on September 4 and early on September 5 , the system passed south of Cape Verde . Later that day , the storm began curving west @-@ northwestward . By early on September 7 , it was heading northwestward and then turned to the north @-@ northwest the next day . The depression moved northward between September 9 and September 10 , before re @-@ curving to the northeast . It dissipated about 440 mi ( 710 km ) of Flores Island in the Azores around midday on September 11 .
At 1200 UTC on September 8 , Tropical Depression Nine developed over the west @-@ central Gulf of Mexico . Moving generally westward , the depression made landfall south of La Pesca , Tamaulipas , around midday on September 10 . The system rapidly weakened inland and dissipated later that day . Another tropical depression formed over western Senegal on September 18 . It moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean before curving west @-@ northwestward about three days later . On September 25 , the depression moved northwestward and then northward by September 28 . It dissipated about 550 mi ( 890 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda at 1200 UTC the following day . The next tropical depression developed in the Gulf of Mexico just offshore Campeche on September 21 . Moving west @-@ northwestward , the depression made landfall near Tampico on September 23 , shortly before dissipating .
A tropical depression formed at 1200 UTC on October 13 , while located about 55 mi ( 89 km ) north of Corvo Island in the Azores . The depression initially moved south @-@ southwestward , before curving southwestward by the following day . It then turned west @-@ northwestward on October 15 . Late the next day , the depression turned abruptly northward . The system dissipated about 500 mi ( 800 km ) west @-@ northwest of Flores Island . The next tropical depression developed at 1200 UTC on October 26 , while located about 490 mi ( 790 km ) south @-@ southwest of the southernmost islands of Cape Verde . It moved generally westward and dissipated about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and the west coast of Africa on October 29 . The final tropical depression of the season formed about 265 mi ( 426 km ) northeast of North Abaco in the Bahamas on November 3 . Moving north @-@ northeastward , the depression turned northeastward by the next day . It dissipated about 275 mi ( 443 km ) east of Virginia Beach , Virginia on November 5 .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic basin in 1978 . Storms were named Amelia , Bess , Cora , Flossie , Hope , Irma and Juliet for the first time in 1978 . This was the last year that only female names were used for Atlantic hurricanes . The name Greta was retired after the 1978 season . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of the storms in 1978 and their landfall ( s ) , if any . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still storm @-@ related . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low .
= New York State Route 118 =
New York State Route 118 ( NY 118 ) is a north – south state highway that extends for 10 @.@ 71 miles ( 17 @.@ 24 km ) in Downstate New York in the United States . Much of the highway is located within Westchester County ; however , a small portion of the route near the northern terminus is situated in Putnam County . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 100 in the town of Yorktown . Its northern terminus is at a junction with U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 ) in the town of Carmel . NY 118 passes through the hamlets of Yorktown Heights and Amawalk , where it overlaps with US 202 and NY 35 . The route was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , it was initially routed on the portion of modern NY 100 and US 202 between the New Croton Reservoir and Croton Falls . It was moved onto its current alignment to Croton Lake in the late 1930s , but the easternmost piece was designated as an extension of NY 129 to a traffic circle in the hamlet of Pines Bridge . This section became a piece of NY 118 by 1969 .
= = Route description = =
NY 118 begins at an intersection with NY 100 north of Croton Lake in the town of Yorktown . It heads westward as Saw Mill River Road , following the northern edge of the reservoir for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to an intersection with NY 129 . Here , the northern lake perimeter road becomes Croton Dam Road and continues west as NY 129 while Saw Mill River Road and NY 118 turn northward , passes through mostly residential areas as it heads toward the hamlet of Yorktown Heights . In the center of the hamlet , NY 118 enters a large commercial district based around NY 118 's junction with NY 35 and US 202 .
NY 118 joins US 202 and NY 35 here , forming a three @-@ way overlap that extends northeasterly into the town of Somers . At the hamlet of Amawalk , NY 35 splits off to the east on Amawalk Road while US 202 and NY 118 continue northeastward along the western edge of the Amawalk Reservoir on Tomahawk Street . The overlap between US 202 and NY 118 ends at the northern edge of the reservoir , at which point US 202 leaves to the east on Lincolndale Road . NY 118 , meanwhile , continues northward through residential neighborhoods into Putnam County . Just past the county line , NY 118 makes a 90 @-@ degree turn to the west onto Baldwin Place Road , then crossing the Putnam County Rail @-@ Trail . The route ends 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) later at an intersection with US 6 in the Carmel hamlet of Baldwin Place .
= = History = =
The roadways that makeup NY 118 through Westchester and Putnam counties was taken over and constructed between 1903 and 1907 . The first two segments , unsigned State Highway 148 ( SH 148 ) , which was NY 118 between a point north of NY 129 to Allan Avenue in Yorktown Heights along with a segment along the New Croton Reservoir and SH 149 , which went from Allan Avenue all the way to US 6 in Baldwin Place , were both contracted for improvement on June 16 , 1903 . The contract on SH 148 , 3 @.@ 48 miles ( 5 @.@ 60 km ) long , was completed August 5 , 1905 at the cost of $ 34 @,@ 272 @.@ 91 ( equivalent to $ 870 thousand in 2016 ) , half paid by the state . The contract on SH 149 , 6 @.@ 62 miles ( 10 @.@ 65 km ) long , cost $ 51 @,@ 232 @.@ 71 ( 1905 USD ) and was completed on October 28 , 1904 . The other portion of NY 118 , SH 405 , made up part of NY 100 , was contracted on September 20 , 1907 at the cost of $ 17 @,@ 605 ( equivalent to $ 447 thousand in 2016 ) . This portion of NY 118 and NY 100 was completed and accepted into the state highway system on November 21 , 1908 .
NY 118 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , it did not initially follow any of its modern alignment . Instead , NY 118 headed northeastward from its current southern terminus on modern NY 100 and US 202 to a terminus at NY 22 in Croton Falls while all of what is now NY 118 was part of NY 100 . At the time , NY 100 continued north along Baldwin Place Road and Myrtle Avenue to meet then @-@ US 6 near Mahopac Falls . In June 1934 , the portion of NY 118 between Somers and Croton Falls became concurrent to US 202 , a new interstate route extending from Delaware to Maine . The alignments of NY 100 and NY 118 north of New Croton Reservoir were flipped c . 1939 , placing NY 118 on its modern alignment . NY 118 initially continued north to NY 6N over NY 100 's original alignment ; however , this extension was eliminated in the mid @-@ 1940s . With the flip , NY 118 terminated at a junction with NY 129 in Croton Lake , while the latter extended to a traffic circle with NY 100 in the hamlet of Pines Bridge . This alignment remained until 1969 , when the route was extended over the easternmost piece of NY 129 to end at the traffic circle with NY 100 . The traffic circle in Pines Bridge was removed between 1988 and 1991 and replaced with a three @-@ way intersection between the two routes .
= = Major intersections = =
= 2010 ACC Championship Game =
The 2010 ACC Championship Game was a college football game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Florida State Seminoles . The game , sponsored by Dr. Pepper , was the final regular @-@ season contest of the 2010 college football season for the Atlantic Coast Conference . Virginia Tech defeated Florida State , winning the Atlantic Coast Conference football championship , 44 – 33 .
The Virginia Tech Hokies were selected to represent the Coastal Division by virtue of an undefeated ( 8 – 0 ) record in conference play and a 10 – 2 record overall . Representing the Atlantic Division was Florida State , which had a 9 – 3 record ( 6 – 2 ACC ) . The game was a rematch of the inaugural ACC Championship Game , won 27 – 22 by Florida State in 2005 .
The game was held at Bank of America Stadium in Charlotte , North Carolina on December 4 , 2010 . Charlotte was chosen after poor attendance at the game 's previous locations ( Tampa , Florida and Jacksonville , Florida ) led conference officials to seek a location closer to the conference 's geographic center . The 2010 championship was the first to be played in Charlotte , and the game will return to the city in 2011 .
The 2010 game began slowly , as Florida State scored only a field goal on its opening possession and Virginia Tech was held scoreless on its first try . On the second play of Florida State 's second possession , Virginia Tech defender Jeron Gouveia @-@ Winslow intercepted a pass by Florida state quarterback E. J. Manuel and returned it for a touchdown , giving the Hokies a 7 – 3 lead . They did not relinquish the advantage the rest of the game . The teams traded field goals and touchdowns through the remainder of the first and second quarters and entered halftime with Tech leading 21 – 17 . In the third quarter , Tech scored 14 points to Florida State 's seven , establishing the winning margin . In the final quarter , each team scored nine points , and the Hokies won with the most points ever scored by one team in an ACC championship game . In recognition of his winning performance , Virginia Tech quarterback Tyrod Taylor was named the game 's most valuable player .
By winning , Virginia Tech earned a spot in the 2011 Orange Bowl football game , and Florida State was selected for the 2010 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl . Several players that participated in the 2010 ACC Championship Game were picked in the 2011 NFL Draft .
= = Selection process = =
The ACC Championship Game matches the winners of the Coastal and Atlantic divisions of the Atlantic Coast Conference . In the early 2000s , the league underwent an expansion to add three former Big East members : Miami and Virginia Tech in 2004 , and Boston College in 2005 . With the addition of a twelfth team , the ACC was allowed to hold a conference championship game under National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) rules .
The inaugural 2005 game featured a Florida State win over Virginia Tech , 27 – 22 . In 2006 , two different teams made their first appearances in the game , which was held in Jacksonville , Florida . Wake Forest defeated Georgia Tech , 9 – 6 . In 2007 , one team new to the championship game and championship @-@ game veteran featured in the contest as Virginia Tech faced off against Boston College . The game resulted in a 30 – 16 Virginia Tech victory . The 2008 game saw a rematch of the previous year , as Virginia Tech again defeated Boston College , 30 – 12 . In 2009 , Georgia Tech defeated Clemson , 39 – 34 , in a matchup of two newcomers to the championship game .
= = = Site selection = = =
Before the 2007 game , cities other than Jacksonville ( site of the 2007 ACC Championship Game ) presented their plans to be the site of the 2008 ACC Championship Game . After poor attendance in the ACC Championship Game at Jacksonville for the second straight year , ACC officials and representatives of the conference 's member schools elected not to extend the Gator Bowl Association 's contract to manage and host the game for another year . On December 12 , less than two weeks after Jacksonville had hosted the 2007 ACC Championship Game , the ACC announced that Tampa , Florida would host the game in 2008 and 2009 and Charlotte , North Carolina would host the game in 2010 and 2011 .
The cities were chosen based on bids presented to the ACC and its member schools . Each city requested and was granted a two @-@ year contract . Tampa was chosen as the site of the 2008 game because Charlotte was scheduled to hold the annual convention of the Association for Career and Technical Education at the same time as the game , and adequate hotel space would not be ready in time for the two events . Because of this , Charlotte 's two @-@ year span of hosting the game was pushed back to 2010 .
= = = Team selection = = =
Before the beginning of the 2010 college football season , the annual poll by media members who cover ACC football predicted Florida State would win the Atlantic Division and Virginia Tech would win the Coastal Division . Florida State received 78 of a possible 98 first @-@ place votes in its division , while Virginia Tech received 62 . In a vote to predict the ACC champion , Virginia Tech received 50 votes from 98 possible . Florida State received 26 votes , and all other teams received a combined 20 .
Immediately after the preseason poll , however , speculation began as to whether regular @-@ season parity would render the prediction irrelevant . Before the 2010 season , the poll had predicted the ACC winner correctly only once in the championship game era . In the Coastal Division , this speculation was groundless , as Virginia Tech 's undefeated season rendered any other winner impossible . In the Atlantic Division , the situation was much different . As late as the second week of November , four of the six division teams were in contention for the division title . These candidates were whittled to three with two weeks remaining in the regular season , then to two in the final week . During that week , NC State traveled to Maryland . If NC State had won , it would have been the Atlantic Division winner by virtue of a tie @-@ breaking win against Florida State . Instead , NC State lost 38 – 31 , and Florida State earned a bid to the championship game .
= = = = Virginia Tech = = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies entered the 2010 season after a 2009 campaign that saw the team finish 10 – 3 , including a season @-@ ending win in the 2009 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl against the Tennessee Volunteers . Because of that season @-@ ending victory and the Hokies ' general good performance during the 2009 season , Virginia Tech was ranked No. 10 in preseason national polling . The Hokies ' first game of the season was a nationally televised contest against then @-@ No. 3 Boise State at FedEx Field near Washington , D.C .. Because the game was the first of the season to feature two top @-@ 10 teams , it received large amounts of media coverage . During the game , Virginia Tech fell behind 17 – 0 in the first quarter , but rallied to take a 21 – 20 lead early in the third quarter . The two teams traded the lead , alternating scoring drives until Boise State scored a touchdown with 1 : 06 remaining . Virginia Tech was unable to reply one final time , and Boise State earned a 33 – 30 victory .
The close loss discouraged the Virginia Tech players , who then had only five days to prepare for their next opponent , lightly regarded James Madison University . At Lane Stadium , Virginia Tech 's home field , James Madison upset the heavily favored Hokies , 21 – 16 . The loss was only the second time in college football history that a team ranked nationally was defeated by a team from the NCAA Football Championship Subdivision . In the wake of the loss , Virginia Tech fell from No. 13 to out of the polls entirely .
Following the loss , seniors on the football team held a players @-@ only meeting in an effort to rally the team . Players later recalled that meeting as the turning point in the team 's season . The next week , Virginia Tech earned its first win of the season , a 49 – 27 victory over East Carolina in Lane Stadium . The Hokies followed that by traveling to Boston College for a 19 – 0 win , their first shutout since 2006 .
The two victories were the start of a winning streak that saw the Hokies complete the regular season without another loss . Following Boston College , they defeated No. 23 NC State in its home stadium , 41 – 30 . They defeated nonconference opponent Central Michigan , then beat conference opponent Wake Forest and re @-@ entered the polls at No. 25 . Their position in the polls climbed with each opponent they defeated . They beat Duke as the No. 25 team , Georgia Tech as the No. 23 team , North Carolina as the No. 20 team and No. 23 Miami as the No. 16 team . The Miami victory clinched Tech the division championship and a slot in the ACC championship game , but the Hokies still won their final previously scheduled game , the annual Commonwealth Cup rivalry against Virginia .
= = = = Florida State = = = =
Florida State began 2010 after a 7 – 6 record in 2009 that ended with a 33 – 21 win against West Virginia in the 2010 Gator Bowl . Florida State also began the year under a new head coach . Bobby Bowden , who retired after 57 years as a head coach , 34 at Florida State and 33 consecutive winning seasons , was replaced by Jimbo Fisher . Immediately before the 2010 season began , Bowden claimed he had been pushed out as head coach , causing a stir before Florida State 's first game .
For its opening game , Florida State faced the lightly regarded Samford Bulldogs and defeated them 59 – 6 . In its second game , No. 17 Florida State faced a tougher challenge as it traveled to Norman , Oklahoma to play the No. 10 @-@ ranked Oklahoma Sooners . The Seminoles were defeated 47 – 17 , in their third @-@ worst loss since 1991 . Florida State rebounded from the loss to defeat Brigham Young University , 34 – 10 , then opened the ACC season by defeating Wake Forest , Virginia , in @-@ state rival Miami and Boston College in succession .
On October 28 , Florida State traveled to Raleigh , North Carolina to play NC State . Despite leading 21 – 7 at halftime , Florida State allowed NC State to rally and win the game , 28 – 24 . NC State 's win gave it a one @-@ game lead and a tiebreaker against the Seminoles in the Atlantic Division . The following week , Florida State again lost , this time to North Carolina , a Coastal Division opponent . The same week , NC State lost to Clemson , bringing Florida State even with NC State in the divisional standings . NC State still held the tiebreaker , however .
With three weeks remaining in the regular season and two other Atlantic Division teams also with one loss , there were 120 possible scenarios for the four tied teams . On Nov. 13 , Florida State defeated Clemson 16 – 13 , eliminating one of the four tied teams from contention for the divisional championship . The following week , Florida State defeated Maryland , 30 – 16 , eliminating another contender . The divisional championship came down to the final week . Because Florida State was playing nonconference rival Florida , the division was decided by the matchup between NC State and Maryland . Hours after Florida State defeated Florida 31 – 7 , NC State lost to Maryland , giving Florida State the Atlantic Division championship and a bid to the ACC Championship Game .
= = Pregame buildup = =
Following the last week of regularly scheduled conference games , both teams moved up in the national college football polls . Florida State , which had been ranked No. 22 in the BCS Poll , No. 22 in the AP Poll , and No. 21 in the Coaches ' Poll , rose to No. 21 in the BCS , No. 20 in the AP Poll , and No. 20 in the Coaches ' Poll . Virginia Tech , which had been ranked 16th in the BCS , 13th in the AP Poll and 14th in the Coaches ' Poll before the final week of the regular season , climbed to 15th in the BCS , 11th in the AP Poll and 11th in the Coaches ' Poll . Spread bettors predicted Virginia Tech would win the game . Various betting organizations favored the Hokies by four or 4 @.@ 5 points . The matchup was a repeat of the inaugural ACC Championship game , and according to observers , the Seminoles ' presence appeared to mark a resurgence for Florida State , which performed below expectations in the final years of Bowden 's tenure . For Virginia Tech , there were hopes of breaking a trend of losing to Florida State . Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer was 1 – 8 against Florida State , and the Hokies overall were 11 – 22 – 1 against the Seminoles .
= = = Attendance concerns = = =
After two years of poor attendance at ACC championship games in Tampa , Florida , organizers hoped moving the game to Charlotte , closer to the geographic center of the conference , would result in improved ticket sales . That hypothesis was borne out as early public sales approached 28 @,@ 000 tickets before the participating teams were officially announced . After the announcement , each school sold its allotment of 10 @,@ 000 tickets , and the more than 50 @,@ 000 publicly available tickets were purchased at a rapid pace . ACC officials and Charlotte boosters each said they were satisfied with the pace and quantity of ticket sales .
= = = Florida State offense = = =
During the 2010 season , Florida State senior quarterback Christian Ponder completed 62 @.@ 2 percent of his passes for a total of 2 @,@ 038 yards , and Florida State head coach Jimbo Fisher called him " one of the great Florida State quarterbacks of all time . " Despite this endorsement , Ponder 's participation in the ACC Championship was in doubt because of injured elbow fascia sustained in the Seminoles ' game against Boston College . The issue remained in doubt until the day of the ACC Championship , when coach Fisher announced that sophomore quarterback E. J. Manuel , who had led the Seminoles against Clemson was given the start .
Protecting both quarterbacks was a strong offensive line anchored by All @-@ American guard Rodney Hudson , a two @-@ time winner of the Jacobs Blocking Trophy , a four @-@ time recipient of all @-@ conference honors and a finalist for the Outland Trophy . Hudson and the offensive line also protected Florida State 's running backs . Foremost among these was sophomore Chris Thompson , who led the team with 687 rushing yards . Thompson was predicted to start the ACC Championship game because of his performance in the regular season and because fellow running backs Ty Jones and Jermaine Thomas were injured . Taken together , Florida State 's offense was 52nd in total offense , accumulating 391 yards per game .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
Virginia Tech 's offense was centered on quarterback Tyrod Taylor , who was named ACC Player of the Year on December 1 . Taylor threw 20 touchdown passes , had only four interceptions and completed 60 @.@ 2 percent of his passes . He also rushed for 613 yards , a figure that included several " game @-@ changing " runs . Alongside Taylor , the Hokies boasted three strong running backs : David Wilson , Ryan Williams and Darren Evans . Wilson had 573 rushing yards , 509 return yards , 165 receiving yards and nine touchdowns despite being an underclassman . The Hokies led the ACC in scoring , averaging 34 @.@ 8 points per game , and were 38th in the nation in total offense ( 409 yards per game ) .
= = = Florida State defense = = =
Virginia Tech 's offensive line was particularly concerned with containing Florida State sophomore defensive end Brandon Jenkins , who was tied for third in the nation in sacks ( 12 ) and 15th in tackles for loss ( 18 @.@ 5 ) . On the other half of the defensive line , defensive end Markus White recorded seven sacks during the regular season . In total , Florida State 's defense was No. 1 in college football in terms of sacks ( 43 ) and 15th in tackles for loss ( 7 @.@ 2 per game ) . Florida State placed a priority on containing Tyrod Taylor and preventing him from scrambling for extra yardage . The Seminoles were 39th nationally in total defense , allowing an average of 341 yards per game .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
Virginia Tech 's defense was less statistically successful in 2010 than it had been in previous years , but the Hokies still led the nation in turnover margin , forcing 16 more turnovers than they gave away . Sophomore cornerback Jayron Hosley , a first @-@ team All @-@ ACC selection , led the nation in interceptions with eight , while Davon Morgan and Rashad Carmichael each had four . Tech 's defense ranked 10th in the red zone , seven spots ahead of the Seminoles ' defense in that respect . In total defense , the Hokies were 42nd , permitting an average of 349 yards per game . In scoring defense , Tech was third in the ACC , permitting 17 @.@ 9 points per game .
= = Game summary = =
The 2010 ACC Championship Game kicked off on December 4 , 2010 at 7 : 52 pm EST at Bank of America Stadium in Charlotte , North Carolina . At kickoff , the weather was overcast with light rain and a temperature of 36 ° F ( 2 ° C ) , " dreary and chilly " , according to The Associated Press . The wind was from the east at 4 miles per hour ( 6 @.@ 4 km / h ) . The number of tickets sold was 72 @,@ 379 , slightly less than capacity , and despite the chilly temperatures , early turnstile figures reported more than 60 @,@ 000 people in attendance . The game was televised in the United States by ESPN , and Sean McDonough , Matt Millen and Heather Cox were the announcers . The game also appeared on ESPN 3D , and was broadcast on that channel by Joe Tessitore , Tim Brown and Ray Bentley . Approximately 3 @.@ 047 million people watched the game , earning the broadcast a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 8 . That figure was the second @-@ lowest ever for an ACC Championship Game , but 13 % more than the previous year 's rating of 1 @.@ 6 , the record low . The game 's referee was Brad Allen , the umpire was Jim Hyson and the lineman was Art Hardin .
= = = First quarter = = =
Virginia Tech won the ceremonial pregame coin toss to determine first possession and decided to kick off to Florida State . Kickoff returner Lonnie Pryor mishandled the football , but quickly recovered the loose ball and carried it to the Florida State 33 @-@ yard line , where the Seminoles began their first offensive drive . On the first play of the game , quarterback E. J. Manuel completed a 29 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Taiwan Easterling , driving the Seminoles into Virginia Tech 's defensive half . A short rush and a subsequent 12 @-@ yard pass gave Florida State a first down near the Virginia Tech 20 @-@ yard line . Short rushes pushed Florida State 's offense inside the Virginia Tech red zone , but the Seminoles were unable to gain another first down . Placekicker Dustin Hopkins came on the field and kicked a 32 @-@ yard field goal , giving Florida State a 3 – 0 lead with 11 : 43 remaining in the quarter .
Virginia Tech 's first possession began at its 20 @-@ yard line after a touchback . The Hokies advanced the ball into Florida State with a series of rushing plays , then lost yardage and punted from their 47 @-@ yard line . Florida State recovered the kick at its 15 @-@ yard line and began its second possession . On the second play of the drive , Seminoles quarterback attempted a pass , but the ball was intercepted by Virginia Tech defender Jeron Gouveia @-@ Winslow , who ran it 24 yards into the end zone for Virginia Tech 's first touchdown . The score gave Tech a 7 – 3 lead with 8 : 54 remaining in the quarter .
Florida State received the post @-@ score kickoff , then went three @-@ and @-@ out . Virginia Tech recovered the kick at its 35 @-@ yard line , and began a drive that needed only three plays to score a touchdown . The key effort was a 51 @-@ yard sprint by running back Darren Evans , which advanced the ball to the Florida State 9 @-@ yard line . The score and extra point pushed Tech 's lead to 14 – 3 with 4 : 37 remaining . Florida State responded with a quick touchdown drive of its own . From its 32 @-@ yard line , the Seminoles needed only six plays , three of them passes from E. J. Manuel , to reach the end zone . The score with 1 : 52 remaining trimmed Tech 's lead to 14 – 10 at the 1 : 52 mark . As the quarter came to an end , Virginia Tech received the post @-@ score kickoff and advanced the ball to its 22 @-@ yard line before the final seconds ticked off the clock and the first quarter ended with Tech leading 14 – 10 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The second quarter began with Virginia Tech in possession of the ball and facing a third and nine at its 22 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the quarter , Virginia Tech quarterback Tyrod Taylor completed a 28 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Danny Coale for a first down at the 50 @-@ yard line . Tech continued to advance down the field , and eight plays later , Taylor completed a 19 @-@ yard pass to Jarret Boykin for the Hokies ' third touchdown of the game . The drive consumed 13 plays and covered 91 yards in 6 : 25 , and Tech gained a 21 – 10 lead with 10 : 28 remaining before halftime .
Following the touchdown , Virginia Tech kicked the ball off to Florida State , and after a short return , the Seminoles ' offense took the field at their 22 @-@ yard line . Florida State then embarked upon a 10 @-@ play , 78 @-@ yard drive that resulted in a touchdown with 5 : 40 remaining in the quarter . During the drive , Florida State converted two third downs and Manuel completed passes of 12 yards , 14 yards and 25 yards .
Tech 's Jayron Hosley returned Florida State 's subsequent kickoff to the Tech 35 @-@ yard line , where the Hokies ' offense returned to the field . Tech advanced the ball with short rushes , gaining two first downs via quarterback sneaks from Taylor . The Hokies advanced as far as the Florida State 44 @-@ yard line , but Florida State sacked Taylor twice , denying the Hokies another first down . Tech ran down the clock , then punted with 42 seconds remaining in the first half . Rather than attempt to score in the final seconds , Florida State kneeled on the ball and let the first half end with Tech leading , 21 – 17 .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Florida State received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Running back David Wilson returned the opening kickoff to the Tech 21 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies ' offense began the first drive of the second half . The first play of the quarter was a 14 @-@ yard pass from Taylor to Coale , beginning a seven @-@ play , 67 @-@ yard drive resulting in a touchdown . The culminating play of the drive was a 45 @-@ yard pass from Taylor to Coale for the touchdown , which extended Tech 's lead to 11 points , 28 – 17 , at the 11 : 24 mark of the quarter .
After the kickoff , Florida State went three @-@ and @-@ out and punted back to Virginia Tech . The Hokies began their second possession of the quarter at their 39 @-@ yard line and started the drive with five consecutive running plays , advancing 28 yards in the process . Tech then switched to its passing offense , throwing four consecutive passes . Three were complete , and the final one , a 21 @-@ yard toss from Taylor to Wilson , ended with the running back carrying the ball into the end zone . The score capped a nine @-@ play , 61 @-@ yard drive that grew the Hokies ' advantage to 18 points , 35 – 17 .
Florida State 's offense returned to the field with 4 : 35 remaining and needing to score rapidly in order to make up the 18 @-@ point deficit , the game 's largest . The Seminoles began their drive with their passing offense , trying three passes in four plays . Quarterback Manuel completed two of those three pass attempts , gaining 37 yards and advancing deep into Virginia Tech territory . A pass interference penalty against Virginia Tech advanced the Seminoles to the Tech 11 @-@ yard line , and three rushing plays later , running back Ty Jones crossed the goal line for a touchdown . The score came with 1 : 40 remaining in the quarter and brought the score to 35 – 24 .
Florida State kicked off following the score , and Tech 's offense began work from its 18 @-@ yard line . Though quarterback Taylor was sacked on the first play of the drive , the Hokies recovered the lost yardage and gained a first down with the final play of the quarter . With one quarter remaining in the game , Tech held a 35 – 24 lead .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Virginia Tech began the quarter with a first down at its 29 @-@ yard line . After Williams carried the ball for a four @-@ yard gain , Taylor completed a 14 @-@ yard pass to Andre Smith for a first down at the Tech 47 @-@ yard line . Two plays gained only one yard , then Taylor completed a 46 @-@ yard throw to Coale for a first down at the Florida State 6 @-@ yard line . Three plays later , Taylor ran five yards into the end zone , finishing an 11 @-@ play , 82 @-@ yard drive that spanned two quarters . Tech increased its margin to 41 – 24 , but as Virginia Tech attempted the extra point , Florida State 's Nigel Bradham disrupted and blocked the kick . Bradham scooped up the loose ball and returned it the length of the field to the opposite end zone for an unusual defensive two @-@ point conversion .
The conversion brought the score to 41 – 26 with 11 : 29 remaining in the game . Florida State received the post @-@ touchdown kickoff , then benefited from a 10 @-@ yard holding penalty against Virginia Tech . Three subsequent plays failed to gain another first down , however , and on fourth down , a pass by Manuel was intercepted by Virginia Tech 's Davon Morgan and returned to the Florida State 34 @-@ yard line . With 9 : 29 remaining , Virginia Tech 's offense entered the game . The Hokies went three @-@ and @-@ out , but capitalized on the good starting field position by kicking a 43 @-@ yard field goal that increased their lead to 44 – 26 .
Florida State 's offense began work from its 36 @-@ yard line , but ran four plays without gaining a first down and turned the ball over on downs . Virginia Tech , whose offense began at the Florida State 45 @-@ yard line , proceeded to run down the clock . In eight plays , Tech advanced 21 yards and drained 3 : 22 , then turned the ball over on downs at the Seminole 26 @-@ yard line . Florida State 's offense entered the game one final time and conducted a 12 @-@ play , 75 @-@ yard drive that ended with a 20 @-@ yard pass from Manuel to running back Chris Thompson for a touchdown . The score and subsequent extra point made the score 44 – 33 , but only seven seconds remained in the game . The Seminoles attempted an onside kick in an attempt to have another opportunity for offense , but the Hokies recovered the kick and proceeded to run out the final seconds , earning a 44 – 33 victory .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of his performance as the game 's winning quarterback , Tyrod Taylor was named the game 's most valuable player . He completed 18 of his 28 pass attempts for 263 yards and three touchdowns . The three touchdowns gave him 23 for the season , setting a Virginia Tech single @-@ season mark . The three touchdowns also tied the record for the most in an ACC Championship Game . Taylor also carried the ball 11 times for 24 yards and one touchdown . Taylor 's MVP award was his second , and he became the first player to win the honor multiple times . On the opposite side of the ball , Florida State quarterback E. J. Manuel had a better completion percentage , completing 23 of his 31 passes for 288 yards and one touchdown . He also ran the ball 11 times for nine yards .
Virginia Tech wide receiver Danny Coale 's 143 receiving yards were a career high and set a championship @-@ game record . Many of those receiving yards came on third down and were a reason why Tech converted 13 of its 17 third @-@ down opportunities , setting another championship @-@ game record . Florida State 's leading receiver was wide receiver Taiwan Easterling , who had six catches for 79 yards . Close behind was wide receiver Willie Haulstead , who had three receptions for 73 yards . All of Haulstead 's receptions came in the first half , setting a record for receiving yards in an ACC Championship Game half .
On the ground , Virginia Tech running back Darren Evans led all rushers with 69 yards on six carries . In total , Virginia Tech had 179 rushing yards ; three players had more rushing yards than the leading rusher on Florida State , running back Ty Jones , who had 24 yards . Jones also had three rushing touchdowns , becoming the first Florida State player to rush for three touchdowns since Oct. 4 , 2008 . He also was the second player ever to rush for three touchdowns in an ACC Championship Game .
Among defensive players , Florida State safety Nick Moody had 12 tackles , the most in the game . Virginia Tech 's leading defensive player was safety Eddie Whitley , who had nine tackles and two pass breakups . Tech 's Davon Morgan and Jeron Gouveia @-@ Winslow were responsible for the only turnovers in the game ; each had one interception . Gouveia @-@ Winslow ’ s 24 @-@ yard interception return for a touchdown was the second such score in an ACC Championship Game . On the opposite side of the ball , Nigel Bradham 's defensive two @-@ point conversion was only the fifth in all of college football during the 2010 season . Florida State received no penalties during the game , and Virginia Tech received only four . The four penalties were the fewest in an ACC Championship Game .
= = Postgame effects = =
Virginia Tech 's win in the ACC Championship Game , its first against Florida State in postseason play , brought it to an 11 – 2 record , while Florida State 's loss dropped it to a 9 – 4 record . Virginia Tech became the first team in college football history to win 11 consecutive games after losing its first two of the season , and it was the first team in conference history to defeat nine different ACC teams in one season . Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer became only the second coach in ACC history to win four conference titles in seven years . The first to do so was Florida State 's Bobby Bowden . Both teams ' standings in the national polls were affected by the game . In the BCS poll , the Seminoles fell from 21st to out of the poll , while Virginia Tech rose from 15th to 13th . In the AP Poll , Tech rose to 12th , while Florida State fell to 23rd .
As a reward for winning the ACC Championship , the Hokies received a position in the 2011 Orange Bowl , a Bowl Championship Series game . Virginia Tech 's opponent in that game was the Stanford Cardinal , from the Pac @-@ 12 Conference . In that game , a blowout in favor of the Cardinal , Stanford defeated Virginia Tech 40 – 12 . Florida State , meanwhile , was selected to participate in the 2010 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl against South Carolina . In that game , held New Year 's Eve , the Seminoles defeated South Carolina , 26 – 17 .
Several players from each team participated in all @-@ star games following their teams ' respective bowl games . Virginia Tech quarterback Tyrod Taylor and center Beau Warren played in the East @-@ West Shrine Game , Florida State quarterback Christian Ponder and offensive lineman Rodney Hudson played in the 2011 Senior Bowl . In that game , Ponder , who had been held out of the ACC Championship Game and underwent elbow surgery , guided the South team to victory by throwing two touchdown passes . The two games were a final chance to impress National Football League scouts before the 2011 NFL Draft , which began April 28 .
Florida State had three players selected in the draft , including Ponder , who was taken with the 12th overall selection , making him the first participant from the 2010 ACC Championship Game to be picked . Florida State 's two other selections were offensive lineman Rodney Hudson ( 55th overall ) and defensive end Markus White ( 224th ) . Virginia Tech likewise had three players selected : Ryan Williams ( 38th ) , Rashad Carmichael ( 127th ) , and Tyrod Taylor ( 180th ) .
= Elegy ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Elegy " is the twenty @-@ second episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by John Shiban and directed by James Charleston . The episode aired in the United States on May 4 , 1997 on the Fox network . It is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Elegy " earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 and was seen by 17 @.@ 1 million viewers upon its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from televisions critics ; the performance of lead actress Gillian Anderson was especially praised .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully track a series of murders that lead to a home for the mentally ill and a clue that makes no sense : each victim has appeared as an apparition in the area where their body was found along with the words " She is me " . Furthermore , the episode continues the storyline that concerns Scully 's battle with cancer .
Shiban was inspired to write the episode based on an incident that involved his wife 's father potentially seeing other beings in a room when he was dying . Shiban was also inspired by the 1975 film One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest . The series sought out a bowling alley for the opening scenes , but many establishments in Vancouver , Canada were reluctant to yield over two @-@ thirds of their space as well as close down for three days . Eventually , the Thunderbird Bowling Centre was chosen .
= = Plot = =
Angie Pintero ( Alex Bruhanski ) , the owner of a bowling alley , tells one of his employees , an autistic man named Harold Spuller ( Steven M. Porter ) , to go home for the evening . Shortly thereafter , Angie discovers a badly @-@ injured blond girl wedged inside of the automated pinsetter . The girl attempts to speak , but no words come out of her mouth . Angie notices police in a nearby parking lot and rushes outside to get help . He realizes a crowd has gathered around the dead body of the same girl he saw only moments earlier in the bowling alley . Angie relates his bizarre tale to Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . Mulder suspects that Angie encountered the dead girl 's ghost ; three similar encounters , and three similar murders , were reported in the area in as many weeks . The agents discover the words , " She is me " written on the bowling lane where Angie saw the spirit , but its meaning remains a mystery .
Detective Hudak ( Daniel Kamin ) tells Mulder and Scully that an anonymous caller phoned 911 with a message regarding Penny Timmons , one of the killer 's victims . The caller claimed that Timmons ' last words were " She is me . " Hudak notes , however , that the victim 's larynx was severed , making it impossible for her to utter dying words . The agents trace the source of the 911 call to a payphone at the New Horizon Psychiatric Center . Mulder notices one of the patients , Harold Spuller , avoiding his gaze . After viewing photographs of the murder victims , Scully comes to the conclusion that Spuller fits the killer 's profile : a compulsive person consumed with the desire to organize , clean and reorder . Scully uses a rest room to attend to a nose bleed . There she encounters the spirit of another blond girl . Moments later , Mulder tells her that the body of yet another victim was found nearby .
Later , Mulder discovers Harold in a room accessible from the bowling alley . The walls of the room are covered with score sheets , including those of the victims . Mulder realizes that Harold met each of the murdered women at the bowling alley . Suddenly , Harold lapses into a strange seizure . From his point of view , he sees Angie 's ghost standing behind Mulder . He rushes out of the room and makes his way to the bowling alley , where Angie lies dead , the victim of a heart attack . Mulder tells Scully that every person who saw the apparitions was about to die , implying that Harold may be next . Scully , who also saw a victim 's ghost , is struck by the implication .
Harold is transported back to the psychiatric center where he is tormented by Nurse Innes ( Nancy Fish ) . Later , Mulder finds Innes lying on the floor , half @-@ conscious . Innes claims Harold went berserk and attacked her . One of the other patients , Chuck Forsch , tells Scully that Nurse Innes was trying to poison Harold . Scully slowly realizes that Innes , not Harold , was responsible for the murders . When Innes attacks Scully with a scalpel , Scully draws her weapon and fires , striking her in the shoulder . While summarizing the case with Mulder , Scully explains that Innes had been ingesting Harold 's medication , triggering violent and unpredictable behavior . Scully hypothesizes that Innes committed the murders in order to destroy the love Harold felt towards the young women . Later , Harold 's body is discovered in a nearby alley , the apparent victim of respiratory failure . Scully , however , suspects that Harold died from what Innes took away from him . Scully admits to Mulder that she saw the ghost of the fourth victim shortly after she was murdered . Later , Scully sees Harold 's spirit sitting in the back seat of her car .
= = Production = =
" Elegy " was written by John Shiban and directed by James Charleston . The episode was inspired by an event that happened when Shiban and his future wife were visiting her father in the hospital . According to Shiban , he was very near death and kept looking around the room , even though there were only two visitors with him . Eventually , he asked his daughter how many people were in the room . When his daughter revealed that there were only two people with him , he kept looking around the room . Shiban was inspired by the idea that " a dying person might be able to look through the cracks [ … ] into the next world " . He developed a premise revolving around a " haunted bowling alley " because " it just seemed right " .
The character of Harold Spuller was inspired by Shiban 's enjoyment of the 1975 film One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest . In fact , Spuller 's friend Chuck Forsch is played by Sydney Lassick , who appeared in One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest as one of Jack Nicholson 's fellow patients . Steven M. Porter , who portrayed Spuller , was invited to audition for the show by writer Frank Spotnitz . According to Porter , after the audition he felt that he had " either made a great impression or a complete fool of myself " . Many of the gestures that Porter used in the episode were inspired by his appearance in a play called Asylum .
The series sought out a bowling alley for the opening scenes , but many were reluctant to yield over two @-@ thirds of their space as well as close down for three days . Eventually , the Thunderbird Bowling Centre was chosen . The series was allowed to film at the location under the condition that the bowling surfaces were preserved . Due to this , the production staff was forced to either wear bowling shoes or wear makeshift " paper booties " on their feet . In between camera set ups , Duchovny and director Charleston bowled several games . Duchovny later joked that after the episode , he " realized how old " he was because he felt sore from all the bowling . He joked , " when you get sore from bowling , it 's time to start thinking about your life and where it 's going . "
= = Reception = =
" Elegy " premiered on the Fox network on May 4 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . " Elegy " was seen by 17 @.@ 1 million viewers on first broadcast .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five and called it " terrific " . They applauded Shiban 's script , noting that it focused on " greater attention to the relationship between Mulder and Scully " , rather than the X @-@ File itself . The two called the shot where Scully sees the apparition in the bathroom " one of the most chilling things the series has offered this year " , and noted that the part with Scully conferring with her counselor " is the highlight of the season " . Paula Vitaris , writing for Cinefantastique , rated " Elegy " three stars out of four , writing that the X @-@ File part of the episode " falls apart by the end " but that the installment is saved by " the emotional impact of Scully " . Vitaris praised the acting of the cast , and especially lauded Anderson 's performance , noting that she conveyed " the shock and confusion at witnessing the frightening sight of the ghostly girl with a cut throat " .
Not all reviews were as positive . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B – " and called it " alternately deeply moving and really , really stupid " . His main criticism of the episode was the it portrayed mental illness in a manner that was " offensive at worst and just plain idiotic at best " . Furthermore , he derided the " magical mentally handicapped person " trope as " cringe @-@ worthy " and cliche . VanDerWerff , however , wrote that the episode was saved largely due to the " beautiful little scenes that let you see the weight of everything Scully 's been carrying around her " .
= Nicole Esdaile =
Nicole Esdaile ( born 1 June 1987 ) is an Australian goalball player and is classified as a B2 competitor . She took up the sport in 1999 , and made her national team debut in 2010 . Subsequently , she has competed at the 2010 Goalball World Championships , 2011 IBSA Africa Oceania Goalball Regional Champions and 2011 IBSA Goalball World Cup . She was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in goalball .
= = Personal life =
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April and May in Australia , New Zealand and European festivals and the Summer Slaughter tour in United States in mid @-@ 2010 .
The band entered RG Studio in Gdańsk on February 9 , to begin recording their fifth studio album entitled Carnival Is Forever . The album was produced by Vogg ; while mixing and drums production was done by Swedish producer Daniel Bergstrand , who previously worked with Behemoth and Meshuggah among others . Heinrich departed from Decapitated after the recording in order to concentrate on Vesania , and Carnival Is Forever was released on July 12 , 2011 .
On November 1 , 2011 , the band was on board LOT Polish Airlines Flight 16 when the crew were unable to extend the landing gear and were forced to land the aircraft on its belly . Everyone aboard the flight survived . Lechner left the band in September 2012 and was replaced by former Vader drummer Paweł Jaroszewicz .
In late 2012 , Decapitated played concerts in Nepal , Japan , and Thailand , among others .
= = = Blood Mantra ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On March 13 , 2014 , the band announced the addition of drummer Michał Łysejko to its lineup , who had been touring with Decapitated since January 2014 . Decapitated recorded Blood Mantra during March in Hertz Studio in Poland , and released the album in September . During a tour in United States in October , the band was involved in serious van accident on the way to a show in New Orleans , Louisiana . Nobody was seriously injured and the band continued on tour . Decapitated accompanied Soulfly on their 2015 We Sold Our Souls To Metal Tour .
= = Musical style and critical reception = =
Decapitated 's music is composed by the " mastermind " of the band , Vogg , who co @-@ worked with Vitek while writing prior to his death . Decapitated became known for its songwriting and technical instrumental approach at an extraordinarily young age and earned an international fan base in the underground music community . In the review of Decapitated 's debut album , Allmusic said " the band has a seemingly effortless understanding and command of ... their instruments and ... the songwriting is extremely solid ; even in the first listen . " The characteristics of Nihility and Negation are " powerful , blastbeat @-@ filled drumming , dissonant yet memorable guitar riffs , and inventive guitar solos " and substantially high production quality . In the review of The Negation , Metal Hammer states that " Sauron is one of the most capable vocalists on the scene " . With Organic Halucinosis , Decapitated focused on non @-@ traditional death metal aesthetics , more complex songwriting and grooves , and polyrhythmic approach ; Covan contributed more versatile vocals . A notable element of groove is present in Decapitated 's death metal sound , which has been often described as technical death metal .
Decapitated 's releases are some of death metal 's most significant albums of the early 21st century . Winds of Creation was " responsible for re @-@ igniting a stagnating death metal scene " and Organic Hallucinosis proved to be substantially influential in the subsequent development of the genre . According to Kerrang ! , Decapitated have released " classic albums ; ( ... ) that have turned these youthful Poles into one of the genre 's most widely respected bands . Tomas Haake , the drummer of the Swedish band Meshuggah , commented the death of Vitek : " The metal community has lost one of the most talented and skillful drummers of our time ! [ ... ] Vitek was a true talent and drummer genius . "
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Compilation = = =
= = = Demos = = =
= = = Split album = = =
= = = Video album = = =
= = Music videos = =
= Oceanic whitetip shark =
The Oceanic whitetip shark ( Carcharhinus longimanus ) , also known as Brown Milbert 's sand bar shark , Brown shark , Nigano shark , Oceanic white @-@ tipped whaler , and Silvertip shark , is a large pelagic requiem shark inhabiting tropical and warm temperate seas . Its stocky body is most notable for its long , white @-@ tipped , rounded fins .
This aggressive but slow @-@ moving fish dominates feeding frenzies , and is a danger to shipwreck or air crash survivors . Recent studies show steeply declining populations because its large fins are highly valued as the chief ingredient of shark fin soup and , as with other shark species , the whitetip faces mounting fishing pressure throughout its range .
= = Taxonomy = =
The oceanic whitetip shark , or lesser white shark was described in 1831 by naturalist René @-@ Primevère Lesson , who named the shark Carcharhinus maou . It was next described by Cuban Felipe Poey in 1861 as Squalus longimanus . The name Pterolamiops longimanus has also been used . The species epithet longimanus refers to the size of its pectoral fins ( longimanus translates from Latin as " long hands " ) . The oceanic whitetip shark has many common names in English : Brown Milbert 's sand bar shark , brown shark , nigano shark , whitetip whaler , and whitetip shark .
The rules of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature are that in general the first @-@ published description has priority ; therefore the valid scientific name for the oceanic whitetip shark should be Carcharhinus maou . However , Lesson 's name remained forgotten for so long that Carcharhinus longimanus remains widely accepted .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The oceanic whitetip is found globally in deep , open water , with a temperature greater than 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) . It prefers waters between 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) and 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) and tends to withdraw from areas when temperatures fall outside of this . They were once extremely common and widely distributed , and still inhabit a wide band around the globe ; however , recent studies suggest that their numbers have drastically declined . An analysis of the US pelagic longline logbook data between 1992 – 2000 ( covering the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic ) estimated a decline of 70 % over that period .
They are found worldwide between 45 ° north and 43 ° south latitude . In 2004 , an oceanic whitetip was discovered dead on the west coast of Sweden — far beyond what was once considered the northern boundary of its range .
The shark spends most of its time in the upper layer of the ocean — to a depth of 150 metres ( 490 ft ) — and prefers off @-@ shore , deep @-@ ocean areas . According to longline capture data , increasing distance from land correlates to a greater population of sharks . Occasionally it is found close to land , in waters as shallow as 37 metres ( 120 ft ) , mainly around mid @-@ ocean islands such as Hawaii , or in areas where the continental shelf is narrow and there is access to nearby deep water . It is typically solitary , though gatherings have been observed where food is plentiful . Unlike many animals , it does not have a diurnal cycle , and is active both day and night . Its swimming style is slow , with widely spread pectoral fins . Despite their habitual isolation from members of their own species , pilot fish , dolphinfish , and remora may accompany them . In 1988 , Jeremy Stafford @-@ Deitsch reported seeing an individual accompanied by a shortfin pilot whale .
= = Description = =
C. longimanus ' most distinguishing characteristics are its long , wing @-@ like pectoral and dorsal fins . The fins are significantly larger than most other shark species , and are conspicuously rounded . The shark 's nose is rounded and its eyes are circular , with nictitating membranes .
C. longimanus has a ' typical ' , although somewhat flattened requiem shark body , often with a mildly humpbacked aspect . It is bronze , brown , bluish or grey dorsally ( the colour varies by region ) , and white ventrally ( although it may occasionally have a yellow tint ) . The oceanic whitetip shark is a medium @-@ sized requiem shark . The largest specimen ever caught measured 4 m ( 13 ft ) , an exceptionally large size considering few specimens are known to exceed a length of 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . The maximum reported weight is 170 kg ( 370 lb ) . The female is typically larger than the male by 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . Males attain sexual maturity at 1 @.@ 7 to 1 @.@ 9 m ( 5 @.@ 6 to 6 @.@ 2 ft ) and females about 1 @.@ 8 to 2 m ( 5 @.@ 9 to 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . In the Gulf of Mexico in the 1950s , the mean weight of oceanic whitetip sharks was 86 @.@ 4 kg ( 190 lb ) . In the 1990s , the sharks of the species from the same area averaged only 56 @.@ 1 kg ( 124 lb ) .
Most of its fins ( dorsal , pectoral , pelvic , and caudal ) have white tips ( juvenile specimens and some adults may lack these ) . Along with white tips , the fins may be mottled , and in young specimens can have black marks . A saddle @-@ like marking may be apparent between first and second dorsal fins . The shark has several kinds of teeth . Those in the mandible ( lower jaw ) have a thin serrated tip and are relatively small and triangular ( somewhat fang @-@ like ) . There are between 13 and 15 teeth on either side of the symphysis . The teeth in the upper jaw are triangular , but much larger and broader with entirely serrated edges — there are 14 or 15 along each side of the symphysis . The denticles lie flat and typically have between five and seven ridges .
= = Diet = =
C. longimanus feeds mainly on pelagic cephalopods and bony fish . However , its diet can be far more varied and less selective — it is known to eat threadfins , stingrays , sea turtles , birds , gastropods , crustaceans , and mammalian carrion . The bony fish it feeds on include lancetfish , oarfish , barracuda , jacks , dolphinfish , marlin , tuna , and mackerel . Its feeding methods include biting into groups of fish and swimming through schools of tuna with an open mouth . When feeding with other species , it becomes aggressive . Peter Benchley , author of Jaws , observed this shark swimming among pilot whales and eating their faeces .
= = Behaviour = =
The oceanic whitetip is usually solitary and slow @-@ moving , and tends to cruise near the top of the water column , covering vast stretches of empty water scanning for possible food sources . Until the 16th century , sharks were known to mariners as " sea dogs " and the oceanic whitetip , the most common ship @-@ following shark , exhibits dog @-@ like behaviour when its interest is piqued : when attracted to something that appears to be food , its movements become more avid and it will approach cautiously but stubbornly , retreating and maintaining a safe distance if driven off , but ready to rush in if the opportunity presents itself . Oceanic whitetips are not fast swimmers , but they are capable of surprising bursts of speed . Whitetips commonly compete for food with silky sharks , making up for its comparatively leisurely swimming style with aggressive displays .
Groups often form when individuals converge on a food source , whereupon a feeding frenzy may occur . This seems to be triggered not by blood in the water or by bloodlust , but by the species ' highly strung and goal @-@ directed nature ( conserving energy between infrequent feeding opportunities when it is not slowly plying the open ocean ) . The oceanic whitetip is a competitive , opportunistic predator that exploits the resource at hand , rather than avoiding trouble in favour of a possibly easier future meal .
There does not seem to be segregation by sex and size . Whitetips follow schools of tuna or squid , and trail groups of cetaceans such as dolphins and pilot whales , scavenging their prey . Their instinct is to follow baitfish migrations that accompany ocean @-@ going ships . When whaling took place in warm waters , oceanic whitetips were often responsible for much of the damage to floating carcasses .
= = Reproduction = =
Mating season is in early summer in the northwest Atlantic Ocean and southwest Indian Ocean , although females captured in the Pacific have been found with embryos year round , suggesting a longer mating season there . The shark is viviparous — embryos develop in utero and are fed by a placental sac . Its gestation period is one year . Litter sizes vary from one to 15 with the young born at a length of about 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 24 in ) . Sexual maturity is reached at close to 1 @.@ 75 metres ( 69 in ) for males and 2 metres ( 80 in ) for females .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The oceanic whitetip is a commercially important species for its fins , meat , and oil . It is eaten fresh , smoked , dried , and salted and its hide is used for leather . It is subject to fishing pressure throughout virtually its whole range — although it is more often taken as by @-@ catch than by design , since it is drawn to longline bait that is intended for other species .
Famed oceanographic researcher Jacques Cousteau described the oceanic whitetip as " the most dangerous of all sharks " . Despite the greater notoriety of the great white shark and other sharks habitually found nearer the shore , the oceanic whitetip is suspected to be responsible for many fatal shark bites on humans , as a result of predation on survivors of shipwrecks or downed aircraft . Such incidents are not included in common shark @-@ bite indices for the 20th and 21st centuries , and as a result of this , the oceanic whitetip does not have the highest number of recorded incidents ; only 5 recorded bites as of 2009 . In one incident , the torpedoing of USS Indianapolis on 30 July 1945 , oceanic whitetips are believed to be responsible for many of the fatal bites of sailors who survived the initial sinking , though most reportedly died from exposure to the elements rather than from shark bites .
Also during World War II , the Nova Scotia , a steamship carrying approximately 1 @,@ 000 people near South Africa , was sunk by a German submarine . With only 192 survivors , many deaths were attributed to the whitetip .
One particularly infamous oceanic whitetip was implicated in several bites on tourists in the Red Sea near Sharm El Sheikh , Egypt in 2010 , and was featured in a Shark Week episode called " Rogue Sharks " . This oceanic whitetip was recognized individually by the bite mark taken out of its upper tail lobe . Accumulating evidence revealed this shark to have been conditioned to being hand fed . Upon associating the divers with an easy supply of food , it bit the divers and snorkelers where it had seen the fish being kept ; fanny packs the divers carried . This caused the shark to target the divers ' buttock and thigh regions in the hope of obtaining a meal . These 2010 Sharm El Sheikh bites resulted in one death and four injuries to humans . The bites were further worsened by the overfishing in that area of the Red Sea , effectively forcing the shark closer to shore where the bites took place .
Dr. Christopher Neff , a policy analyst at the University of Sydney , argues that terms like " attack " are laden with cultural stigmatization . Instead of the word " attack , " he proposes labeling human @-@ shark interactions , on a scale of extremity , either :
encounters
minor bites
moderate bites
fatal bites
The term " attack " is only appropriate in specific instances where specialists can confirm the predatory nature of the shark @-@ human encounter , which is extremely difficult to do . While many encounters with Oceanic White Tip Sharks appear predatory in nature , without the verification of a scientific community in each instance , it is best to assume the accidental or non @-@ predatory intent of the encounters .
= = Captivity = =
The oceanic whitetip has fared better in captivity than other large sharks of the open ocean , such as the mako and blue shark . Among five recorded captive oceanic whitetips , the three with time records all lived for more than a year in captivity . One of these , a female in Monterey Bay Aquarium 's Outer @-@ Bay exhibit , lived for more than three years during which it grew 0 @.@ 3 m ( 1 ft ) . The two remaining lack a time record , but grew about 0 @.@ 5 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) during their time in captivity . The Monterey Bay oceanic whitetip was featured briefly in the Shark Week special " Sharks Under Glass " .
= = Conservation status = =
In 1969 , Lineaweaver and Backus wrote of the oceanic whitetip : " [ it is ] extraordinarily abundant , perhaps the most abundant large animal , large being over 100 pounds [ 45 kg ] , on the face of the earth " . There was little further population study until 2003 when the numbers were estimated to have dropped by as much as 70 % in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic between 1992 and 2000 . Another study focusing on the Gulf of Mexico , using a mix of data from US pelagic longline surveys from the mid @-@ 1950s and observations from the late @-@ 1990s , estimated a decline in numbers in this location of 99 @.@ 3 % over this period . However , changes in fishing practices and data collection methods complicate estimates .
As a result of these findings its status on the IUCN Red List was moved to " Vulnerable " globally ( from " Lower Risk / Near Threatened " ) and " Critically Endangered " in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic areas .
Under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks ( UNFSA ) , coastal and fishing states are specifically required to adopt measures to conserve listed species , but little progress is visible on the oceanic whitetip .
From 3 January 2013 the shark was fully protected in New Zealand territorial waters under the Wildlife Act 1953 .
In March 2013 , three endangered commercially valuable sharks , the hammerheads , the oceanic whitetip and porbeagle were added to Appendix 2 of CITES , bringing shark fishing and commerce of these species under licensing and regulation .
= Youngstown Ohio Works =
The Youngstown Ohio Works baseball team was a minor league club that was known for winning the premier championship of the Ohio – Pennsylvania League in 1905 , and for launching the professional career of pitcher Roy Castleton a year later . A training ground for several players and officials who later established careers in Major League Baseball , the team proved a formidable regional competitor and also won the 1906 league championship .
During its brief span of activity , the Ohio Works team faced challenges that reflected common difficulties within the Ohio – Pennsylvania League , including weak financial support for teams . Following a dispute over funding , the team 's owners sold the club to outside investors , just a few months before the opening of the 1907 season .
The club 's strong record and regional visibility spurred the growth of amateur and minor league baseball in the Youngstown area , and the community 's minor league teams produced notable players throughout the first half of the 20th century . In the late 1990s , this tradition was rekindled , with the establishment of the Mahoning Valley Scrappers , a minor league team based in neighboring Niles , Ohio .
= = Formation and league championship = =
The Ohio Works team was organized in Youngstown , in 1902 , under the sponsorship of Joseph A. McDonald , superintendent of the Ohio Works of the Carnegie Steel Company . In 1905 , the club joined the Class C Division , Ohio – Pennsylvania League , which was founded that year in Akron , Ohio , by veteran ballplayer Charlie Morton . The league 's Ohio members included clubs from Akron , Barberton , Bucyrus , Canton , Kent , Lima , Massillon , Mount Vernon , Newark , Niles , Steubenville , Washington , Wooster , Youngstown , and Zanesville , while Pennsylvania was initially represented by teams from Braddock , Butler , Homestead , and Sharon . Within the first two weeks of the season , clubs from Lancaster and McKeesport also joined the league . Only eight of the original 21 participating clubs finished the 1905 season , however . These included clubs from Akron , Homestead , Lancaster , Newark , Niles , Sharon , Youngstown , and Zanesville . The name , " Youngstown Ohio Works " , became officially associated with the Youngstown team when it joined the Ohio – Pennsylvania League . From the outset , the Youngstown ball club was managed by ex @-@ major leaguer Marty Hogan , a former outfielder for the Cincinnati Reds and St. Louis Browns .
The team opened the 1905 season with an unexpected 4 – 1 loss to the Canton Protectives , inspiring a local newspaper to comment that the Youngstown team made " as many errors as hits while Canton fielded almost perfectly and hit opportunely " . The Ohio Works club gained steam , however , and began to win games . On May 11 , 1905 , the Youngstown team garnered controversy when The Akron Times @-@ Democrat reported that the Ohio Works ' sponsors provided player salaries that nearly doubled those offered by other clubs in the Ohio – Pennsylvania League . In a report on the outcry in Akron , The Youngstown Daily Vindicator warned that , " if the Youngstown backers keep adding and force the other clubs to add to the salaries , it is a question of only a short time until independent baseball will be an impossibility " . The newspaper article concluded that the large salaries provided by the Ohio Works 's sponsors placed a special burden on teams based in " smaller cities " .
Competition among league participants was intense , and games were often raucous affairs . On July 16 , 1905 , a riot broke out during a contest with a team in neighboring Niles , Ohio . According to a newspaper account , the trouble began when two female fans became involved in a " hair @-@ pulling fight " . At one point , two " well @-@ known men " were arrested for " taking an umbrella from a woman and breaking it after she had been annoying them with it " . Finally , dozens of fans swarmed into the field , where they " pushed around the umpire and interfered with the defensive play of the Youngstown fielders " .
In September 1905 , the Youngstown Ohio Works won the first league championship , though sources disagree on the club 's final record . This confusion may be due to the disorganized nature of the new league , with its sprawling roster of teams . According to the Spalding Guide ( 1906 ) , " The failure to furnish official reports was probably due to the clubs being new to a league " . Baseball researcher Jim Holl summarizes the varied accounts as follows : " The Reach Guide ( 1906 ) credits Youngstown with an 84 – 32 won – lost record where the Spalding Guide of the same year list a 90 – 35 record . The Encyclopedia of Minor League Baseball ( 1993 ) tells a third story , giving Youngstown an 88 – 35 mark " . Despite this uncertainty over the club 's record , its championship status was not in dispute , and the team became popularly known as " the Champs " . This moniker , however , was not officially connected to a Youngstown @-@ based ball club until 1907 , when it became the legal name of the Ohio Works ' local successors .
= = Final season = =
By the outset of the 1906 season , the Ohio – Pennsylvania League had trimmed down to a more manageable eight teams . Departing teams included franchises from Barberton , Braddock , Bucyrus , Butler , Canton , Homestead , Kent , Lima , Massillon , McKeesport , Mount Vernon , Niles , Steubenville , Washington , and Wooster . At the same time , the league attracted new teams from New Castle , Pennsylvania , and Mansfield , Ohio .
The Ohio Works team opened with 16 players , three of whom had been part of the club during the 1905 season . The team 's lineup included William J. Maloney of Bradford , Kentucky ; Will M. Thomas of Morristown , Pennsylvania ; Tommy Thomas of Piqua , Ohio ; Lee Fohl of Allegheny , Pennsylvania ; Louis Schettler of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania ; " Dotty " Freck of Columbus , Ohio ; A. C. McClintock of Columbus ; Roy Castleton of Salt Lake City , Utah ; Lewis Groh of Rochester , New York ; John Kennedy of Youngstown , Charles Crouse of Detroit , Michigan ; Roy Chase of Andover , Ohio ; Forrester J. Dressner of Garrettsville , Pennsylvania ; Harry Schwartz of Cleveland , Ohio ; and Roy Gould of Middlesex , Pennsylvania . Other players associated with the club during the 1906 season were Edward Hilley , Curley Blount , and Charles McCloskey .
The Youngstown club kicked off the 1906 season with an exhibition game against a Cleveland team , emerging as victors in a close contest of 3 – 4 . " Up till the closing minutes it looked like the visiting team , the Cleveland Leaders , would stow the contest away in their bat @-@ bags and leave the field on top " , the Vindicator reported . " The finish was exciting , and 400 fanatics who took chances on pneumonia had a chance to warm up and go home in good spirits . " . The paper stated that , at the top of the first inning , the Cleveland team was leading by one point , when " the Youngstown gentlemen got busy in the most approved style " . According to the Vindicator , Ohio Works player Curley Blount " stepped in front of a slow pitched ball and was sent to third " , while A. C. McClintock " stole second with all hands asleep " . At this point , the paper added , " [ Charles ] McCloskey took another base hit and Blount and McClintock scored " . The Vindicator 's summary of the game called attention to pitcher Roy Castleton , " who struck out all three batters in the tenth and got one in the ninth " . The paper described McClintock and McCloskey ( the " two Macs " ) as the Youngstown club 's " star hitters " .
Early in the season , as the Ohio Works team prepared for a second game with the Zanesville Moguls ( close rivals in the 1905 championship games ) , the club manager , Hogan , spoke confidently on their chances of capturing the league pennant . " If the boys go through the season as they are playing now , we will have no trouble winning out " , he said to a reporter with The Youngstown Daily Vindicator . " Our pitchers are in good condition and are holding the opposing batsmen to few hits . It is the pitching staff that has saved many a game for us . We have no .350 batters on the club , but any man on it is liable to step in and break up a game " . A local newspaper confirmed Hogan 's assessment of the team , observing that only one player , outfielder Will Thomas , had worked up a batting average of .306 . Nevertheless , as Hogan predicted , the team defeated the Moguls , with a final score of 11 – 8 . The game 's highlights included the pitching of " Long John " Kennedy , who kept the Moguls to seven hits , and the batting of Edward Hilley , who " unloosened a drive to middle field that permitted him to go all the way around " .
Hogan 's overall confidence in the club was rewarded . The Youngstown team closed the season with an 84 – 53 record and won its second consecutive Ohio – Pennsylvania League championship . The star of the Ohio Works team was a gangling , left @-@ handed pitcher named Roy Castleton , a Utah native who went on to pitch for the New York Highlanders and Cincinnati Reds . On August 17 , 1906 , Castleton gained national recognition when he pitched a perfect game against rival Akron , shutting them out at 4 – 0 . With Castleton 's assistance , the Youngstown Ohio Works claimed its third consecutive Ohio state pennant , a prize distinct from the league championship .
= = Dissolution = =
In the wake of the Ohio Works ' second league championship , steps were taken to incorporate the club . Sporting Life noted in December 1906 that the team 's backers , Joseph and Thomas McDonald ( superintendent and assistant superintendent , respectively , of the Ohio Works of the Carnegie Steel Company ) were compelled to invite additional investors because of planned ( and costly ) improvements at the steel plant . " The incorporators of the club will be Thomas McDonald , Joseph McDonald , Thomas Carr , Thomas Carter and Marty Hogan " , the paper stated . " Manager Hogan will be given even more control of the team next season than he has had . Heretofore he has had the entire control of the team and transacted most of the business " .
At some point , however , disagreements over funding evidently arose between the McDonald brothers and Hogan . On February 18 , 1907 , the Zanesville Signal reported that Hogan had received permission from " the Messrs. McDonald " ( Joseph and Thomas ) to negotiate a $ 3 @,@ 000 deal for the sale of the team , including its players , to a group of Zanesville investors . The following day , Hogan was quoted as saying , " Youngstown couldn 't or didn 't raise enough money to cover a sparrow 's blanket " . The ball club manager 's evident frustration during this period was reflected in comments published in The Youngstown Daily Vindicator almost a week after the team 's sale . When questioned on his widely publicized decision to resign as manager of the Youngstown club before the opening of the 1907 season , Hogan reportedly said that he had received " the short end of the deal " . No reference was made to the club 's sale .
The former Ohio Works manager was apparently not the only observer to suggest that Joseph McDonald engaged in " unsportsmanlike tactics " . A feature story , that appeared in The Youngstown Daily Vindicator in 1920 , stated that McDonald took deliberate steps in 1907 to replace the Ohio Works team with a more seasoned club from Homestead , Pennsylvania . The new club became known officially as the " Youngstown Champs " . Rumors of McDonald 's supposed strategy apparently angered local baseball fans . According to the 1920 feature article , the Youngstown media highlighted the Champs ' unexpected loss to the amateur Rayen Athletics in 1907 . At this point , however , McDonald 's relationship with the club was less direct . According to Sporting Life , the Youngstown franchise had been " declared forfeit " in early 1907 , on the recommendation of the Akron club ; it was subsequently " awarded " to a recently established baseball company . " This was only a formality to make legal the actions taken by Magnate [ Joseph ] McDonald when they turned over the old franchise to the newly organized company in Youngstown " , the paper reported . In any event , the Youngstown Champs went on to win the Ohio – Pennsylvania League championship .
Meanwhile , former Ohio Works players in Zanesville quickly regained their momentum . In March 1907 , the new club was admitted into the Pennsylvania – Ohio – Maryland League , a Division D league . By the close of the 1907 season , the club had seized the championship of the eight @-@ team P @-@ O @-@ M league . In 1908 , Hogan 's final season as manager , the team was christened as the Zanesville Infants and joined the Central League . Further research is needed to determine the Zanesville Infants ' league ranking at the close of the 1908 season , but available information shows that the team neither won the championship nor placed as a runner @-@ up .
With the exception of a few notable figures , the progress of former Ohio Works players is difficult to track . After leaving the club at the end of the 1906 season , Roy Castleton went on to pitch for the New York Highlanders and Cincinnati Reds . Lee Fohl , another noteworthy alumnus , managed the Cleveland Indians between 1915 and 1919 . Fohl later served as manager of the St. Louis Browns and Boston Red Sox . Although Fohl was often criticized as a manager , sports journalist John J. Ward ( writing in August 1924 ) credited him , to a large extent , for the early successes of the Red Sox , an underdog that briefly challenged the New York Yankees and Washington Senators before slipping to seventh place in the eight @-@ team American League . Former major leaguer Billy Phyle , who played for the Ohio Works team during the 1905 season , went on to the St. Louis Cardinals in 1906 . A fourth ex @-@ team member , Louis Schettler , played for the Philadelphia Phillies during the 1910 season . Schettler ( a Pittsburgh native ) eventually settled in Youngstown , where he died in 1960 .
Much is known about the subsequent career of the team 's ex @-@ manager . In 1909 , Marty Hogan moved to Lancaster , Pennsylvania , where he signed future Hall of Fame pitcher Stan Coveleski to his first professional contract . In 1909 , the Lancaster Red Roses worked up a 75 @-@ 39 record , seizing the championship of the Tri @-@ State League . As Spalding 's Baseball Guide ( 1910 ) reported : " Lancaster , under manager Marty Hogan , won its first pennant in the league , and the top rung of the ladder was only gained by the hardest kind of fighting " . Hogan went on to manage clubs in Zanesville and Fond du Lac , Wisconsin . In 1913 , during a stint in Zanesville , the manager signed pitcher Sam Jones to his first professional contract . In the mid @-@ 1910s , Hogan permanently resettled in Youngstown , where he died in 1923 , several months after being injured in an automobile accident .
= = Legacy = =
The Youngstown Ohio Works team not only gave several members a " shot " at the major leagues , but it also played an indirect role in launching the career of Hall of Fame umpire Billy Evans . On September 1 , 1903 , Evans , a reporter at The Youngstown Daily Vindicator , was assigned to cover a game between the Ohio Works and the Homestead Library Athletic Club that was held in Youngstown . Evans took his first step toward a legendary career when club manager Hogan offered him $ 15 to fill an umpire vacancy . ( In 1905 , Evans received a major career boost from Youngstown native Jimmy McAleer , who recommended Evans to the American League . )
The story of the Ohio Works team proved to be an early chapter in Youngstown 's long history of amateur and minor league baseball . In the 1930s and 1940s , the city was a frequent host of the National Amateur Baseball Federation ( NABF ) championship . NABF officials praised the community for the condition of its sandlot baseball diamonds , which they rated as among the best in the country . During the first half of the 20th century , Youngstown @-@ based teams provided experience and exposure to future major league players such as Everett Scott , Floyd Baker , and Johnny Kucab . Today , the Youngstown – Warren area is home base to the Mahoning Valley Scrappers , a minor league team that competes in the Class A New York – Penn League .
= M @-@ 74 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 74 was the designation of a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The highway ran through rural Missaukee County connecting Pioneer with Merritt . The highway was designated by 1919 along a longer route . It was shortened before it was totally removed from the highway system in the late 1930s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 74 started at a junction with M @-@ 66 near the community of Pioneer . It ran east on Moorestown Road through Stittsville to Moorestown before turning south on Nelson Road . There it ran through the community of Star City , turning west briefly on Walker Road and running south on Star City Road before terminating at a junction with M @-@ 55 west of Merritt . All of M @-@ 74 was a gravel highway .
= = History = =
On July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 74 ran between Pioneer and M @-@ 55 west of Merritt . There it turned east running concurrently with M @-@ 55 to Merritt where it turned south to Moddersville and terminated . The spur south of Merrit remained a state highway through at least late 1938 . Late that year or early the next , the roadway between Merritt and Moddersville was turned back to local control and removed from the highway system . By late 1939 , the entire highway was decommissioned in its entirety . The highway designation has not been used since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Missaukee County .
= Dutch pacification campaign on Formosa =
The Dutch Pacification Campaign on Formosa was a series of military actions and diplomatic moves undertaken in 1635 and 1636 by Dutch colonial authorities in Dutch @-@ era Taiwan ( Formosa ) aimed at subduing hostile aboriginal villages in the southwestern region of the island . Prior to the campaign the Dutch had been in Formosa for eleven years , but did not control much of the island beyond their principal fortress at Tayouan , and an alliance with the town of Sinkan . The other aboriginal villages in the area conducted numerous attacks on the Dutch and their allies , with the chief belligerents being the village of Mattau , who in 1629 ambushed and slaughtered a group of sixty Dutch soldiers .
After receiving reinforcements from the colonial headquarters at Batavia , the Dutch launched an attack in 1635 and were able to crush opposition and bring the area around present @-@ day Tainan fully under their control . After seeing Mattau and Soulang , the most powerful villages in the area , defeated so comprehensively , many other villages in the surrounding area came to the Dutch to seek peace and surrender sovereignty . Thus the Dutch were able to dramatically expand the extent of their territorial control in a short time , and avoid the need for further fighting . The campaign ended in February 1636 , when representatives from twenty @-@ eight villages attended a ceremony in Tayouan to cement Dutch sovereignty .
Solidifying the southwest under their rule , the Dutch were able to expand their operations from the limited entrepôt trading carried out by the colony prior to 1635 . The expanded territory allowed access to the deer trade , which later became very lucrative , and guaranteed security in food supplies . It provided fertile land , which the Dutch used imported Chinese labour to farm . The aboriginal villages also provided warriors to aid the Dutch in times of trouble , notably in the Lamey Island Massacre of 1636 , the Dutch defeat of the Spanish in 1642 and the Guo Huaiyi Rebellion in 1652 . The allied villages also provided opportunities for Dutch missionaries to spread their faith . The pacification campaign is considered the foundation stone on which the later success of the colony was built .
= = Background = =
The Dutch East India Company ( VOC ) arrived in southern Formosa in 1624 and , after building their stronghold of Fort Zeelandia on the peninsula of Tayouan , began to sound out local villages as to the possibility of forming alliances . Although initially the intention was to run the colony solely as an entrepôt ( a trading port ) , the Dutch later decided that they needed control over the hinterland to provide some security . Additionally , a large percentage of supplies for the Dutch colonists had to be shipped from Batavia at great expense and irregular intervals , and the government of the fledgling colony was keen to source foodstuffs and other supplies locally . The Company decided to ally with the closest village , the relatively small Sinkan , who were able to supply them firewood , venison and fish . However , relations with the other villages were not so friendly . The aboriginal settlements of the area were involved in more or less constant low @-@ level warfare with each other ( head @-@ hunting raids and looting of property ) , and an alliance with Sinkan put the Dutch at odds with the foes of that village . In 1625 the Dutch bought a piece of land from the Sinkaners for the sum of fifteen cangans ( a kind of cloth ) , where they then built the town of Sakam for Dutch and Chinese merchants .
Initially other villages in the area , chiefly Mattau , Soulang and Bakloan , also professed their desire to live in peace with the Dutch . The villages saw that it was in their interest to maintain good relations with the newcomers , but this belief was weakened by a series of incidents between 1625 and 1629 . The earliest of these was a Dutch attack on Chinese pirates in the bay of Wancan , not far from Mattau , in 1625 . The pirates were able to drive off the Dutch soldiers , causing the Dutch to lose face among the Formosan villages . Encouraged by this Dutch failure , warriors from Mattau raided Sinkan , believing the Dutch too weak to defend their Formosan friends . At this point , the Dutch returned to Wancan and this time were able to rout the pirates , restoring their reputation . Mattau was then forced by the colonials to return the property stolen from Sinkan and make reparations in the form of two pigs . The peace was short @-@ lived , however , because in November 1626 the villagers of Sinkan attacked Mattau and Bakloan , before going to the Dutch to ask for protection from retribution . Although the Dutch were able to force Sinkan 's enemies to back down in this case , in later incidents they proved incapable of fully protecting their Formosan allies .
Frustrated by the inability of the Dutch to protect them , the Sinkan villagers turned to Japanese traders , who were not on friendly terms with the VOC . In 1627 a delegation from the village visited Japan in order to ask for Japanese protection and to offer sovereignty to the Japanese Shōgun Tokugawa Iemitsu . The Shōgun refused them an audience , but on their return to Formosa the Sinkan villagers , along with their erstwhile foes from Mattau , Bakloan and Soulang , went to Governor Nuyts to demand that the company pay an annual tribute to the villages for operating on their land . The Governor refused . Soon after , the Japanese isolationist policy of sakoku removed Japanese support for the Formosans , leaving Sinkan once more at the mercy of its rivals , prompting missionary George Candidius to write that " this village Sinkan has been until now under Dutch protection , and without this protection it would not stand for even a month . " In 1629 however the Dutch were unable to defend either themselves or their allies . Governor Nuyts went to Mattau on an official ( friendly ) visit with a guard of sixty musketeers , who were fêted on their arrival . After leaving the village the next morning , the musketeers were ambushed while crossing a stream and slaughtered to a man , by warriors of both Mattau and Soulang . The Governor had a lucky escape as he had returned to Fort Zeelandia the previous evening .
Shortly after the massacre Governor Nuyts was recalled by the VOC governor @-@ general in Batavia for various offences , including responsibility for the souring of relations with the Japanese . Hans Putmans replaced Nuyts as governor , and immediately wanted to attack the ringleaders in Mattau , but the village was judged too strong to assault directly . Therefore , the Dutch moved against the weaker Bakloan , who they believed sheltered proponents of the massacre , setting out on 23 November 1629 , and returning later that day " having killed many people and burned most of the village . " The Bakloan villagers sued for peace , and Mattau too signed a nine @-@ month peace accord with the company . However , in the years that followed , the Mattau , Bakloan and Soulang villagers continued a concerted campaign to harass employees of the company , particularly those who were rebuilding structures destroyed by the Mattauers in Sakam . The situation showed no signs of improvement for the Dutch , until relations between Mattau and Soulang soured in late 1633 and early 1634 . The two villages went to war in May 1634 , and although Mattau won the fight , the company was happy to see divisions among the villages which it felt it could exploit .
= = Dutch retaliation = =
Although both Governor Nuyts and subsequently Governor Putmans wanted to move against Mattau , the garrison at Fort Zeelandia numbered only 400 , of which 210 were soldiers – not enough to undertake a major campaign without leaving the Dutch fortress guard under @-@ strength . After persistent unheeded requests from the two governors , in 1635 Batavia finally sent a force of 475 soldiers to Taiwan , to " avenge the murder of the expeditionary force against Mattau in 1629 , to increase the prestige of the Company , and to obtain the respect and authority , necessary for the protection of the Chinese who had come all the way from China , to cultivate the land . "
By this stage , relations with the other villages had also deteriorated to the extent that even Sinkan , previously thought to be tightly bound to the Dutch , was plotting rebellion . The missionary Robert Junius , who lived among the natives , wrote that " rebels in Sinkan have conspired against our state . . . and [ are planning ] to murder and beat to death the missionaries and soldiers in Sinkan . " The governor in Tayouan moved quickly to quell the uprising , sending eighty soldiers to the village and arresting some of the key conspirators . With potential disaster averted in Sinkan , the Dutch were further encouraged by the news that Mattau and Soulang , their principal enemies , were being ravaged by smallpox , whereas Sinkan , now back under Dutch control , was spared the disease - this being viewed as a divine sign that the Dutch were righteous .
On 22 November 1635 , the newly arrived forces set out for Bakloan , headed by Governor Putmans . Junius joined him with a group of native warriors from Sinkan , who had been persuaded to take part by the clergyman in order to further good relations between themselves and the VOC . The plan was initially to rest there for the night , before attacking Mattau the next morning , but the Dutch forces received word that the Mattau villagers had learned of their approach and planned to flee . They therefore decided to press on and attack that evening , succeeding in surprising the Mattau warriors and subduing the village without a fight . The Dutch summarily executed 26 men of the village , before setting fire to the houses and returning to Bakloan .
On the way back to Fort Zeelandia , the troops stopped in Bakloan , Sinkan and Sakam , at each step warning the chiefs of the village of the price of angering the VOC , and obtaining guarantees of friendly conduct in the future . The village of Soulang sent two representatives to the Dutch while they were resting in Sinkan , offering a spear and a hatchet as a symbol that they would ally their forces to the Dutch . Also present with offers of friendship were men from Tevorang , a collection of three villages in the hills previously outside Dutch influence . Finally two chiefs from Mattau arrived , kow @-@ towing to the Dutch officials and wishing to sue for peace .
The aborigines signalled their surrender by sending a few of their best weapons to the Dutch , and then by bringing a small tree ( often betel nut ) planted in earth from their village as a token of the granting of sovereignty to the VOC . Over the next few months as word of the Dutch victory spread , more and more villages came to pay their respects at Fort Zeelandia and assure the VOC of their friendly intentions . However , the new masters of Mattau also inherited their enemies , with both Favorlang and Tirosen expressing hostility towards the VOC in the wake of their victory .
After the victory over Mattau the governor decided to make use of the soldiers to cow other recalcitrant villages , starting with Taccariang , who had previously killed both VOC employees and Sinkan villagers . The villagers first fought with the Sinkanders who were acting as a vanguard , but on receiving a volley from the Dutch musketeers the Taccariang warriors turned and fled . The VOC forces entered the village unopposed , and burnt it to the ground . From Taccariang they moved on to Soulang , where they arrested warriors who had participated in the 1629 massacre of sixty Dutch soldiers and torched their houses . The last stop on the campaign trail was Tevorang , which had previously sheltered wanted men from other villages . This time the governor decided to use diplomacy , offering gifts and assurances of friendship , with the consequences of resistance left implicit . The Tevorangans took the hint , and offered no opposition to Dutch rule .
= = Pax Hollandica = =
On hearing of the Dutch show of force , aboriginal tribes from further afield decided to submit to Dutch rule , either through fear of Dutch military might or hope that such an alliance would prove beneficial to the tribe . Representatives came from Pangsoia ( Pangsoya ; modern @-@ day Linbian , Pingtung ) , 100 km to the south , to ally themselves with the VOC . The Dutch decided to hold a landdag ( a grand convention ) to welcome all the villages into the fold and impress them with Dutch largesse and power . This duly took place on 22 February 1636 , with 28 villages represented from southern and central Formosa . The governor presented the attendees with robes and staffs of state to symbolise their position , and Robert Junius wrote that " it was delightful to see the friendliness of these people when they met for the first time , to notice how they kissed each other and gazed at one another . Such a thing had never before been witnessed in this country , as one tribe was nearly always waging war against another . "
The net effect of the Dutch campaign was a pax Hollandica ( Dutch peace ) , assuring VOC control in the southwest of the island . The Dutch called their new area of control the Verenigde Dorpen ( United Villages ) , a deliberate allusion to the United Provinces of their homeland . The campaign was vital to the success and growth of the Dutch colony , which had operated as more of a trading post than a true colony until that point .
= = Other pacification campaigns = =
Multiple Aboriginal villages rebelled against the Dutch in the 1650s due to oppression like when the Dutch ordered aboriginal women for sex , deer pelts , and rice be given to them from aborigines in the Taipei basin in Wu @-@ lao @-@ wan village which sparked a rebellion in December 1652 at the same time as the Chinese rebellion . Two Dutch translators were beheaded by the Wu @-@ lao @-@ wan aborigines and in a subsequent fight 30 aboriginals and another two Dutch people died , after an embargo of salt and iron on Wu @-@ lao @-@ wan the aboriginals were forced to sue for peace in February 1653 .
= Brian Eaton =
Air Vice Marshal Brian Alexander Eaton , CB , CBE , DSO & Bar , DFC ( 15 December 1916 – 17 October 1992 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Born in Tasmania and raised in Victoria , he joined the RAAF in 1936 and was promoted to flight lieutenant on the outbreak of World War II . He held training positions before being posted to No. 3 Squadron at the beginning of 1943 , flying P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighter @-@ bombers in North Africa . Despite being shot down three times within ten days soon after arriving , Eaton quickly rose to become the unit 's commanding officer , and by year 's end had been awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross . His leadership earned him the Distinguished Service Order and Bar in 1944 – 45 , and command of No. 239 Wing RAF in Italy , with the temporary rank of group captain . He was also awarded the US Silver Star in 1946 in recognition of his war service .
In the decade following World War II , Eaton led No. 81 Wing in Japan , and No. 78 Wing in Malta . He commanded RAAF Base Williamtown from 1957 to 1959 , after which he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire . As Director @-@ General of Operational Requirements in 1965 , Eaton argued for increased RAAF co @-@ operation with the Australian Army in light of growing involvement in the Vietnam War . He was promoted to air vice marshal the next year , and became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff . Posted to Singapore as Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) No. 224 Group RAF in 1967 , he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath for his work as chief of staff at Headquarters RAF Far East Air Force in 1969 . He then served as Air Member for Personnel , before being selected as AOC Operational Command in 1973 . Eaton retired from the RAAF in December that year , and became an executive for Rolls @-@ Royce in Canberra . He died in 1992 at the age of 75 .
= = Early career = =
Brian Eaton was born in Launceston , Tasmania , on 15 December 1916 , to Sydney and Hilda Eaton . The family later moved to Canterbury , Victoria , and Brian was educated at Carey Grammar . His early ambition to be a doctor was curtailed when his father died and he had to leave school early . He enlisted as an air cadet in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) on 20 January 1936 , undergoing flying training at RAAF Station Point Cook .
Eaton was commissioned as a pilot officer upon graduation from flying school in January 1937 , and posted to No. 1 Squadron . Within six months he was promoted to flying officer and joined No. 21 Squadron at RAAF Station Laverton . In 1938 , he became an instructor at Point Cook 's No. 1 Flying Training School , where he also took part in the RAAF 's early long navigation exercises . He was promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 September 1939 .
= = World War II = =
= = = Early war service = = =
In April 1940 , Eaton was assigned to the newly re @-@ formed Central Flying School at Camden , New South Wales , as an instructor . Promoted to temporary squadron leader in September 1940 , he was transferred to the Directorate of Training in June 1941 . He became a fighter controller at No. 5 Fighter Sector Headquarters , Darwin , Northern Territory , in March 1942 . In October that year , he departed Australia for North Africa via India and the United Kingdom , fearful that the fighting would be over before he arrived . He posted in to No. 1 Middle East Training School in January 1943 prior to taking up duties with No. 3 Squadron RAAF , which was then engaged in the Battle of Tunisia .
Eaton 's combat career began inauspiciously , when he was shot down three times in the space of ten days . On the first occasion , his P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk was hit by 20 mm cannon shells from an enemy fighter that he never saw . He later recalled , " I was too busy getting the kite down to be frightened . But my God was I surprised . " Eaton brought his crippled aircraft in for a forced landing at El Hamma — in the midst of a tank battle between German and New Zealand forces . After the fighting had died down he made his way over to the New Zealanders , who gave him a lift back to his air base . The second time he was shot down , his plane was struck by 88 mm anti @-@ aircraft fire , necessitating another crash landing , this time behind enemy lines . Sympathetic Arab tribesmen smuggled him past the Germans and back to his airfield . Two days later , his P @-@ 40 was hit by fire from an Me 109 that dived at him from out of the sun . He was able to glide back to base , 80 miles ( 130 km ) away , but on arriving found that it was under attack by German bombers . He decided he had no other option than to land the damaged plane among the exploding bombs , and managed to do so without mishap . His series of narrow escapes engendered a spirit of fatalism , and a habit of keeping his emotions severely in check while on duty : " I just couldn 't see myself living when so many were dying . It was something which , at the time , didn 't bear much dwelling on . "
= = = Squadron and wing command = = =
Despite his early setbacks in combat , Eaton soon rose to command No. 3 Squadron , taking over from Squadron Leader Bobby Gibbes on 21 April 1943 . He led the unit as it relocated to Malta the following month , in preparation for the Allied invasion of Sicily . Illness forced him to hand over command in June – July , but he returned to take charge of the squadron in August as it continued to fly escort and interdiction missions in Sicily with other units of No. 239 Wing RAF . His brother Roger , a flight sergeant serving with the RAF , was killed in a Wellington bomber raid during the campaign . On 3 September , No. 3 Squadron took part in the opening day of the Allied invasion of Italy , supporting the British XIII Corps as it moved inland after landing at Calabria . Enemy air resistance remained light and worthwhile ground targets few as the campaign progressed but , on 24 October , Eaton led an attack against German shipping off the Yugoslav coast that left a merchant ship and two barges on fire . He repeated the exercise on 7 November , when the squadron scored hits on vessels in two separate raids in the harbour at Split . On 19 November , when the rest of No. 239 Wing was unable to complete any missions due to adverse weather , Eaton found a hole in the clouds and led eight Kittyhawks in a successful attack on Opi in central Italy . He was promoted to temporary wing commander on 1 December . On 14 December , he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for pressing home a night attack on Axis armour at Termoli . The citation was promulgated in the London Gazette :
One evening in October , 1943 , this officer led his squadron in an attack on a strong enemy force , equipped with tanks , which were attacking our troops near Termoli . In spite of intense antiaircraft fire , Squadron Leader Eaton led his formation in at a low level and pressed home an attack which completely disrupted the enemy 's forces . In this spirited action , Squadron Leader Eaton displayed inspiring leadership , great courage and tenacity .
On 16 February 1944 , the day after the contentious destruction of Monte Cassino , Eaton took No. 3 Squadron through a break in the bad weather to attack the ruined monastery , the only one of No. 239 Wing 's units to successfully bomb its target that day . He handed over command of No. 3 Squadron later that month , and was transferred to No. 1 Mobile Operations Room Unit as forward air controller for the final assault on Monte Cassino . The run of luck that Eaton experienced in his first weeks of air combat in Tunisia continued on the ground in Italy . He survived three months of constant artillery fire , including an occasion when a shell exploded directly above his observation post , striking down a British officer standing next to him . He also came under machine @-@ gun fire when he took a wrong turn one day and drove into the German lines , but again escaped unhurt . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order on 7 April , in recognition of his leadership of No. 3 Squadron in North Africa , Malta , Sicily and Italy .
Raised to acting group captain , Eaton was given command of No. 239 Wing on 3 August 1944 , taking responsibility for No. 3 Squadron and No. 450 Squadron RAAF , No. 112 Squadron and No. 260 Squadron RAF , No. 5 Squadron of the South African Air Force , and No. 250 Squadron of the Royal Rhodesian Air Force . Credited with leading " many outstanding raids " , he was known to his staff as " The Boss " , and often flew twice a day with a different squadron on each mission ; when his superiors found out how many sorties he was personally undertaking and ordered him to cut back , he simply ceased recording his flying hours . The wing 's two RAF squadrons had already re @-@ equipped with P @-@ 51 Mustangs when Eaton took over ; No. 5 converted in September and No. 3 in November . As well as supporting the Eighth Army in Italy , the Mustang units carried out missions in Yugoslavia in concert with the Balkan Air Force , prior to Axis forces surrendering on 2 May .
Eaton was unofficially credited with shooting down as many as seven enemy aircraft during the Mediterranean campaigns , but was never listed among Australian flying aces . Many of the missions that he undertook with No. 3 Squadron and in command of No. 239 Wing were ground attack or anti @-@ shipping sorties , rather than air @-@ to @-@ air combat . He was also known as a leader who , when opportunities did arise to engage other aircraft , would attempt to manoeuvre his rookie pilots into position to make a " kill " , rather than take the shot himself . On 12 June , he was awarded a Bar to his Distinguished Service Order for " Outstanding skill and leadership against heavy odds " . His war service also earned him the US Silver Star , permission to wear it being gazetted on 14 June 1946 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = Rise to senior command = = =
Eaton was posted to Britain following the end of World War II , and attended RAF Staff College the next year . In September 1947 , he was appointed Officer Commanding No. 81 ( Fighter ) Wing in Japan , as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) . The Australian contingent initially comprised three combat units , Nos. 76 , 77 and 82 Squadrons , as well as No. 381 ( Base ) Squadron , No. 481 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , No. 111 Mobile Fighter Control Unit , and No. 5 Airfield Construction Squadron . By mid @-@ 1949 , it had been reduced to No. 77 Squadron alone , and Headquarters BCOF had been disbanded ; Eaton served as " RAAF Component " commander for the remainder of his tenure in Japan . As well as surveillance patrols , training and inter @-@ service exercises , the Australian airmen took part in ceremonial flypasts . On one such occasion , over Tokyo , Eaton led his formation of thirty Mustangs into cloud with a faulty artificial horizon in his plane , with the result that he and his comrades , who were following his lead , became badly disorientated and were fortunate to avoid collision ; RAAF historian Alan Stephens considered this a not @-@ atypical example of the casual attitude to flying safety exhibited at the time by the veteran pilots of World War II .
Returning to Australia in November 1949 , Eaton became Deputy Director of Training at the Department of Air , Canberra , where he remained until 1951 . Later that year , he was appointed Officer Commanding No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales . He had reverted to a substantive rank of wing commander since leaving Japan , as the RAAF shrank dramatically with demobilisation and many senior officers lost the temporary or acting ranks they had gained in wartime . On 15 September , he landed a Vampire jet fighter at Point Cook with one flat tyre and one wheel retracted , after its undercarriage had become jammed . The plane skidded off the runway but Eaton was able to walk away , reportedly remarking " Well , I didn 't wreck it " . He married Josephine Rumbles at Toorak Presbyterian Church in Melbourne on 10 May 1952 ; the couple later had a son and two daughters . Following Britain 's request to the Australian government for a Commonwealth garrison in the Mediterranean , in July 1952 Eaton led No. 78 Wing on deployment to RAF Hal Far near Valletta , Malta , where its combat squadrons , Nos. 75 and 76 , were equipped with leased Vampire FB9s . As the overseas posting was for a minimum of two years , his new bride and the families of other staff were permitted to make the journey as well . The Australian airmen participated in many NATO exercises while stationed at Malta , and one year took first and second place in the Middle Eastern Gunnery Contest for the " Imshi " Mason Cup . Promoted to the substantive rank of group captain on 1 January 1953 , Eaton was granted command of RAF Ta 'Kali when the wing transferred there from Hal Far in June .
Completing his tour with No. 78 Wing in mid @-@ 1954 , Eaton joined Air Vice Marshal Alister Murdoch on an international mission to examine potential new fighter , bomber , transport and training aircraft for the RAAF . The team 's report advocated the F @-@ 104 Starfighter as a replacement for the CAC Sabre , as well as nuclear @-@ capable British V @-@ bomber strike aircraft to augment Australia 's Canberra bombers , and C @-@ 130 Hercules transports to replace the C @-@ 47 Dakota . While the proposals for V @-@ bombers and the F @-@ 104 were not taken up , the Australian Government acquired the C @-@ 130 in 1958 . Described as second only to the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C as the " most significant " purchase by the RAAF , the Hercules gave the Air Force its first strategic airlift capability , which in years to come would provide a " lifeline " to Australian forces deployed to Malaya , Vietnam , and other parts of the South @-@ West Pacific . The mission also recommended the locally built Vampire T35 as a jet trainer for No. 1 Applied Flying Training School ; sixty @-@ nine were later delivered by the de Havilland factory in Bankstown , New South Wales . Eaton served as RAAF Director of Operations during 1955 – 56 , and as Officer Commanding RAAF Base Williamtown and Commandant of the co @-@ located School of Land @-@ Air Warfare from March 1957 until February 1959 . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1959 Queen 's Birthday Honours .
Following his tour at Williamtown , Eaton spent two years as Director of Joint Services Plans before attending the Imperial Defence College , London in 1961 . Raised to air commodore , he was appointed Director @-@ General Operational Requirements in 1962 . Concurrently he became an Honorary Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp to Queen Elizabeth II , in which capacity he served until 1965 . As the Army reorganised to deal with Australia 's increasing commitments to the Vietnam War in the mid @-@ 1960s , it sought to procure a dozen twin @-@ engined aircraft of a size hitherto only operated by the RAAF , and also proposed a joint review of close air support . RAAF senior command chose to deal with the Army 's proposals by ignoring them . As Director @-@ General of Operational Requirements , Eaton argued that if the RAAF did not more fully satisfy the ground support requirements of the Army , then the Army itself would seek to take control of this sphere of operations , undermining the RAAF 's position as the main provider of Australia 's air power . Pointing out to the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Murdoch , that it was " clearly the Army 's intention to have complete command and control " of air @-@ to @-@ ground assets , he warned of a parallel situation in America , where the US Army was looking to take over all battlefield air support in response to the USAF failing to keep up to date in the provision of basic attack aircraft . The RAAF 's refusal to adequately deal with its ground support responsibilities led to long @-@ running inter @-@ service enmity , and contributed to the Australian government 's decision twenty years later to transfer control of battlefield helicopters to the Army . At this time , Eaton also led the acquisition team that selected the Macchi MB @-@ 326 as the RAAF 's new jet trainer , as it met all requirements , could be licence @-@ built in Australia , and was relatively inexpensive . The first of ninety @-@ seven was delivered by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation in 1967 .
= = = Senior command and retirement = = =
Promoted to air vice marshal , Eaton became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1966 . In December that year , with Australian Caribou transports and Iroquois helicopters already serving in Vietnam , Eaton advocated building up the RAAF 's " sharp end " there , increasing air support for ground troops . He preferred deploying Sabre or Mirage fighters rather than the mooted Canberra bombers , which he saw as more suitable for a strategic role . Above all , he accepted the " domino theory " and believed that if Australia did not aid South Vietnam , " we 'd lose the lot " . In the event , Canberras were despatched rather than fighters . In 1967 , Eaton became the last AOC of No. 224 Group RAF under the British Far East Air Force ( FEAF ) in Singapore , as permanent squadrons were dropped from its strength . This reorganisation led to him taking over as chief of staff at Headquarters FEAF the following year . In this capacity , he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) in the 1969 Queen 's Birthday Honours .
Returning to Australia , Eaton became Air Member for Personnel ( AMP ) in October 1969 . As AMP , he sat on the Air Board , the RAAF 's controlling body , which consisted of its most senior officers and was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff . In January 1973 , he succeeded to the post of AOC Operational Command ( now Air Command ) . He served in this position until retirement , his tenure witnessing the introduction of the F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber to service in Australia , when the first machines touched down at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , in July . Leaving the military on 15 December 1973 , Eaton became Regional Executive for Rolls Royce Australia in Canberra . He remained with the company for the next decade , continuing to live in Canberra until his death on 17 October 1
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@ necked cashmere sweater and tailored skirt . In 1962 , Sutcliffe collapsed in the middle of an art class in Hamburg . He was suffering from intense headaches , and Kirchherr 's mother had German doctors perform various checks on him , although they were unable to determine exactly what was causing the headaches . While living at the Kirchherrs ' house in Hamburg his condition got worse . On 10 April 1962 , Kirchherr 's mother phoned her daughter at work and told her Sutcliffe was not feeling well , had been brought back to the house , and an ambulance had been called for . Kirchherr rushed home and rode with Sutcliffe in the ambulance , but he died in her arms before it reached the hospital .
Three days later Kirchherr met Lennon , McCartney and Best at the Hamburg airport ( they were returning to Hamburg to perform ) and told them Sutcliffe had died of a brain haemorrhage . Harrison and manager Brian Epstein arrived on another plane sometime later with Sutcliffe 's mother , who had been informed by telegram . Harrison and Lennon were helpful towards the distraught Kirchherr , with Lennon telling her one day that she definitely had to decide if she wanted to " Live or die , there is no other question . "
= = Freelance photographer = =
In 1964 , Kirchherr became a freelance photographer , and with her colleague Max Scheler she took " behind the scenes " photographs of the Beatles during the filming of A Hard Day 's Night , as an assignment for the German Stern magazine . Epstein had forbidden any publicity photographs to be taken without his permission , but Kirchherr phoned Harrison , who said he would arrange it , but added , " Only if they pay you . "
Stern phoned Bill Harry at his Mersey Beat newspaper and asked if he could arrange a photograph of all the groups in Liverpool , so Harry suggested Kirchherr be the photographer , although Kirchherr later said she placed an advertisement in the Liverpool Echo newspaper . Kirchherr and Scheler said that any group who wanted their photograph taken in front of St. George 's Hall would be paid £ 1 per musician , but over 200 groups turned up on the day , which meant Kirchherr and Scheler soon ran out of money . Kirchherr didn 't publish the photographs until 1995 , in a book called Liverpool Days , which is a limited @-@ edition collection of black @-@ and @-@ white photographs . In 1999 , a companion book called Hamburg Days was published ( a two @-@ volume limited edition ) , containing a set of photographs by Kirchherr and " memory drawings " by Voormann . The drawings are recollections of places and situations that Voormann clearly remembers , but Kirchherr had never photographed , or had lost the photographs .
Kirchherr described how difficult it was to be accepted as a female photographer in the 1960s : " Every magazine and newspaper wanted me to photograph the Beatles again . Or they wanted my old stuff , even if it was out of focus , whether they were nice or not . They wouldn 't look at my other work . It was very hard for a girl photographer in the 60s to be accepted . In the end I gave up . I 've hardly taken a photo since 1967 . " Kirchherr was quoted as saying that When We Was Fab ( Genesis Publications 2007 ) , would be her last book of photographs : " I have decided it is time to create one book in which I am totally involved so that it contains the pictures I like most , printed the way I would print them , even down to the text and design .... This book is me and that is why it will be the last one . The very last one . "
Kirchherr has expressed respect for other photographers , such as Annie Leibovitz ( because of the humour in her work ) , Irving Penn , Richard Avedon , Jim Rakete and Reinhard Wolf ( German Wikipedia ) , and French film @-@ makers François Truffaut , and Jean Cocteau . Kirchherr said that her favourite photos are the ones she took of Sutcliffe by the Baltic sea , and of Lennon and Harrison in her attic room at 45a Eimsbütteler Strasse . She has expressed reservations about digital photography , saying that a photographer should concentrate on the art of photography and not on the technical results , although admitting that she knows nothing about computers and is " afraid of the internet " .
Kirchherr admits that she is not good at business as she is not organised enough , and has never really looked after the negatives of her photographs to prove ownership . Her business partner Ulf Krüger — a songwriter and record producer — successfully found many of Astrid 's negatives and photographs and had them copyrighted , although he believes that Kirchherr has lost £ 500 @,@ 000 over the years because of people using her photographs without permission . In July 2001 Kirchherr visited Liverpool to open an exhibition of her work at the Mathew Street art gallery , which is close to the former site of The Cavern Club . She appeared as a guest at the city 's Beatles Week Festival during the August Bank Holiday . Kirchherr 's work has been exhibited internationally in places , such as Hamburg , Bremen , London , Liverpool , New York City , Washington D.C. , Tokyo , Vienna , and at the Rock ' n ' Roll Hall of Fame .
= = Later life to present = =
In 1967 , Kirchherr married English drummer Gibson Kemp ( born Gibson Stewart Kemp , 1945 , Liverpool , Lancashire ) , who had replaced Ringo Starr in Rory Storm and the Hurricanes . The marriage ended in divorce after seven years . She then worked as a barmaid , as an interior designer , and then for a music publishing firm , getting married for a second time to a German businessman . Kirchherr worked as an advisor in 1994 on the film Backbeat , which portrayed Kirchherr , Sutcliffe and the Beatles during their early days in Hamburg . She was impressed with Stephen Dorff ( who played Sutcliffe in the film ) , commenting that he was the right age ( 19 years old at the time ) , and his gestures , the way he smoked , and talked were so like Sutcliffe 's that she had goose pimples . Kirchherr was portrayed in the film by actress Sheryl Lee .
Since the mid @-@ 1990s Kirchherr and business partner Krüger have operated the K & K photography shop in Hamburg , offering custom vintage prints , books and artwork for sale . K & K periodically helps arrange Beatles ' conventions and other Beatles ' events in the Hamburg area . She has no children , and now lives alone : " " My [ second ] marriage ended in 1985 ... I regretted I had no children . I just couldn 't see me have [ sic ] any . But now I am pleased when I see the situation the world is in . I live alone and am very happy . "
= Morya Gosavi =
Morya Gosavi or Moraya Gosavi ( Morayā Gosāvi ) alias Moroba Gosavi was a prominent saint of the Hindu Ganapatya sect , which considers the elephant @-@ faced god Ganesha as the Supreme Being . Morya Gosavi is considered the chief spiritual progenitor of the Ganapatyas and has been described as the " most famous devotee " of Ganesha .
The lifetime of Morya Gosavi is speculated between the 13th to 17th century . Numerous legends recall his life . Morya became devoted to Ganesha when he started visiting the Morgaon temple of Ganesha . It is believed that due to the hindrance in Morya 's services to the god in the popular Ganesha shrine , Ganesha told Morya that he would appear in Chinchwad for Morya to worship , so Morya moved from Morgaon to Chinchwad , where Morya built a Ganesha temple . Consequently , Morya took sanjeevan samadhi by burying himself alive in his tomb .
Morya had a son called Chintamani , venerated as a living incarnation of Ganesha and addressed as Dev ( god ) . Chintamani was succeeded by six more Devs . The tomb of Morya Gosavi and the Ganesha temple at Chinchwad still attract many Ganesha devotees .
= = Dating = =
While Yuvraj Krishan places Morya Gosavi in the 13th – 14th century , RC Dhere places him in the 16th century . Paul B. Courtright and Anne Feldhaus date him to 1610 – 59 . The Pimpri @-@ Chinchwad Municipal Corporation dates him to c . 1330 to 1556 . His marriage year is given as 1470 and his son 's birth corresponds to 1481 . The Encyclopedia of Religion dates his death to 1651 .
Various legends associate Morya Gosavi with Humayun ( 1508 – 1556 ) , Shahaji ( 1594 – 1665 ) and his son Shivaji ( 1627 – 1680 ) . His memorial temple has an inscription records that it was started in 1658 @-@ 9 .
= = Early life = =
According to one version of the story , Morya was born in Bidar , Karnataka . He was thrown out of the house by his father as he was thought to be of no use to the family . Morya travelled to the Ganesha shrine at Morgaon – in neighbouring Maharashtra – where he found a liking to Ganesha . He settled at Chinchwad , 50 miles ( 80 km ) away from Morgaon . Another story declares him to be a son of a poor but pious couple from Pune , Maharashtra . Morya is believed to have been born due to the grace of Ganesha , whom the childless couple propitiated . After the birth of Morya , the family moved to Pimple , 40 miles ( 64 km ) away from Chinchwad . After the death of his parents , Morya moved to Tathavade , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away from Chichwad . Both legends declare he visited the Morgaon temple regularly , daily or monthly to worship Ganesha .
Another tale tells that Morya 's parents , Bhat Shaligram and his wife moved to Morgaon from Bidar . His parents prayed to Ganesha at Morgaon . Soon , Morya was born to them . Later , Morya became seriously ill and was not recovering so they prayed to Ganesha again . Soon , a Gosavi ( priest ) named Nayan Bharati came and gave medicine to Morya , curing him . Nayan Bharati also preached to Morya . Henceforth , the Bhat family took the family name Gosavi and Morya was known as Morya Gosavi .
= = From Morgaon to Chinchwad = =
According to a legend , on the occasion of Ganesh Chaturthi ( August – September ) – the largest festival dedicated to Ganesha – Morya could not find a place in the temple , crowded by the laity and the wealthy Pingle family . Morya left his offering under a tree and then by a " miracle " , the laity 's offerings from temple were exchanged with Morya 's offerings under the tree . The laity accused Morya of sorcery and prohibited his entry in Morgaon . Ganesha appeared in a dream of Pingle and told Pingle that he was offended by the ill @-@ treatment of his favourite devotee Morya . So Pingle requested Morya to come back to Morgaon , but Morya refused . Ganesha thus gave a vision to Morya saying that he would come to stay with Morya in Chinchwad . Accordingly , Morya found an image of Ganesha – similar to the one worshipped at Morgaon – while bathing in the river and built a small shrine for it .
Another tale tells that the head @-@ man of Morgaon was impressed by Morya 's pious ways and offered him milk every day he visited Morgaon . Once the head @-@ man was not present at his house , so a blind girl went to offer the milk to Morya . The moment she touched the threshold of the house where Morya was waiting , her sight was restored . Morya became famous due to this miracle and is credited to have cured the eyes of Shivaji ( 1627 – 1680 ) too – who would become the founder of the Maratha Empire later . To escape the crowds of people , Morya relocated to the forest , where present @-@ day Chinchwad stands . Due to his growing age , Morya found it hard to continue his visits to Morgaon . Once he reached Morgaon after the temple was closed . Tired and hungry , he slept . Ganesha gave Morya a dream @-@ vision telling Morya to offer his prayers to him and that he would reside with Morya in Chinchwad and incarnate in Morya 's lineage for seven generations . Morya woke to find the temple doors miraculously opened and offered his prayers . In morning when the temple @-@ priests opened the temple @-@ doors , they were astonished to see fresh flowers offered to the Lord and a pearl necklace missing . The necklace was discovered on Morya 's neck , who was imprisoned but then freed due to Ganesha 's aid . Morya found a conical stone rising in Chinchwad home , which he recognized as Ganesha and built a temple for it .
Another legend does not talk about his arrest , but says that Morya realised the presence of Ganesha at Morgaon but realised that there was hindrance in his devotion , so he moved to the forest near Tathavade to worship Ganesha . On every fourth lunar day after the full moon , Morya used to visit the Chintamani Temple of Theur . Once , devotees from Chinchwad requested Morya to visit the bank of Pavana River at Chinchwad . There , Chintamani – the form of Ganesha worshipped at Theur – is believed to have ordered Morya to marry . As per Ganesha 's orders , Morya got married to Uma , the daughter of Govindrao Kulkarni whose family was staying in Tathavade near Chinchwad .
According to a story , as per his guru 's orders , Morya performed penance at Theur by observing a strict fast for 42 days , within this period , he is believed to have " divine revelations " . After the death of his parents , Morya moved from Morgaon to Chinchwad . The present structure of the Theur temple is built by Morya .
= = Death and lineage = =
Morya continued to visit Theur , Ranjangaon ( another Ganesha temple site ) and Chinchwad . Morya had a son , whom he named Chintamani ( Chintaman ) . Chintamani was venerated as a living incarnation of Ganesha . But before that according to some experts , he helped the deposed Mughal emperor Humayun ( 1508 – 1556 ) to escape to Kabul , when Humayun again became the Emperor of Delhi , he showered Morya with gifts . According to Dhere , Shivaji 's father Shahaji ( 1594 – 1665 ) is recorded as a donor to Morya Gosavi .
After his wife 's death and his guru Nayan Bharati 's sanjeevan samadhi , Morya also took sanjeevan samadhi by burying himself alive in a tomb with a holy book in his hand . Morya left strict orders that his tomb be never opened . Chintamani built a temple over his father 's tomb . Chintamani is described to have shown his true form as Ganesha to the Varkari saint @-@ poet Tukaram ( 1577 – c.1650 ) , who called Chintamani a Dev spelt also as Deva or Deo ( god ) . The lineage was henceforth known as the Dev family .
Chintamani was followed as a Dev by Narayan , Chintamani II , Dharmadhar , Chintamani III , Narayan II and Dharmadhar II . The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb ( 1658 – 1707 ) gifted Narayan the hereditary grant of eight villages , impressed by the latter 's " miracle " of changing a piece of beef sent by the former into jasmine flowers . ( Beef is considered unholy in Hinduism and killing of cows – considered sacred – is prohibited . ) Narayan II violated Morya 's orders and opened the latter 's tomb . According to the tale , Morya who was found still mediating in the tomb , was disturbed and cursed Narayan that his son would be the last Dev . Narayan 's son , Dharmadhar II – the seventh generation of Morya – died childless in 1810 ending the direct lineage of Morya , but a distant relative of Dharmadhar , Sakhari was installed as a Dev by the priesthood to continue the temple funding . Devotional poetry of all the Devs still survive .
= = Veneration = =
Morya Gosavi is considered the chief spiritual progenitor and the most important saint of the Ganapatya – the Hindu sect centred on Ganesha worship – tradition and has been described as the " most famous devotee " of Ganesha .
Chinchwad has shrines to the departed Devs , chief of which is that of Morya . Morya 's memorial temple is a low plain building ( 30 ' x 20 ' x 40 ' ) with a square hall or mandap and an octagonal inner shrine , inscribed with a Marathi inscription : " This temple was begun on the bright twelfth of Kartik ( November – December ) Shaka 1580 ( A.D. 1658 @-@ 9 ) Vilambi Samvatsara and finished on Monday the bright fourth of Ashadha , Vikari Samvatsara " . The temples enjoyed the revenue from the eight villages given by Aurangzeb in the past . The tomb of Morya Gosavi as well as the Ganesha temple constructed by him still attracts many Ganesha devotees to Chinchwad . Devotees believe that though Morya Gosavi attained moksha ( salvation ) but " his presence continues to endow the shrine with sacred significance . "
On the circumbulation path ( Pradakshina path ) of the Morgaon Ganesha temple , there is a tree near the Kalpavrushka Mandir . The tree is believed to have the spot where Morya Gosavi underwent penance . An image of Morya Gosavi is worshipped in the temple complex too . Morya Gosavi is also credited to have popularized the Morgaon temple .
= Meredith Grey =
Meredith Grey , M.D. is a fictional character from the hit medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy , which airs on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States . The character was created by series ' producer Shonda Rhimes , and is portrayed by actress Ellen Pompeo . Meredith is the series ' protagonist , and was introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital ( later Seattle Grace @-@ Mercy West , and afterwards Grey Sloan Memorial ) , eventually obtaining the position of a resident , and later the position of an attending , and in 2015 , attaining the Chief of General Surgery position . As the daughter of world @-@ renowned surgeon Ellis Grey , Meredith struggles with the everyday life of being in a competitive profession , maintaining the relationship with her one @-@ night stand and eventual husband Derek Shepherd ( deceased ) , her motherhood and the friendships with her colleagues .
Meredith is the narrator of the show and serves as the focal point for most episodes . Pompeo 's connection with Patrick Dempsey ( Derek Shepherd ) is acclaimed as a high point of the series . Rhimes has characterized Meredith as not believing in good or bad , but instead doing what she thinks is right . Grey has been positively received by television critics , with Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times referring to her as " the heroine of Grey 's Anatomy " . News of Pompeo leaving arose when it was made clear that her contract ended after the eighth season , and whether or not she would return to the series after her contract expires has been the centre of media speculation ever since . In 2016 , Pompeo re @-@ negotiated her contract and signed up for the thirteenth season of the show .
Pompeo 's performance has been well received throughout the show and the character has gained widespread popularity worldwide . Pompeo has been nominated for multiple awards for her portrayal of the character in the long running ABC medical drama including Satellite Award for Best Actress and multiple nominations at the People 's Choice Awards for Best Actress winning at 39th People 's Choice Awards in 2013 and again in 2015 at 41st People 's Choice Awards , Pompeo has also received a Best Performance by an Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 64th Golden Globe Awards .
= = Storylines = =
Dr. Meredith Grey is the daughter of world @-@ renowned surgeon Ellis Grey , who suffers from Alzheimer 's disease . She is a graduate of Dartmouth College . The night before Grey 's internship begins , she has a one @-@ night stand with Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , a stranger she meets at a bar . She discovers the next day that he is the recently @-@ hired attending and new head of neurosurgery at her new workplace , Seattle Grace Hospital . Grey is assigned to work under resident Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) , and befriends her fellow interns , George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) , Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) , Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) and Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) . Grey initially resists Shepherd 's advances , but they eventually begin a relationship . She is surprised by the arrival of Addison Montgomery ( Kate Walsh ) , Shepherd 's wife , having been unaware that he was married . Shepherd struggles to choose between the two , but ultimately returns to Montgomery . Grey is devastated and turns to searching for her father , Thatcher , though their brief reunion fails to give her any closure regarding her childhood . She learns that her father remarried and had two more daughters , which is why he never fought for her . Grey has a series of one @-@ night stands , including one with O 'Malley , who is in love with her . When she cries in the middle of their encounter , their friendship temporarily ends . Grey embarks on a relationship with veterinarian Finn Dandridge ( Chris O 'Donnell ) , but it comes to a close when she reunites with Shepherd .
Her mother experiences a completely lucid day , and expresses her great disappointment at how ordinary Grey has turned out to be . Following a ferryboat accident , Grey is knocked into the water and has to be rescued by Shepherd . She flatlines at the hospital , and awakens in an " afterlife " , where she interacts with deceased former acquaintances . Ellis dies in the interim , and Grey meets with her mother , who tells her that she is anything but ordinary and urges her to wake up . Grey is subsequently resuscitated . She is promoted to a resident , as her half @-@ sister Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , begins working at Seattle Grace Hospital as an intern . Grey initially rejects Lexie 's attempts to form a relationship , but slowly softens towards her . Shepherd pushes Grey to make a greater commitment to their relationship than she feels able to , and the two break up once more . He begins dating a nurse , Rose , and Grey sees a therapist , Dr. Wyatt ( Amy Madigan ) , to seek happiness . She initiates a neurosurgical clinical trial , enlisting Shepherd as a consulting neurosurgeon . The trial fails repeatedly , but the final patient they treat survives , which leads them to reuniting and moving in together . Shepherd loses his confidence after a minor mistake in the initial operation started a chain of events which ended with the patient 's death and faced a malpractice lawsuit , leading to him taking a sabbatical and pushing everyone , including Grey , away . When Stevens is diagnosed with stage four metastatic melanoma , Grey convinces Shepherd to return to operate on her . He agrees to perform the surgery , and later proposes to Grey in the hospital elevator . Stevens begins to plan the perfect wedding for a reluctant Grey , but when , on their wedding day , Shepherd discovers that Stevens has a second brain tumor , the couple let her and Karev marry instead .
Grey and Shepherd marry by writing their wedding vows on a post @-@ it note . Having become a heavy drinker following Susan 's death , Thatcher experiences liver failure . For Lexie 's sake , Grey agrees to donate part of her liver to him . Thereafter , she discovers she is pregnant soon before a hospital shooting , endangering Shepherd . In the midst of the crisis , Grey miscarries the baby . She learns that she has a " hostile uterus " , which leads her to consider her other possible genetic flaws . Shepherd , worried about the possibility that she will develop Alzheimer 's , initiates a clinical trial hoping to cure the disease . Grey opts to work on the trial , with Shepherd . When the chief of surgery , Richard Webber ( James Pickens Jr . ) ' s wife , Adele , is diagnosed with Alzheimer 's , she receives a spot on Shepherd 's trial . Grey tampers with the drugs so that Adele does not receive the placebo . She and Shepherd decide to adopt Zola , an orphaned baby from Malawi , and make their marriage official . When the truth about Grey 's tampering comes out , however , a furious Shepherd tells her he cannot raise a child with her . Grey is fired , and tries to conceal both this and her marital separation from the adoption counselor . Although Webber steps down as chief of surgery and takes the blame for the trial tampering to protect Grey , Zola is taken away . She and Shepherd reconcile and fight to get Zola back , eventually having her returned to them . Meanwhile , Meredith experiences several traumatic events , such as an ambulance accident with Alex Karev . As her last year of residency is coming to a close , the residents travel around the country , searching for the best jobs in their specialties . In order to finish their residency , the residents must take the medical boards , and Grey passes them successfully . She decides to take a job offer at The Brigham and Women 's Hospital , and is subsequently involved in an aviation accident , killing Lexie , and leaving her and her co @-@ workers stranded .
Following their rescue , Grey becomes an attending general surgeon at the newly merged Seattle Grace Mercy West . Her newfound attitude and sarcasm leads to her being dubbed " Medusa " by the hospital 's new batch of interns . In mid @-@ season , Grey becomes pregnant for the second time . In the aftermath of the plane accident , the hospital is sued and eventually found guilty of negligence . Each victim including Shepherd , Yang , Robbins , and herself must receive $ 15 million of compensation , which leads the hospital to a near bankruptcy as the insurance company refuses to pay due to a loophole . Those doctors and Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) buy the hospital with the help of the Harper Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing , and each become members of the new directing board . She asks Bailey to perform gene mapping on her to finally know whether she has Alzheimer 's genes like her mother or not and she tests positive for more than one of the genetic markers for the disease .
During this time , Meredith discovers she is pregnant again and she gives birth to a son . The baby is delivered via C @-@ section during a storm because it was not in the correct position . While stitching Meredith up , the obstetrician who operated on Meredith is called away to another patient and intern Shane Ross completes the stitching . When blood begins to appear from everywhere , Meredith diagnoses herself in as being in DIC . Bailey performs a spleen removal , which saves Meredith 's life . In return , Derek and Meredith name their son Bailey .
As a spouse , surgeon , and mother , Meredith has cited a number times that she did not want to be like either of her parents : her father had followed her mother around and ended up leaving as she valued her career over her family while her mother won two Harper Avery Awards but emotionally neglected her , resulting in her " dark and twisty " attitude towards life . She and Cristina drift apart as they realize that they now have different values and career paths . After being snubbed by Cristina for failing to keep up with the medical science while on maternity leave , Meredith calls Cristina out on her actions , stating that it was not fair for her to ignore those who did not value the same things she did . Cristina realizes that she has to leave Seattle before things deteriorate and eventually moves to Switzerland to work with Dr. Preston Burke , her former attending . Meanwhile , Meredith and Derek come to an agreement that he , having already established his career and reputation , would take a step back to take care of the children and allow her to shine .
Meredith and Derek 's marriage becomes strained when Derek goes against his promise and accepts an offer from the President to participate in the Brain Mapping Initiative , which gradually consumed his time . He receives an offer to head the project itself in Washington D.C. , meaning that he would have to be based there permanently , but she puts her foot down as she did not want to uproot their young family to move across the country . They begin a series of on @-@ and @-@ off arguments and " cold wars " over their careers . Derek accepts the job in the heat of the moment and promptly leaves for Washington D.C. During a phone call with Meredith , they agree to work things out after she tells him that she did not want them to become " one of those couples " who ended things and he reciprocates , saying that he missed her . She privately admits to Alex that she realized that she could live independently of Derek but chose not to .
Meredith finds out she has a half sister called Maggie Pierce who is now working in Grey Sloan Memorial . Meredith thinks she would have remembered if her mother was pregnant and thinks Maggie is lying until she finds a hospital document confirming the revelation . Meredith tries to piece together her relationship with her mother and half sister by going through old videos of her mother . She eventually recovers her repressed memories of the pregnancy when she 's views her mother 's diary and has a change of heart , choosing to accept her and begin building a relationship .
Meredith is widowed when Derek is a victim in a car accident and taken to Dillard Medical Center which did not have Level I trauma center status and was understaffed . He was on his way to the airport for his final trip to Washington D.C. to hand in his final report and official resignation letter when he took a shortcut and stopped to help victims of a multiple vehicle accident . The doctors at Dillard fail to recognize his head injury in time . Derek becomes brain dead , and police arrive at Derek and Meredith 's residence to notify her that Derek has been in an accident . Meredith begins to imagine arriving at the hospital and seeing Derek in stable condition , alive and alert . The scene then switches to reality with Meredith arriving at the hospital to see Derek in grave condition , where she spends time with him and then consents to remove him from life support , shortly before she 's hit with the first waves of morning sickness . She tells Penny , the intern who was assigned to Derek , that every doctor has " that one " patient who dies on their watch and haunts them forever and " that one will make you work harder , and they make you better . "
After Derek 's death , Meredith returns to Grey Sloan Memorial to inform the others of his passing . Following the funeral service , Meredith impulsively packs up her belongings and leaves with the children to San Diego . Months pass by while her friends and family are unaware of her whereabouts . Eventually , we are shown the parallels between Meredith and Ellis ' lives . Both have lost the love of their life , both run away from Seattle following their loss , and both eventually give birth to a daughter . We are again reminded that " the carousel never stops turning . " Meredith names her newborn daughter after her mother , Ellis . Although still grieving over Derek , Meredith returns to Seattle with the children and later becomes chief of general surgery . She sells the " dream house " as it no longer felt like home without her husband . She moves back to her mother 's house and now lives there with Maggie Pierce and Amelia Shepherd . Meredith hosts a dinner party and at the party Callie brings Penny as a date . Later at the event she finds out Penny ( Derek 's doctor ) will be joining her at Grey Sloan Memorial .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Pompeo discovered Grey 's Anatomy after a year of doing nothing but reading scripts looking for the project that suited her best . While casting actresses for the part of Meredith Grey , series ' creator Shonda Rhimes said : " I kept saying we need a girl like that girl from Moonlight Mile , and after a while , they were like , ' We think we can get that girl from Moonlight Mile . ' I spent time with her and got to know her , and then we started casting for the men . " She reported that Grey was not an easy role to cast . Rhimes was informed that the actress in question was Pompeo , who had a deal in place with ABC , having previously tested for a pilot show on the network . It has been speculated that Pompeo was the first character to be cast , but when asked , she said she did not know of this . When asked of how she created Pompeo 's character , Rhimes said :
Pompeo was cast as the program 's titular character , described by Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times as " a prickly , independent sort whose ambition , and ambivalence , is fueled by the fact that her mother was a gifted surgeon and now suffers from Alzheimer 's . " Grey also serves as the show 's narrator , and as such was likened in early reviews to Carrie Bradshaw ( Sarah Jessica Parker ) , the narrator and protagonist of Sex and the City . After her initial contract with Grey 's Anatomy expired , Pompeo negotiated a new one , in which she would be paid US $ 200 @,@ 000 per episode , making her the highest @-@ paid cast member on the show . In 2012 , Forbes recognized Pompeo as the eighth highest @-@ paid actress on television , with a salary of US $ 275 @,@ 000 per episode for her role on Grey 's Anatomy .
Pompeo 's second contract with Grey 's Anatomy expired after the eighth season , and speculation arose that she would be leaving after this . In September 2011 , Pompeo reported that she is open to the idea of extending her contract , if invited . She told TV Guide : " I would never turn up my nose at [ Grey 's Anatomy ] . As long as the stories are honest and truthful , and Patrick [ Dempsey ] and I feel there is material for us to be passionate about , it still beats a 9 @-@ to @-@ 5 job any day . If I hear from the fans that they want us to keep going , then I would continue because we owe them everything . " E ! Online reported in May 2012 , that Pompeo , as well as all original cast members have signed on for two more years . With the Huffington Post 's announcement of season nine having officially been renewed , the contract is set into place for Pompeo to return .
Pompeo 's contract expired again at the end of the twelfth season . She signed a new contract to keep her in the starring role on the series for thirteenth season . According to a report in Deadline.com , Pompeo was earning $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode under the new deal .
= = = Characterization = = =
Grey is the protagonist and focal point of the series . She has been called " intelligent , compassionate , hard @-@ working , oftentimes outspoken , easily distracted , and indecisive " by Grey 's Anatomy executives . Pompeo says she is unaware if her character knows how to have fun , adding : " All of my scenes with [ Dempsey ] are the same — we 're either breaking up or having sex . " Her personality has evolved over the past few seasons from depressed , to happy and " fixed " . Pompeo said to Good Morning America , " I am so incredibly lucky to have Patrick [ Dempsey ] , to have the chemistry that we do , we have an amazing relationship , and it 's like any other relationship , you have your ups and downs . But we work it out , and we 've found a way to do this for this long and still get along , and make it work and believe in what we 're doing . " Pompeo told Entertainment Weekly : " It 's awkward with Patrick [ Dempsey ] because he 's like my brother . As soon as the camera is off , I 'm like , ' Is your hand on my butt ? ' But there are millions of girls who have been waiting for this , so I feel an obligation to the fans . " Rhimes used the dog " Doc " , which Meredith and Derek shared , as a metaphor of their relationship during the second season . She characterizes Grey as doing what she thinks is right :
The character had a one @-@ night stand with George O 'Malley , in the second season . Series writer Stacy McKee , said of the sexual encounter : " There ’ s no turning back . There ’ s nothing George and Meredith can do . The damage is done – things will never be the same . They ’ ve just changed something important in their lives FOREVER and … they are freaking out . " Grey 's character development has also been known as an influence on the creation of her half @-@ sister , Lexie Grey . Particularly , it has been made clear that they both share the same motives . McKee offered her thoughts : " Meredith and Lexie both want to succeed . They want to be strong . They want to feel normal . They want , so much , to be whole . But it ’ s a struggle – a genuine struggle for them . Being hardcore doesn ’ t come naturally . Sometimes , they have to fake it . " Grey 's personality has been compared with that of Alex Karev 's . Rhimes offered the insight :
" I like to create moments for him and Meredith . Because , in my head , they are very similar people . Even though Karev can be such an ass , even though he ’ s arrogant , even though he gave O 'Malley the Syph . He and Meredith are both lost , both lonely , both former screw @-@ ups who got their acts together . In another lifetime , they would be really good friends . So throughout the season , we watch them pause from time to time to look at each other and see that they are mirrors of one another .
Pompeo fights for a truthful storyline for her character — she wants it to be realistic and says you can 't always wrap it up in a neat little package . Referring to Grey 's tampering with Shepherd 's trial , Pompeo said : " Listen , what Meredith did clearly crossed a line . Derek has a right to be pissed . " Following the tampering , Rhimes said she believes that Grey and Shepherd are meant to be together and that it in the end , they will end up with each other . Grey 's relationship with Cristina Yang , has been looked upon as " sisterhood " , and Yang has repeatedly referred to Grey as " her person " . This led to the two being dubbed " the twisted sisters " . At the conclusion of season three , the duo went on a " honeymoon " together , and Rhimes called it her favorite detail of the finale . Grey has been characterized , by some , as " whiny " . Rhimes offered her insight :
Rhimes felt that the 100th episode showed well Meredith 's evolution throughout the show from a " dark and twisty girl " to a " happy woman " . She said : " She is the thing her mother wished for her . She is extraordinary . Because , to get past the crap of your past ? To move on ? To let the past go and change ? That is extraordinary . To love ? Without fear ? Without screwing it up ? That is extraordinary . It makes me happy to see her happy . "
Following the departure of Patrick Dempsey 's character , Rhimes was quoted as saying that " ... Meredith and the entire Grey ’ s Anatomy family are about to enter uncharted territory as we head into this new chapter of her life . The possibilities for what may come are endless . " With at least a year left in Pompeo 's contract with the show , viewers are sure to witness some of the most difficult times of Meredith 's life yet .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
The character has received both overwhelmingly positive reviews to weary response from television critics throughout the course of the show . The initial response to the character was positive but as the series progressed Meredith Grey became immensely popular and Pompeo established the character as a critic and fan favorite featuring on a number of Top TV Character lists . The development of the character has been deemed as the highlight of the show . Grey has constantly been defined as " the heroine of Grey 's Anatomy " . At the time of inception Newsday 's Diane Werts praised the character stating , " Like Hugh Laurie 's irascible " House " title character , star Ellen Pompeo 's newly minted Dr. Grey conveys such substance that you simply can 't stop watching . " Ellen A. Kim of After Pompeo not receiving an Emmy nomination for her work as Grey , McNamara of the Los Angeles Times suggested that Pompeo , " who has worked very hard and against all narrative odds to make Meredith Grey an interesting character at last " should have received a nomination at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards . Later , during the twelfth season Western Gazette gave Ellen Pompeo the credit for carrying the show and re @-@ ittirated . " ( It 's ) time for Pompeo to finally win an Emmy Award . " Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly referred to Grey as the " trusty voice over master " of Grey 's Anatomy .
Former television columnist for The Star @-@ Ledger Alan Sepinwall expressed his boredom on the focus given on Grey 's relationships storylines while reviewing the second season 's finale : " On those occasions when Meredith 's not involved in a plot about her love life , I do kind of like her , but those moments are so infrequent compared to her constant angsting over McDreamy -- not to mention all those seemingly unrelated storylines that always turn into a metaphor for that relationship -- that I really , really can 't stand her . " During the show 's third season , the development of the character received negative reviews , with Cristopher Monfette of IGN stating that her storyline has become " some bizarrely under @-@ developed sub @-@ plot about depression and giving Derek a season 's worth of reconsidering to do . " Also during the third season , Robert Rorke of the New York Post noted the decline in Meredith 's role in the show , expressing disappointment : " She used to be the queen of the romantic dilemmas , but lately , she 's been a little dopey , what with the endless McDreamy soliloquies . " Similarly , Macleans.ca found their storyline in the fourth season overused , " This whole ' Oh I need more time , ' but ' Oh , I 'm jealous if you look at someone else ' angst was tired in the second season , frustrating in the third and now a total channel changer . The will @-@ they @-@ or @-@ won 't @-@ they plot doesn 't work because they 've already been in and out of that relationship too many times . Meredith is a nag and McDreamy is henpecked . " On a more positive note , her relationship with Shepherd was included in AOL TV 's list of the " Best TV Couples of All Time " and in the same list by TV Guide . During the sixth season the development of the character was praised , Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV commented that " You gotta love Mer when she 's gloomy . " , in addition to praising Pompeo 's performance . In her review of the episode Tainted Obligation she wrote " I felt for Meredith , but after Lexie 's heartfelt begging and pleading , I was happy that Mere finally grows up and casts her selfishness aside . Three seasons ago Meredith would never have dreamed of putting Lexie first , and I was proud of her for giving up part of her liver — her offer to get to know her dad was an even bigger milestone . " Reviewing the first part of the eighth season , TV Fanatic lauded the character and wrote : " this season belongs to Meredith Grey . She is the heart and soul of the show and has been outstanding . This is a character that used to be so dark and twisty and has now grown into a more mature woman . Ellen Pompeo has been at the top of her game this season . "
Wit & Fancy praised the transformation of the character and stated , " Of course Meredith will still make rash decisions like when she took off with Zola , or tampered with the trial but she does things out of love and the kindness of her heart now and not because she is dark and twisty . Considering where Meredith was at the beginning and where she is now , I think she went through a remarkable journey and did more than just growing up , she finally became “ all whole and healed “ . "
Maura O 'Malley of Bustle also lauded the development of the character ahead of season 12 saying , " When the series began , Meredith was just a girl sitting in a bar celebrating the exciting next phase of her life . She had graduated medical school , she was starting her residency at a prestigious hospital , and she was simply looking for a no @-@ strings attached , one night stand . What she got instead was a complicated romantic relationship that rivals Romeo and Juliet — but the key is , she wasn 't searching for love . Working and learning were — and continue to be — her priorities , while McDreamy was simply an added perk . Hopefully , the new season of Grey 's Anatomy will reflect this change in tone , because Meredith is a strong , independent woman — and she will be just fine . "
Later in the series , Ellen Pompeo received critical acclaim with numerous critics lauding her portrayal of the character . Reviewing the episode She 's Leaving Home CarterMatt called her the " anchor " for Grey 's saying , " Throughout , this was an episode completely anchored by Ellen Pompeo , who has done some of her best work ever on the show the past couple of weeks . Tonight , she cried , she fought , and she learned that she was carrying his child . " and added that Pompeo is often " ovelooked " saying , " Her subtlety is probably why she is often overlooked . " Rick Porter of Zap2it reviewing " How to Save a Life " wrote , " Without Meredith , and without one of Pompeo 's strongest performances in her long time on the show , " How to Save a Life " would have run the risk of coming across as a baldly manipulative death episode , the likes of which the show has done several times before . He added . " How to Save a Life " may not be the ideal Emmy @-@ submission episode for Pompeo , considering Meredith is off screen for more than half of it . But it 's among the best work she 's ever done on the show . " USA Today also lauded Pompeo saying , " In some ways , the episode ( How to Save a Life ) was even more of a showcase for Pompeo . She had some of the more memorable and well @-@ played scenes , from her angry response to the doctor who tries to tell her what her choices are , to her resignation when she realizes she has to comfort and motivate the young doctor whose mistakes cost Derek his life . "
The relation between Meredith and Cristina has been acclaimed and been a highlight of the show . Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considered the friendship to be " the secret core of Grey 's " . Aisha Harris of Slate called their relation The Best Female Friendship on TV adding that " With those two characters , showrunner Shonda Rhimes and her team of writers created one of the most nuanced and realistic portrayals of female friendship on television . " Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly called Cristina and Meredith the best female friends on TV because " they don ’ t try to be " . There ’ s nothing fake about them , which is a rarity in how female friends are portrayed on television . She further went on to call them ' soulmates ' , " And even though they ’ d never dare get sappy enough to say it , they ’ re soul mates . Margaret Lyons of Vulture ( magazine ) called the friendship " dream BFF relationship . " and the primary focus of the show , " One of the series ' calling cards has been its depiction of female friendship and particularly the primacy that friendship enjoyed over romantic relationships . "
E ! at the time of Sandra Oh 's exit wrote , " In Grey 's Anatomy 's 10 @-@ year history , the doctor duo has been through a lot together : weddings , deaths , plane crashes , bomb threats , shooting , you name it , they 've lived ( and danced ) through it . " and added , " And with the three words , " You 're my person . " Cristina Yang and Meredith Grey solidified their status as the small screen 's best best friends ever . " Marama Whyte of Hypable wrote , " Critically , the key relationship in Meredith ’ s life was not her romance with Derek Shepherd , but her passionate , indestructible , absolutely enviable friendship with Cristina . Talk about relationship goals ; who wants McDreamy when Cristina Yang could be your person . These two were the real powerhouse , and Shonda Rhimes didn ’ t shy away from making the audience remember this . Derek was the love of her life , but Cristina was her soul mate . More than anyone else , Cristina challenged Meredith , was honest with her , and inspired her . For these reasons , it was Cristina who was constantly the source of Meredith ’ s character development , not Derek . "
Pompeo 's character has also been used to define the image a strong woman , Bustle previewing the 12th sesson wrote , " Meredith Grey has always been capable of being on her own . Grey 's Anatomy is about Meredith 's journey . Men and romantic interests are a part of her life , but they are not the priority . She doesn 't need McDreamy . Grey 's Anatomy doesn 't need McDreamy . So even if the writers do decide to create a new love interest for Ms. Grey ( Martin Henderson , perhaps ? ) , it wouldn 't matter . I have faith that the show 's writers will do this storyline justice , because TV needs more strong single women — and Meredith seems like the perfect candidate . " The site added , " This past season was almost a trial run for a McDreamy @-@ less Grey 's Anatomy . When Derek left for Washington D.C. to pursue his research , Meredith stayed behind and focused on her own career . She didn 't chase him . Her priority were her children and the Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital . Meredith showed that she would never put aside her own dreams and aspirations for a man , and I believe that this won 't change after Derek 's death . "
= = = Awards = = =
Pompeo has won and has been nominated for multiple awards for her portrayal of Grey . She and the Grey 's Anatomy cast won Best Ensemble in a Television Series at the 2006 Satellite Awards . During the following year 's ceremony , she was named Best Actress in a Television Drama Series . She was among the Grey 's Anatomy cast members awarded the Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series accolade at the 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards , and received nominations in the same category in 2006 and 2008 . Pompeo received a Best Performance by an Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 64th Golden Globe Awards – the program won Best Drama Series at the same ceremony . Also in 2007 , Pompeo and the female cast and crew of Grey 's Anatomy received the Women in Film Lucy Award , which honors those " whose work in television has positively influenced attitudes toward women . "
Pompeo 's performance has garnered her multiple People 's Choice Awards . At the 37th People 's Choice Awards , she was nominated against Dempsey and Oh in the Favorite TV Doctor category , and the following year , she was a contender in the Favorite TV Drama Actress category . Since 2012 Pompeo has received nomination at the People 's Choice Awards every year in two categories at 40th People 's Choice Awards alongside Patrick Dempsey and Sandra Oh respectively . She won the Best Drama Actress Award at both the 39th People 's Choice Awards and the 41st People 's Choice Awards . In 2007 , show @-@ business awards reporter Tom O 'Neil commented that Pompeo was overdue an Emmy Award nomination for her role in Grey 's Anatomy . Readers of O 'Neil 's awards website , The Envelope , included Pompeo in their 2009 nominations for Best Drama Actress in the site 's Gold Derby TV Awards . Entertainment Weekly launched the EWwy Awards in 2008 , to honor actors who have not received Emmy nominations . Pompeo was nominated in the Best Actress in a Drama Series category , and placed fourth , with 19 percent of readers ' votes .
= Pinniped =
Pinnipeds ( / ˈpɪnᵻˌpɛdz / ) , ( from Latin pinna " fin " and pes , pedis " foot " ) commonly known as seals , are a widely distributed and diverse clade of carnivorous , fin @-@ footed , semiaquatic marine mammals . They comprise the extant families Odobenidae ( whose only living member is the walrus ) , Otariidae ( the eared seals : sea lions and fur seals ) , and Phocidae ( the earless seals , or true seals ) . There are 33 extant species of pinnipeds , and more than 50 extinct species have been described from fossils . While seals were historically thought to have descended from two ancestral lines , molecular evidence supports them as a monophyletic lineage ( descended from one ancestral line ) . Pinnipeds belong to the order Carnivora and their closest living relatives are bears and musteloids ( weasels , raccoons , skunks and red pandas ) , having diverged about 50 million years ago .
Seals range in size from the 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) and 45 kg ( 99 lb ) Baikal seal to the 5 m ( 16 ft ) and 3 @,@ 200 kg ( 7 @,@ 100 lb ) southern elephant seal , which is also the largest carnivoran . Several species exhibit sexual dimorphism . They have streamlined bodies and four limbs that are modified into flippers . Though not as fast in the water as dolphins , seals are more flexible and agile . Otariids use their front limbs primarily to propel themselves through the water , while phocids and walruses use their hind limbs . Otariids and walruses have hind limbs that can be pulled under the body and used as legs on land . By comparison , terrestrial locomotion by phocids is more cumbersome . Otariids have visible external ears , while phocids and walruses lack these . Pinnipeds have well @-@ developed senses — their eyesight and hearing are adapted for both air and water , and they have an advanced tactile system in their whiskers or vibrissae . Some species are well adapted for diving to great depths . They have a layer of fat , or blubber , under the skin to keep warm in the cold water , and , other than the walrus , all species are covered in fur .
Although pinnipeds are widespread , most species prefer the colder waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . They spend most of their lives in the water , but come ashore to mate , give birth , molt or escape from predators , like sharks and killer whales . They feed largely on fish and marine invertebrates ; but a few , like the leopard seal , feed on large vertebrates , such as penguins and other seals . Walruses are specialized for feeding on bottom @-@ dwelling mollusks . Male pinnipeds typically mate with more than one female ( polygyny ) , although the degree of polygyny varies with the species . The males of land @-@ breeding species tend to mate with a greater number of females than those of ice- or water @-@ breeding species . Male pinniped strategies for reproductive success vary between defending females , defending territories that attract females and performing ritual displays or lek mating . Pups are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear almost all the responsibility for raising them . Mothers of some species fast and nurse their young for a relatively short period of time while others take foraging trips at sea between nursing bouts . Walruses are known to nurse their young while at sea . Seals produce a number of vocalizations , notably the barks of California sea lions , the gong @-@ like calls of walruses and the complex songs of Weddell seals .
The meat , blubber and fur coats of pinnipeds have traditionally been used by indigenous peoples of the Arctic . Seals have been depicted in various cultures worldwide . They are commonly kept in captivity and are even sometimes trained to perform tricks and tasks . Once relentlessly hunted by commercial industries for their products , seals and walruses are now protected by international law . The Japanese sea lion and the Caribbean monk seal have become extinct in the past century , while the Mediterranean monk seal and Hawaiian monk seal are ranked Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Besides hunting , pinnipeds also face threats from accidental trapping , marine pollution , and conflicts with local people .
= = Taxonomy = =
The German naturalist Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger was the first to recognize the pinnipeds as a distinct taxonomic unit ; in 1811 he gave the name Pinnipedia to both a family and an order . American zoologist Joel Asaph Allen reviewed the world 's pinnipeds in an 1880 monograph , History of North American pinnipeds , a monograph of the walruses , sea @-
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50 fossil species have been described .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
One popular hypothesis suggested that pinnipeds are diphyletic ( descended from two ancestral lines ) , with walruses and otariids sharing a recent common ancestor with bears and phocids sharing one with Musteloidea . However , morphological and molecular evidence support a monophyletic origin . Nevertheless , there is some dispute as to whether pinnipeds are more closely related to bears or musteloids , as some studies support the former theory and others the latter . Pinnipeds split from other caniforms 50 million years ago ( mya ) during the Eocene . Their evolutionary link to terrestrial mammals was unknown until the 2007 discovery of Puijila darwini in early Miocene deposits in Nunavut , Canada . Like a modern otter , Puijila had a long tail , short limbs and webbed feet instead of flippers . However , its limbs and shoulders were more robust and Puijila likely had been a quadrupedal swimmer – retaining a form of aquatic locomotion that give rise to the major swimming types employed by modern pinnipeds . The researchers who found Puijila placed it in a clade with Potamotherium ( traditionally considered a mustelid ) and Enaliarctos . Of the three , Puijila was the least specialized for aquatic life . The discovery of Puijila in a lake deposit suggests that pinniped evolution went through a freshwater transitional phase .
Enaliarctos , a fossil species of late Oligocene / early Miocene ( 24 – 22 mya ) California , closely resembled modern pinnipeds ; it was adapted to an aquatic life with a flexible spine , and limbs modified into flippers . Its teeth were adapted for shearing ( like terrestrial carnivorans ) , and it may have stayed near shore more often than its extant relatives . Enaliarctos was capable of swimming with both the fore @-@ flippers and hind @-@ flippers , but it may have been more specialized as a fore @-@ flipper swimmer . One species , Enaliarctos emlongi , exhibited notable sexual dimorphism , suggesting that this physical characteristic may have been an important driver of pinniped evolution . A closer relative of extant pinnipeds was Pteroarctos , which lived in Oregon 19 – 15 mya . As in modern seals , Pteroarctos had an orbital wall that was not limited by certain facial bones ( like the jugal or lacrimal bone ) , but was mostly shaped by the maxilla .
The lineages of Otariidae and Odobenidae split almost 28 mya . Otariids originated in the North Pacific . The earliest fossil Pithanotaria , found in California , is dated to 11 mya . The Callorhinus lineage split earlier at 16 mya . Zalophus , Eumetopias and Otaria diverged next , with the latter colonizing the coast of South America . Most of the other otariids diversified in the Southern Hemisphere . The earliest fossils of Odobenidae — Prototaria of Japan and Proneotherium of Oregon — date to 18 – 16 mya . These primitive walruses had much shorter canines and lived on a fish diet rather than a specialized mollusk diet like the modern walrus . Odobenids further diversified in the middle and late Miocene . Several species had enlarged upper and lower canines . The genera Valenictus and Odobenus developed elongated tusks . The lineage of the modern walrus may have spread from the North Pacific to the Caribbean ( via the Central American Seaway ) 8 – 5 mya and subsequently made it to the North Atlantic and returned to the North Pacific via the Arctic 1 mya . Alternatively , this lineage may have spread from the North Pacific to the Arctic and subsequently the North Atlantic during the Pleistocene .
The ancestors of the Otarioidea and Phocoidea diverged 33 mya . The Phocidae are likely to have descended from the extinct family Desmatophocidae in the North Atlantic . Desmatophocids lived 23 – 10 mya and had elongated skulls , fairly large eyes , cheekbones connected by a mortised structure and rounded cheek teeth . They also were sexually dimorphic and may have been capable of propelling themselves with both the foreflippers and hindflippers .
Phocids are known to have existed for at least 15 mya , and molecular evidence supports a divergence of the Monachinae and Phocinae lineages 22 mya . The fossil monachine Monotherium and phocine Leptophoca were found in southeastern North America . The deep split between the lineages of Erignathus and Cystophora 17 mya suggests that the phocines migrated eastward and northward from the North Atlantic . The genera Phoca and Pusa could have arisen when a phocine lineage traveled from the Paratethys Sea to the Arctic Basin and subsequently went eastward . The ancestor of the Baikal seal migrated into Lake Baikal from the Arctic ( via the Siberian ice sheet ) and became isolated there . The Caspian seal 's ancestor became isolated as the Paratethys shrank , leaving the animal in a small remnant sea , the Caspian Sea . The monochines diversified southward . Monachus emerged in the Mediterranean and migrated to the Caribbean and then the central North Pacific . The two extant elephant seal species diverged close to 4 mya after the Panamanian isthmus was formed . The lobodontine lineage emerged around 9 mya and colonized the southern ocean in response to glaciation .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
Pinnipeds have streamlined , spindle @-@ shaped bodies with reduced or non @-@ existent external ear flaps , rounded heads , flexible necks , limbs modified into flippers , and small tails . Pinniped skulls have large eye orbits , short snouts and a constricted interorbital region . They are unique among carnivorans in that their orbital walls are significantly shaped by the maxilla and are not limited by certain facial bones . Compared to other carnivorans , their teeth tend to be fewer in number ( especially incisors and back molars ) , are pointed and cone @-@ shaped , and lack carnassials . The walrus has unique upper canines that are elongated into tusks . The mammary glands and genitals of pinnipeds can retract into the body .
Pinnipeds range in size from the 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) and 45 kg ( 99 lb ) Baikal seal to the 5 m ( 16 ft ) and 3 @,@ 200 kg ( 7 @,@ 100 lb ) southern elephant seal . Overall , they tend to be larger than other carnivorans ; the southern elephant seal is the largest carnivoran . Several species have male @-@ biased sexual dimorphism that correlates with the degree of polygyny in a species : highly polygynous species like elephant seals are extremely sexually dimorphic , while less polygynous species have males and females that are closer in size . In lobodontine seals , females are slightly larger than males . Males of sexually dimorphic species also tend to have secondary sex characteristics , such as the prominent proboscis of elephant seals , the inflatable red nasal membrane of hooded seals and the thick necks and manes of otariids . Despite a correlation between size dimorphism and the degree of polygyny , some evidence suggests that size differences between the sexes originated due to ecological differences and prior to the development of polygyny .
Almost all pinnipeds have fur coats , the exception being the walrus , which is only sparsely covered . Even some fully furred species ( particularly sea lions ) are less haired than most land mammals . In species that live on ice , young pups have thicker coats than adults . The individual hairs on the coat , known collectively as lanugo , can trap heat from sunlight and keep the pup warm . Pinnipeds are typically countershaded , and are darker colored dorsally and lighter colored ventrally , which serves to eliminate shadows caused by light shining over the ocean water . The pure white fur of harp seal pups conceals them in their Arctic environment . Some species , such as ribbon seals , ringed seals and leopard seals , have patterns of contrasting light and dark coloration . All fully furred species molt ; phocids molt once a year , while otariids gradually molt all year . Seals have a layer of subcutaneous fat known as blubber that is particularly thick in phocids and walruses . Blubber serves both to keep the animals warm and to provide energy and nourishment when they are fasting . It can constitute as much as 50 % of a pinniped 's body weight . Pups are born with only a thin layer of blubber , but some species compensate for this with thick lanugos .
Pinnipeds have a simple stomach that is similar in structure to terrestrial carnivores . Most species have neither a cecum nor a clear demarcation between the small and large intestines ; the large intestine is comparatively short and only slightly wider than the latter . Small intestine lengths range from 8 ( California sea lion ) to 25 times ( elephant seal ) the body length . The length of the intestine may be an adaptation to frequent deep diving , as the increased volume of the digestive tract serves as an extended storage compartment for partially digested food during submersion . Pinnipeds do not have an appendix . As in most marine mammals , the kidneys are divided into small lobes and can effectively absorb water and filter out excess salt .
= = = Locomotion = = =
Pinnipeds have two pairs of flippers on the front and back , the fore @-@ flippers and hind @-@ flippers . The elbows and ankles are enclosed within the body . Pinnipeds tend to be slower swimmers than cetaceans , typically cruising at 5 – 15 kn ( 9 – 28 km / h ; 6 – 17 mph ) compared to around 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) for several species of dolphin . Seals are more agile and flexible , and some otariids , such as the California sea lion , are capable of bending their necks backwards far enough to reach their hind @-@ flippers , allowing them to make dorsal turns . Pinnipeds have several adaptions for reducing drag . In addition to their streamlined bodies , they have smooth networks of muscle bundles in their skin that may increase laminar flow and make it easier for them to slip through water . They also lack arrector pili , so their fur can be streamlined as they swim .
When swimming , otariids rely on their fore @-@ flippers for locomotion in a wing @-@ like manner similar to penguins and sea turtles . Fore @-@ flipper movement is not continuous , and the animal glides between each stroke . Compared to terrestrial carnivorans , the fore @-@ limbs of otariids are reduced in length , which gives the locomotor muscles at the shoulder and elbow joints greater mechanical advantage ; the hind @-@ flippers serve as stabilizers . Phocids and walruses swim by moving their hind @-@ flippers and lower body from side to side , while their fore @-@ flippers are mainly used for steering . Some species leap out of the water , which may allow then to travel faster . In addition , sea lions are known to " ride " waves , which probably helps them decrease their energy usage .
Pinnipeds can move around on land , though not as well as terrestrial animals . Otariids and walruses are capable of turning their hind @-@ flippers forward and under the body so they can " walk " on all fours . The fore @-@ flippers move in a transverse , rather than a sagittal fashion . Otariids rely on the movements of their heads and necks more than their hind @-@ flippers during terrestrial locomotion . By swinging their heads and necks , otariids create momentum while they are moving . Sea lions have been recorded climbing up flights of stairs . Phocids are less agile on land . They cannot pull their hind @-@ flippers forward , and move on land by lunging , bouncing and wiggling while their fore @-@ flippers keep them balanced . Some species use their fore @-@ flippers to pull themselves forward . Terrestrial locomotion is easier for phocids on ice , as they can sled along .
= = = Senses = = =
The eyes of pinnipeds are relatively large for their size and are positioned near the front of the head . One exception is the walrus , whose smaller eyes are located on the sides of its head . This is because it feeds on immobile bottom dwelling mollusks and hence does not need acute vision . A seal 's eye is adapted for seeing both underwater and in air . The lens is mostly spherical , and much of the retina is equidistant from the lens center . The cornea has a flattened center where refraction is nearly equal in both water and air . Pinnipeds also have very muscular and vascularized irises . The well @-@ developed dilator muscle gives the animals a great range in pupil dilation . When contracted , the pupil is typically pear @-@ shaped , although the bearded seal 's is more diagonal . In species that live in shallow water , such as harbor seals and California sea lions , dilation varies little , while the deep @-@ diving elephant seals have much greater variation .
On land , pinnipeds are near @-@ sighted in dim light . This is reduced in bright light , as the retracted pupil reduces the lens and cornea 's ability to bend light . They also have a well @-@ developed tapetum lucidum , a reflecting layer that increases sensitivity by reflecting light back through the rods . This helps them see in low @-@ light conditions . Ice @-@ living seals like the harp seal have corneas that can tolerate high levels of ultraviolet radiation typical of bright , snowy environments . As such , they do not suffer snow blindness . Pinnipeds appear to have limited color vision , as they lack S @-@ cones . Flexible eye movement has been documented in seals . The extraocular muscles of the walrus are well developed . This and its lack of orbital roof allow it to protrude its eyes and see in both frontal and dorsal directions . Seals release large amounts of mucus to protect their eyes . The corneal epithelium is keratinized and the sclera is thick enough to withstand the pressures of diving . As in many mammals and birds , pinnipeds possess nictitating membranes .
The pinniped ear is adapted for hearing underwater , where it can hear sound frequencies at up to 70 @,@ 000 Hz . In air , hearing is somewhat reduced in pinnipeds compared to many terrestrial mammals . While they are capable of hearing a wide range of frequencies ( e.g. 500 to 32 @,@ 000 Hz in the northern fur seal , compared to 20 to 20 @,@ 000 Hz in humans ) , their airborne hearing sensitivity is weaker overall . One study of three species — the harbor seal , California sea lion and northern elephant seal — found that the sea lion was best adapted for airborne hearing , the harbor seal was equally capable of hearing in air and water , and the elephant seal was better adapted for underwater hearing . Although pinnipeds have a fairly good sense of smell on land , it is useless underwater as their nostrils are closed .
Pinnipeds have well @-@ developed tactile senses . Their mystacial vibrissae have ten times the innervation of terrestrial mammals , allowing them to effectively detect vibrations in the water . These vibrations are generated , for example , when a fish swims through water . Detecting vibrations is useful when the animals are foraging and may add to or even replace vision , particularly in darkness . Harbor seals have been observed following varying paths of another seal that swam ahead several minutes before , similar to a dog following a scent trail , and even to discriminate the species and the size of the fish responsible for the trail . Blind ringed seals have even been observed successfully hunting on their own in Lake Saimaa , likely relying on their vibrissae to gain sensory information and catch prey .
Unlike terrestrial mammals , such as rodents , pinnipeds do not move their vibrissae over an object when examining it but instead extend their moveable whiskers and keep them in the same position . By holding their vibrissae steady , pinnipeds are able to maximize their detection ability . The vibrissae of phocids are undulated and wavy while otariid and walrus vibrissae are smooth . Research is ongoing to determine the function , if any , of these shapes on detection ability . The vibrissa 's angle relative to the flow , not the shape , however , seems to be the most important factor . The vibrissae of some otariids grow quite long — those of the Antarctic fur seal can reach 41 cm ( 16 in ) . Walruses have the most vibrissae , at 600 – 700 individual hairs . These are important for detecting their prey on the muddy sea floor . In addition to foraging , vibrissae may also play a role in navigation ; spotted seals appear to use them to detect breathing holes in the ice .
= = = Diving adaptations = = =
Before diving , pinnipeds typically exhale to empty their lungs of half the air and then close their nostrils and throat cartilages to protect the trachea . Their unique lungs have airways that are highly reinforced with cartilaginous rings and smooth muscle , and alveoli that completely deflate during deeper dives . While terrestrial mammals are generally unable to empty their lungs , pinnipeds can reinflate their lungs even after complete respiratory collapse . The middle ear contains sinuses that probably fill with blood during dives , preventing middle ear squeeze . The heart of a seal is moderately flattened to allow the lungs to deflate . The trachea is flexible enough to collapse under pressure . During deep dives , any remaining air in their bodies is stored in the bronchioles and trachea , which prevents them from experiencing decompression sickness , oxygen toxicity and nitrogen narcosis . In addition , seals can tolerate large amounts of lactic acid , which reduces skeletal muscle fatigue during intense physical activity .
The main adaptations of the pinniped circulatory system for diving are the enlargement and increased complexity of veins to increase their capacity . Retia mirabilia form blocks of tissue on the inner wall of the thoracic cavity and the body periphery . These tissue masses , which contain extensive contorted spirals of arteries and thin @-@ walled veins , act as blood reservoirs that increase oxygen stores for use during diving . As with other diving mammals , pinnipeds have high amounts of hemoglobin and myoglobin stored in their blood and muscles . This allows them to stay submerged for long periods of time while still having enough oxygen . Deep @-@ diving species such as elephant seals have blood volumes that make up to 20 % of their body weight . When diving , they reduce their heart rate and maintain blood flow only to the heart , brain and lungs . To keep their blood pressure stable , phocids have an elastic aorta that dissipates some energy of each heartbeat .
= = = Thermoregulation = = =
Pinnipeds conserve heat with their large and compact body size , insulating blubber and fur , and high metabolism . In addition , the blood vessels in their flippers are adapted for countercurrent exchange . Veins containing cool blood from the body extremities surround arteries , which contain warm blood received from the core of the body . Heat from the arterial blood is transferred to the blood vessels , which then recirculate blood back to the core . The same adaptations that conserve heat while in water tend to inhibit heat loss when out of water . To counteract overheating , many species cool off by flipping sand onto their backs , adding a layer of cool , damp sand that enhances heat loss . The northern fur seal pants to help stay cool , while monk seals often dig holes in the sand to expose cooler layers to rest in .
= = = Sleep = = =
Pinnipeds spend many months at a time at sea , so they must sleep in the water . Scientists have recorded them sleeping for minutes at a time while slowly drifting downward in a belly @-@ up orientation . Like other marine mammals , seals sleep in water with half of their brain awake so that they can detect and escape from predators . When they are asleep on land , both sides of their brain go into sleep mode .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Living pinnipeds mainly inhabit polar and subpolar regions , particularly the North Atlantic , the North Pacific and the Southern Ocean . They are entirely absent from Indo @-@ Malayan waters . Monk seals and some otariids live in tropical and subtropical waters . Seals usually require cool , nutrient @-@ rich waters with temperatures lower than 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . Even those that live in warm or tropical climates live in areas that become cold and nutrient rich due to current patterns . Only monk seals live in waters that are not typically cool or rich in nutrients . The Caspian seal and Baikal seal are found in large landlocked bodies of water ( the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal respectively ) .
As a whole , pinnipeds can be found in a variety of aquatic habitats , including coastal water , open ocean , brackish water and even freshwater lakes and rivers . Most species inhabit coastal areas , though some travel offshore and feed in deep waters off oceanic islands . The Baikal seal is the only freshwater species , though some ringed seals live in freshwater lakes in Russia close to the Baltic sea . In addition , harbor seals may visit estuaries , lakes and rivers and sometimes stay as long as a year . Other species known to enter freshwater include California sea lions and South American sea lions . Pinnipeds also use a number of terrestrial habitats and substrates , both continental and island . In temperate and tropical areas , they haul @-@ out on to sandy and pebble beaches , rocky shores , shoals , mud flats , tide pools and in sea caves . Some species also rest on man @-@ made structures , like piers , jetties , buoys and oil platforms . Pinnipeds may move further inland and rest in sand dunes or vegetation , and may even climb cliffs . Polar @-@ living species haul @-@ out on to both fast ice and pack ice .
= = Behavior and life history = =
Pinnipeds have an amphibious lifestyle ; they spend most of their lives in the water , but haul @-@ out to mate , raise young , molt , rest , thermoregulate or escape from aquatic predators . Several species are known to migrate vast distances , particularly in response to extreme environmental changes , like El Niño or changes in ice cover . Elephant seals stay at sea 8 – 10 months a year and migrate between breeding and molting sites . The northern elephant seal has one of the longest recorded migration distance for a mammal , at 18 @,@ 000 – 21 @,@ 000 km ( 11 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 mi ) . Phocids tend to migrate more than otariids . Traveling seals may use various features of their environment to reach their destination including geomagnetic fields , water and wind currents , the position of the sun and moon and the taste and temperature of the water .
Pinnipeds may dive during foraging or to avoid predators . When foraging , Weddell seals typically dive for less than 15 minutes to depths of around 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) but can dive for as long as 73 minutes and to depths of up to 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) . Northern elephant seals commonly dive 350 – 650 m ( 1 @,@ 150 – 2 @,@ 130 ft ) for as long as 20 minutes . They can also dive 1 @,@ 259 – 4 @,@ 100 m ( 4 @,@ 131 – 13 @,@ 451 ft ) and for as long as 62 minutes . The dives of otariids tend to be shorter and less deep . They typically last 5 – 7 minutes with average depths to 30 – 45 m ( 98 – 148 ft ) . However , the New Zealand sea lion has been recorded diving to a maximum of 460 m ( 1 @,@ 510 ft ) and a duration of 12 minutes . Walruses do not often dive very deep , as they feed in shallow water .
Pinnipeds have lifespans averaging 25 – 30 years . Females usually live longer , as males tend to fight and often die before reaching maturity . The longest recorded lifespans include 43 years for a wild female ringed seal and 46 years for a wild female grey seal . The age at which a pinniped sexually matures can vary from 2 – 12 years depending on the species . Females typically mature earlier than males .
= = = Foraging and predation = = =
All pinnipeds are carnivorous and predatory . As a whole , they mostly feed on fish and cephalopods , followed by crustaceans and bivalves , and then zooplankton and endothermic ( " warm @-@ blooded " ) prey like sea birds . While most species are generalist and opportunistic feeders , a few are specialists . Examples include the crabeater seal , which primarily eats krill , the ringed seal , which eats mainly crustaceans , the Ross seal and southern elephant seal , which specialize on squid , and the bearded seal and walrus , which feed on clams and other bottom @-@ dwelling invertebrates . Pinnipeds may hunt solitarily or cooperatively . The former behavior is typical when hunting non @-@ schooling fish , slow @-@ moving or immobile invertebrates or endothermic prey . Solitary foraging species usually exploit coastal waters , bays and rivers . An exception to this is the northern elephant seal , which feeds on fish at great depths in the open ocean . In addition , walruses feed solitarily but are often near other walruses in small or large groups that may surface and dive in unison . When large schools of fish or squid are available , pinnipeds such as certain otariids hunt cooperatively in large groups , locating and herding their prey . Some species , such as California and South American sea lions , may forage with cetaceans and sea birds .
Seals typically consume their prey underwater where it is swallowed whole . Prey that is too large or awkward is taken to the surface to be torn apart . The leopard seal , a prolific predator of penguins , is known to violently swing its prey back and forth until it is decapitated . The elaborately cusped teeth of filter @-@ feeding species , such as crabeater seals , allow them to remove water before they swallow their planktonic food . The walrus is unique in that it consumes its prey by suction feeding , using its tongue to suck the meat of a bivalve out of the shell . While pinnipeds mostly hunt in the water , South American sea lions are known to chase down penguins on land . Some species may swallow stones or pebbles for reasons not understood . Though they can drink seawater , pinnipeds get most of their fluid intake from the food they eat .
Pinnipeds themselves are subject to predation . Most species are preyed on by the killer whale or orca . To subdue and kill seals , orcas continuously ram them with their heads , slap them with their tails and fling them in the air . They are typically hunted by groups of 10 or fewer whales , but they are occasionally hunted by larger groups or by lone individuals . Pups are more commonly taken by orcas , but adults can be targeted as well . Large sharks are another major predator of pinnipeds — usually the great white shark but also the tiger shark and mako shark . Sharks usually attack by ambushing them from below . The prey usually escapes , and seals are often seen with shark @-@ inflicted wounds . Otariids typically have injuries in the hindquarters , while phocids usually have injuries on the forequarters .
Pinnipeds are also targeted by terrestrial and pagophilic predators . The polar bear is well adapted for hunting Arctic seals and walruses , particularly pups . Bears are known to use sit @-@ and @-@ wait tactics as well as active stalking and pursuit of prey on ice or water . Other terrestrial predators include cougars , brown hyenas and various species of canids , which mostly target the young . Pinnipeds lessen the chance of predation by gathering in groups . Some species are capable of inflicting damaging wounds on their attackers with their sharp canines — an adult walrus is capable of killing polar bears . When out at sea , northern elephant seals dive out of the reach of surface @-@ hunting orcas and white sharks . In the Antarctic , which lacks terrestrial predators , pinniped species spend more time on the ice than their Arctic counterparts . Arctic seals use more breathing holes per individual , appear more restless when hauled out , and rarely defecate on the ice . Ringed seals would build dens underneath fast ice .
Interspecific predation among pinnipeds does occur . The leopard seal is known to prey on numerous other species , especially the crabeater seal . Leopard seals typically target crabeater pups , which form an important part of their diet from November to January . Older crabeater seals commonly bear scars from failed leopard seal attacks ; a 1977 study found that 75 % of a sample of 85 individual crabeaters had these scars . Walruses , despite being specialized for feeding on bottom @-@ dwelling invertebrates , occasionally prey on Arctic seals . They kill their prey with their long tusks and eat their blubber and skin . Steller sea lions have been recorded eating the pups of harbor seals , northern fur seals and California sea lions . New Zealand sea lions feed on pups of some fur seal species , and the South American sea lion may prey on South American fur seals .
= = = Reproductive behavior = = =
The mating system of pinnipeds varies from extreme polygyny to serial monogamy . Of the 33 species , 20 breed on land , and the remaining 13 breed on ice . Species that breed on land are usually polygynous , as females gather in large aggregations and males are able to mate with them as well as defend them from rivals . Polygynous species include elephant seals , grey seals and most otariids . Land @-@ breeding pinnipeds tend to mate on islands where there are fewer terrestrial predators . Few islands are favorable for breeding , and those that are tend to be crowded . Since the land they breed on is fixed , females return to the same sites for many years . The males arrive earlier in the season and wait for them . The males stay on land and try to mate with as many females as they can ; some of them will even fast . If a male leaves the beach to feed , he will likely lose mating opportunities and his dominance . Polygynous species also tend to be extremely sexual dimorphic in favor of males . This dimorphism manifests itself in larger chests and necks , longer canines and denser fur — all traits that help males in fights for females . Increased body weight in males increases the length of time they can fast due to the ample energy reserves stored in the blubber . Larger males also likely enjoy access to feeding grounds that smaller ones are unable to access due to their lower thermoregulatory ability and decreased energy stores . In some instances , only the largest males are able to reach the furthest deepest foraging grounds where they enjoy maximum energetic yields that are unavailable to smaller males and females .
Other seals , like the walrus and most phocids , breed on ice with copulation usually taking place in the water ( a few land @-@ breeding species also mate in water ) . Females of these species tend to aggregate less . In addition , since ice is less stable than solid land , breeding sites change location each year , and males are unable to predict where females will stay during the breeding season . Hence polygyny tends to be weaker in ice @-@ breeding species . An exception to this is the walrus , where females form dense aggregations perhaps due to their patchy food sources . Pinnipeds that breed on fast ice tend to cluster together more than those that breed on pack ice . Some of these species are serially monogamous , including the harp seal , crabeater seal and hooded seal . Seals that breed on ice tend to have little or no sexual dimorphism . In lobodontine seals , females are slightly longer than males . Walruses and hooded seals are unique among ice @-@ breeding species in that they have pronounced sexual dimorphism in favor of males .
Adult male pinnipeds have several strategies to ensure reproductive success . Otariids establish territories containing resources that attract females , such as shade , tide pools or access to water . Territorial boundaries are usually marked by natural breaks in the substrate , and males defend their territorial boundaries with threatening vocalizations and postures , but physical fights are usually avoided . Individuals also return to the same territorial site each breeding season . In certain species , like the Steller sea lion and northern fur seal , a dominant male can maintain a territory for as long as 2 – 3 months . Females can usually move freely between territories and males are unable to coerce them , but in some species such as the northern fur seal , South American sea lion and Australian sea lion , males can successfully contain females in their territories and prevent them from leaving . In some phocid species , like the harbor seal , Weddell seal and bearded seal , the males have underwater territories called " maritories " near female haul @-@ out areas . These are also maintained by vocalizations . The maritories of Weddell seal males can overlap with female breathing holes in the ice .
Lek systems are known to exist among some populations of walruses . These males cluster around females and try to attract them with elaborate courtship displays and vocalizations . Lekking may also exist among California sea lions , South American fur seals , New Zealand sea lions and harbor seals . In some species , including elephant seals and grey seals , males will try to lay claim to the desired females and defend them from rivals . Elephant seal males establish dominance hierarchies with the highest ranking males — the alpha males — maintaining harems of as many as 30 – 100 females . These males commonly disrupt the copulations of their subordinates while they themselves can mount without inference . They will , however , break off mating to chase off a rival . Grey seal males usually claim a location among a cluster of females whose members may change over time . Male harp seals , crabeater seals and hooded seals follow and defend lactating females in their vicinity — usually one or two at a time , — and wait for them to reach estrus .
Younger or subdominant male pinnipeds may attempt to achieve reproductive success in other ways . Subadult elephant seals will sneak into female clusters and try to blend in by pulling in their noses . They also harass and attempt to mate with females that head out to the water . In otariid species like the South American and Australian sea lions , non @-@ territorial subadults form " gangs " and cause chaos within the breeding rookeries to increase their chances of mating with females . Alternative mating strategies also exist in young male grey seals , which do have some success . Female pinnipeds do appear to have some choice in mates , particularly in lek @-@ breeding species like the walrus , but also in elephant seals where the males try to dominate all the females that they want to mate with . When a female elephant seal or grey seal is mounted by an unwanted male , she tries to squirm and get away , while croaking and slapping him with her tail . This commotion attracts other males to the scene , and the most dominant will end the copulation and attempt to mate with the female himself . Dominant female elephant seals stay in the center of the colony where they are more likely to mate with a dominant male , while peripheral females are more likely to mate with subordinates . Female Steller sea lions are known to solicit mating with their territorial males .
= = = Birth and parenting = = =
With the exception of the walrus , which has five- to six @-@ year @-@ long inter @-@ birth intervals , female pinnipeds enter estrous shortly after they give birth . All species go through delayed implantation , wherein the embryo remains in suspended development for weeks or months before it is implanted in the uterus . Delayed implantation postpones the birth of young until the female hauls @-@ out on land or until conditions for birthing are favorable . Gestation in seals ( including delayed implantation ) typically lasts a year . For most species , birthing takes place in the spring and summer months . Typically , single pups are born ; twins are uncommon and have high mortality rates . Pups of most species are born precocial .
Mother pinnipeds have different strategies for maternal care and lactation . Phocids such as elephant seals , grey seals and hooded seals remain on land or ice and fast during their relatively short lactation period – four days for the hooded seal and five weeks for elephant seals . The milk of these species consist of up to 60 % fat , allowing the young to grow fairly quickly . In particular , northern elephant seal pups gain 4 kg ( 9 lb ) each day before they are weaned . Some pups may try to steal extra milk from other nursing mothers and gain weight more quickly than others . Alloparenting occurs in these fasting species ; while most northern elephant seal mothers nurse their own pups and reject nursings from alien pups , some do accept alien pups with their own .
For otariids and some phocids like the harbor seal , mothers fast and nurse their pups for a few days at a time . In between nursing bouts , the females leave their young onshore to forage at sea . These foraging trips may last anywhere between a day and two weeks , depending on the abundance of food and the distance of foraging sites . While their mothers are away , the pups will fast . Lactation in otariids may last 6 – 11 months ; in the Galápagos fur seal it can last as long as 3 years . Pups of these species are weaned at lower weights than their phocid counterparts . Walruses are unique in that mothers nurse their young at sea . The female rests at the surface with its head held up , and the young suckle upside down .
Male pinnipeds generally play little role in raising the young . Male walruses may help inexperienced young as they learn to swim , and have even been recorded caring for orphans . Male California sea lions have been observed to help shield swimming pups from predators . Males can also pose threats to the safety of pups . In terrestrially breeding species , pups may get crushed by fighting males . Subadult male South America sea lions sometimes abduct pups from their mothers and treat them like adult males treat females . This helps them gain experience in controlling females . Pups can get severely injured or killed during abductions .
= = = Communication = = =
Pinnipeds can produce a number of vocalizations such as barks , grunts , rasps , rattles , growls , creaks , warbles , trills , chirps , chugs , clicks and whistles . Vocals are produced both in air and underwater . Otariids are more vocal on land , while phocids are more vocal in water . Antarctic seals are more vocal on land or ice than Arctic seals due to a lack of terrestrial and pagophliic predators like the polar bear . Male vocals are usually of lower frequencies than those of the females . Vocalizations are particularly important during the breeding seasons . Dominant male elephant seals advertise their status and threaten rivals with " clap @-@ threats " and loud drum @-@ like calls that may be modified by the proboscis . Male otariids have strong barks , growls , roars and " whickers " . Male walruses are known to produce distinctive gong @-@ like calls when attempting to attract females . They can also create somewhat musical sounds with their inflated throats .
The Weddell seal has perhaps the most elaborate vocal repertoire with separate sounds for airborne and underwater contexts . Underwater vocals include trills , chugs , chirps , chugs and knocks . The calls appear to contain prefixes and suffixes that serve to emphasize a message . The underwater vocals of Weddell seals can last 70 seconds , which is long for a marine mammal call . Some calls have around seven rhythm patterns and are comparable to birdsongs and whalesongs . Similar calls have been recorded in other lobodontine seals and in bearded seals . In some pinniped species , there appear to be geographic differences in vocalizations , known as dialects , while certain species may even have individual variations in expression . These differences are likely important for mothers and pups who need to remain in contact on crowded beaches . Otariid females and their young use mother @-@ pup attraction calls to help them reunite when the mother returns from foraging at sea . Female pinnipeds are also known to bellow when protecting their young .
While most vocals are audible to the human ear , a captive leopard seal was recorded making ultrasonic calls underwater . In addition , the vocals of northern elephant seals may produce infrasonic vibrations . Non @-@ vocal communication is not as common in pinnipeds as in cetaceans . Nevertheless , when disturbed by intruders harbor seals and Baikal seals may slap their fore @-@ flippers against their bodies as warnings . Teeth chattering , hisses and exhalations are also made as aggressive warnings . Visual displays also occur : Weddell seals will make an S @-@ shaped posture when patrolling under the ice , and Ross seals will display the stripes on their chests and teeth when approached . Male hooded seals use their inflatable nasal membranes to display to and attract females .
= = = Intelligence = = =
In a match @-@ to @-@ sample task study , a single California sea lion was able to demonstrate an understanding of symmetry , transitivity and equivalence ; a second seal was unable to complete the tasks . They demonstrate the ability to understand simple syntax and commands when taught an artificial sign language , though they only rarely used the signs semantically or logically . In 2011 , a captive California sea lion named Ronan was recorded bobbing its head in synchrony to musical rhythms . This " rhythmic entrainment " was previously seen only in humans , parrots and other birds possessing vocal mimicry . In 1971 , a captive harbor seal named Hoover was trained to imitate human words , phrases and laughter . For sea lions used in entertainment , trainers toss a ball at the animal so it may accidentally balance it or hold the ball on its nose , thereby gaining an understanding of the behavior desired . It may require a year to train a sea lion to perform a trick for the public . Its long @-@ term memory allows it to perform a trick after at least three months of non @-@ performance .
= = Human relations = =
= = = Cultural depictions = = =
Various human cultures have depicted pinnipeds for millennia . The anthropologist , A. Asbjørn Jøn , has analysed beliefs of the Celts of Orkney and Hebrides who believed in the selkie — seals that could change into humans and walk on land . Seals are also of great importance in the culture of the Inuit . In Inuit mythology , the goddess Sedna rules over the sea and marine animals . She is depicted as a mermaid , occasionally with a seal 's lower body . In one legend , seals , whales and other marine mammals were formed from her severed fingers . One of the earliest Ancient Greek coins depicts the head of a seal , and the animals were mentioned by Homer and Aristotle . The Greeks believed that seals loved both the sea and sun and were considered to be under the protection of the gods Poseidon and Apollo . The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped the sea and its animals , and often depicted sea lions in their art . In modern popular culture , pinnipeds are often depicted as comical figures based on their performances in zoos , circuses and marine mammal parks .
= = = In captivity = = =
Pinnipeds have been kept in captivity since at least the 17th century and can be found in facilities around the world . Their large size and playfulness make them popular attractions . Some exhibits have rocky backgrounds with artificial haul @-@ out sites and a pool , while others have pens with small rocky , elevated shelters where the animals can dive into their pools . More elaborate exhibits contain deep pools that can be viewed underwater with rock @-@ mimicking cement as haul @-@ out areas . The most common pinniped species kept in captivity is the California sea lion as it is abundant and easy to train . These animals are used to perform tricks and entertain visitors . Other species popularly kept in captivity include the grey seal and harbor seal . Larger animals like walruses and Steller sea lions are much less common . Some organizations , such as the Humane Society of the United States and World Animal Protection , object to keeping pinnipeds and other marine mammals in captivity . They state that the exhibits could not be large enough to house animals that have evolved to be migratory , and a pool could never replace the size and biodiversity of the ocean . They also oppose using sea lions for entertainment , claiming the tricks performed are " exaggerated variations of their natural behaviors " and distract the audience from the animal 's unnatural environment .
California sea lions are used in military applications by the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program , including detecting naval mines and enemy divers . In the Persian Gulf , the animals can swim behind divers approaching a U.S. naval ship and attach a clamp with a rope to the diver 's leg . Navy officials say that the sea lions can do this in seconds , before the enemy realizes what happened . Organizations like PETA believe that such operations put the animals in danger . The Navy insists that the sea lions are removed once their mission is complete .
= = = Conservation and management issues = = =
As of 2013 , International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) recognizes 35 pinniped species . Two species — the Japanese sea lion and the Caribbean monk seal — are recently extinct , and ten more are considered at risk , as they are ranked " Critically Endangered " ( the Mediterranean and Hawaiian monk seals ) , " Endangered " ( Galápagos fur seal , Australian sea lion , Caspian seal and Galápagos sea lion ) , and " Vulnerable " ( northern fur seal , hooded seal and New Zealand sea lion ) . Three species — the walrus , the ribbon seal , and the spotted seal — have a " Data Deficient " ranking . Species that live in polar habitats are vulnerable to the effects of recent and ongoing climate change , particularly declines in sea ice . There has been some debate over the cause of the decline of Steller sea lions in Alaska since the 1970s .
Humans have hunted seals since the Stone Age . Originally , seals were hit with clubs during haul @-@ out . Eventually , seal hunters used harpoons to spear the animals from boats out at sea , and hooks for killing pups on ice or land . They were also trapped in nets . The use of firearms in seal hunting during the modern era drastically increased the number of killings . Pinnipeds are typically hunted for their meat and blubber . The skins of fur seals and phocids are made into coats , and the tusks of walruses continue to be used for carvings or as ornaments . There is a distinction between the subsistence hunting of seals by indigenous peoples of the Arctic and commercial hunting : subsistence hunters typically use seal products for themselves and depend on them for survival . National and international authorities have given special treatment to aboriginal hunters since their methods of killing are seen as less destructive and wasteful . This distinction is being questioned as indigenous people are using more modern weaponry and mechanized transport to hunt with , and are selling seal products in the marketplace . Some anthropologists argue that the term " subsistence " should also apply to these cash @-@ based exchanges as long as they take place within local production and consumption . More than 100 @,@ 000 phocids ( especially ringed seals ) as well as around 10 @,@ 000 walruses are harvested annually by native hunters .
Commercial sealing was historically just as important an industry as whaling . Exploited species included harp seals , hooded seals , Caspian seals , elephant seals , walruses and all species of fur seal . The scale of seal harvesting decreased substantially after the 1960s , after the Canadian government reduced the length of the hunting season and implemented measures to protect adult females . Several species that were commercially exploited have rebounded in numbers ; for example , Antarctic fur seals may be as numerous as they were prior to harvesting . The northern elephant seal was hunted to near extinction in the late 19th century , with only a small population remaining on Guadalupe Island . It has since recolonized much of its historic range , but has a population bottleneck . Conversely , the Mediterranean monk seal was extirpated from much of its former range , which stretched from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea and northwest Africa , and only remains in the northeastern Mediterranean and some parts of northwest Africa .
Several species of pinniped continue to be harvested . The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals allows limited hunting of crabeater seals , leopard seals and Weddell seals . However , Weddell seal hunting is prohibited between September and February if the animal is over one year of age , to ensure breeding stocks are healthy . Other species protected are southern elephant seals , Ross seals and Antarctic fur seals . The Government of Canada permits the hunting of harp seals . This has been met with controversy and debate . Proponents of seal hunts insist that the animals are killed humanely and the white @-@ coated pups are not taken , while opponents argue that it is irresponsible to kill harp seals as they are already threatened by declining habitat .
The Caribbean monk seal has been killed and exploited by Europeans settlers and their descendants since 1494 , starting with Christopher Columbus himself . The seals were easy targets for organized sealers , fishermen , turtle hunters and buccaneers because they evolved with little pressure from terrestrial predators and were thus " genetically tame " . In the Bahamas , as many as 100 seals were slaughtered in one night . In the mid @-@ nineteenth century , the species was thought to have gone extinct until a small colony was found near the Yucatán Peninsula in 1886 . Seal killings continued , and the last reliable report of the animal alive was in 1952 . The IUCN declared it extinct in 1996 . The Japanese sea lion was common around the Japanese islands , but overexploitation and competition from fisheries drastically decreased the population in the 1930s . The last recorded individual was a juvenile in 1974 .
Some species have become so numerous that they conflict with local people . In the United States , pinnipeds and other marine mammals are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 ( MMPA ) . Since that year , California sea lion populations have risen to 250 @,@ 000 . These animals began exploiting more man @-@ made environments , like docks , for haul @-@ out sites . Many docks are not designed to withstand the weight of several resting sea lions , which causes major tilting and other problems . Wildlife managers have used various methods to control the animals , and some city officials have redesigned docks so they can better withstand them . Sea lions also conflict with fisherman since both depend on the same fish stocks . In 2007 , MMPA was amended to permit the lethal removal of sea lions from salmon runs at Bonneville Dam . The 2007 law seeks to relieve pressure on the crashing Pacific Northwest salmon populations . Wildlife officials have unsuccessfully attempted to ward off the sea lions using bombs , rubber bullets and bean bags . Efforts to chase sea lions away from the area have also proven ineffective . Critics like the Humane Society object to the killing of the sea lions , claiming that hydroelectric dams pose a greater threat to the salmon . Similar conflicts have existed in South Africa with brown fur seals . In the 1980s and 1990s , South African politicians and fisherman demanded that the fur seals be culled , believing that the animals competed with commercial fisheries . Scientific studies found that culling fur seals would actually have a negative effect on the fishing industry , and the culling option was dropped in 1993 .
Pinnipeds can also be threatened by humans in more indirect ways . They are unintentionally caught in fishing nets by commercial fisheries and accidentally swallow fishing hooks . Gillnetting and Seine netting is a significant cause of mortality in seals and other marine mammals . Species commonly entangled include California sea lions , Hawaiian monk seals , northern fur seals and brown fur seals . Pinnipeds are also affected by marine pollution . High levels of organic chemicals accumulate in these animals since they are near the top of food chains and have large reserves of blubber . Lactating mothers can pass the toxins on to their young . These pollutants can cause gastrointestinal cancers , decreased reproductivity and greater vulnerability to infectious diseases . Other man @-@ made threats include habitat destruction by oil and gas exploitation , encroachment by boats and underwater noise .
= Murder of Robert Eric Wone =
Robert Eric Wone was murdered in Washington , D.C. in August 2006 in the home of a college friend , Joe Price . Wone , who was 32 years old at the time , was
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, upon reaching the home , they also find it abandoned . Realizing that he may never find the answers he seeks , Bender is forced to confront the reality of death . Hermes consoles him , telling him that now life is precious and he should not spend it bitter and angry . The two bond and soon the Killbots arrive and begin shooting into the house . Hermes tells Bender to flee while he attempts to hack into Inspector No. 5 's old Central Bureaucracy computer and fake Bender 's death . Successful , Hermes uploads false information to the Killbots claiming Bender has been eliminated , which ends their pursuit and he narrowly escapes the burning wreckage of the house .
Back at Planet Express , Bender celebrates his new outlook on life with the other crew members . Meanwhile , Hermes secretly burns Inspector No. 5 's file , whose cover falls away to reveal that he was Inspector No. 5 . A flashback reveals that he overrode the " defective " assessment on Bender to prevent him from being scrapped , then resigned from the company immediately afterward . Hermes ' personnel file was deleted , and he stole his own physical file from the Central Bureaucracy ; the computer at the Tijuana house was his own , so he did not have to hack into it . In the present , Hermes smiles quietly over the burning file , happy in knowing he did the right thing .
= = Production = =
From June 8 to June 15 , as part of its 2010 " Countdown to Futurama " event , Comedy Central Insider , Comedy Central 's news outlet , released various preview materials for the episode , including a storyboard of Bender 's and Hermes ' entry into the Central Bureaucracy and character designs for the war reenactment sequence . The episode is one of the few times where Hermes plays a major role and is key to the plot . The episode ends with " Little Bird , Little Bird " , an American children 's song , performed by Elizabeth Mitchell .
The cultural references in the episode include when Hermes and Bender enter " cubicle room 729 " , with cubicles set up in groups of nine , three rows across and three columns down . In order to get to Hermes ' cubicle , the group rotates right and left and up and down in the same fashion as a Rubik 's Cube . When Hermes 's cubicle stops , he says , " This is mine , right next to the center square , " also referencing the game show Hollywood Squares . The bureaucrat next to Hermes makes a comment and a red ' X ' pops up on his desk . This is a reference to actor and comedian Paul Lynde , who was the regular " center square " on the show .
The episode deals with the concept of realizing one 's mortality and discovering that life is more precious because of it . Learning that he is in fact not immortal as he once thought , Bender initially feels that living a life that is anything less than immortal is worthless . He deals with the devastating news of his newfound mortality by trying to find the one person who he believes can answer his questions about the reason for his life and why he was allowed to " be born " only to die . Though Bender cannot find the answers to his mortality , he ultimately ends up developing a new outlook on life , believing it to be more precious than it was before now that it is finite , and he resolves that life is worth living no matter how brief it is .
= = Reception = =
" Lethal Inspection " originally aired on July 22 , 2010 on Comedy Central . In its original American broadcast , it was viewed by an estimated 1 @.@ 920 million viewers . The episode had a 1 @.@ 3 rating / 2 % share in Nielsen ratings and a 0 @.@ 9 rating / 3 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning 1 @.@ 3 % of households with televisions were watching the episode and 2 % of television viewers during the half @-@ hour were watching this episode . " Lethal Inspection " was down two tenths of a point from the previous week 's episode " The Duh @-@ Vinci Code " .
The episode received acclaim from critics . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave it an A- , praising the unlikely pairing of Bender and Hermes , writing : " If I had to name a character on the show least likely to pluck at my heartstrings , Bender and Hermes would be near the top of the list ... and yet they pulled it off . I 'm not sure if Baby Bender violates continuity or not , but I don 't care . It worked . " Handlen called the episode " more thoughtful " and also felt that the episode provided depth and growth to both Bender and Hermes without compromising characterization . In the case of Hermes , Handlen stated , " Hermes can be an obsessive , number @-@ loving accountant , and still have that memory of his younger self saving Baby Bender from the trash heap . It works because the twist is the discovery of compassion in someone we liked and wanted to love . " Danny Gallagher of TVSquad felt that the episode marked the return of the Futurama 's " true sense of emotion , " comparing it to previous episodes like season four 's " Jurassic Bark " . In particular , Gallagher noted the highly effective use of the Central Bureaucracy , stating that it allowed the show to use a Douglas Adams @-@ feel . Merrill Bar of Film School Rejects stated that the episode worked " 99 @.@ 9 % " and that it recovered what he felt had been lacking from the previous episodes of season six . While he disliked the opening Star Wars gag , he felt that the rest of the episode made up for it , stating that " Lethal Inspection " was " by far , the funniest episode since the shows [ sic ] return . If the writers can keep this up , then my faith will have been fully restored . "
Robert Canning of IGN was also pleased with the episode , noting that Hermes ' and Bender 's team @-@ up worked well and that the ending was cathartic . He found the episode to be his favorite of the new season , giving it a 9 / 10 and stating , " after an okay start , [ it ] turned out to be my favorite episode of this comeback season so far . The more I think about it , the more pleasure I find in it . It was an episode full of laughs , action and the kind of emotional tug the series has been missing of late . " Sean Gandert of Paste gave the episode a rating of 8 @.@ 7 / 10 and wrote : " Judging from this episode and the last it seems like Futurama is intentionally straying away from its old groupings and trying new things . The sixth season is moving off from the repetition of its first two episodes and is all the better for it . " Though he felt the episode was weaker with its jokes , he noted that this " is frequently the case in with episodes that deal more with the characters and less about making jokes in a wacky world . But this isn 't something I think will bother real fans , as that 's part of what 's given Futurama its cult audience in the first place : that the show gives a damn about its characters . "
= Education in Medieval Scotland =
Education in Medieval Scotland includes all forms of education within the modern borders of Scotland , between the departure of the Romans from Britain in the fifth century , until the establishment of the Renaissance late fifteenth century and early sixteenth century . Few sources on Scottish education survived the Medieval era . In the early Middle Ages , Scotland was an oral society , with verbal rather than literary education . Though there are indications of a Gaelic education system similar to that of Ireland , few details are known . The establishment of Christianity from the sixth century brought Latin to Scotland as a scholarly and written language . Monasteries served as major repositories of knowledge and education , often running schools .
In the High Middle Ages , new sources of education arose , such as song and grammar schools designed to train priests with emphases on music and Latin grammar , respectively . The number and size of these schools expanded rapidly after the 1380s . By the end of the Middle Ages , all the main burghs and some small towns had grammar schools . Educational provision was probably much weaker in rural areas , but there were petty or reading schools in rural areas , providing an elementary education . There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers that sometimes developed into " household schools " . Girls of noble families were taught in nunneries and by the end of the fifteenth century Edinburgh also had schools for girls . There is documentary evidence for about 100 schools of these different kinds before the Reformation . The Education Act 1496 decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn " perfyct Latyne " . All this resulted in an increase in literacy , with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the period .
Those who wished to attend university had to travel to England or the continent , and just over 1 @,@ 000 students have been identified as doing so between the twelfth century and 1410 . Major intellectual figures produced by Scotland with this system included John Duns Scotus , Walter Wardlaw , William de Tredbrum , Laurence de Lindores and John Mair . This situation was transformed by the founding of St John 's College , St Andrews ( 1418 ) . St Salvator 's College was added to St. Andrews in 1450 , followed by foundations at Glasgow in 1451 and King 's College , Aberdeen in 1495 . Initially , these institutions were designed for the training of clerics , but they would increasingly be used by laymen who began to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative posts in government and law . They provided only basic degrees and those wanting to study for the more advanced degrees , which were common amongst European scholars , needed to go to universities in other countries . In this period , Scottish universities largely had a Latin curriculum , designed for the clergy and civil and canon lawyers . Towards the end of the fifteenth century , a humanist influence and the teaching of Greek was becoming more evident .
= = Gaelic education and monasteries = =
In the early Middle Ages , Scotland was overwhelmingly an oral society and education was verbal rather than literary . Fuller sources for Ireland of the same period suggest that there were filidh , who acted as poets , musicians and historians , often attached to the court of a lord or king , and who passed on their knowledge in Gaelic to the next generation . After the " de @-@ gallicisation " of the Scottish court from the twelfth century , a less highly regarded order of bards took over these functions and they would continue to act in a similar role in the Highlands and Islands into the eighteenth century . They often trained in bardic schools , of which a few , such as the one run by the MacMhuirich dynasty , who were bards to the Lord of the Isles , existed in Scotland and a larger number in Ireland , until they were suppressed from the seventeenth century . Much of their work was never written down and what survives was only recorded from the sixteenth century . Evidence of formal schooling is largely only preserved in place names .
The establishment of Christianity from the sixth century brought Latin to Scotland as a scholarly and written language . Monasteries served as major repositories of knowledge and education , often running schools and providing a small , educated and overwhelmingly male , elite , who were essential to create and read documents in a largely illiterate society . Literary life revolved around the contemplation of texts and the copying of manuscripts . Libraries were of great importance to monastic communities . The one at Iona may have been exceptional , but it demonstrates that the monks were part of the mainstream of European Christian culture .
= = Schools = =
In the High Middle Ages , new sources of education arose . Choir and grammar schools were designed to train priests , with an emphasis respectively on music and Latin grammar . The reorganisation of the church that began in the reign of David I ( 1124 – 53 ) gave the church a clearer diocesan and parochial structure , meaning that the seats of sheriffdoms , such as Perth , received schools that were usually under monastic patrons . Early examples of grammar schools include the High School of Glasgow in 1124 and the High School of Dundee in 1239 . These were usually attached to cathedrals or a collegiate church . The newly created diocesan chancellors may have had authority over cathedral schools and schoolmasters within their diocese .
The new religious orders that became a major feature of Scottish monastic life in this period also brought new educational possibilities and the need to train larger numbers of monks . Benedictine and Augustinian foundations probably had almonry schools , charity schools using funds from the almoner to provide a type of bursary to educate young boys , who might enter the priesthood . At the Cluniac Paisley Abbey , secular chaplains were employed as schoolmasters . Some monasteries , including the Cistercian abbey at Kinloss , Sweetheart Abbey and Beauly , opened their doors to a wider range of students to teach the sons of gentlemen . St Andrews , which was both the seat of a bishop and the site of a major Augustinian foundation , had both a grammar school , under the archdeacon , and a song school , under the priory . The foundation of over 100 collegiate churches of secular priests between 1450 and the Reformation would have necessitated the training of large numbers of choristers . Sometimes , as at Lochwinnoch , they were taught both music and grammar . Dominican friars were noted for their educational achievements and were usually located in urban centres , probably teaching grammar , as at Glasgow and Ayr . The number and size of these schools seems to have expanded rapidly from the 1380s . By the end of the Middle Ages , grammar schools could be found in all the main burghs and some small towns .
Educational provision was probably much weaker in rural areas , but there were petty or reading schools that provided an elementary education . There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers . Sometimes these developed into " household schools " , that may also have catered to neighbours and kin , as well as the sons of the laird 's household , which is known to have happened at Huntly . All these schools were almost exclusively aimed at boys . Girls of noble families were taught in nunneries such as Elcho , Aberdour and Haddington . By the end of the fifteenth century Edinburgh also had schools for girls , sometimes described as " sewing schools " , whose name probably indicates one of their major functions . Although reading may also have been taught in these schools , the students were probably taught by lay women or nuns .
There is documentary evidence for about 100 schools of these different kinds before the Reformation . Most of the schoolmasters of these schools were clergy , and also acted as chaplains of religious foundations , hospitals or private chaplains of noblemen to supplement their merge incomes . To some extent , all education was controlled by different branches of the church , but towards the end of the period there was an increasing lay interest . This sometimes resulted in conflict , as between the burgh of Aberdeen and the cathedral chancellor , when the former appointed a lay graduate as schoolmaster in 1538 , and when a married man was appointed to the similar post in Perth . Education began to widen beyond the training of the clergy , particularly as lay lawyers began to emerge as a profession , with a humanist emphasis on educating the future ruling class for their duties . The growing humanist @-@ inspired emphasis on education cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496 , thought to have been steered through parliament by the Keeper of the Privy Seal William Elphinstone , Bishop of Aberdeen , which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn " perfyct Latyne " . All this resulted in an increase in literacy , which was largely concentrated among a male and wealthy elite , with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the period .
= = Universities = =
From the end of the eleventh century , universities had been founded across Europe , developing as semi @-@ autonomous centres of learning , often teaching theology , mathematics , law and medicine . Until the fifteenth century , those Scots who wished to attend university had to travel to England , to Oxford or Cambridge , or to the Continent . Just over 1 @,@ 000 students have been identified as doing so between the twelfth century and 1410 . Among the destinations Paris was the most important , but also Cologne , Orléans , Wittenberg , Louvain and Vienna .
Among these travelling scholars , the most important intellectual figure was John Duns Scotus ( c . 1266 – 1308 ) , who studied at Oxford , Cambridge and Paris . He probably died at Cologne in 1308 , after becoming a major influence on late medieval religious thought . After the outbreak of the Wars of Independence ( 1296 – 1357 ) , with occasional exceptions under safe conduct , English universities were closed to Scots and continental universities became more significant . Some Scottish scholars became teachers in continental universities . At Paris , this included John de Rait ( died c . 1355 ) and Walter Wardlaw ( died c . 1387 ) in the 1340s and 1350s , William de Tredbrum in the 1380s and Laurence de Lindores ( 1372 – 1437 ) in the early 1500s . The continued movement to other universities produced a school of Scottish nominalists at Paris in the early sixteenth century , of which John Mair ( 1467 – 1550 ) was a member . He had probably studied at a Scottish grammar school and then Cambridge , before moving to Paris where he matriculated in 1493 .
This situation was transformed by the founding of St John 's College , St Andrews in 1418 . Henry Wardlaw , bishop of St. Andrews , petitioned the anti @-@ Pope Benedict XIII during the later stages of the Great Western Schism , when Scotland was one of his few remaining supporters . Wardlaw argued that Scottish scholars in other universities were being persecuted for their loyalty to the anti @-@ Pope . St Salvator 's College was added to St. Andrews in 1450 . The other great bishoprics followed , with the University of Glasgow being founded in 1451 and the King 's College , Aberdeen in 1495 . Both were also papal foundations , by Nicholas V and Alexander VI respectively . St Leonard 's College was added at St. Andrews in 1511 . St. Andrews was deliberately modelled on Paris , and although Glasgow adopted the statues of the University of Bologna , there , like Aberdeen , there was an increasing Parisian influence , partly because all its early regents had been educated in Paris . Initially , these institutions were designed for the training of clerics , but they would increasingly be used by laymen who began to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative posts in government and law . They provided only basic degrees . Those wanting to study for the more advanced degrees that were common amongst European scholars still needed to go to universities in other countries . As a result , Scottish scholars continued to visit the Continent and returned to English universities after they reopened to Scots in the late fifteenth century .
By the fifteenth century , beginning in northern Italy , universities had become strongly influenced by humanist thinking . This put an emphasis on classical authors , questioning some of the accepted certainties of established thinking and manifesting itself in the teaching of new subjects , particularly through the medium of the Greek language . However , in this period , Scottish universities largely had a Latin curriculum , designed for the clergy , civil and common lawyers . They did not teach the Greek that was fundamental to the new humanist scholarship , focusing on metaphysics and putting a largely unquestioning faith in the works of Aristotle , whose authority would be challenged in the Renaissance . Towards the end of the fifteenth century , a humanist influence was becoming more evident . A major figure was Archibald Whitelaw , a teacher at St. Andrews and Cologne who later became a tutor to the young James III and served as royal secretary from 1462 to 1493 . By 1497 , the humanist and historian Hector Boece , born in Dundee and who had studied at Paris , returned to become the first principal at the new university of Aberdeen . In 1518 Mair returned to Scotland to become Principal of the University of Glasgow . He transferred to St. Andrews in 1523 and in 1533 he was made Provost of St Salvator 's College . While in Scotland his students included John Knox and George Buchanan . These international contacts helped integrate Scotland into a wider European scholarly world and would be one of the most important ways in which the new ideas of Humanism were brought into Scottish intellectual life in the sixteenth century .
= The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History =
The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History is a non @-@ fiction book about the American animated television series The Simpsons . It was written by John Ortved , and first published in October 2009 by Faber and Faber . In the United Kingdom , the book is called Simpsons Confidential : The uncensored , totally unauthorised history of the world 's greatest TV show by the people that made it . The book is an oral history of the show , and concentrates particularly on the writers and producers of the show . The book includes entire chapters devoted to key figures such as creator Matt Groening and James L. Brooks and Sam Simon , who helped develop the series . According to National Public Radio reviewer Linda Holmes , " Ortved 's thesis , essentially , is that lots of people are responsible for the success of The Simpsons , and their creator , Matt Groening , has too often been viewed as the sole source to the detriment of others who also deserve to be praised . "
In 2007 , John Ortved wrote an article for Vanity Fair titled " Simpson Family Values " . Producers of the show , including Groening , Brooks and Simon , chose not to cooperate in the project . Ortved believes that the reason was because " were upset [ that ] the myth of The Simpsons would be challenged . " Shortly after the article was published , an agent suggested that Ortved write a full book . The producers again decided not to participate , and , according to Ortved , Brooks asked current and former Simpsons employees not to talk to Ortved . However , the book does include portions of interviews that several figures did with other sources . Ortved did interview a number of sources for the book , including Hank Azaria , a cast member of the show since the second season , Fox Broadcasting Company owner Rupert Murdoch and former writer Conan O 'Brien .
Reviews of the book were mostly positive , with most reviewers commenting that the book was well researched and provided a solid history of the show . Critics felt that the final chapters , in which Ortved gives his opinion of the current state of the show , were out of place and did not fit in with the rest of the book .
= = Background = =
In 2007 , John Ortved wrote an article for Vanity Fair titled " Simpson Family Values " . It was an oral history of The Simpsons , featuring interviews with several of the crew and cast members . According to Ortved , the producers of The Simpsons decided not to cooperate and be interviewed for the project because they had heard that he was asking questions about Sam Simon . Simon , one of the first executive producers of the show , had left after the fourth season after clashing with creator Matt Groening and executive producer James L. Brooks . Ortved believes that the producers " were upset [ that ] the myth of The Simpsons would be challenged . " He still wrote the story , without the approval of the Simpsons producers .
Shortly after the article was published , an agent suggested that Ortved write a full book . They put together a proposal and shopped it to several publishers , before being signed by Faber and Faber . According to Ortved , " When word of this got out , Brooks sent a letter to every current Simpsons employee , and all the former ones he thought mattered , asking them not to speak to me . The writers ’ agents sent denial after denial for interview requests and eventually stopped responding altogether . " He added , " There was one ' D 'oh ! ' in James L. Brooks and the Gracie Films master plan : Many people don ’ t like James L. Brooks . [ ... ] The book I ended up writing quotes more than 75 sources — some of them Simpsons staffers , former and current , who opened up because they considered his and Matt Groening ’ s attempt to stomp on my project very ' un @-@ Simpsons . ' "
Ortved decided to write the book as an oral history because he found that every person interviewed had a different perspective on the events . His decision was " reinforced " when he found out that the producers of the show would not cooperate .
= = Content = =
According to National Public Radio reviewer Linda Holmes , " Ortved 's thesis , essentially , is that lots of people are responsible for the success of The Simpsons , and their creator , Matt Groening , has too often been viewed as the sole source to the detriment of others who also deserve to be praised . " The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History is an oral history of the show , examining its beginnings , rise to success , impact on pop culture , as well as the people behind the show , including the animators , writers and producers . The content consists mostly of quotations from various figures , which are tied together by comments from Ortved . The book includes entire chapters devoted to key figures such as Matt Groening , James L. Brooks , Sam Simon and Conan O 'Brien . The book 's foreword was written by Canadian author Douglas Coupland . The final chapters of the book consist mostly of commentary from Ortved , in which he states that he believes that quality of the show has declined since its early years .
= = = Interviews = = =
Ortved interviewed a number of sources for the book , including main cast member Hank Azaria , former director Brad Bird , former supervising director Gábor Csupó and former writer O 'Brien . Groening , Brooks and Simon refused to participate in the book , or be interviewed by Ortved . However , the book does include portions of interviews that they did with other sources . According to Ortved , most of the participants " had stories to tell , or axes to grind , " or are " too successful to care . " Research and interviews for both the book and Vanity Fair article were conducted between January 2007 and May 2008 . Ortved commented that the person he most would have liked to interview was Dan Castellaneta , the voice of Homer Simpson . Rupert Murdoch , the owner of the Fox Broadcasting Company , agreed to be interviewed , and reportedly told Ortved " Those creative types , they 're always looking to pick a fight . " He also interviewed figures such as Fox CEO Barry Diller and guest stars Ricky Gervais , Art Spiegelman and Tom Wolfe .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of the book were mostly positive . Linda Holmes of National Public Radio felt that " most of Ortved 's work provides a solid basic history . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly gave the book a " B + " , writing , " you have to admire all the work that went into this unauthorized history . " He noted that he " felt a little bad afterward for the central players who got sucker punched . [ ... ] The subsequent testimony about the empire Groening created is contentious and mesmerizing . It 's also conflicting and compromised , since some of the biggest fishies of all did not talk to Ortved . [ ... ] The reader should be wary when sources assert that Groening is little more than an affable frontman for the show or that Brooks sometimes wielded his power imperiously : The guys aren 't there to defend themselves . In most cases , though , Ortved amasses quotes from many sources to establish such points , so the negative stuff doesn 't seem gratuitous . " Michael C. Lorah of Newsarama described the book as a " very effective , very worthwhile read " but felt that Ortved 's " editorializing " was " probably the most distracting element of the book . " Michael Hingston of See Magazine called the book " a well @-@ told patchwork that shines formidable light on the show " and gave it three and a half stars . However , he felt the book was released prematurely and should have been published after the end of the show , also criticizing Ortved 's narration and the lack of quotes from Matt Groening or James L. Brooks . Kyle Ryan of The A.V. Club pointed out that the book has " numerous factual errors " that " may only trip the alarms of hardcore fans , but even casual readers may be put off by the book 's redundancy . " He concluded that despite flaws , the " insight into its routines and eccentric personalities can 't help but fascinate . "
Ryan Bigge of The Toronto Star felt that Ortved 's " diligence and research is faultless , and [ he ] has worked hard to avoid writing another insider @-@ y true @-@ fans @-@ only look at the show . Still , certain chunks of the book are unlikely to appeal to casual Simpsons viewers . [ .. ] By mixing journalism about yellow people with a bit of yellow journalism , Ortved provides a tough , necessary look at Homer Simpson 's odyssey that would make Kent Brockman proud . "
Bryan Appleyard of The Sunday Times criticized the format of the book , writing that it was " alternately engrossing and infuriating book [ ... ] It is infuriating because of a fatal structural decision taken by the author and / or his publisher to include long quotations from interviewees as breaks in the text . This destroys narrative coherence and , for much of the time , makes reading a chore . " Appleyard concluded that it is " an important and controversial contribution to the ever @-@ expanding scope of Simpsons studies . "
Several critics felt that the final chapters , in which Ortved gives his opinion of the current state of the show , were out of place when compared with the rest of the book . Ken Tucker felt Ortved 's " complaints aren 't original or illuminating . " Linda Holmes wrote that " After spending most of the book using actual reporting to flesh out the facts , Ortved largely turns the floor over to himself for the part of the book in which he describes the creative decline of the show and tries to figure out whose fault it is by not infrequently simply declaring , among other things , which episodes are good and which are bad , sometimes without explaining himself at all . " Michael C. Lorah felt that Ortved 's criticism of the later seasons was " disconcerting " , noting that " It 's not that he 's wrong , but it seems unnecessary and at times even petty when cast against his own fawning over the undeniably massive influence of the show on current pop culture and comedy . "
= = Other editions = =
= Team Homer =
" Team Homer " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 7 , 1996 . In the episode , Homer starts a bowling team with Moe , Apu , and Otto . When Mr. Burns discovers the team was funded with his money , he insists on joining . Meanwhile , Bart 's " Down with homework " T @-@ shirt incites a student riot that leads to the implementation of a uniform dress code .
The episode was written by Mike Scully and directed by Mark Kirkland . Scully came up with the idea for it when he went bowling one day . The episode features cultural references to Mad magazine and the film Caddyshack . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 , and was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Unable to afford the $ 500 registration fee to join a bowling league , Homer and his friends ( Moe , Apu , and Otto ) go to Mr. Burns for a sponsorship . Homer sneaks into Burns office , where he finds an anesthetized Burns ( who mistakes him for the Pillsbury Doughboy ) . Homer takes this opportunity to get Burns to sign the check . Meanwhile , at school , Bart 's " Down with homework " T @-@ shirt incites a student riot , and as a result , Principal Skinner forces all students to wear uniforms in order to prevent it from happening again .
Back at the bowling alley , Homer and his friends enter the bowling league competition , calling themselves the Pin Pals . They beat three teams before moving up into second place in their league . Meanwhile , Burns recovers from his stupor and discovers the check he wrote to Homer . Burns surprises everyone when he reveals he not only isn 't mad but also wants to join the team ( replacing Otto in the team ) , but since Burns is a horrible bowler , the team is convinced they will lose the championship .
Back at school , Skinner 's dress code demoralizes the students until a rainstorm soaks through the uniforms , causing the grey color to be washed out , revealing tie @-@ dye colors that make the playful spirit of the children return . At the bowling alley , before the championship game begin , Burns gives the team new shirts . Two pins away from victory , Burns takes his turn . Otto tips over a vending machine and the vibrations help the Pin Pals win by knocking down the pins . As the team celebrates their win , Burns takes the trophy and keeps it for himself . Cheered on by his teammates , Homer attempts to break into the mansion and recover the trophy ; however , this ends disastrously when the hounds are released and catch Homer a few feet from the gate , mauling him severely .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Mike Scully . He was bowling " a lot " at the time and one day on when he was bowling he came up with the idea for " Team Homer " . The idea for the school plot came later in production when the school that Scully 's children went to was thinking of " switching over " to school uniforms . Both Scully and his children were against it so he decided to put it in the episode .
Former show runner of The Simpsons David Mirkin thought the episode was " really fun " because there were " lots of characters " in it and it featured " lots of terrific animation " . Mirkin liked that viewers could see the different characters " team up " and how they pair off . " It 's kind of cool to see them hang around like this . Particularly Homer 's group which has some nice emotion and they really comes together as a group , " Mirkin commented .
The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland . When he first read the script , he thought the challenge of this episode was that the bowling theme had already been covered in the season one episode " Life on the Fast Lane " . Since it had been done before , Kirkland felt pressure to make the bowling alley look " really good " . Kirkland and his team of The Simpsons animators at Film Roman all went over to a local bowling alley and had lunch . They checked out the whole alley for inspiration and drew sketches . " Life on the Fast Lane " deals with Marge becoming infatuated with Jacques , a French bowling instructor . Mirkin points out that Jacques makes a brief appearance in this episode , but without a speaking role . Also appearing with non @-@ speaking roles are Mindy Simmons , Lurleen Lumpkin and Princess Kashmir , the three women who almost broke up Marge and Homer 's marriage .
Mirkin remembered the episode " very fondly " because when it was finished , the staff got customized Simpsons bowling balls , bowling bags , and Pin Pal shirts as gifts . Scully said the bowling balls were " really cool " because they were yellow and had the Simpsons logo on them .
Doris Grau , script supervisor for the show and voice of Lunchlady Doris , died on December 30 , 1995 , from respiratory failure at a hospital in Los Angeles , California . " Team Homer " was one of the last episodes to feature her voice , and included a dedication to her .
In one scene , Homer tells Marge : " We were so close to winning the championship . Now , thanks to Burns , it 's never going to happen . And I spent so much time building that trophy case . " The scene then cuts to the trophy case with an Academy Award in it that Homer has stolen . In the original Fox broadcast , the name in the inscription on the Academy Award was Haing S. Ngor . In American syndication and the season seven DVD , the name was changed to Don Ameche ( who had won for Cocoon ) . Ngor , who won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the 1984 film The Killing Fields , was murdered on February 25 , 1996 , between the original and the syndicated broadcast . Producers were concerned the syndicated episode would imply Homer had murdered Ngor to steal the statue .
= = Cultural references = =
Bart and Milhouse buy an issue of Mad magazine . Bart also puts a Mad iron @-@ on reading " Down with Homework " on one of his T @-@ shirts , which causes controversy at school . Milhouse is shocked to see the new school uniforms , and his jaw drops , a " Woody Allen @-@ esque " type of joke . The final bowling scene is similar to the final golfing scene in the 1980 film Caddyshack . Homer references the song " Mr. Roboto " by Styx . Moe 's unsuccessful attempt to sideline Mr. Burns by hitting his leg with a crowbar is done in a similar manner to Shane Stant 's attempt in 1994 to sideline figure skater Nancy Kerrigan by physical assault . When Martin and Lisa are modeling the new grey uniforms , the song playing in the background is " Spanish Flea " , by Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass . , which had previously appeared in the third season episode " The Otto Show " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Team Homer " finished 58th in the ratings for the week of January 1 – 7 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 . The episode was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Beverly Hills , 90210 , and Married ... With Children .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . It was named the fifth best episode of the show by MSNBC . They praised how the episode utilized Burns 's physical weaknesses for laughs , and Homer 's line ; " I guess some people never change . Or , they quickly change and then quickly change back . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said that to his surprise , " the dress code plot works the best " . He liked the mockery of Mad magazine and the " overemphasis on the way it disrupts the educational process " . Jacobson thought the bowling plot had plenty of " nice moments " too , " and these add up to a solid show . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be when Homer ends a phone conversation with the " highly quotable " line , " I gotta go . My damn wiener kids are listening . " The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of A − . Mirkin described the episode as " excellent " , and praised Scully 's " great " script .
The episode received criticism from the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , who said that " Team Homer " is one of their least favorite episodes . They thought the school uniform plot was " a lot more satisfying than the bowling story " They added that the scene where Martin and Lisa model the new uniforms is the highlight of the episode .
= Mortal Kombat =
Mortal Kombat is a video game franchise originally developed by Midway Games ' Chicago studio in 1992 . Following Midway 's bankruptcy , the Mortal Kombat development team was acquired by Warner Bros. and turned into NetherRealm Studios . Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment currently owns the rights of the franchise and rebooted it in 2011 .
The development of the first game was originally based on an idea that Ed Boon and John Tobias had of making a video game starring Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme , but as that idea fell through , a fantasy @-@ themed fighting game titled Mortal Kombat was created instead . The original game has spawned many sequels and has been spun off into several action @-@ adventure games , films ( animated and live @-@ action with its own sequel ) , and television series ( animated and live @-@ action ) . Other spin @-@ offs include comic book series , a card game and a live @-@ action tour . Along with Capcom 's Street Fighter and Bandai Namco 's Tekken , Mortal Kombat has become one of the most successful fighting franchises in the history of video games .
The series has a reputation for high levels of bloody violence , including , most notably , its Fatalities ( finishing moves , requiring a sequence of button inputs to perform ) . The Fatalities , in part , led to the creation of the ESRB video game rating system . The series name itself is also known for using the letter " K " in place of " C " for the hard C sound , thus intentionally misspelling the word " combat " , as well as other words with the hard C sound within later games in the series . Early games in the series were also noted for its realistic digitized sprites ( which differentiated it from its contemporaries ' hand @-@ drawn sprites ) and an extensive use of palette swapping to create new characters .
= = Gameplay = =
The original three games and their updates , Mortal Kombat , Mortal Kombat II , Mortal Kombat 3 , Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 and Mortal Kombat Trilogy , were styled in a 2D fighting fashion . The first two of them were played in the arcades with a joystick and five buttons : high punch , low punch , high kick , low kick , and block . Mortal Kombat 3 and its updates added a sixth " run " button . Characters in the early Mortal Kombat games play virtually identically to one another , with the only major differences being their special moves . Through the 1990s , the developer and publisher Midway Games would keep their single styled fighting moves with four attack buttons for a different array of punches and kicks and blocks . Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance changed this by differentiating characters normal moves and even giving them multiple fighting styles . Beginning in Deadly Alliance and until Mortal Kombat : Deception , the characters would have three fighting styles per character : two unarmed styles , and one weapon style . Few exceptions to this arose in Mortal Kombat : Armageddon , such as monster @-@ like boss characters like Moloch and Onaga who would have only one fighting style . While most of the styles used in the series are based on real martial arts , some are entirely fictitious . Goro 's fighting styles , for example , are designed to take advantage of the fact that he has four arms . For Armageddon , fighting styles were reduced to a maximum of two per character ( generally one hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat style and one weapon style ) due to the sheer number of playable characters . Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe dropped the multiple fighting style trend altogether in favor of giving each character a much wider variety of special moves , but some characters still use multiple fighting styles . 2011 's Mortal Kombat returned to a single 2D fighting plane although characters are rendered in 3D ; unlike previous MK games , each of four buttons on the game controller represents an attack linked to a corresponding limb .
According to Mortal Kombat co @-@ creator Ed Boon , " since the beginning , one of the things that 's separated us from other fighting games is the crazy moves we 've put in it , like fireballs and all the magic moves , so to speak . " When asked if Capcom 's Street Fighter series would ever do a crossover game with Mortal Kombat , Street Fighter producer Yoshinori Ono called Mortal Kombat a very different serious game from Street Fighter fun silly fantasy style . Capcom 's senior director of communications compared Street Fighter and Mortal Kombat by asking if the interviewer preferred the " precision and depth " of Street Fighter or the " gore and comedy " of Mortal Kombat ; he also stated that the Street Fighter and Mortal Kombat rivalry was considered similar to the Coke and Pepsi rivalry in the 1990s . Senior producer of Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , Hans Lo , himself also called Street Fighter " a little more cartoonic fantasy " in comparison to Mortal Kombat . In 2013 , Boon named the hypothetical " MKvsSF " as his dream crossover game . In 2014 , Boon said his team has remained in touch with Capcom , but no one could resolve the incompatibility problem of Mortal Kombat being much more brutal than Street Fighter .
Mortal Kombat : Deception and Mortal Kombat : Armageddon feature " Konquest " , a free @-@ roaming action @-@ adventure mode that significantly expanded on the single @-@ player experience . Both games also include distinct minigame modes such " Chess Kombat " , an action @-@ strategy game similar to Archon . Two other bonus minigames , " Puzzle Kombat " inspired by Puzzle Fighter and " Motor Kombat " inspired by Mario Kart , feature super deformed versions of Mortal Kombat characters . The games also contain various unlockable content and hidden " cheats " .
= = = Finishing moves = = =
A defining and best @-@ known feature of the Mortal Kombat series is its finishing move system called Fatality . An original idea behind it was to give gamers a free hit at the end of the fight . The basic Fatalities are finishing moves that allow the victorious characters to end a match in a special way by murdering their defeated , defenseless opponents in a gruesome manner , usually in the predefined ways exclusive for the given character . The only exception from this is Mortal Kombat : Armageddon , which instead features the Kreate @-@ A @-@ Fatality , allowing the players to perform their own Fatalities by conducting a series of violent moves chosen from a pool that is common for all characters .
Other finishing moves in the various Mortal Kombat games include Animalities ( introduced in Mortal Kombat 3 ) turning a victor into an animal to violently finish off the opponent ; Brutality ( introduced in Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 ) which is bashing an opponent into pieces with a long combo of hits ; and Stage Fatalities / Death Traps ( introduced in the original Mortal Kombat Pit Stage , and later made more difficult in Mortal Kombat II by requiring specific and different button sequences to be pressed ) utilizing parts of certain stages to execute a lethal finishing move . Mortal Kombat : Deception added the Hara @-@ Kiri , a self @-@ Fatality allowing the losers to engage in a suicide @-@ based finishing move ( enabling a possible race between both players to see if the winning player can finish off the losing player before the losing character can kill himself or herself first ) .
There are also some non @-@ violent finishing moves in the series . Friendship moves , introduced in Mortal Kombat II and involving displays of friendship towards the enemy , instead of killing , were made as a comical response to the attention the series gathered due to its violent content . A Fatality similar to Friendship is Babality , also introduced in MKII and turning the opponent into a baby . Mortal Kombat 3 saw Mercy , where the victor restores a minimal amount of the opponent 's health bar and the fight then resumes ; performing Mercy first is required to enable Animality .
= = Plot = =
The series takes place in a fictional universe consisting of eighteen surviving realms which , according to in @-@ game backstories , were created by the Elder Gods . The Mortal Kombat : Deception manual described six of the realms as : " Earthrealm , home to such legendary heroes as Liu Kang , Kung Lao , Sonya Blade , Johnny Cage , and Jax , and also under the protection of the Thunder God Raiden ; Netherrealm , the fiery depths of which are inhospitable to all but the most vile , a realm of demons and shadowy warriors such as Quan Chi and Noob Saibot ; Outworld , a realm of constant strife which Emperor Shao Kahn claims as his own ; Seido , the Realm of Order , whose inhabitants prize structure and order above all else ; the Realm of Chaos , whose inhabitants do not abide by any rules whatsoever , and where constant turmoil and change are worshipped ; and Edenia , which is known for its beauty , artistic expression , and the longevity of its inhabitants . " The Elder Gods decreed that the denizens of one realm could only conquer another realm by defeating the defending realm 's greatest warriors in ten consecutive Mortal Kombat tournaments .
The first Mortal Kombat game takes place in Earthrealm ( Earth ) where seven different warriors with their own reasons for entering participated in the tournament with the eventual prize being the continued freedom of their realm , threatened with a takeover by Outworld . Among the established warriors were Liu Kang , Johnny Cage and Sonya Blade . With the help of the thunder god Raiden , the Earthrealm warriors were victorious and Liu Kang became the new champion of Mortal Kombat . In Mortal Kombat II , unable to deal with his minion Shang Tsung 's failure , Outworld Emperor Shao Kahn lures the Earthrealm warriors to the Outworld where the Earthrealm warriors eventually defeat Shao Kahn . By the time of Mortal Kombat 3 , Shao Kahn revives Edenia 's ( now a part of his Outworld domain ) former queen Sindel in Earthrealm , combining it with Outworld as well . He then attempts to invade Earthrealm but is ultimately defeated by the Earthrealm warriors again . After Kahn 's defeat , Edenia was freed from Kahn 's grasp and returned to a peaceful realm , ruled by Princess Kitana . The following game , Mortal Kombat 4 , features the former elder god Shinnok attempting to conquer the realms and attempting to kill the thunder god Raiden . However , he is also defeated by the Earthrealm warriors .
In Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance , the evil sorcerers Quan Chi and Shang Tsung join forces to conquer the realms . By Mortal Kombat : Deception , after several fights , the sorcerers emerge victorious having killed most of Earthrealms ' warriors until Raiden steps forth to oppose them . The Dragon King Onaga , who had been freed by Reptile at the end of Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance , had deceived Shujinko into searching for six pieces of Kamidogu , the source of Onaga 's power . Onaga then confronted the alliance of Raiden , Shang Tsung , and Quan Chi and thus obtained Quan Chi 's amulet , the final piece of his power . Only a few warriors remained to combat against the Dragon King and his forces . Shujinko eventually triumphed over the Dragon King and removed his threat to the Mortal Kombat universe .
In Mortal Kombat : Armageddon the catastrophe known as Armageddon starts . Centuries before the first Mortal Kombat , Queen Delia foretold the realms would be destroyed because the power of all warriors from all the realms would rise to such greatness it would overwhelm and destabilize the realms , triggering an all @-@ destructive chain of events . King Argus had his sons , Taven , and Daegon , put into incubation who would one day be awakened to save the realms from Armageddon by defeating a firespawn known as Blaze . In the end , however , Shao Kahn is the one who defeats Blaze , causing Armageddon .
In Mortal Kombat ( 2011 ) , it is revealed that the battle between the warriors of the six realms culminated into only two survivors : Shao Kahn and Raiden . Badly beaten , Raiden had only one last move he could make to prevent Shao Kahn from claiming the power of Blaze . He sends last @-@ ditch visions of the entire course of the Mortal Kombat timeline to himself in the past right before the tenth Mortal Kombat tournament ( first game ) . This transfer of information to his former self causes a rift in time , causing a new " reboot " timeline to be introduced that splits off from the original Armageddon timeline , with a new outcome of Mortal Kombat history to be written . But this story leads to even worse unforeseen events . It ends with many of the main game characters dying at the hands of Queen Sindel and Raiden accidentally killing Liu Kang in self @-@ defense . Eventually , the Elder Gods aid Raiden in killing Shao Kahn and saving Earthrealm . But as the scene goes on it is later revealed that this was all a plan by Shinnok and Quan Chi .
Mortal Kombat X sees Shinnok and Quan Chi enacting their plan , leading an army of undead revenants of those that were killed in Shao Kahn 's invasion against the realms . A team of warriors led by Raiden , Johnny Cage , and Sonya Blade oppose Shinnok , and in the ensuing battle , Shinnok is imprisoned , Quan Chi escapes , and various warriors are resurrected and freed from Shinnok 's thrall . Twenty @-@ five years later , Quan Chi resurfaces and allies himself with the insect @-@ like D 'Vorah in manipulating events that lead to Shinnok 's release . Though Quan Chi is killed by a vengeful Scorpion in the process , Shinnok resumes his assault against the realms . After a grueling , protracted battle , Shinnok is defeated by Cassandra Cage representing the next generation of Earthrealm 's warriors . With both Quan Chi and Shinnok gone , the undead revenants of Liu Kang and Kitana assume control of the Netherrealm and Lord Raiden now protects the Earthrealm not defensively but offensively with the help of the remaining revenants .
= = Characters = =
The series features scores of player characters ( 64 as of 2012 ) , including Baraka , Cassie Cage , Cyrax , Ermac , Goro , Jade , Jax Briggs , Johnny Cage , Kabal , Kano , Kenshi , Kitana , Kung Lao , Kurtis Stryker , Liu Kang , Mileena , Motaro , Nightwolf , Noob Saibot , Quan Chi , Raiden , Rain , Reptile , Scorpion , Sektor , Shang Tsung , Shao Kahn , Sheeva , Shinnok , Sindel , Smoke , Sonya Blade , and Sub @-@ Zero . Among them are Earth 's humans and cyborgs , good and evil deities , and denizens of Outworld and other realms . There are also some guest and crossover characters , such as several DC Universe heroes and villains , as well as Freddy Krueger from A Nightmare on Elm Street , Kratos from God of War , the Predator from Predator , Jason Voorhees from Friday the 13th , and Alien ( Xenomorph ) from Alien .
= = Development history = =
= = = Origins = = =
Mortal Kombat started development in 1991 with only four people : Ed Boon , John Tobias , John Vogel and Dan Forden . In 2009 , Boon said : " The first Mortal Kombat game was 4 guys , literally , one programmer , myself ( Boon ) , two graphics guys ( Tobias and Vogel ) , and a sound guy ( Forden ) was the entire team , literally . " Originally , Boon and Tobias were approached to create a video game adaptation of the 1992 film Universal Soldier starring martial arts film actor Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme , with a digitized version of the action star fighting villains . Intending to make a game " a lot more hard edge , a little bit more serious , a little bit more like Enter the Dragon or Bloodsport " than Street Fighter II 's cartoon fantasy style , Boon and Tobias decided to continue their project even after the deal to use the Bloodsport license fell through . One of their own characters , Johnny Cage , became " a spoof on the whole Van Damme situation . "
John Tobias said that his inspirations for the game 's story and characters came from the Chinese mythology and some of the stories and rumored events about the Shaolin monks . Regarding the film Big Trouble in Little China , Tobias wrote that although this movie " kind of Americanized my obsession for supernatural kung fu films from China , it was not my biggest influence . My biggest influences came from Tsui Hark films -- Zu Warriors & The Swordsman . We had to get them from bootleggers in Chicago 's Chinatown . " Tobias ' writing and artistic input on the series ended in 1997 . Fifteen years later , he said : " I knew exactly what I was going to do with a future story . A few years ago I [ wrote ] a sort of sequel to the first MK film and an advancement to the game 's mythological roots . The goal was to not runaway from what came before with a retelling , but to move the themes forward . I did it for fun as an exercise in screenwriting , but it felt good to get that out of my system . "
Ed Boon recalled that for six out of the eight months while they were in production of the original Mortal Kombat , " nobody could come up with a name nobody didn 't hate . " Some of the names suggested included " Kumite " , " Dragon Attack " , " Death Blow " and just " Fatality " . Someone had written down " combat " on the drawing board for the names in Boon 's office and then someone wrote a K over the C , according to Boon , " just to be kind of weird . " Steve Ritchie , a pinball designer at that time , was sitting in Boon 's office and saw the word " Kombat " and said to Boon , ' Why don 't you name it Mortal Kombat ? ' and that name " just stuck . " Since then , the series uses the letter " K " in place of " C " for various words containing the hard C sound . According to Boon , during the MK games ' development they usually spell the words correctly and only " korrect it " when one of the developers points out they should do it .
= = = Graphics = = =
The characters of the original Mortal Kombat and its initial sequels were created using digitized sprites mostly based on filmed actors , as opposed to drawn graphics . Early Mortal Kombat games were known for their extensive use of palette swap , a practice of re @-@ coloring certain sprites to appear as different characters which was used for the ninja characters . In fact , many of the most popular characters have originated as simple palette swaps . In the very first game , the male ninja fighters were essentially the same character ; only the colors of their attire , fighting stance , and special techniques indicated the difference . Later games added other ninjas based on the same model , as well as several female ninja color swap characters initially also using just one base model ( beginning with Kitana in Mortal Kombat II ) . All of them gradually became very different characters in the following installments of the series .
Mortal Kombat 4 brought the series into 3D , replacing the digitized fighters of previous games with polygon models . The team switched from digitized actors to motion capture technology .
= = = Hidden content = = =
Mortal Kombat included secret characters , secret games , and other Easter eggs . For example , Mortal Kombat 3 includes a hidden game of Galaga and there is a hidden game of Pong in Mortal Kombat II . Many extras in the series have only been accessible through very challenging , demanding , and sometimes coincidental requirements . The Sega Mega Drive / Genesis versions contains some unique eggs , such as " Fergality " . The Sega Mega @-@ CD version also contained an additional code ( known as the " Dad 's Code " ) , which changed the names of the fighters to that of characters from the classic comedy series Dad 's Army . Popular characters of Reptile and Jade were originally introduced as hidden enemies , becoming playable after returning in subsequent games .
Some Easter eggs originated from in @-@ jokes between members of the development team . One example is " Toasty " , which found its way into the game in the form of a small image of sound designer Dan Forden , who would appear in the corner of the screen during gameplay ( after performing an uppercut ) and yell the phrase " Toasty ! " This egg was also the key to unlocking the hidden character Smoke when it happened in the Portal stage . In Mortal Kombat 4 , Forden would say " Toasty ! 3D ! " after Scorpion did his burn Fatality , a reference to the fact that it is the first 3D game of the series . " Toasty ! " is also found in Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks , appearing randomly after the character pulls off a chain of hits , though the picture of Forden was removed for that title , but brought back for the 2011 Mortal Kombat game .
Yet another private joke was the hidden character Noob Saibot , who has appeared in various versions of the game starting with Mortal Kombat II . The character 's name derived from two of the series ' creators ' surnames , Ed Boon and John Tobias , spelled backwards . In addition , a counter for ERMACS on the game 's audits screen ( ERMACS being short for error macros ) , was generally considered by some players to be a reference to a hidden character . The development team decided to turn the rumor into reality , introducing Ermac in Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 as an unlockable secret character . The character Mokap , introduced in Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance , is a tribute to Carlos Pesina , who played Raiden in MK and MKII and has served as a motion capture actor for subsequent titles in the series .
= = Media
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( 1995 ) , and Mortal Kombat : Annihilation ( 1997 ) , both co @-@ developed by Threshold Entertainment and released by New Line Cinema ( eventual corporate sibling , and later label , of Mortal Kombat rights holder Warner Bros. ) . Neither film was screened for critics prior to theatrical release . The first movie was released on August 18 , 1995 , grossing $ 23 million on its first weekend . Mortal Kombat , despite mixed reviews from critics , became a financial success , eventually grossing $ 70 million in the U.S. ( and over $ 122 million worldwide ) and gaining a cult following from fans of the series while jump starting the Hollywood career of its director Paul W. S. Anderson . That momentum did not carry over into John R. Leonetti 's Annihilation , however , which suffered from a poor reception by critics and fans alike , grossing only $ 36 million in the U.S. and $ 51 million worldwide , compared to the first movie 's worldwide intake of $ 122 million . In 2010 , director Kevin Tancharoen released an eight @-@ minute Mortal Kombat short film titled Mortal Kombat : Rebirth , made as a proof of concept for Tancharoen 's pitch of a reboot movie franchise to Warner Brothers . Tancharoen later confirmed that while the short is entirely unofficial , it does feature the writing of Oren Uziel , who was rumored to be writing the screenplay for the third Mortal Kombat movie . In September 2011 , New Line Cinema and Warner Bros. announced that Tancharoen has signed on to direct the reboot from a screenplay written by Uziel . In October 2013 , however , Tancharoen left the project to pursue " other creative opportunities " . In 2015 , it was reported that James Wan had signed @-@ on to produce the film .
= = = = Literature = = = =
Several Mortal Kombat comic books were based on the video game series , including the official Mortal Kombat and Mortal Kombat II comic books created by Tobias and advertised in the attract modes on early versions of the first two games . In 1994 , Malibu Comics launched an official MK comic book series , spawning two six @-@ issue series ( " Blood and Thunder " and " Battlewave " ) , along with several miniseries and one @-@ shot special issues dedicated to specific characters , until its publication ended in August 1995 . Two more comics were also made as tie @-@ ins for Mortal Kombat 4 and the DC Universe crossover game and a new miniseries was published prior to the release of Mortal Kombat X in 2015 . Jeff Rovin penned a novelization of the first Mortal Kombat game , which was published in June 1995 in order to coincide with the release of the movie . Novelizations of both Mortal Kombat movies were written by Martin Delrio and Jerome Preisler .
= = = = Music = = = =
Mortal Kombat : The Album , a techno album based on the first game was created for Virgin America by Lords of Acid members Praga Khan and Oliver Adams as The Immortals in 1994 . Its iconic theme " Techno Syndrome " , incorporating the " Mortal Kombat ! " yell first shown in the Mortal Kombat commercial for home systems , was first released in 1993 as a single and was also used as a theme music for the Mortal Kombat film series . Each movie had their own soundtracks ( including the hit and award @-@ winning compilation album Mortal Kombat : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ) , as had the second video game ( Mortal Kombat II : Music from the Arcade Game Soundtrack ) . The 2011 video game saw the release of Mortal Kombat : Songs Inspired by the Warriors , a new soundtrack album featuring electronic music by various artists .
= = = = Television = = = =
The franchise sparked two television series by New Line Television : the 1996 cartoon Mortal Kombat : Defenders of the Realm and the 1998 live @-@ action series Mortal Kombat : Konquest , both of them co @-@ developed by Threshold Entertainment . Neither series ran for more than one season . In 2010 , Warner Premiere ordered a web series inspired by the Rebirth short , titled Mortal Kombat : Legacy and also directed by Kevin Tancharoen . The series ' first season was released for free on YouTube starting in April 2011 , promoted by Machinima.com , and the second season arrived in 2013 . In October 2014 , Warner Bros and Blue Ribbon are developing a live @-@ action untitled Mortal Kombat series that will tie in with Mortal Kombat X. The webseries will be released in 2016 .
= = = = Other media = = = =
An animated prequel to the first movie , titled Mortal Kombat : The Journey Begins , was released direct @-@ to @-@ video in 1995 . The stage show Mortal Kombat : Live Tour was launched at the end of 1995 , expanded to 1996 , and featured Mortal Kombat characters in a theatrical display on stage . Brady Games produced the collectible card game Mortal Kombat Kard Game in 1996 . Score Entertainment 's 2005 collectible card game Epic Battles also used some of the Mortal Kombat characters .
= = Legacy and cultural impact = =
Ed Boon reported that the Mortal Kombat games have sold 26 million copies by 2007 , and the number has reportedly reached over 30 million by 2012 . As of April 2015 , after the release of Mortal Kombat X , the franchise had sold 35 million units . A particularly successful game was Mortal Kombat II , which had unprecedented opening week sales figures never seen before in the video game industry , for the first time beating the box office numbers of summer hit films . The 2008 edition of Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition awarded the Mortal Kombat series with seven world records , including " most successful fighting game series " . The franchise holds ten world records in the 2011 Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition , including the " largest promotional campaign for a fighting video game " ( Mortal Kombat 3 ) , " highest grossing film based on a beat ‘ em up video game " ( Mortal Kombat 1996 ) , and " most successful video game spin @-@ off soundtrack album " ( Mortal Kombat : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ) .
Numerous publications described it as one of the most important and also most violent series in the history of video games ; in 2011 , the staff of GameSpy wrote " its place in fighting game history is undeniable . " In 2009 , GameTrailers ranked Mortal Kombat as the ninth top fighting game franchise as well as the seventh bloodiest series of all time . In 2012 , Complex ranked Mortal Kombat as 37th best video game franchise overall , commenting on its " legendary status in video game history . " Mortal Kombat as a series was also ranked as the goriest video game ever by CraveOnline in 2009 and by G4tv.com in 2011 ; including it on their list of the goriest games , Cheat Code Central commented that " Mortal Kombat had enough gore to simultaneously offend a nation and change gaming forever . "
According to IGN , during the 1990s " waves of imitators began to flood the market , filling arcades with a sea of blood from games like Time Killers , Survival Arts , and Guardians of the Hood . Mortal Kombat had ushered in an era of exploitation games , both on consoles and in arcades , all engaging in a battle to see who can cram the most blood and guts onto a low @-@ res screen . " Notable Mortal Kombat clones , featuring violent finishing moves and / or digitized sprites , included Bio F.R.E.A.K.S. , BloodStorm , Cardinal Syn , Catfight , Eternal Champions , Kasumi Ninja , Killer Instinct , Mace : The Dark Age , Primal Rage , Street Fighter : The Movie , Tattoo Assassins , Thrill Kill , Ultra Vortek , Way of the Warrior , and Midway 's own War Gods , among many others ( even the Japanese game Tsuukai Gangan Kohshinkyoku was localized in the U.S. as Aggressors of Dark Kombat ) . Of all these , only Eternal Champions and Killer Instinct achieved a considerable success and were followed by sequels ( Eternal Champions : Challenge from the Dark Side and Killer Instinct 2 ) .
In a 2009 poll by GamePro , 21 % of voters chose Mortal Kombat as their favorite fighting game series , ranking it third after Street Fighter and Tekken . In 2012 , Capcom 's Street Fighter producer Yoshinori Ono said he is getting a lot of requests for Street Fighter vs. Mortal Kombat and understands why people want it , " but it 's easier said than done . Having Chun Li getting her spine ripped out , or Ryu 's head bouncing off the floor ... it doesn 't necessarily match . " In 2014 , martial artist Frankie Edgar opined Mortal Kombat has been far superior to Street Fighter .
The series and its characters are also referenced in the various other works of popular culture , such as in the title of Powerglove 's debut album Metal Kombat for the Mortal Man and the Workaholics episode " Model Kombat " . According to Complex in 2012 , " Years ago , MK became a phenomenon far outside gaming circles alone . Its name has become recognizable enough to be name dropped on sitcoms ( Malcolm in the Middle and Married ... With Children ) , found in movies ( Christian Slater plays MK4 in Very Bad Things ) , and used as part of cultural studies ( see Justine Cassell and Henry Jenkins ' book From Barbie to Mortal Kombat : Gender and Computer Games ) . " It was also featured in the film Doom Generation . The name " Mortal Kombat " was even given to a dangerous illegal recreational drug that was introduced and caused multiple fatalities in early 2014 .
In 2012 , John Tobias said : " If you look at any other pop culture phenomenon — like if you look at the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles , for instance — it became popular at the time right around when Mortal Kombat became popular , and it had its highs and lows , and here they are once again talking about a major motion picture . That ’ s because of its place in pop culture . It ’ s always there for someone to pick up , polish off , blow the dust off of it , and re @-@ release it . And Mortal Kombat will always be that way . It ’ ll be around 50 years from now . "
= = = Controversies = = =
The series was subject of a major video game controversy and several court cases , largely related to its extremely violent content , especially in relation to the original game which paved a way for the introduction of the ESRB ( Entertainment Software Rating Board ) game rating system in 1994 as well as Australian Classification Board . Various games in the series have been banned in a number of countries . SuperData Research CEO Joost van Dreunen said , " Because of the obvious rift between gamers on the one hand and adult society on the other , Mortal Kombat set the tone for what constituted gamer culture . "
= = Further information = =
The History Of Mortal Kombat Video Series ( recommended by Netherrealm Studios )
= Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In Theater Restaurant =
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In Theater Restaurant is a theme restaurant at Disney 's Hollywood Studios , one of the four main theme parks at Walt Disney World in Bay Lake , Florida , United States . Established in May 1991 , the restaurant is modeled after a 1950s drive @-@ in theater . Walt Disney Imagineering designed the booths to resemble convertibles of the period , and some servers act as carhops while wearing roller skates . While eating , guests watch a large projection screen displaying film clips from such 1950s and 1960s films as Frankenstein Meets the Space Monster , Plan 9 from Outer Space , and Attack of the 50 Foot Woman .
The restaurant serves traditional cuisine of the United States . Popcorn functions as a complimentary hors d 'oeuvre . Initially , the menu listed items with themed names , such as " Tossed in Space " ( garden salad ) , " The Cheesecake that Ate New York " , and " Attack of the Killer Club Sandwich " , but these playful names were later altered so that they now describe the dishes in a more standard and straightforward manner .
In 1991 , the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In opened along with nineteen other new Walt Disney World attractions marking the complex 's twentieth anniversary . By the following year , the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In was serving upwards of 2 @,@ 200 people daily during peak periods , making it the park 's most popular restaurant . Thai movie theater operator EGV Entertainment opened the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe in Bangkok in 2003 , in a very similar style to the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In .
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In has received mixed reviews . USA Today 's list of the best restaurants in American amusement parks ranks the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In fifteenth , but many reviewers rate it more highly for its atmosphere than for its cuisine . Ed Bumgardner of the Winston @-@ Salem Journal wrote that the food is more expensive than it is worth , specifically calling the restaurant 's roast beef sandwich both delicious and a ripoff . In their book Vegetarian Walt Disney World and Greater Orlando , Susan Shumaker and Than Saffel call the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In " the wackiest dining experience in any Disney park " .
= = History = =
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , located on Commissary Lane across from Star Tours and adjacent to ABC Commissary , opened in May 1991 as one of the twenty new attractions opened at Walt Disney World to mark the complex 's twentieth anniversary . The restaurant was created with a strong emphasis on theme , in emulation of the 50 's Prime Time Café , which had opened two years prior . Disney hoped that the focus on theme would bring the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In the level of success that had been garnered by the 50 's Prime Time Café . Within five weeks of opening , it was serving between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 meals on a daily basis , just as the 50 's Prime Time Café was doing . A year after opening , the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In had become the most popular restaurant in the park , serving more than 2 @,@ 200 people per day at peak periods . Starting from its earliest days , the restaurant equipped its servers with point of sale mobile devices that relayed orders to a printer in the kitchen , which was considered at the time to be in keeping with the science fiction theme because the technology had been developed shortly prior .
In 2003 , there were twenty character meals offered at Walt Disney World , during which actors portraying various Disney characters would interact with guests while they ate at the parks ' restaurants , and Disney was in the process of increasing the presence of costumed characters in the parks at the time . Nonetheless , Minnie Mouse character meals held at Hollywood & Vine were discontinued that year , and Robert Johnson of the Orlando Sentinel partially attributed this cancellation to competition from the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , which he said " almost always has a line of customers waiting " .
= = Theme = =
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In is modeled after a 1950s drive @-@ in theater . The entrance is made to look like a box office , and guests can walk from there along a tall fence to the dining room , where guests sit at formica countertops in booths made to look like convertibles from the 1940s and 1950s . These booths were designed by Walt Disney Imagineering and are made of fiberglass with much chrome plating . The cars have whitewall tires , and speakers are mounted on poles next to each car . The license plates are dated from 1955 , and each convertible seats four people , although these mock vehicles were initially six @-@ seaters when the restaurant first opened . There are six picnic tables near the back of the room that are only used when the rest of the restaurant is full and there are guests who are willing to forego the experience of sitting in the cars . All guests who make reservations are seated in the cars , although this was not the case the year the restaurant first opened . The restaurant has a total seating capacity of 260 .
Some of the servers at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In wear roller skates , acting as carhops , while others improvise characters such as a police officer ostensibly in search of people who have sneaked into the theater without paying . The dining room is dark and air @-@ conditioned , and measures 8 @,@ 400 square feet ( 780 m2 ) . The ceiling simulates a night sky replete with twinkling stars made from optical fibers . There is the facade of a snack counter at the back of the room , behind which is the kitchen . The upper walls of the dining room display a cyclorama of Southern California as seen over a fence .
While eating at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , guests watch film clips from 1950s and 1960s science fiction films , B horror films , monster movies , pseudo @-@ documentaries , bizarre newsreels , and animated cartoons , all on a loop that lasts 47 minutes . The film clips are taken from such films as The Blob , Frankenstein Meets the Space Monster , Teenagers from Outer Space , The Amazing Colossal Man , Plan 9 from Outer Space , Invasion of the Saucer Men , and Cat @-@ Women of the Moon . The original Attack of the 50 Foot Woman trailer is also included . The clips are shown on a large projection screen . During Star Wars Weekends , a special breakfast is offered called the Star Wars Dine @-@ In Galactic Breakfast , during which guests can interact with Star Wars characters and watch clips from the Star Wars films .
= = Food = =
At the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , lunch guests stay for an average of fifty minutes and dinner guests for an average of just longer than an hour , with lunch and dinner guests being served their food on average five and ten minutes after ordering respectively . The restaurant participates in the Disney Dining Plan . Meals are served starting at 10 : 30 a.m. on Sundays and Wednesdays , and starting at 11 : 00 a.m. every other day of the week . The restaurant closes each day at the same time that the park does , which is in the late evening . The menu is the same all day , without a distinction between lunch and dinner . A full bar service is available , and there is also a limited wine selection .
Food selection at the restaurant comes from the traditional cuisine of the United States . Popcorn is served as a free hors d 'oeuvre . Other food items include milkshakes , hot fudge sundaes , seafood salad , turkey sloppy joes , fried pickles , St. Louis @-@ style barbecue ribs , beef @-@ and @-@ blue @-@ cheese salads , sautéed shrimp with farfalle , French fries , cucumber salads , Buffalo wings , Boca Burgers , Tofutti , and steaks . Drinks include souvenir phosphorescent ice cubes . The desserts are served in larger portions than are customary elsewhere . There are vegetarian options . The chefs at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In sometimes cater for special requests in advance . The cookbook Delicious Disney Just for Kids contains a recipe for the BLT soup served at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In .
Items in the restaurant 's menu used to have themed names , such as " The Galactic Grill " ( triple @-@ decker grilled cheese sandwich ) , " Beast from 1 @,@ 000 Islands " ( Reuben sandwich ) , " Tossed in Space " ( garden salad ) , " The Cheesecake that Ate New York " , " Attack of the Killer Club Sandwich " , " Beach Party Panic " ( fish fillet ) , " Saucer Sightings " ( rib eye steak ) , " Terror of the Tides " ( broiled fish ) , and " Journey to the Center of the Pasta " ( vegetable lasagne ) , but these have since been replaced with more descriptive names . A popcorn bisque was once on the menu , but it was removed due to poor reception .
= = Imitation = =
In 2003 , EGV Entertainment , a movie theater operator in Thailand , opened the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe in Bangkok , explicitly modeling the restaurant after the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In . Wichai Poolwaraluk , the company 's executive president and chief executive officer , visited the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In in 2000 , and was inspired to open a similar restaurant . He said that , while he was eating at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , the other guests seemed more interested in their food than in the film clips on the screen , and he therefore considered the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In more of a restaurant than a theater , with the film reel simply being a gimmick . Appealing to EGV 's identity as a movie theater operator , Poolwaraluk said that the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe " can probably do a better job blending the cinema and the food together and also concentrate on both of them " . Like the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe features classic cars for seating , but , instead of showing film clips on a loop , the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe shows entire short films .
In 2014 , NBCUniversal opened a new Universal Orlando hotel called Cabana Bay Beach Resort , which houses the Bayliner Diner , a restaurant that borrows its premise from the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In . Both restaurants play old film footage on a loop .
= = Reception = =
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In has received mixed reviews . Jack Hayes of Nation 's Restaurant News calls the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In " wacky " and " on the cutting edge of sheer dining fun " . In USA Today 's list of the sixteen best restaurants in American amusement parks , the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In ranks fifteenth . Samuel Muston of The Independent writes that the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In is " memorable in the best way " . In the Evansville Courier & Press , Pete DiPrimio writes that the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In ranks among the most unusual of the restaurants at Disney 's Hollywood Studios . In The Unofficial Guide to Walt Disney World 2015 , Bob Sehlinger and Len Testa call the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In the most entertaining restaurant in Walt Disney World , writing that " everyone gets a kick out of this unusual dining room " .
Multiple reviewers have called the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In more notable for being an attraction than a food destination . One reviewer from The Guardian compares the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In to Epcot 's Coral Reef Restaurant , writing that both restaurants " are great settings " where " eating is awful " . Sehlinger and Testa consider the prices too high , and the food too simple , although they praise the Reuben sandwich and the ribs . Schultz writes that the food is simple and that some of the beers are decent . The book DK Eyewitness Travel Guide : Walt Disney World Resort & Orlando also states that the food is more expensive than it is worth . Ed Bumgardner of the Winston @-@ Salem Journal shared this opinion as well , specifically singling out the restaurant 's roast beef sandwich as a ripoff , despite calling it delicious . Peggy Katalinich of the Tampa Bay Times writes that , although the food is mediocre , " Who cares ? Food is besides the point " . She goes on to argue that the prices are low , particularly for sandwiches . In Frommer 's Walt Disney World and Orlando 2012 , Laura Lea Miller expresses disappointment that the menu no longer contains the playful item names it once did . She writes positively of the atmosphere , but considers the food mediocre . In the book Walt Disney World Resort : Also Includes Seaworld and Central Florida , Corey Sandler writes that the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In is " a must @-@ see eatery ... for adults and adventurous kids " and that " the food is appropriate for a drive @-@ in theater — very ordinary , but that 's not really the reason you came " .
Some food items at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In have been received favorably by reviewers . Rona Gindin and Jennifer Greenhill @-@ Taylor write highly of the restaurant 's hot @-@ fudge sundaes in Fodor 's 2012 Walt Disney World . In Plan Your Walt Disney World Vacation in No Time , Douglas Ingersoll writes very positively of the milkshakes , and argues that the sandwiches and burgers are better than at the fast food restaurants in the park . A reviewer for the United Kingdom 's The Sentinel also writes positively of the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In 's milkshakes , and writes that , " if you chose to treat yourself to a good lunch in one of the Disney parks , then this is the one " .
Positive reviews of the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In have indicated diverse reasons for appreciating the restaurant . In Vegetarian Walt Disney World and Greater Orlando , Susan Shumaker and Than Saffel write that the restaurant has " the wackiest dining experience in any Disney park " . Shumaker and Saffel contend that the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In provides a reasonable compromise when vegetarians and non @-@ vegetarians are looking to eat together , and that it is also suitable for both large and small families with young children . The restaurant tends to be popular with children , and it is common for people who lived through the 1950s to enjoy the restaurant for its nostalgia value . Paul Schultz of the Daily News writes , " Anyone who is a fan of trashy sci @-@ fi movies of the 1950s should check [ the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In ] out " . In his book Sci @-@ Fi Movie Freak , Robert Ring calls the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In film clips " hokey " , while David Steele of The Rotarian calls them " classically awful " , and Rick Ramseyer of Restaurant Business Magazine calls them " campy " .
= 1991 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1991 Giro d 'Italia was the 74th edition of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . The Giro began on May 26 with a mass @-@ start stage that began and ended in the Italian city of Olbia . The race came to a close in Milan on June 16 . Twenty teams entered the race , which was won by the Italian Franco Chioccioli of the Del Tongo @-@ MG Boys Maglificio team . Second and third respectively were the Italians Claudio Chiappucci and Massimiliano Lelli .
The race was first led by Frenchman Philippe Casado who won the first stage into Olbia . Casado lost the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) after stage 2a that contained a mountainous course . Éric Boyer took the race lead from Chioccioli after winning the event 's fourth stage . However , he lost the lead back to Chioccioli the following day . Chioccioli protected his lead and built upon his advantage by winning three stages of the race before the race 's finish .
In the race 's other classifications , Massimiliano Lelli of the Ari @-@ Ceramiche Ariostea team finished as the best rider aged 25 or under in the general classification , finishing in third place overall ; Carrera Jeans – Tassoni rider Claudio Chiappucci won the points classification , Iñaki Gastón of the CLAS @-@ Cajastur team won the mountains classification , and CLAS @-@ Cajastur rider Alberto Leanizbarrutia won the intergiro classification . Carrera Jeans @-@ Tassoni finished as the winners of the team classification .
= = Teams = =
Twenty teams were invited by the race organizers to participate in the 1991 edition of the Giro d 'Italia , ten of which were based outside of Italy . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , which meant that the race started with a peloton of 180 cyclists . The presentation of the teams – where each team 's roster and manager were introduced in front the media and local dignitaries – took place on 25 May . From the riders that began the race , 133 made it to the finish in Milan .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The starting peloton did include the previous year 's winner Gianni Bugno . He also stated that Claudio Chiappucci would likely contend for the overall crown due to his good form coming into the race . According to Paolo Viberti of El País , Bugno came in as the odds on favorite to win the race . Eugenio Capodacqua of La Repubblica and La Stampa 's Gianni Ranieri believed that the race was going be won by either Chiappucci or Bugno . Despite being favored to win the race , Bugno entered the race with no victories to his name that season . American Greg LeMond told the press he planned to be more competitive at this Giro than he had in years past . Other favorites to win the race were Laurent Fignon , Pedro Delgado , and Marino Lejarreta .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 1991 edition of the Giro d 'Italia was revealed to the public on television by head organizer Vincenzo Torriani , on 1 December 1990 . It contained three time trial events , all of which were individual . There were twelve stages containing thirty @-@ nine categorized climbs , of which five had summit finishes : stage 12 , to Monviso ; stage 13 , to Sestriere ; stage 15 , to Aprica ; stage 16 , to Selva di Val Gardena ; and stage 17 , to Passo Pordoi . The organizers chose to include one rest day , which was used to transfer the riders from Cagliari to Sorrento . When compared to the previous year 's race , the race was 265 km ( 165 mi ) shorter , contained one more rest day , and the same number of individual time trials and split @-@ stages . In addition , this race contained one more stage .
Capodacqua of La Repubblica believed that the route favored a rider that could defend well and put in a good time during the uphill time trial . La Stampa writer Gianni Ranieri felt the two non @-@ uphill time trials would favor Gianni Bugno , while the up @-@ hill time trial could be a place where Claudio Chiappucci could gain time on the field . Pedro Delgado believed the race to be tougher than the Tour de France that same year . The Cima Coppi – the highest point in altitude the race reached – was scheduled to be the Passo dello Stelvio , but the pass was scrapped from the race and the Passo Pordoi – the next highest mountain – became the new Cima Coppi .
= = Race overview = =
During the first stage , Alberto Leanizbarrutia attacked on his own and led the race for 150 km ( 93 mi ) before being caught by the chasing peloton within the final ten kilometers . It then came down to a bunch sprint finish that was so close that it required a photo to determine the winner , Philippe Casado . The next day of racing consisted of a mass @-@ start stage in the morning and an individual time trial in the afternoon . Reigning winner Gianni Bugno won the trans @-@ alpine morning stage ahead of other main contenders . This stage saw the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) switch from Casado to Franco Chioccioli . Gianluca Pierobon of ZG Mobili team won the afternoon time trial by five seconds over Spaniard Marino Lejarreta . The following day of racing was the last on the island of Sardinia before the race was transferred to mainland Italy . The day of racing ended with a bunch sprint contested by Adriano Baffi , Mario Cipollini , and Djamolidine Abdoujaparov , of which Cipollini got the best and won .
The fourth leg of the event consisted of five laps on a set circuit of 35 km ( 22 mi ) . The stage saw several attacks on the final lap of the course with most being caught by the peloton . Éric Boyer attacked with fifteen kilometers to go in the stage and was able to establish a solid gap between himself and the peloton . Boyer went on to win the stage by twenty @-@ three seconds over the chasing peloton , gaining enough time to earn the race lead . The following day saw the general classification contenders reach the final climb of the day , Mount Godi , together . Chioccioli attacked on the climb and only Lejarreta was able to mark his move . The two rode to the finish together as Boyer led the group of chasing riders to the finish fifty seconds later . Lejarreta won the stage and Chioccioli regained the race lead .
The sixth day of racing was marred by poor weather . General classification contenders Pedro Delgado and Laurent Fignon lost time due to crashing on the descent of Monte Terminillo , while Greg LeMond lost over two minutes . On the final climb of the day , Iñaki Gastón and Leonardo Sierra attacked with eight kilometers to go but were caught by the chasing riders . Gaston attacked again with a kilometer remaining , but was robbed of the stage win as Vladimir Poulnikov overtook him three meters before the finish . Cipollini won the event 's seventh leg by means of a field sprint .
The following stage saw a group of nine riders form off the front of the peloton with under twenty kilometers remaining . Despite the best efforts of the chasing peloton , the breakaway group survived and saw Ari @-@ Ceramiche Ariostea 's Davide Cassani take the stage by edging out Mario Mantova . Massimo Ghirotto of Carrera Jeans – Tassoni team attacked with about fifty kilometers to go in the ninth stage . He rode solo and wound up winning the stage , while the general classification remained largely unchanged . The next stage was a 43 km ( 27 mi ) individual time trial that was won by Bugno . He won by margin of eight seconds and moved up into second place overall , a second off the leader Chioccioli .
The eleventh stage was contested in rainy conditions on a winding course . After an unsuccessful breakaway attempt by fifteen riders , Maximilian Sciandri , LeMond , and Michele Coppolillo attacked and formed a group off the front . Sciandri and LeMond crossed the line in first and second , respectively , while Coppolillo was caught by the peloton in the closing meters of the stage . The next day saw the race 's first mountain @-@ top finish , to Monviso . The group of main contenders reached the final climb together , with Banesto 's Jean @-@ François Bernard launching the first attack which saw him gain a maximum advantage of around thirty seconds . The next to make a serious effort was Lejarreta , who was followed by Chioccioli , Massimiliano Lelli , and Sierra , who attacked with ten kilometers left in the stage . The trio caught up to Bernard and rode as a group to the finish . Lelli took the stage as Chioccioli defended his lead . Bugno lost almost two minutes during the day .
The thirteenth leg of the race featured two ascents of the Alpine mountain Sestriere , the second of which served as the finish for the day . The day began with a breakaway of twelve that was caught before the final climb to Sestriere . The first rider to launch a serious attack on the climb was Pedro Delgado , who was quickly followed by Chioccioli , Lejaretta , Eduardo Chozas , and Chiappucci , meanwhile Bugno was unable to follow their wheels . Chozas managed to win the stage as the group of four finish within four seconds of each other . With twenty kilometers to go in the fourteenth leg , Franco Ballerini , Casado , Juan Martínez Oliver , and Brian Peterson formed a breakaway group . The group managed to stretch out an advantage of almost two minutes as they entered the closing kilometers . Ballerini took the stage victory after he and Casado had managed to distance themselves slightly from the two other breakaway riders . LeMond abandoned the race following the conclusion of the fourteenth stage . The next day , on the ascent of the Mortirolo , race leader Chioccioli attacked and formed a solo attack . He rode the remaining fifty kilometers on his own to the stage victory , with his lead expanding to at most two minutes thirty seconds . He managed to put over a minute into each of his rivals .
The sixteenth saw no major shifts in the general classification . The top five riders in the general classification formed a leading group on the final climb but there were no major moves to create time gaps . Lelli took the stage win after ahead of Bugno . The following day was the last in the Dolomites and saw the ascension of five major climbs , including the Cima Coppi Passo Pordoi . On the second climbing of Pordoi , Chioccioli attacked and rode to the top of the climb to win the stage by thirty @-@ eight seconds . Lejaretta crashed on the day and lost over six and a half minutes , putting him out of contention for the podium and overall victory . Mid @-@ way through the stage , Fignon abandoned the race . The eighteenth day of racing was a transition stage . Several attempts were made to form a breakaway group before a group of eight were successful in creating a gap . The group was caught with five hundred meters to go by the chasing peloton which was setting up for a field sprint . Silvio Martinello managed to outsprint the likes of Cipollini and Abdoujaparov to win the day .
The nineteenth leg featured only one categorized climb , which Iñaki Gastón won to seal his victory in the mountains classification . The stage saw no major time disparities in the general classification contenders as they finished together , with Bugno taking the stage win . The penultimate stage of the race was a 66 km ( 41 mi ) individual time trial that contained one un @-@ categorized climb within the route . Race leader Chioccioli took the course and at the first time check at 15 @.@ 5 km ( 10 mi ) he had already put thirty seconds into Bugno . He ended up winning the stage by fifty @-@ seconds over Bugno , thereby extending his lead over the rest of his competitors . The final stage culminated with a bunch sprint that was won by Cipollini . Chioccioli had won the Giro d 'Italia for the first time by almost four minutes over the second place finisher Chiappucci .
Four riders achieved multiple stage victories : Cipollini ( stages 3 , 7 , and 21 ) , Bugno ( stages 2a , 10 , and 19 ) , Lelli ( stages 12 and 16 ) , and Chioccioli ( stages 15 , 17 , and 20 ) . Stage wins were achieved by eight of the twenty competing squads , six of which won multiple stages . Del Tongo @-@ MG Boys Maglificio collected a total of seven stage wins through three riders , Cipollini , Ballerini ( stage 14 ) , and Chioccioli . Carrera Jeans @-@ Tassoni earned three stage wins through Poulnikov ( stage 6 ) , Ghirotto ( stage 9 ) , and Sciandri ( stage 11 ) . Ari @-@ Ceramiche Ariostea achieved the same feat through Cassani ( stage 8 ) and Lelli . Chateau d 'Ax @-@ Gatorade garnered three stage victories through Bugno . Z amassed a total of two stage victories through Casado ( stage 1 ) and Boyer ( stage 4 ) . ONCE gained two stage victories through Lejaretta ( stage 5 ) and Chozas ( stage 13 ) . ZG Mobili and Gis Gelati @-@ Ballan each won a single stage at the Giro , the first through Pierobon ( stage 2b ) and the second through Martinello ( stage 18 ) .
= = Classification leadership = =
Five different jerseys were worn during the 1991 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro . The time bonuses for the 1991 Giro were twelve seconds for first , eight seconds for second , and four seconds for third place on the stage .
For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this Giro was the Passo Pordoi . It was crossed twice by the riders , for the first climbing of the mountain , Italian Franco Vona was the first over the climb , while Franco Chioccioli was first over the second passing . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1967 were eligible for it .
The intergiro classification was marked by a blue jersey . The calculation for the intergiro is similar to that of the general classification , in each stage there is a midway point that the riders pass through a point and where their time is stopped . As the race goes on , their times compiled and the person with the lowest time is the leader of the intergiro classification and wears the blue jersey . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also one classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .
= = Final standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
= = = Team classification = = =
= Tropical Storm Candy =
Tropical Storm Candy produced minor impact in the state of Texas during the 1968 Atlantic hurricane season . The third tropical cyclone of the annual season , it developed from a tropical disturbance in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on June 22 . Gradual strengthening occurred , with the depression becoming Tropical Storm Candy on the following day . The storm reached its peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) later that day and made landfall Port Aransas , Texas on June 23 . Candy weakened into a tropical depression only hours after moving inland . However , the system remained a designated cyclone until June 26 , at which time it completed extratropical transition over the state of Michigan .
Due to rainfall from a trough for several days , combined 11 inches ( 280 mm ) in some areas from Candy itself , flooding occurred in eastern Texas ; there was minor damage to crops , roads , and bridges . Agricultural losses alone were slightly less than $ 2 million ( 1968 USD ) . Storm surge along the coast of Texas caused " cuts " on Padre Island . The storm spawned 24 tornadoes , though only one caused significant impact . Candy and its remnants dropped rainfall in 24 other states , reaching as far north as New Hampshire . Overall , the system caused $ 2 @.@ 7 million in damage and no fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
Between mid- to late June , satellite imagery indicated above normal amounts of shower and thunderstorm activity over the southwestern Gulf of Mexico . By June 22 , the system developed into a tropical depression just off the coast of Mexico in the Bay of Campeche . The depression , which initially had an elongated structure , moved north to north @-@ northwestward at roughly 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) . On June 22 , three separate and distinct circulation centers were noted in weather radar images from Brownsville , Texas . Later that afternoon , a United States Navy reconnaissance aircraft investigated the depression and recorded sustained winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 001 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . Therefore , the system was upgraded to Tropical Storm Candy at 1800 UTC on that same day .
Late on June 23 , Candy made landfall near Port Aransas , Texas . Despite moving ashore , Candy attained its peak intensity at 0000 UTC on June 24 , with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Both were observations from a weather station in Austwell , Texas . The storm quickly weakened inland , falling to tropical depression status early on June 24 . In advance of a cold front , Candy curved northeastward on June 25 and began to accelerate . While moving across the Midwestern United States , the storm began to lose tropical characteristics due to the presence of cold air . At 0000 UTC on June 26 , Candy transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while situated over southern Michigan . The remnants continued eastward for several more hours before dissipating over western New York .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Gale @-@ force winds were reported from Corpus Christi to Galveston , Texas . Sustained winds were above 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) for more than an hour at Austwell , Texas . The peak wind gust of 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) was measured at Port Aransas , Texas , where the storm made landfall . Storm surge was highest in San Antonio and Corpus Christi Bays , at 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , and was 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) along the rest of the Texas coast . However , damage from the storm surge was confined to the formation of " cuts " along Padre Island and to coastal oil refinery equipment .
Prior to the formation of Candy , a trough had brought eight to ten days of rainfall throughout Texas which helped the heavy rainfall from the storm produced damage to crops , roads , and bridges throughout eastern Texas . The rains from Candy also caused flooding on many middle and upper coastal rivers with significant damage confined to the eastern and western forks of the San Jacinto River . The highest recorded rainfall was 11 @.@ 28 inches ( 287 mm ) at Point Comfort , Texas . Elsewhere in southeast Texas , precipitation amounts were generally 3 to 6 inches ( 76 to 152 mm ) . Impact from winds was mostly minor , except at the 740 feet ( 230 m ) public fishing pier in Port O 'Connor , which was severely damaged by 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) winds . Ten towboats and barges , as well as several other small vessels , received minor impacts at Hopper 's Landing on San Antonio Bay .
Outside of Texas , 2 to 4 inches ( 51 to 102 mm ) of rain was reported in eastern Oklahoma , northwestern Arkansas , central Missouri , and northern Illinois . Precipitation in Michigan exceeded 6 inches ( 150 mm ) in some areas , contributing to the ongoing flooding event in Ann Arbor . Flash flooding was reported in western New York , due to precipitation amounts up to 3 @.@ 04 inches ( 77 mm ) in Buffalo during a 24 – hour period . As a result , streams overflowed their banks , inundating many basements , sewers , and underpasses . While tropical , Candy spawned 19 tornadoes or funnel @-@ clouds to form between June 23 and 25 . Ten were reported in Texas , five in Arkansas , three in Louisiana , and one in Missouri . Five additional tornadoes , which were associated with the extratropical remnants of Candy , were reported on June 25 in eastern Ohio . Despite the amount of tornadoes , only one caused significant damage . That tornado " nearly demolished " a school in Morning Star , Arkansas . The total property damage from the storm was " conservatively " estimated at $ 1 million , while losses to agriculture in eastern Texas approached $ 2 million . No deaths were reported in relation to the storm . Candy made 1968 only one of four years to have three named storms in June , with the others being 1886 , 1936 , and 1959 .
= Mother Gothel =
Mother Gothel is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures ' 50th animated feature film Tangled ( 2010 ) as the main antagonist . The character is voiced by American actress and singer Donna Murphy in her voice @-@ acting debut , prior to which she was predominantly known as a stage actress . Upon learning from her agent that Disney was auditioning potentials for the antagonistic role of Mother Gothel , Murphy decided to audition for the part spontaneously . Loosely based on the witch character in the German fairy tale " Rapunzel " , Mother Gothel is a vain old witch who hoards the healing powers of a magical flower in order to remain young and beautiful forever . When the flower is suddenly harvested by the kingdom in order to heal its ailing queen , its rejuvenating powers are inherited by the king and the queen 's daughter , Princess Rapunzel , stripping Gothel of her access to it . With her life suddenly endangered , Gothel kidnaps the baby , imprisoning the young Princess Rapunzel in an isolated tower for eighteen years while masquerading as her mother .
Inspired by the Evil Queen in Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) and Lady Tremaine in Disney 's Cinderella ( 1950 ) , Gothel was developed by directors Nathan Greno and Byron Howard into a much more complex villain than the fairy tale witch upon whom she is based because the character is forced to rely solely on her wit , charisma and intelligence as opposed to sorcery in order to survive . The film 's most difficult character to develop , Gothel 's exotic appearance , whose beauty , dark curly hair and voluptuous figure were deliberately drawn to serve as a foil to Rapunzel 's , was inspired by both Murphy and American singer Cher .
Mother Gothel has been mostly well received by film critics , who enjoyed the character 's humor , complexity , charisma and showmanship , dubbing her a scene stealer , while praising Murphy 's performance enthusiastically . However , some critics felt that Gothel was simply too passive – a weaker , less intimidating Disney villainess than Maleficent from Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) , Cruella de Vil from One Hundred and One Dalmatians and Ursula from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
Walt Disney himself first attempted to adapt the fairy tale " Rapunzel " into a feature @-@ length animated film during the 1940s . However , the filmmaker 's efforts were never fully realized because the fairy tale was considered too " small " . In 2008 , co @-@ directors Nathan Greno and Byron Howard decided to enlarge the film 's scale in order to transform it into a " big event " in order for it to be successful . Meanwhile , the character Mother Gothel was developed into a much more complex villain than the witch upon whom she is based , conceiving her as " a very lonely woman who really did not know how to have a relationship of any kind " . Little else had been determined about the character at the time , who was simply described as " the type of woman who ... envisioned herself in the spotlight . " A departure from traditional Disney villains , Mother Gothel is not a witch or a sorceress . Because she lacks supernatural powers , the character is forced to rely solely on her wit , charm , intellect and charisma because , a conscious decision made by Greno and Howard . However , in the Brothers Grimm 's original fairy tale , Gothel is very much depicted as a typical witch @-@ like character , an idea that was modified for the Disney film adaptation in favor of having Gothel 's agelessness instead be " derive [ d ] ... from Rapunzel 's hair " , becoming one of the few Disney villainesses to not possess magical powers of her own .
Seeking inspiration for Gothel and Rapunzel 's " bizarre " relationship , Greno and Howard conducted a series of interviews with several female Disney employees , asking them to list qualities in their mothers that " they found annoying and cloying or restricting " , specifically " the things that they ’ re [ sic ] mothers would do that made them feel trapped or made them feel smothered " in order to make the villain appear more relatable . Gothel 's " Mother Knows Best " line " Getting kind of chubby " was in fact borrowed from one of these interviews . Gothel embodies " the darker side " of overprotective parents ; at the beginning of the film , Gothel and Rapunzel 's relationship resembles more @-@ so of " a pure mother @-@ daughter relationship . " Elaborating on Gothel 's " unique mothering style " , Howard explained to Den of Geek that the character " has to convince this smart girl that she is her mother ... whatever her motivations are . " Citing Gothel as one of the film 's most difficult characters to develop as a result of her complex relationship with Rapunzel , Greno explained to Den of Geek :
" Mother Gothel can 't be mean . She has to be very passive @-@ aggressive . She was one of the hardest characters to crack . When we were developing her , people were saying that she doesn 't feel enough like a villain , and people would point to characters like Ursula . And then she was too dark for a while ... Because what you do with her directly affects how you play Rapunzel in the movie . Because , if you play an extremely dominant and cruel villain , that girl is going to become meek and downtrodden , with almost nothing of a person , with low self @-@ esteem . And we knew we didn 't want a character like that ... We had to balance it out , and figured that Gothel has to be more subtle than that , rather than a one @-@ note , domineering mother . "
The St. Paul Pioneer Press observed that Gothel represents " an update " of the traditional wicked stepmother , evolving into " the passive @-@ aggressive stepmother " instead . In actress Donna Murphy 's opinion , a " classic " villainess is " somebody who wants something with such intensity and such great need but comes to a place of not being bound by any kind of moral code or any sense of what ’ s ethical " , concluding that " They will do anything to get what they want " . The Austin Chronicle observed that the directors ' inclusion of Gothel as " an evil mother figure as a trigger for the storyline " remains one of the " classic hallmarks of Disney animation " . According to Kay Turner , author of the book Transgressive Tales : Queering the Grimms , " Gothel " means " godmother " in German .
= = = Voice = = =
The directors admitted that they were not keen on hiring solely big @-@ named , A @-@ list celebrities or top @-@ billed actors to voice the film 's main characters . Howard explained that , in order to be cast , the actors simply had to have the " right voice " for the characters , preferring voice actors " who could ... bring a natural ease to those characters . " Greno elaborated , " It was never about how big the star was ... It was always about ... who ’ s best for the part " . Film critic James Berardinelli of ReelViews observed that this decision echoed " Disney 's approach during the late 1980s and early 1990s , when big name stars where often bypassed in favor of lesser known talents . " An additional asset was that the actor be able to perform well both independently and
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because Cher is very exotic and Gothic looking , " continuing that the singer " definitely was one of the people we looked at visually , as far as what gives you a striking character . "
The term passive @-@ aggressive has since gone on to be commonly associated with Gothel . Critics felt that Gothel could possibly pioneer " a new kind of Disney villainess , " introducing " the undermining , passive @-@ aggressive , guilt @-@ trip @-@ inducing witch . " The Village Voice wrote that , as a villain , Gothel " is Disney ’ s first villainess whose chief crime is being an underminer , " warning Rapunzel that she is simply " too silly , too uneducated , too unsophisticated " to survive life outside of the tower . The Los Angeles Times referred to Gothel as " A guilt @-@ tripping , overprotective , super @-@ manipulative parent from hell . " One film critic observed that " Gothel is one of the most understated villains Disney has used in a long time . She harkens back to the wicked step mother idea in Cinderella ... She proves it 's possible to be evil without all the theatrics . " The author continued , " Gothel is one for the ages with a bit of darkly comedic timing and the overall greed and menace a villain needs to be disdained . " The character has received comparisons to the Evil Queen from Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) .
Donna Murphy believed that Gothel did really love Rapunzel in her own way .
" I also think there is this thread of a kind of love that she does have for Rapunzel . It ’ s not what she set out . But she does raise this child and it ’ s the most intimate and certainly the most sustained relationship I think the woman has had in her 387 years or however old she might be . So as deep as the need is to get something for herself , she can ’ t help but fall in love with her . She ’ s spirited , creative , and charming and I think that stirs something in her that is confusing for Gothel . And Gothel has to keep reminding herself of what is most important , which is taking care of herself . But I think there is a genuine kind of humanity . It ’ s by degree , it ’ s not unconditional love but there is a love that develops . "
= = = Music = = =
Mother Gothel performs two of the films songs : " Mother Knows Best , " described as a " brassy , Broadway @-@ targeted tune " and an " authoritarian anthem " in which Gothel warns her daughter " all about the evils out to get Rapunzel , " and " Mother Knows Best ( Reprise ) , " both written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist Glenn Slater . While making Rapunzel 's music more modern in the vein of a singer @-@ songwriter , " young and contemporary and fresh , " Menken decided to make Gothel 's songs " more classic Broadway , " described as more of " a big stage diva type " of music . Critics have observed similarities between " Mother Knows Best " and " Out There " from Disney 's The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) , on which Menken also served as a composer .
Musically , the filmmakers " were open ... to ideas that [ Murphy ] had , " as the actress had felt different about " a slightly different ending to something musically in the arrangement , " requesting to try something else , to which the filmmakers responded , " Absolutely ! "
= = Appearances = =
= = = Tangled = = =
Mother Gothel appears in in Tangled ( 2010 ) . For hundreds of years , Gothel , a vain old woman , hoards the rejuvenative powers of a magical flower in order to remain young and beautiful , while selfishly keeping the flower 's whereabouts a secret from the rest of the kingdom . However , when the pregnant Queen of Corona falls fatally ill , the flower is desperately retrieved and fed to her , healing her and in turn inadvertently stripping Gothel of her access to what is essentially the only thing that is keeping her alive . Meanwhile , the King and Queen 's newborn daughter Rapunzel is gifted with the flower 's abilities , which manifest via her long , golden hair when a special song is sung so long as it remains uncut . Desperate to stay alive , Gothel steals the baby from the palace and she imprisoned her in a secluded tower for eighteen years , raising the child as her own and prohibiting her from leaving solely in order to use her hair to stay young .
As her eighteenth birthday approaches , Rapunzel continues to grow eager to leave the tower in order to view the mysterious " floating lights " – secretly lanterns released annually by the King and Queen in remembrance of their lost daughter – from up close . While Gothel , reprimanding Rapunzel when she asks , forbids this , she agrees to Rapunzel 's request to take a three @-@ day @-@ long journey to retrieve art supplies for Rapunzel , giving her just enough time to escape the tower , aided by a wanted thief named Flynn Rider . However , not too far from the castle , Gothel is soon tipped off by Maximus , a guard horse who is searching for Flynn , that Rapunzel has gone missing . With her life endangered and her age rapidly increasing , Gothel desperately pursues Rapunzel and Flynn .
Enlisting the help of the Stabbington Brothers , a duo of muscular thieves who were once betrayed by Flynn , Gothel offers them both revenge on Flynn Rider and Rapunzel 's gift once they agree to help her find them , not intending to keep the latter half of her promise as she only wants Rapunzel for herself . When her initial attempt to convince Rapunzel to return home with her fails , Gothel , upon a second encounter , tricks the Stabbington Brothers into immobilizing Flynn , later knocking them unconscious when they attempt to kidnap Rapunzel . Convincing Rapunzel that Flynn has betrayed her , they return to the tower . While Flynn escapes from the dungeon , Rapunzel suddenly realizes her true identity and rebels against Gothel , only to be chained and gagged . Gothel stabs Flynn upon his arrival to rescue Rapunzel , but agrees to free Rapunzel long enough to heal him on the condition that she remain with her forever . However , Flynn unexpectedly cuts Rapunzel 's hair , causing it to lose its magic . It turns brown , and a horrified Gothel ( failing to salvage Rapunzel 's hair ) ages rapidly , falling out of the tower 's window but disintegrating into dust before she hits the ground , essentially dying of old age . Flynn dies in Rapunzel 's arms , but is miraculously revived by Rapunzel 's tear , and Rapunzel is finally reunited with her parents .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Mother Gothel has garnered mostly positive reviews from film critics . Nigel Andrews of the Financial Times felt that the character was given the film 's " best lines and tunes . " Film4 described Gothel as a " fun " character " to the extent that she risks making the good guys seem a bit dull . " Hailing Gothel as the film 's " pierre de resistance , " Georgie Hobbs of Little White Lies wrote that Gothel " performs ... ' Mother Knows Best ' ... with a schizophrenic frenzy worthy of the very best of [ Stephen ] Sondheim 's crazed heroines . " IGN 's Jim Vejvoda penned , " Mother Gothel nearly steals the show , with her overprotective tyranny being made to seem almost rational . " Dubbed Disney 's " first passive @-@ aggressive villain " by Helen O 'Hara of Empire , the author reviewed , " the fact that [ Gothel ] is entirely bereft of superpowers and reliant on her considerable wits to keep her going makes her strangely admirable . " Writing for the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel , Cathy Jakicic called the character " a great contemporary villain " who " many daughters ( and mothers ) will find ... funny and a little too familiar . " In the The New York Times ' A. O. Scott 's opinion , " The Disney pantheon is full of evil stepmothers , though none quite match Mother Gothel for sheer sadistic intensity . " According to Jake Coyle of the Southtown Star , Gothel is " one of Disney 's best " villains , while Gary Thompson of the Philadelphia Daily News dubbed the character " one reason to love Disney . " Michael Smith of the Tulsa World reviewed Gothel as " perfectly wicked as she kills Rapunzel 's dreams . " Kirk Baird of The Blade identified Gothel as the film 's " strongest character . " Colin Covert of the Star Tribune commented , " In her own way , Gothel is scarier than Snow White 's wicked stepmother " because the character " doesn 't cast spells ; she 's fully capable of manipulating , guilt @-@ tripping and emotionally undermining the girl . " Several comparisons have been made between Gothel and the Evil Queen in Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) , while several critics observed the character 's likeness to singer Cher ; Peter Howell of the Toronto Star joked that Gothel is " suspiciously Cher @-@ like in her quest for eternal youth . "
However , critics were not unanimous in their praise , as some reviewers felt that the character was too passive and tame to be a convincing villain . Jeff Meyers of the Detroit Metro Times wrote that the film 's " villain isn 't all that villainous , " while Tyler Hanley of the Palo Alto Daily News received Gothel as too " one @-@ dimensional and generic . " PopMatters ' Bill Gibron wrote that , as a villain , Gothel " can ’ t compete with traditional House of Mouse miscreants like Maleficent or Cruella de Vil . " Alison Gang of U @-@ T San Diego felt that Gothel was an " annoying " character at times , while USA Today 's Claudia Puig wrote that " Gothel plays the role of Rapunzel 's loving mom [ only ] sometimes convincingly . " Although Michelle Orange of Movieline enjoyed Gothel 's personality to an extant , the author criticized the character in a mixed review that " By reducing Mother Gothel to a vain woman who doesn 't want immortality so much as she 's determined to keep her profile taut , the film misses the chance to get seriously mythical , and as a result the narrative lacks dramatic impact . "
Meanwhile , Donna Murphy 's vocal performance as Gothel has garnered unanimous praise . Critics hailed the actress as a " standout " – in particular , Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly singled out Gothel as " a firecracker " amidst an otherwise " sedate " cast . " Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal wrote that " Donna Murphy does evil deliciously as the voice of Mother Gothel " , while Now 's Norman Wilner felt that the actress successfully " channelled " Broadway actress Patti LuPone in her performance . Meanwhile , Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph compared Murphy 's performance to actress and singer Julie Andrews , writing , " the Julie @-@ Andrews @-@ on @-@ stimulants vocal stylings of Broadway star Donna Murphy ... makes Mother Gothel into a memorable manipulative diva . " Joe Neumaier of the Daily News called Murphy 's acting " deliciously mischievous " . Meanwhile , Jonathan Crocker of Total Film wrote , " Donna Murphy 's vocal performance as the vain , villainous fake @-@ matriarch is marvellous " , adding , " her belted @-@ out rendition of ‘ Mother Knows Best ’ is easily the film ’ s top musical number . " Likewise , the Tampa Bay Times ' Steve Persall penned , " Nobody but Murphy should be cast as Gothel " , continuing , " her ' Mother Knows Best ' is a knockout . " Simon Reynolds of Digital Spy felt that " Donna Murphy steals the show " . Similarly dubbing Murphy a scene @-@ stealer , Canoe.ca 's Lindsey Ward wrote that " Murphy ... turns into a giant spectacle with her voice , a powerful force to be reckoned with . " David Edelstein of Vulture.com hailed Murphy as " Broadway ’ s gift to animated movies " , praising in particular the actress ' delivery of " the movie ’ s best line : “ Oh , so I ’ m the bad guy now ? ” Quickflix deemed Murphy " wonderful " , while Stephen Witty of The Star @-@ Ledger ' called her " terrific " . Sandie Angulo Chen of Common Sense Media opined , " As for the dramatic tension , it 's best in the form of Mother Gothel -- brilliantly played by Murphy , whose signature Broadway voice ... adds the necessary punch " . Chen added that Gothel " is ... a personal favorite " while comparing the character to Cher and actress Sophia Loren . The A.V. Club 's Tasha Robinson wrote that Gothel was " magnificently voiced by star Murphy . " Murphy 's performance of " Mother Knows Best " has also been very positively received , with critics again comparing the actress to Julie Andrews . While calling Gothel 's voice " to die for " , Peter Travers of Rolling Stone deemed her performance of the song " comic bliss . " Linda Cook of the Quad @-@ City Times penned that the song was " belted out wonderfully by Murphy and makes the purchase of the soundtrack worthwhile . " Marjorie Baumgarten of The Austin Chronicle opined , " Murphy brings stage showmanship to her musical interludes as Mother Gothel , which drip with sarcasm and biting wit . " Slant Magazine 's Christian Blauvelt , who felt that the film 's songs lacked as a result of Moore 's " pop @-@ star vocals " , happened to very much enjoy Gothel 's performances , writing , " when Broadway vet Murphy takes to scaling Menken 's octave @-@ climbing melodies like a vocal escalator , it 's a different story . " Calling Gothel " one of the most potent schemers in the Disney canon , " Time 's Richard Corliss felt that Murphy 's performance was worthy of a Tony Award for Best Actress , concluding , " no one can summon the malice in humor , and the fun in pain , like this prima Donna . " In his review of the film 's soundtrack , James Christopher Monger of AllMusic wrote that both " Moore and Murphy take on the lion ’ s share of the work here , and both deliver the goods . "
IGN ranked Mother Gothel fourth on their list of " the 12 Disney Villainesses " . In a list of the thirty @-@ three greatest Disney villains conducted by E ! , Mother Gothel was ranked twenty @-@ fifth .
= = = Merchandise = = =
In addition to the popular Mother Gothel Classic Doll and appearing alongside Rapunzel , Flynn , Pascal and Maximus in the Rapunzel Tangled Figure Play Set , the character 's likeness has since been adapted and modified by Disney into a much more glamorous doll for sale alongside several re @-@ imagined Disney villainesses as part of the company 's Disney Villains Designer Collection , released in 2012 . Costumed in a long burgundy gown made of satin , Gothel wears her thick black hair in " a theatrical up @-@ do . "
= Alasdair Cochrane =
Alasdair Cochrane ( born 1978 ) is a British political theorist and ethicist who is currently a senior lecturer in political theory in the Department of Politics at the University of Sheffield . He is known for his work on animal rights from the perspective of political theory , which is the subject of his two books : An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory ( 2010 , Palgrave Macmillan ) and Animal Rights Without Liberation ( 2012 , Columbia University Press ) . He is a founding member of the Centre for Animals and Social Justice , a UK @-@ based think tank focussed on furthering the social and political status of nonhuman animals . He joined the Department at Sheffield in 2012 , having previously been a faculty member at the Centre for the Study of Human Rights , London School of Economics .
Cochrane 's work forms part of the political turn in animal ethics — that is , the emergence of academic literature exploring the normative aspects of human / nonhuman animal relationships from a political perspective . He is known for his interest @-@ based account of animal rights , a theory of justice which claims that animals have rights based on their possession of normatively @-@ significant interests . The account is a two @-@ tiered one , with individuals ' strong interests grounding prima facie rights , and some prima facie rights becoming concrete , or all @-@ things @-@ considered , rights . In this picture , the violation of concrete rights , but not necessarily prima facie rights , represents an injustice . In particular , Cochrane argues that sentient animals ' interests against suffering and death ground prima facie rights against the infliction of suffering and death . These prima facie rights convert to concrete rights in , for example , animal agriculture and animal testing , meaning that killing nonhuman animals or making them suffer for these purposes is unjust .
Cochrane argues that nonhuman animals do not possess an intrinsic interest in freedom . Therefore , owning or using nonhuman animals is not , in itself , unjust . This aspect of his thought has generated responses by others , including the political theorist Robert Garner and the philosopher John Hadley , who argue that there may be reasons to claim that nonhuman animals do possess an interest in freedom . Cochrane has also proposed a cosmopolitan alternative to Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka 's picture of a political animal rights , explicated in their 2011 book Zoopolis . Though Donaldson and Kymlicka have defended their account against Cochrane 's criticism , they have said that they welcome attempts to develop alternative political theories of animal rights to their own . Cochrane 's other research focusses variously on bioethics , punishment , just war and human rights .
= = Life = =
= = = Education = = =
Alasdair Cochrane studied in the Department of Politics at Sheffield as an undergraduate . There , he was taught by James Meadowcroft , a specialist in environmental politics , who sparked his interest in political and environmental philosophy . Cochrane received a first @-@ class honours degree in politics in 2000 from the university . He subsequently obtained an MSc in political theory from the London School of Economics ( LSE ) . It was during this time that he met Cécile Fabre , who went on to become his PhD supervisor . In 2007 , Cochrane received a PhD from the Department of Government at the LSE . His thesis , supervised by Fabre with Paul Kelly acting as an advisor , was entitled Moral obligations to non @-@ humans . In that year , Cochrane published his first peer @-@ reviewed research article : " Animal rights and animal experiments : An interest @-@ based approach " . The paper , a reworked version of chapter five ( " Non @-@ human animals and experimentation " ) of Moral obligations to non @-@ humans , appeared in Res Publica , and was the winner of the journal 's second annual postgraduate essay prize .
= = = Academic career = = =
In 2007 , after completing his postgraduate studies , Cochrane joined the Centre for the Study of Human Rights at the LSE . He was initially a fellow , then became a lecturer . In 2009 , he published articles in Utilitas and Political Studies defending his " liberty thesis " , the idea that nonhuman animals lack an intrinsic interest in freedom . This claim has attracted article @-@ length responses from the political theorist Robert Garner , and the philosophers John Hadley , Andreas T. Schmidt , and Valéry Giroux . Cochrane 's first book , An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory , was published in 2010 , and was one of the first to consider nonhuman animals from the perspective of political theory . The book introduces readers to the debate about the inclusion of nonhuman animals within accounts of justice . He first addresses the historical dimension of the question , arguing that there was disagreement in classical exploration of the issue , unanimous rejection in medieval considerations and disagreement in contemporary treatments . He then considers the place of nonhuman animals in utilitarian , liberal , communitarian , Marxist and feminist political theory , concluding that no single tradition is sufficient to account for the place nonhuman animals should have in politics , but that all have something worthwhile to offer to the debate .
In 2011 Cochrane became a founding member of the Centre for Animals and Social Justice ( CASJ ) . The CASJ is a think tank that aims to bring academics and policy makers together with a view to understanding and furthering the social and political status of nonhuman animals . In January 2012 Cochrane became a faculty member in the Department of Politics at the University of Sheffield , first as a lecturer in political theory , and then as a senior lecturer in political theory . His second book , Animal Rights Without Liberation , was released that year by Columbia University Press . The book is based upon the research he completed during his PhD at LSE , and offers an extended defence of the theoretical basis and practical consequences of his interest @-@ based rights account of animal ethics . In 2013 he edited a special section in the journal Global Policy on " International Animal Protection " ; the section included articles by the philosopher Oscar Horta , the environmental law scholar Stuart R. Harrop and the animal law scholar Steven White , with an introduction by Cochrane . He also contributed to the inaugural issue of the journal Law , Ethics and Philosophy as a part of a symposium on Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka 's Zoopolis . Cochrane 's paper argued for a " cosmozoopolis " , a cosmopolitan alternative to Donaldson and Kymlicka 's proposal for a " zoopolis " — a picture of a mixed human / nonhuman animal state with group @-@ differentiated political rights for nonhuman animals . A reply to Cochrane 's piece ( as well as the other contribution , by Horta ) from Donaldson and Kymlicka was also included . In 2014 , he was named a BBC Radio 3 New Generation Thinker for his work on animal rights .
= = Research = =
Cochrane has research interests in animal ethics , bioethics , environmental ethics , rights theory , and human rights , as well as contemporary political theory more broadly . He is a leading figure in what Garner calls the " political turn in animal ethics " , though precisely what this means is disputed . Similarly , Tony Milligan characterises Cochrane as a key figure in the " political turn in animal rights " , while Svenja Ahlhaus and Peter Niesen identify a discipline of " Animal Politics " , of which Cochrane 's work is a major part , separate from animal ethics . The literature to which these authors variously refer explores the relationships of humans and nonhuman animals from the perspective of normative political theory .
Cochrane has himself — writing with Garner and Siobhan O 'Sullivan — explored the nature of the political turn . Cochrane , Garner and O 'Sullivan argue both that the new literature is importantly unified and that it is distinct from more traditional approaches to animal ethics , presenting the focus on justice as the key feature . They write that " the crucial unifing and distinctive feature of these contributions – and what can properly be said to mark them out as a ' political turn ' – is the way in which they imagine how political institutions , structures and processes might be transformed so as to secure justice for both human and nonhuman animals " .
= = = Interest @-@ based rights approach = = =
Cochrane advocates the " interest @-@ based rights approach " to animal rights , which he distinguishes from the intrinsic value approach of Tom Regan and the relational account of Donaldson and Kymlicka . Rights set limits on what can be done , even in the pursuit of aggregative well @-@ being . Cochrane suggests that rights should be grounded in interests , and follows Joseph Raz 's formulation that
'X has a right ' if and only if X can have rights and , other things being equal , an aspect of X 's well @-@ being ( his interest ) is a sufficient reason for holding some other person ( s ) to be under a duty .
Cochrane draws out several aspects of this account , which serves as the basis of the analysis in his Animal Rights Without Liberation and elsewhere . First , interests must be " sufficient to give grounds for holding another to be under a duty " . Judging this entails considering the strength of an interest as well as " all other considerations " ; so , for example , individuals may have a very strong interest in free expression , but , " all things considered " , this fact does not necessitate the protection of slander . The greater interest of the victim of slander can outweigh the interest in free expression , and so context is important . This is the difference between prima facie rights and concrete rights . The former exist on an abstract level outside of particular circumstances . Prima facie rights can translate into concrete rights when considered in particular situations , but they do not always , as the free expression example illustrates . The account is for moral rights , and Cochrane 's normative claims are intended to form part of a " democratic underlaboring " , informing and persuading political communities .
The strength of an interest is determined by a consideration of the value of something to an individual ( though this is not understood purely subjectively ) and the relationship between the individual at this time and the individual when he or she has the interest satisfied ( see personal identity ) . Sentient animals , Cochrane argues , possess significant interests in not being made to suffer and in not being killed , and so have a prima facie right not to be made to suffer and a prima facie right not to be killed . Whether these prima facie rights translate into concrete rights depends on the situation in question . Cochrane explores the consequences of the account in his Animal Rights Without Liberation , arguing that , with very few exceptions , nonhuman animals have a concrete rights not to be killed or made to suffer in animal testing , animal agriculture , in entertainment , for environmental purposes and in cultural practices . Despite this , because Cochrane does not posit a right against use for nonhuman animals , his account is highly permissive when contrasted with other animal rights accounts .
In his interest @-@ based rights approach , Cochrane draws upon a number of normative theories , but most particularly utilitarianism and liberalism , and the framework has been presented by commentators as a possible middle @-@ ground between the rights theory of Regan and the utilitarian account offered by Peter Singer . Cochrane is not the first theorist to advocate an interest @-@ based account of animal rights . Garner identifies Joel Feinberg , James Rachels and Steve Sapontzis as three philosophers who have previously used the language of interest rights , while Cochrane identifies R. G. Frey and Regan as two others who have addressed the possibility . Interest @-@ based approaches to animal ethics have become significant in recent academic literature ; Milligan identifies " a strong emphasis upon animal interests but in the context of a rights theory rather than a Singer @-@ style consequentialism " as one of the key components of the political turn .
= = = Liberty thesis = = =
Cochrane 's " liberty thesis " is that nonhuman animals — with the possible exception of some great apes and cetaceans — do not have an intrinsic interest in freedom . Nonetheless , Cochrane claims , nonhuman animals may often have an extrinsic interest in freedom . This is because restricting a nonhuman animal 's freedom may result in its suffering , and , regardless of their interest in freedom , sentient animals possess an interest in not suffering . Schmidt summarises Cochrane 's argument as the following :
P1 : To have a moral right to freedom , one needs to have a sufficient intrinsic interest in freedom .
P2 : To have a sufficient and intrinsic interest in freedom implies that freedom by itself contributes to a person 's wellbeing .
P3 : Only in case of autonomous persons does freedom contribute by itself to their wellbeing ( because only for autonomous persons does unfreedom undermine the ability to ' frame and pursue their own conception of the good ' ) .
P4 : Non @-@ human animals are not autonomous persons .
C1 : Therefore , freedom does not by itself contribute to the wellbeing of non @-@ human animals .
C2 : Therefore , non @-@ human animals do not have an intrinsic interest in freedom .
C3 : Therefore , non @-@ human animals do not have a moral right to freedom .
Though Cochrane argues that nonhuman animals are not the victim of an injustice simply because they are owned , he claims that ownership of an animal must be understood as not entailing absolute control over said animal . He conceptualises owned animals as " individual sentient creatures with interests of their own " . In understanding owned animals in this way , he challenges alternative accounts which frame owned animals variously as living artifacts , slaves , co @-@ citizens or beings who have strategically situated themselves alongside humans . In Animal Rights Without Liberation , Cochrane argues that there is nothing intrinsically wrong with using or owning animals , and so , as long as their interests are respected , there is nothing intrinsically wrong with using them , for example , in scientific tests , or for agricultural purposes . Ahlhaus and Niesen characterise the book as a whole as a critique of Singer 's Animal Liberation , saying that the former explores the latter 's " undeclared premise that liberation is what animals want or need " .
Schmidt criticises Cochrane 's liberty thesis on the grounds that nonhuman animals may have a non @-@ specific instrumental interest in freedom , meaning that although freedom is not intrinsically valuable for these animals , it may be that they can achieve other things which are intrinsically valuable only through possessing freedom . Thus , Cochrane 's thesis underestimates the value that freedom could have for nonhuman animals . Hadley criticises Cochrane 's non @-@ pragmatic approach , arguing that Cochrane , as an animal advocate , is wrong to deny that nonhuman animals possess an " intrinsic " interest in freedom . Hadley links freedom to the value of nonhuman animals , arguing that the latter can be undermined by arguing against the former . Garner criticises Cochrane 's thesis on the grounds that Cochrane has , Garner claims , underestimated the weight of the argument from marginal cases . To the extent that Cochrane 's argument works for nonhuman animals , Garner suggests , it will also work for many humans , leading to counter @-@ intuitive consequences . Garner ties autonomy not merely to liberty , but also life , which means that Cochrane 's argument would imply that some humans have less of an interest in life than others . Nonetheless , Garner argues that Cochrane 's liberty thesis is not destructive of animal rights , and that animal rights positions can still make claims of significance without endorsing the claim that nonhuman animal use is , in itself , problematic . Indeed , merely a right against suffering , Garner suggests , could go a long way towards achieving the abolitionist goal of the end of animal industry . All three authors praise Cochrane for drawing attention to the previously under @-@ examined issue .
The abolitionist theorist Jason Wyckoff draws attention to Cochrane 's argument that nonhuman animals do not have an interest in not being owned . He formalises Cochrane 's argument as follows :
1 . Possession ( understood as restriction of freedom ) is something to which we do not object across the board even in the case of human children , so there is no across @-@ the @-@ board objection to possession when the case involves animals .
2 . Non @-@ lethal use of animals that does not cause suffering is consistent with full respect for the interests of those animals , provided that those animals are not treated exclusively as means to human ends .
3 . At least some transferals of animals ( including sales ) are consistent with full respect for those animals ’ interests , provided that the transfer does not cause suffering .
4 . The rights to possess , use , and transfer items are at the core of our concept of property .
5 . Therefore , the property status of animals is compatible with full respect for the interests of animals .
He claims that Cochrane 's argument is invalid because it assumes that nonhuman animals are harmed by being owned only if they are killed or have suffering inflicted on them and because it assumes that ownership is permissible when it does not compromise the interests of the particular owned animal . Both of these assumptions are false , claim Wyckoff , as though " instances of possession , use , and transfer may possibly not violate the interests of an individual , the systematic treatment of that individual as the kind of entity that can be possessed , used , and transferred constructs that entity and others like it ( or him , or her ) as an object , and when that entity is a moral patient with interests , that construction as an object subordinates the interests of that patient and similar patients to those who benefit from the objectification of the individual " .
= = = International animal rights = = =
Some of Cochrane 's research concerns animal rights from an international or cosmopolitan perspective . As an alternative to Donaldson and Kymlicka 's proposal for a " zoopolis " , Cochrane proposes a " cosmozoopolis " , drawing upon cosmopolitan theory . The zoopolis picture , Cochrane suggests , unfairly elevates the interests of nonhuman " citizens " over other nonhuman animals , even though these other animals may have comparable interests , and , in offering sovereignty to free @-@ living animals , denies the importance of nonhuman animal mobility . Ahlhaus and Niesen consider Cochrane 's criticism of Donaldson and Kymlicka valuable , but question the extent to which his " cosmozoopolis " picture is compatible with his liberty thesis . Donaldson and Kymlicka offer a defence of their zoopolis picture against Cochrane 's criticism , affirming the importance of nonhuman animals ' interests in their territory and the legitimacy of offering benefits to members of particular societies denied to non @-@ members . Despite this , they say that , citing Cochrane 's cosmozoopolis picture as an example , " one of [ their ] aims is to inspire people to develop ... alternative political theories of animal rights " to their own .
Cochrane is of the view that " a lack of a clear , focused and coherent set of international standards and policies for animal protection is an important contributing factor " to the gulf between the theoretical and legal valuation of nonhuman animals and their treatment around the world . With Steve Cooke , he argues that it is theoretically acceptable — drawing upon Simon Caney 's account of just war — for states to go to war to protect nonhuman animals . Nonetheless , the pair argue that it will almost never be acceptable in practice .
= = = Other research = = =
Cochrane is critical of the use of claims about dignity in debates about the genetic engineering of nonhuman animals , in questions about the use of nonhuman animals in human entertainment , and in the bioethics literature . He holds that nonhuman animals do not possess an interest against being treated in undignified ways , and endorses " undignified bioethics " — bioethics without the concept of dignity . Cochrane has sympathy for the standard criticisms of dignity in bioethics ( that the concept is indeterminate , reactionary and redundant ) , and , in a 2010 paper , defends these criticisms against counter @-@ claims from those who endorse various understandings of dignity . The bioethicist Inmaculada de Melo @-@ Martín responded to Cochrane 's article , claiming that the problems Cochrane identifies are problems with common understandings of the concepts of dignity , not with the concepts themselves , and arguing that Cochrane 's conclusion leads to a conception of bioethics almost devoid of ethics .
Recent literature exploring bioethical questions from a human rights perspective has been criticised on the grounds that human rights theory contains unresolved problems . Bioethicists have claimed that bioethical inquiry can contribute to resolving these problems . Cochrane claims that this contribution to human rights literature offers three insights , but that these are not entirely original . These insights are questions about institutional fairness , rights as trumps and rights as solely belonging to humans . Cochrane holds that human rights should be reconceptualised as sentient rights . The grounding of human rights , he claims , are not distinct from the grounding of human obligations to nonhuman animals , and attempts to distinguish human rights from the rights of other sentient beings ultimately fail .
Cochrane has also published work on environmental ethics and punishment . Concerning the latter , he argues , building upon Thomas Mathiesen 's claim that prison is not justified by classic theories of punishment , that the institution cannot be justified on the basis of Antony Duff 's " communicative " account of punishment .
= = Select bibliography = =
= = = Books = = =
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2012 ) . Animal Rights Without Liberation . New York : Columbia University Press .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2010 ) . An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory . Basingstoke , England : Palgrave Macmillan .
= = = Articles = = =
Cochrane , Alasdair , Siobhan O 'Sullivan and Robert Garner ( 2016 ) . " Animal ethics and the political " . Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy. doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 13698230 @.@ 2016 @.@ 1194583 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2016 ) . " Prison on appeal : The idea of communicative incarceration " . Criminal Law and Philosophy. doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s11572 @-@ 015 @-@ 9371 @-@ 4
Cochrane , Alasdair ; Cooke , Steve ( 2016 ) . " ' Humane intervention ' : The international protection of animal rights " . Journal of Global Ethics 12 ( 1 ) : 106 – 21 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 17449626 @.@ 2016 @.@ 1149090 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2013 ) . " Cosmozoopolis : The case against group @-@ differentiated animal rights " . Law , Ethics and Philosophy 1 : 127 – 41 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2013 ) . " From human rights to sentient rights " . Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 16 ( 5 ) : 65
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cash to immigrants who were without funds . Instead of refusing to " baby sit " Americans after they arrived , Satin made post @-@ emigration assistance a top priority . The office soon sported comfortable furniture , a hot plate , and free food ; within a few months , 200 Torontonians had opened their homes to war resisters and a job @-@ finding service had been established . Finally , rather than expressing indifference to reporters , Satin courted them , and many responded , beginning with a May 1967 article in The New York Times Magazine that included a large picture of Satin counseling Vietnam War resisters in the refurbished office . Some of the publicity focused on Satin as much as on his cause . According to historian Pierre Berton , Satin was so visible that he became the unofficial spokesman for war resisters in Canada .
Satin defined himself as a neopacifist or quasi @-@ pacifist – flexible , media @-@ savvy , and entrepreneurial . He told one journalist he might have fought against Hitler . He was not necessarily opposed to the draft , telling reporters he would support it for a defensive army or to help eliminate poverty , illiteracy , and racial discrimination . He avoided the intellectual framework of traditional pacifism and socialism . Sometimes he spoke with emotion , as when he described the United States to The New York Times Magazine as " [ t ] hat godawful sick , foul country ; could anything be worse ? " Sometimes he spoke poetically , as when he told author Jules Witcover , " It 's colder here , but you feel warm because you know you 're not trying to kill people . " Instead of identifying with older pacifists , he identified with a 17 @-@ year @-@ old character from the pen of J. D. Salinger : " I was Holden Caulfield " , he said in 2008 , " just standing and catching in the rye . "
The results of Satin 's approach were noticeable : the Programme went from averaging fewer than three visitors , letters , and phone calls per day just before he arrived , to averaging 50 per day nine months later . In addition , the American anti @-@ war movement became more accepting of emigration to Canada – for example , author Myra MacPherson reports that Satin 's Manual for Draft @-@ Age Immigrants to Canada could be obtained at every draft counseling office in the U.S. However , Satin 's approach was distressing to the traditional pacifists and socialists on the Programme 's board . The board clashed with Satin over at least 10 political , strategic , and performance issues . The most intractable may have been over the extent of the publicity . There were also concerns about Satin 's personal issues ; for example , one war resister claims to have heard him say , " Anonymity would kill me " . In May 1968 , the board finally fired him .
= = = Manual for Draft @-@ Age Immigrants to Canada = = =
Before Satin was fired , he conceived and wrote , and edited guest chapters for , the Manual for Draft @-@ Age Immigrants to Canada , published in January 1968 by the House of Anansi Press in partnership with the Toronto Anti @-@ Draft Programme . The Programme had issued brochures on emigration before – including a 12 @-@ page version under Satin 's watch – but the Manual was different , a comprehensive , 45 @,@ 000 @-@ word book , and it quickly turned into an " underground bestseller " . Many years later , Toronto newspapers reported that nearly 100 @,@ 000 copies of the Manual had been sold . One journalist calls it the " first entirely Canadian @-@ published bestseller in the United States " .
The Programme was initially hesitant about producing the Manual , which promised to draw even more war resisters and publicity to it . " The [ board ] didn 't even want me to write it " , Satin says . " I wrote it at night , in the SUPA office , three or four nights a week after counseling guys and gals 8 to 10 hours a day – pounded it out in several drafts over several months on SUPA 's ancient Underwood typewriter . " When it finally appeared , some leading periodicals helped put it on the map . For example , The New York Review of Books called it " useful " , and The New York Times said it contains advice about everything from how to qualify as an immigrant to jobs , housing , schools , politics , culture , and even the snow . After the war , sociologist John Hagan found that more than a third of young American emigrants to Canada had read the Manual while still in the United States , and nearly another quarter obtained it after they arrived .
The Manual reflected Satin 's neopacifist politics . Commentators routinely characterized it as caustic , responsible , and supportive . The first part of the Manual , on emigration , suggests that self @-@ preservation is more important than sacrifice to a dubious cause . The second half , on Canada , spotlights opportunities for self @-@ development and social innovation . According to Canadian social historian David Churchill , the Manual helped some Canadians begin to see Toronto as socially inclusive , politically progressive , and counter @-@ cultural .
Inevitably , the Manual became a lightning rod for controversy . Some observers took issue with its perspective on Canada ; most notably , The Cambridge Companion to Canadian Literature criticizes its " condescending tone " in describing Canada 's resources . Elements in the U.S. and Canadian governments may have been upset by the Manual . According to journalist Lynn Coady , the FBI and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) attempted to wiretap the House of Anansi Press 's offices . In addition , Anansi co @-@ founder Dave Godfrey is convinced a 10 @-@ day government audit of the press was generated by FBI – RCMP concerns . Many people did not want the Programme to encourage draft @-@ eligible Americans to emigrate to Canada , and Satin routinely denied that the Manual encouraged emigration . But few observers believed him , then or later . The first sentence of an article in The New York Times from 1968 describes the Manual as " a major bid to encourage Americans to evade military conscription " . Canadian essayist Robert Fulford remembers the Manual as offering an enthusiastic welcome to draft dodgers . Even a House of Anansi Press anthology from 2007 concedes that the Manual is " coyly titled " .
Satin was fired from the Programme soon after the appearance of the second edition of the Manual , which had a print run of 20 @,@ 000 . His name was removed from the title page of most subsequent editions . According to a study of the Manual by critic Joseph Jones in Canadian Notes & Queries , a literary journal , some later editions experienced a falloff in quality . Nevertheless , Jones says the Manual stands as an icon of its age . It has made significant appearances in at least five novels , including John Irving 's A Prayer for Owen Meany , and it continues to be pored over by historians , social scientists , and graduate students .
= = = Confessions of a Young Exile = = =
Until the 1990s , literary critic William Zinsser says , memoir writers tended to conceal their most personal and embarrassing memories . In the 1970s Satin wrote a memoir revealing many such memories as a neopacifist activist during the years 1964 – 66 , Confessions of a Young Exile , published by Gage , a Toronto publishing house soon to merge with Macmillan of Canada . Confessions is " a remarkable exercise in self @-@ exposure " , playwright John Lazarus says in a review . " The insights into the hero 's motives and fears are so honest , and so mortifyingly true , that it soon becomes evident that the [ naive ] tone is deliberate . "
To some reviewers , Satin appears to have had a political goal – encouraging activists to establish common ground with ordinary North Americans on the basis of their shared confusion and humanity . For example , Jackie Hooper , writing in The Province , argues that the purity of motives projected by many pacifist activists is unconvincing , and recommends Satin 's more complex view : " Satin 's emigration wasn 't dictated totally by his idealism . More often than not , he talked himself into radical positions ... as a result of trying to impress his peers or his girlfriend , or rebelling against middle @-@ class parental authority " .
Some reviewers were unenthusiastic . For example , Dennis Duffy , writing in The Globe and Mail , describes Satin 's memoir as a " story about a young man who doesn 't grow up " . In addition , Satin 's publisher began having reservations about him . Many years later , the Toronto Star reported that the publisher decided not to let Satin do any publicity for the book , because of his potentially offensive views .
= = New Age politics , 1970s – 1980s = =
= = = New Age Politics , the book = = =
As the 1970s began , the New Left faded away , and many movements arose in its wake – among them the feminist , men 's liberation , spiritual , human potential , ecology , appropriate technology , intentional community , and holistic health movements . After graduating from the University of British Columbia in 1972 , Satin immersed himself in all these movements , either directly or as a reporter for Canada 's underground press . He also took up residence in a free @-@ love commune . " One fierce winter 's day " , he says , " ... it dawned on me that the ideas and energies from the various ' fringe ' movements [ were ] beginning to generate a coherent new politics . But I looked in vain for the people and groups that were expressing that new politics ( instead of merely bits and pieces of it ) " . Satin set out to write a book that would express the new politics in all its dimensions . He wrote , designed , typeset , and printed the first edition of New Age Politics himself , in 1976 . A 240 @-@ page edition was published by Vancouver 's Whitecap Books in 1978 , and a 349 @-@ page edition by Dell Publishing Company in New York in 1979 . It is now widely regarded as the " first " , " most ambitious " , or " most adequate " attempt to offer a systemic overview of the new post @-@ socialist politics arising in the wake of the New Left . Some academics say it offers a new ideology .
At the heart of New Age Politics is a critique of the consciousness we all supposedly share , a " six @-@ sided prison " that has kept us all trapped for hundreds of years . The six sides of the " prison " are said to be : patriarchal attitudes , egocentricity , scientific single vision , the bureaucratic mentality , nationalism ( xenophobia ) , and the " big city outlook " ( fear of nature ) . Since consciousness , according to Satin , ultimately determines our institutions , prison consciousness is said to be ultimately responsible for " monolithic " institutions that offer us little in the way of freedom of choice or connection with others . Some representative monolithic institutions are : bureaucratic government , automobile @-@ centered transportation systems , attorney @-@ centered law , doctor @-@ centered health care , and church @-@ centered spirituality .
To explain how to break free of the prison and its institutions , Satin develops a " psychocultural " class analysis that reveals the existence of " life- " , " thing- " , and " death @-@ oriented " classes . According to Satin , life @-@ oriented individuals constitute an emerging " third force " in post @-@ industrial nations . The third force is generating a " prison @-@ free " consciousness consisting of androgynous attitudes , spirituality , multiple perspectives , a cooperative mentality , local @-@ and @-@ global identities , and an ecological outlook . To transform prison society , Satin argues , the third force is going to have to launch an " evolutionary movement " to replace – or at least supplement – monolithic institutions with life @-@ affirming , " biolithic " ones . Some representative biolithic institutions are : deliberative democracy as an alternative to bureaucratic government , bicycles and mass transit as an alternative to the private automobile , and mediation as an alternative to attorney @-@ centered law . According to Satin , the third force will not have to overthrow capitalism , since Western civilization – not capitalism – is said to be responsible for the prison . But the third force will want to foster a prison @-@ free New Age capitalism through intelligent regulation and elimination of all subsidies .
The reaction to New Age Politics was , and continues to be , highly polarized . Many of the movements Satin drew upon to construct his synthesis received it favorably , though some took exception to the title . Some maverick liberals and libertarians are drawn to the book . It was eventually published in Sweden and Germany , and European New Age political thinkers came to see it as a precursor of their own work . Others see it as proto @-@ Green . Ever since its first appearance , though , and continuing into the 21st century , New Age Politics has been a target of criticism for two groups in the United States : conservative Christians and left @-@ wing intellectuals .
Among conservative Christians , there are cultural , political , and moral objections . Attorney Constance Cumbey warns that the book can be " seductive " to those who lack an adequate Biblical education . Theologians Tim LaHaye and Ron Rhodes are convinced Satin wants a centralized and coercive world government . Moral philosopher Douglas Groothuis says Satin 's vision is unsound because it lacks an absolute standard of good and evil . Among left @-@ leaning academics , criticism focuses on Satin 's theoretical underpinnings . Political scientist Michael Cummings takes issue with the idea that consciousness is ultimately determining . Science @-@ and @-@ society professor David Hess rejects the idea that economic class analysis should give way to psychocultural class analysis . A lengthy , systemic critique of New Age Politics , by communication studies professor Dana L. Cloud , accuses it of employing a " therapeutic rhetoric [ ] generated to console activists after the failure of post @-@ 1968 revolutionary movements and to legitimate participation in liberal politics " .
= = = Organizing the New World Alliance = = =
After U.S. President Jimmy Carter pardoned Vietnam War resisters in 1977 , Satin began giving talks on New Age Politics in the United States . His first talk received a standing ovation , and he wept . Every talk seemed to lead to two or three more , and " the response at New Age gatherings , community events , fairs , bookstores , living rooms , and college campuses " kept Satin going for two years . By the second year he began laying the groundwork for the New World Alliance , a national political organization based in Washington , D.C. " I went systematically to 24 cities and regions from coast to coast " , he told the authors of the book Networking . " I stopped when I found 500 [ accomplished ] people who said they 'd answer a questionnaire … on what a New Age @-@ oriented political organization should be like – what its politics should be , what its projects should be , and how its first directors should be chosen . " .
The New World Alliance convened its first " governing council " meeting in New York City in 1979 . The 39 @-@ member council was chosen by the questionnaire @-@ answerers themselves , out of 89 who volunteered to be on the ballot . Political scientist Arthur Stein describes the council as an eclectic collection of educators , feminists , businesspeople , futurists , think @-@ tank fellows , and activists . One of the council 's announced goals was to break down the division between left and right . Another was to help facilitate a thorough transformation of society . Satin was named staff member of the Alliance .
Expectations ran high among supporters of a post @-@ liberal , post @-@ Marxist politics , and the governing council did initiate several projects . For example , a series of " Political Awareness Seminars " attempted to help participants understand and learn to work with their political opponents . In addition , a " Transformation Platform " attempted to synthesize left- and right @-@ wing approaches to dozens of public policy issues . But within three years the Alliance fell apart , unable to establish stable chapters in any major cities . Author Jerome Clark suggests the cause was the Alliance 's commitment to consensus @-@ building in all its groups and projects ; within months , he notes , one member was complaining that the Alliance had turned into a " diddler 's cult " . Another explanation focuses on the failure – or inability – of the hyper @-@ democratic questionnaire process to select an appropriate governing council .
Satin was devastated by the decline of the Alliance , and engaged in unhappy bouts of public criticism and self @-@ criticism . " We would rather be good than do good " , he told editor Kevin Kelly . " We would rather be pure than mature . We are the Beautiful Losers . " As time went on , though , the Alliance came to be regarded positively by many observers . For example , author Corinne McLaughlin sees it as one of the first groups to offer an agenda for the new transformational politics . In an academic text , political scientist Stephen Woolpert acknowledges it as a precursor of North American Green parties .
= = = New Options Newsletter = = =
After four or five New World Alliance governing council meetings , Satin became tired of what he saw as empty rhetoric , and decided to do something practical – start a political newsletter . He raised $ 91 @,@ 000 to launch the venture , from 517 people he had met on his travels , and within a few years had built it into what think @-@ tank scholar George Weigel described as " one of the hottest political newsletters in Washington [ , D.C. ] . ... [ It ] has gotten a fair amount of [ national ] attention , and perhaps even some influence , because it self @-@ consciously styles itself ' post @-@ liberal ' . " Satin published 75 issues of New Options from 1984 to 1992 , virtually half a million words . He wrote nearly all the articles . In 1989 New Options received Utne Reader 's first " Alternative Press Award for General Excellence : Best Publication from 10 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 Circulation " . In 1990 The Washington Post identified New Options as one of 10 periodicals spearheading " The Ideology Shuffle " . Twenty @-@ five of its articles were published as a book by a university press .
Satin wanted New Options to make the visionary perspective of New Age Politics seem pragmatic and realizable . He also wanted New Options to spread the New Age political ideology more effectively than the New World Alliance had done . To those ends , he challenged traditional views across the political spectrum , and he expanded the scope of politics to include subjects like love and relationships . In her book Do You Believe in Magic ? , culture critic Annie Gottlieb says New Options offered :
an explosive short course in political possibility . ... What are the best books and groups in the consumer empowerment ( not " protection " ) and neighborhood self @-@ reliance movements ? Who is working on practical , compassionate , populist alternatives to the welfare state and the big @-@ business state ? What is the best way to cut the budget deficit ? What can we learn from the Sri Lankan Sarvodaya ( local self @-@ help ) and Polish Solidarity movements ? Each issue presents ideas , names and addresses , and a crossfire of reader debate .
" I think the reason New Options works is it has a particular tone " , Satin told one reporter . " It 's as idealistic as many of us were in the 1960s , but ... without the childishness " .
New Options owed its rise to more than just content and tone , however . Positioning was also a factor . The New Age political movement was cresting in the 1980s , and it needed a political periodical . Satin 's book New Age Politics had helped define the movement , and the New Options advisory board – a collection of prominent post @-@ liberal thinkers – gave the newsletter further credibility . At the outset it included Lester R. Brown , Ernest Callenbach , Fritjof Capra , Vincent Harding , Willis Harman , Hazel Henderson , Petra Kelly , Amory Lovins , Joanna Macy , Robin Morgan , John Naisbitt , Jeremy Rifkin , Carl Rogers , Theodore Roszak , Kirkpatrick Sale , Charlene Spretnak , and Robert Theobald , and over the years it added such figures as Herman Daly , Marilyn Ferguson , Jane Jacobs , Winona LaDuke , and Robert Rodale .
New Options did not succeed in all quarters . Jules Feiffer , for example , often seen as being on the liberal @-@ left , called it " irritating " and " neo @-@ yuppie " . Jason McQuinn , often seen as a radical , objected to what he perceived as its relentless American optimism . George Weigel , often seen as a conservative , said it consisted largely of a cleverly repackaged leftism . Satin himself turned out to be one of the newsletter 's critics . " I could have edited New Options forever " , he wrote in 2004 . " But , increasingly , I was becoming dissatisfied with my hyper @-@ idealistic politics " . His experiences in the U.S. Green politics movement contributed to that dissatisfaction .
= = = " Ten Key Values " of the U.S. Green Party = = =
By the mid @-@ 1980s , Green parties were making inroads all over the world . A slogan of the West German Greens was , " We are neither left nor right ; we are in front " . Some observers , notably British Green Party liaison Sara Parkin , saw the New World Alliance and New Options Newsletter as Green entities . Others saw the early Greens as one expression of New Age politics . In 1984 , Satin was invited to the founding meeting of the U.S. Green politics movement , and he became a founding member . The meeting chose him , along with political theorist Charlene Spretnak , to draft its foundational political statement , " Ten Key Values " . Some accounts recognize futurist and activist Eleanor LeCain as a co @-@ equal drafter . The drafters drew on suggestions recorded on a flip chart during a marathon plenary brainstorming session , as well as on suggestions received by Satin and Spretnak during the meeting and for many weeks afterward .
The original " Ten Key Values " statement was approved by the Greens ' national steering committee and released in late 1984 . The values in the original statement are : Ecological Wisdom , Grassroots Democracy , Personal and Social Responsibility , Nonviolence , Decentralization , Community @-@ based Economics , Postpatriarchal Values , Respect for Diversity , Global Responsibility , and Future Focus . One unusual aspect , say many observers , is the way the values are described ; instead of declaratory statements full of " shoulds " and " musts " , each value is followed by a series of open @-@ ended questions . " That idea ... came from Mark Satin " , Spretnak told scholar Greta Gaard in 1997 . Its effect , says sociologist Paul Lichterman , was to promote dialogue and creative thinking in local Green groups across the U.S.
The original values statement was , and remains , controversial . U.S. Green Party co @-@ founder John Rensenbrink credits it with helping to unify the often contentious Greens . However , party co @-@ founder Howie Hawkins sees it as just a watered @-@ down , " spiritual " , and " New Age " version of the German Greens ' Four Pillars statement . Greta Gaard says it fails to call for the elimination of capitalism or racism . Looking back after 20 years , Green activist Brian Tokar said that " the voice of the original [ values ] questions is distinctly personal … and aims to avoid fundamental conflicts with elite social and cultural norms . " A " modified " list of the Ten Key Values became part of the U.S. Greens ' political platform . However , all the open @-@ ended questions were replaced by declaratory sentences , and the U.S. Greens have come to be regarded as a party of the left , rather than one seeking to be neither left nor right .
Satin himself quit the Greens in 1990 . He gave a featured speech at the U.S. Green gathering in 1987 urging them to avoid hyper @-@ detailed platform writing and other projects and specialize in one thing – running people for office who endorse the Ten Key Values . But the speech failed to persuade . After the Green gathering in 1989 , he urged them to abandon hippie @-@ era fears of money , authority , and leadership . After the 1990 gathering he complained " I 've been Pure before , " an allusion to his time in the New World Alliance . According to Greta Gaard , he then bid farewell to the Greens , but recognized it as a loss : " Whatever I may think of their internal battles and political prospects , the Greens are My People . Their life choices are my life choices ; their failings mirror my own . " Within a year of voicing those words , he stopped New Options Newsletter and applied to law school .
= = Radical centrist politics , 1990s – 2000s = =
= = = Radical Middle Newsletter = = =
The 1990s are remembered , by many in the West , as a time of relative prosperity and satisfaction . According to some historians , visionary politics appeared to be on the decline . However , even after Satin entered New York University School of Law in 1992 , he expressed no desire to abandon his project of helping to construct a post @-@ liberal , post @-@ Marxist ideology . He did admit to being disillusioned with his approach . " I knew my views ( and I personally ) would benefit from engagement with the real world of commerce and professional ambition " , he wrote .
After graduating in 1995 , Satin worked for a Manhattan law firm focusing on complex business litigation . He also wrote about financial and legal issues . He did not dislike his work , but felt he was " sleepwalking " because he was not doing what he loved , writing about visionary politics . With six former law school classmates , he began planning a political newsletter that could accommodate all he was learning about business and law . In 1998 he returned to Washington , D.C. , to launch Radical Middle Newsletter .
As the title indicates , it sought to distance itself from New Age politics . If the term " New Age " suggests utopianism , the term " radical middle " suggests , for Satin and others , keeping at least one foot firmly on the ground . Satin attempted to embrace the promise but also the balance implied by the term . One feature story is entitled " Tough on Terrorism , and Tough on the Causes of Terrorism " . Another feature story attempts to go beyond polarized positions on biotechnology . Another argues that corporate activity abroad can best be seen as neither inherently moral nor inherently imperialistic , but as a " chance for mutual learning " . The board of advisors of Radical Middle Newsletter signaled Satin 's new direction . It was politically diverse , and many of its members sought to promote dialogue or collaboration across ideological divides . By the end of 2004 it included John Avlon , Don Edward Beck , Jerry H. Bentley , Esther Dyson , Mark P. Painter , Shelley Alpern of the Social Investment Forum , James Fallows of the New America Foundation , Jane Mansbridge of the Harvard Kennedy School , John D. Marks and Susan Collin Marks of Search for Common Ground , and William Ury , co @-@ author of Getting to Yes .
Radical Middle Newsletter proved controversial . Many responded positively to Satin 's new direction . A professor of management , for example , wrote that unlike Satin 's former newsletter , Radical Middle spoke about " reality " . Scholarly books began citing the newsletter . In a book on globalization , Walter Truett Anderson said Radical Middle " carries the encouraging news of an emerging group with a different voice , one that is ' nuanced , hopeful , adult ' . ... It is essentially a willingness to listen to both sides of the argument . " But three objections were often heard . Some critics accused Satin of misguided policy proposals , as when peace studies scholar Michael N. Nagler wrote that the article " praising humanitarian military intervention as the ' peace movement ' of our time , is nothing short of an insult ... to the real peace movement " [ emphasis in original ] . Other critics accused Satin of abandoning his old constituency , as when author and former New Options advisor David Korten chided him for consciously choosing pragmatism over idealism . There were also accusations of elitism , as when the executive editor of Yes ! magazine said Satin favored globalization because it appealed to his interests and those of his " law school buddies " .
New Options Newsletter was based on the theories set forth in New Age Politics . But Satin 's approach to his radical middle project was eclectic and experimental . His contribution to radical centrist political theory , the book Radical Middle , was not published until 2004 , the newsletter 's sixth year . Until then , the only glimpse Satin gave of his larger vision appeared in an article he wrote for an academic journal .
= = = Radical Middle , the book = = =
Satin 's book Radical Middle : The Politics We Need Now , published by Westview Press and Basic Books in 2004 , attempts to present radical centrism as a political ideology . It is considered one of the two or three " most persuasive " or most representative books on the subject , and it received the " Best Book Award " for 2003 and 2004 from the Section on Ecological and Transformational Politics of the American Political Science Association . It also generated – like all of Satin 's works – criticism and controversy .
Satin presents Radical Middle as a revised and evolved version of his New Age Politics book , rather than as a rejection of it . Some observers had always seen him as a radical centrist . As early as 1980 , author Marilyn Ferguson identified him as part of what she called the " Radical Center " . In 1987 , culture critic Annie Gottlieb said Satin was trying to prompt the New Age and New Left to evolve into a " New Center " . But the revisions Satin introduces are substantial . Instead of defining politics as a means for creating the ideal society , as he did in New Age Politics , he defines radical middle politics as " idealism without illusions " – more creative and future @-@ oriented than politics @-@ as @-@ usual , but willing to face " the hard facts on the ground " . Rather than arguing that change will be brought about by a third force , he says most Americans are already radical middle – " we 're very practical folks , and we 're very idealistic and visionary as well . "
Although Satin argues in New Age Politics that Americans need to change their consciousness and decentralize their institutions , in Radical Middle he says they can build a good society if they adopt and live by Four Key Values : maximize choices for all Americans , give every American a fair start , maximize every American 's human potential , and help the peoples of the developing world . Instead of finding those values in the writings of contemporary theorists , Satin says they are just new versions of the values that inspired 18th @-@ century American revolutionaries : liberty , equality , pursuit @-@ of @-@ happiness , and fraternity , respectively . He calls Benjamin Franklin the radical middle 's favorite Founding Father , and says Franklin " wanted us to invent a uniquely American politics that served ordinary people by creatively borrowing from all points of view . "
In New Age Politics , Satin chooses not to focus on the details of public policy . In Radical Middle , however , Satin develops a raft of policy proposals rooted in the Four Key Values . ( Among them : universal access to private , preventive health insurance , class @-@ based rather than race @-@ based affirmative action , mandatory national service , and opening U.S. markets to more products from poor nations . ) In New Age Politics , Satin calls on " life @-@ oriented " people to become radical activists for a New Age society . In Radical Middle , Satin calls on people of every political stripe to work from within for social change congruent with the Four Key Values .
Satin 's mandatory national service proposal drew significant media coverage , in part because of his status as a draft refuser . Satin argues that a draft could work in the United States if it applied to all young people , without exception , and if it gave everyone a choice in how they would serve . He proposes three service options : military ( with generous benefits ) , homeland security ( at prevailing wages ) , and community care ( at subsistence wages ) . On Voice of America radio , Satin presented his proposal as one drawing equally from the best of the left and the right . On National Public Radio , he emphasized its fairness .
Radical Middle provokes three kinds of responses : skeptical , pragmatic , and visionary . Skeptical respondents tend to find Satin 's beyond @-@ left @-@ and @-@ right policy proposals to be unrealistic and arrogant . For example , political writer Charles R. Morris says " Satin 's nostrums " echo the " glibness and overweening self @-@ confidence ... in Roosevelt 's brain trust , or in John F. Kennedy 's . " Similarly , the policy director of the Democratic Leadership Council says Satin 's book " ultimately places him in the sturdy tradition of ' idealistic ' American reformers who think smart and principled people unencumbered by political constraints can change everything . "
Pragmatic observers tend to applaud Satin 's willingness to borrow good ideas from the left and the right . But these respondents are typically more drawn to Satin as a policy advocate – or as a counterweight to partisan militants like Ann Coulter – than they are to him as a political theorist . For example , Robert Olson of the World Future Society warns Satin against presenting the radical middle as a new ideology .
Visionary respondents typically appreciate Satin 's work as a policy advocate . But they also see him as attempting something rarer and , according to spiritual writer Carter Phipps , richer – raising politics to a higher level by synthesizing truths from all the political ideologies . Author Corinne McLaughlin identifies Satin as one of those creating an ideology about ideologies . She quotes him :
Coming up with a solution is not a matter of adopting correct political beliefs . It is , rather , a matter of learning to listen – really , listen – to everyone in the circle of humanity , and to take their insights into account . For everyone has a true and unique perspective on the whole . [ Many ] years ago the burning question was , How radical are you ? Hopefully someday soon the question will be , How much can you synthesize ? How much do you dare to take in ?
= = Later life = =
Life changed for Satin after writing and publicizing his Radical Middle book . In 2006 , at the age of 60 , he moved from Washington , D.C. , to the San Francisco Bay Area to reconcile with his father , from whom he had been estranged for 40 years . " With the perspective of time and experience , " Satin told one reporter , " I can see [ my father ] was not altogether out to lunch . " Later that year Satin discovered his only life partner . He describes it as " no accident " .
In 2009 Satin revealed he was losing his eyesight as a result of macular edema and diabetic retinopathy . He stopped producing Radical Middle Newsletter but expressed a desire to write a final political book . From 2009 to 2011 he presented occasional guest lectures on " life and political ideologies " in peace studies classes at the University of California , Berkeley . In 2015 he produced a " 40th Anniversary Edition " of his book New Age Politics .
= = Assessment = =
Satin has been a controversial public figure since the age of 20 . Assessments of his significance vary widely .
Some observers see him as an exemplary figure . David Armstrong , for example , in his study of independent American journalism , presents Satin as an embodiment of the " do @-@ it @-@ yourself spirit " that makes an independent press possible . Futurists Jessica Lipnack and Jeffrey Stamps portray Satin as a pioneer " networker " who spent two years riding the bus across the U.S. in an attempt to connect like @-@ minded thinkers and activists . Marilyn Ferguson , author of The Aquarian Conspiracy , says that by engaging in a lifelong series of personal and political experiments with few resources , Satin is playing the role of the holy " Fool " for his time .
Other observers stress the freshness of Satin 's political vision . Social scientists Paul Ray and Sherry Anderson , for example , argue that Satin anticipated the perspectives of 21st century social movements better than nearly anyone . Humanistic psychologist John Amodeo says Satin is one of the few political theorists to grasp the connection between personal growth and constructive political change . Ecofeminist Greta Gaard claims that Satin " played a significant role in facilitating the articulation of Green political thought " . Peace researcher Hanna Newcombe finds a spiritual dimension in Satin 's politics . Political scientist Christa Slaton 's short list of " nonacademic " transformationalists consists of Alvin and Heidi Toffler , Fritjof Capra , Marilyn Ferguson , Hazel Henderson , Betty Friedan , E. F. Schumacher , John Naisbitt , and Mark Satin .
Some see Satin as a classic example of the perpetual rebel and trace the cause back to his early years . For example , author Roger Neville Williams focuses on the harshness and " paternalistic rectitude " of Satin 's parents . Novelist Dan Wakefield , writing in The Atlantic , says Satin grew up in a small city in northern Minnesota like Bob Dylan but did not have a guitar to express himself with . According to historian Frank Kusch , the seeds for rebellion were planted when Satin 's parents moved him at age 16 from liberal Minnesota to still @-@ segregated Texas .
Although many observers praise or are intrigued by Satin , many find him dismaying . Memoirist George Fetherling , for example , remembers him as a publicity hound . Literary critic Dennis Duffy calls him incapable of learning from his experiences . Green Party activist Howie Hawkins sees him as a political opportunist . The Washington Monthly portrayed him in his 50s as a former New Age " guru " , and Commonweal compares reading him to listening to glass shards grate against a blackboard .
Other observers see Satin as an emotionally wounded figure . For example , historian Pierre Berton calls him a " footloose wanderer " and says that he hitchhiked across Canada 16 times . Culture critic Annie Gottlieb , who attributes Satin 's wounds to his struggle against the Vietnam War , points out that even as a successful newsletter publisher in Washington , DC , he paid himself the salary of a monk .
The major substantive criticisms of Satin 's work have remained constant over time . His ideas are sometimes said to be superficial ; they were characterized as childish in the 1960s , naive in the 1970s , poorly reasoned in the 1980s and 1990s , and overly simple in the 2000s . His ideas have also occasionally been seen as not politically serious , or as non @-@ political in the sense of not being capable of challenging existing power structures . His work is sometimes said to be largely borrowed from others , a charge that first surfaced with regard to his draft dodger manual , and was repeated to varying degree by critics of his books on New Age politics and radical centrism .
Satin has long been faulted for mixing views from different parts of his political odyssey . In the 1970s , for example , Toronto Star editor Robert Nielsen argued that Satin 's leftist pacifism warps his New Age vision . Three decades later , public @-@ policy analyst Gadi Dechter argued that Satin 's New Age emotionalism and impracticality blunt his radical @-@ centrist message . At 58 , Satin suggested his message could not be understood without appreciating all the strands of his personal and political journey :
From my New Left years I took a love of political struggle . From my New Age years I took a conviction that politics needs to be about more than endless struggle – that responsible human beings need to search for reconciliation and healing and mutually acceptable solutions . From my time in the legal profession I took an understanding ( and it is no small understanding ) that sincerity and passion are not enough – that to be truly effective in the world one needs to be credible and expert . …
Many Americans are living complicated lives now – few of us have moved through life in a straight line . I think many of us would benefit from trying to gather and synthesize the difficult political lessons we 've learned over the course of our lives .
= = Publications = =
= = = Books = = =
Radical Middle : The Politics We Need Now , Basic Books , 2004 , orig . Westview Press , 2004 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8133 @-@ 4190 @-@ 3 . Radical @-@ centrist ideas presented as an integrated political ideology .
New Options for America : The Second American Experiment Has Begun , foreword by Marilyn Ferguson , The Press at California State University / Southern Illinois University Press , 1991 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8093 @-@ 1794 @-@ 3 . Twenty @-@ five cover stories from Satin 's New Options Newsletter .
New Age Politics : Healing Self and Society , Delta Books / Dell Publishing Co . , 1979 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 440 @-@ 55700 @-@ 5 . New Age political ideas presented as an integrated political ideology .
Confessions of a Young Exile , Gage Publishing Co . / Macmillan of Canada , 1976 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7715 @-@ 9954 @-@ 5 . Memoir covering the years 1964 – 66 .
Manual for Draft @-@ Age Immigrants to Canada , House of Anansi Press , 1968 . [ ISBN unspecified ] . OCLC 467238 . Preserve oneself and change the world . Satin wrote Part One ( " Applying " ) and solicited and edited the materials in Part Two ( " Canada " ) . OCLC retrieved December 13 , 2013 .
= = = Newsletters = = =
Radical Middle Newsletter , 120 issues , 1999 – 2009 . ISSN 1535 @-@ 3583 . Originally hard @-@ copy only , now largely online . Newsletter retrieved April 17 , 2011 , ISSN retrieved September 28 , 2011 .
New Options Newsletter , 75 issues , 1984 – 1992 . ISSN 0890 @-@ 1619 . Originally hard @-@ copy only , now partially online . Newsletter retrieved October 18 , 2014 , ISSN retrieved September 28 , 2011 .
= = = Selected articles and interviews = = =
" The New Age 40 Years Later " , The Huffington Post , April 25 , 2016 . Interview by Rick Heller of the Humanist Community at Harvard . Retrieved July 16 , 2016 .
" The Three Committees " , Civil Rights Movement Veterans website , " Our Stories " section , 2015 . Semi @-@ autobiographical short story about being an estranged Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee volunteer in Mississippi in 1965 . Retrieved December 9 , 2015 .
" Mark Satin on the Politics of the Radical Middle " , National Public Radio audiotape , July 9 , 2004 . Interview by Tony Cox for The Tavis Smiley Show . Retrieved April 17 , 2011 .
" Where 's the Juice ? " , The Responsive Community , vol . 12 , no . 4 ( 2002 ) , pp. 70 – 75 . Critical review of Ted Halstead and Michael Lind 's book The Radical Center . Retrieved April 17 , 2011
" Law and Psychology : A Movement Whose Time Has Come " , Annual Survey of American Law , vol . 51 , no . 4 ( 1994 ) , pp. 583 – 631 . Early argument for what is now called " therapeutic jurisprudence " .
" 20th Anniversary Rendezvous : Mark Satin " , Whole Earth Review , issue no . 61 , winter 1988 , p . 107 . Interview by Kevin Kelly .
" Do @-@ It @-@ Yourself Government " , Esquire , April 1983 , pp. 126 – 28 . Early attempt to present New Age political ideas as pragmatic and centrist .
= = = Satin and neopacifism = = =
Vietnam War Resisters in Canada . Essays , memoirs , and documents . Includes material on Satin 's Manual for Draft @-@ Age Immigrants to Canada . Retrieved April 17 , 2011 .
Toronto Anti @-@ Draft Programme . History site . Includes excerpts from news articles about TADP , excerpts from letters to TADP , and an essay by Satin from 2014 . Retrieved June 29 , 2014 .
Civil Rights Movement Veterans . Essays , " testimony , " and documents . Satin 's contribution is here [ 1 ] . Retrieved April 17 , 2011 .
Mark Satin Papers , in the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library at University of Toronto . Correspondence , documents , and other materials related to Satin 's time at the Toronto Anti @-@ Draft Programme and his subsequent activities in Canada , through 1978 . Retrieved October 17 , 2012 .
= = = Satin and New Age politics = = =
New World Alliance . History page . Includes media excerpts and links to brochure and " Transformation Platform " . Retrieved April 30 , 2014 .
Context Institute : Introduction to In Context . Satin was a founding advisor to editor Robert Gilman 's In Context quarterly from 1983 – 1992 . Retrieved December 30 , 2014 .
The Other Economic Summit – USA . Satin was an advisor to the U.S. board of this U.K.-based activist group from 1987 – 1992 . Retrieved January 5 , 2013 .
Green Party of California . Green politics with the original Spretnak @-@ Satin " Ten Key Values " statement largely intact . Retrieved January 7 , 2012 .
New World Alliance and New Options : Correspondence Files , 1977 – 1992 , in the Contemporary Culture Collection at Temple University Libraries . Includes over 4 @,@ 000 letters to Satin 's New Options Newsletter . Retrieved January 4 , 2012 .
Mark Satin Papers , 1973 – 1992 , in the Joseph A. Labadie Collection at Hatcher Library , University of Michigan . Correspondence , personal memoir , and other materials pertaining to New Age Politics and the New Age portion of Satin 's life . Retrieved January 4 , 2013 .
= = = Satin and radical centrism = = =
Mark Satin 's website . Features selected Radical Middle Newsletter articles from 1999 – 2009 . Retrieved April 17 , 2011 .
The Future 500 . Satin was a senior fellow here from 2010 – 2011 . Retrieved September 5 , 2011 .
We the People Declaration : A Call for Dialogue . Created by Satin and 21 politically diverse others ( including Tom Atlee , Bob Barr , David Keene , Joseph F. McCormick , and Vicki Robin ) in 2004 . Reproduced on the National Coalition for Dialogue & Deliberation website . Retrieved January 22 , 2015 .
John Vasconcellos obituary . Satin was a founding advisor to California politician John Vasconcellos 's " Politics of Trust Network " from 2002 – 2009 . Retrieved January 3 , 2016 .
Mark Satin Papers , 1993 – 2009 , in the Joseph A. Labadie Collection at Hatcher Library , University of Michigan . Correspondence and documents , public and private , covering the " radical middle " portion of Satin 's life . Retrieved January 4 , 2013 .
= Agnes von Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben =
Agnes von Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( 1551 – 1637 ) was Countess of Mansfeld and the daughter of Johann ( Hans ) Georg I , of Mansfeld Eisleben . She converted Gebhard , Seneschal of Waldburg , the Prince @-@ Elector of Electorate of Cologne and archbishop of the Diocese of Cologne to the Protestant faith , leading to the Cologne War ( 1583 – 1588 ) .
After a multiple year odyssey in which she and her husband sought refuge in several parts of northern Germany , Gebhard relinquished his claim on the Electorate . They settled in Strassbourg , where he had retained a position in the Cathedral chapter . After his death in 1601 , she came under the protection of the Duke of Wūrttemberg , who had himself been chased from his duchy . She died in 1637 .
= = Affair = =
Agnes was the daughter of Johann ( Hans ) Georg I , of Mansfeld Eisleben ( 1515 – 14 August 1579 ) , and his wife , Katharina of Mansfeld @-@ Hinterort ( 1521 / 1525 – 1580 / 1583 ) . Although born and raised in the town of Mansfeld , in Saxony , as an adult , Agnes von Mansfeld Eisleben became a Protestant canoness at a cloister in Gerresheim , today a district of Düsseldorf . Agnes ' sister Sibilla lived in the city of Cologne , having married to the Freiherr ( baron ) Peter von Kriechingen ; although a member of the cloister , Agnes was not bound to it and was free during her days to move about the city . She visited Sibilla one day , and was noticed by the Elector of Cologne , Gebhard , Truchsess von Waldburg . Reportedly a beautiful woman ( she was also known as the lovely Mansfeld girl ) he sought her out , and they started a liaison . Two of her brothers , Hoyer and Ernst , visited Gebhard at the archbishop 's palace in the electoral capital of Bonn , and convinced him to marry her .
She insisted Gebhard first convert to Calvinism . The difficulties of a conversion by a Catholic Archbishop and Prince @-@ elector of the Holy Roman Empire had been faced before : Hermann von Wied had also converted to Protestantism , and had resigned from his office . Similarly , Gebhard 's immediate predecessor , Salentin IX of Isenburg @-@ Grenzau had resigned to marry when it appeared his family line would become extinct . Initially , it appeared that Gebhard would resign . However , several of his associates in the Cathedral chapter convinced him that he could have the lady and the Electorate . Before Christmas in 1582 , he proclaimed the Reformation from the pulpit in Cologne , establishing Protestantism on parity with Catholicism in the archdiocese .
This declaration of parity between Protestantism and Catholics in an electoral territory contravened the Religious Peace of Augsburg established in 1555 . In this document , to which the all the Estates of the Holy Roman Empire agreed , confirmed the co @-@ existence of Lutheranism and Catholicism in select polities were both religious were already established ; in all other regions , the principle of Cuius regio , eius religio ( loosely translated from Latin as " Whose realm , his religion " ) confirmed the religion of the reigning sovereign to be the religion of his subjects . Any other Christian religious practice , such as Calvinism , was considered heresy .
= = = Unlikely match = = =
Gebhard 's conversion under the influence of Agnes caused more than a ripple of scandal in the aristocratic circles of the Holy Roman Empire . Descended as he was from the hereditary seneschals of Waldburg , Gebhard came from a line of stalwart Catholic defenders of what was considered the universal faith . One of his uncles was the bishop of Augsburg ; his grandfather 's brother had been a general in the German Peasants ' War of 1525 and instrumental in the destruction of the German Peasant army . The family had been long @-@ time supporters of Habsburg dynastic aspirations and policies , and key advisers for in the often @-@ troubled Imperial relationships with the Swabian Imperial circle ( Kreis ) . Gebhard himself had been raised in a Catholic tradition , and strongly influenced by the Jesuits in his education . His career had been solely focused on obtaining a preferential position in the ecclesiastical hierarchy , and his election as the archbishop of Cologne , in a close contest with the equally @-@ qualified Wittelsbach candidate , attested not to the diligence and application of his personal faith , but his family 's Imperial influence .
On the other side of the relationship , Agnes came from a family of dedicated Lutherans ; the town in which she was born and raised , and whose name she bore , Eisleben , was also Martin Luther 's home town . Her father and her uncles had been signatories of the Book of Concord , established in 1580 as the doctrinal standard of the Lutheran faith . Luther himself had negotiated a settlement to a disagreement between her uncles and her brothers over inheritance and succession issues . Her placement in the religious community at Gerresheim was a factor of her nobility and her family 's connections ; although she came from the impoverished side of the old Mansfeld house , her family continued to wield influence in Imperial , Saxon , and religious circles , although it is unclear why she was placed in a Calvinist convent .
The marriage of this seeming unlikely pair caused a scandal throughout the Empire . At 27 @-@ years @-@ of @-@ age , Gebhard had apparently abjured the matrimonial life in his acceptance of the church career often reserved for a second or third son of noble families . If he had converted to Lutheranism and resigned from his electoral and episcopal responsibilities , the marriage might have made a ripple in social circles , but his refusal to give up his electoral and episcopal responsibilities , his declaration of the electorate as henceforth a dynastic property , however , made his marriage of utmost political importance . Furthermore , his conversion to Calvinism was heresy , because Calvinism was not one of the two legal professions of faith accepted by the Peace of Augsburg in 1556 .
= = War = =
News of the pending marriage became public in late November 1582 , but it was still unclear what Gebhard would do . Precedent suggested he would resign prior to his marriage , but rumors abounded that he would convert the Electorate to Protestantism , perhaps forcibly . Throughout the Electorate , and on its borders , his supporters and opponents gathered their troops , armed their garrisons , stockpiled food , and prepared for war . On 19 December 1582 , Gebhard announced his conversion , from , as he phrased it , the " darkness of the papacy to the Light " of the Word of God . His proclamation of the Reformation from the Cathedral pulpit in the Imperial City of Cologne established Calvinism as a religious option in the Electorate . He also intended to convert the electorate into a dynastic property generated an uproar among the other Prince @-@ electors . The transformation of an important ecclesiastical territory into a secular , dynastic duchy would then bring the principle of cuius regio , eius religio into play in the Electorate . Under this principle , all of Gebhard 's subjects would be required to convert to his faith : his rule , his religion .
The conversion of the Archbishop of Cologne to Protestantism also triggered religious and political repercussions throughout the Holy Roman Empire . Gebhard 's conversion had widespread implications for the future of the Holy Roman Empire 's electoral process , established by the Golden Bull of 1356 . The council continued for more than a year , and eventually moved to other cities ; although several times they seemed close to negotiating a conclusion to the crisis , a successful agreement remained beyond their reach . They also offered Gebhard a sum of money to relinquish his claim , which he refused on the high moral grounds of religious principle .
Agnes and Gebhard married on 2 February 1583 in Bonn and retired to the Elector 's country seat in Poppelsdorf to celebrate their nuptials . Within weeks , the Cathedral chapter had deposed Gebhard , electing in his place an old opponent , Ernst of Bavaria , the brother of Wilhelm V , Duke of Bavaria , who immediately set about raising an army with the help of his brother the duke , and his second brother , Ferdinand of Bavaria . In the spring and summer , Agnes and Gebhard did likewise , traveling to different parts of the electorate , raising an army , and extending the Protestant cause . By October , Ernst 's brother Ferdinand entered the electorate from the south , near Koblenz . In their northward progress , they left a path of fire and destruction . Agnes and Gebhard fled , as Poppelsdorf , then Godesberg , and later the capital city of the electorate , Bonn , were over @-@ run and destroyed .
Initially , the couple fled to Vest Recklinghausen , a fiefdom of the Electorate . There , Agnes and Gebhard encouraged an outbreak of iconoclasm that destroyed many well @-@ known and beloved religious sites ; the Reformation had already been wrought in Vest and Recklinghausen , and many of the inhabitants had converted to the new faith . The burst of iconoclastic energy , indulged predominantly by Gebhard 's troops and not by the inhabitants themselves , alienated the residents from Gebhard , his wife , and their cause . With local support , Catholic armies chased the couple from Vest Recklinghausen later in the year . Gebhard and Agnes escaped with approximately 1000 cavalry and some infantry .
A multiple year odyssey followed , as Agnes and her husband sought refuge in the northern territories of the Electorate at the castle Arensberg , and later at the city of Delft , with William I of Orange . Living in the Netherlands , they became acquainted with Elizabeth 's envoy , Robert Dudley , 1st Earl of Leicester , and entered into lengthy negotiations with Elizabeth 's Court to obtain support for Gebhard 's cause ; these efforts failed to garner assistance for renewing the war either from the English queen or in any other quarter . In 1585 , Agnes reportedly traveled to England in a futile effort to seek assistance from Elizabeth I , but this claim has been refuted by modern scholars .
After his once prosperous electorate was ruined by war , Gebhard relinquished his claim on it in 1588 . Ernst of Bavaria , had recruited the assistance of Alexander Farnese , Duke of Parma . By some twist of fate , her first cousin , Karl von Mansfeld , was in the service of the Duke of Parma at the Destruction of Neuss , a critical battle that turned the tide of war against her husband .
= = Peace in Strassbourg = =
In 1589 , they could not return to the Electorate territories , which her husband had relinquished , nor could she , a married lady , return to the convent at Gerresheim . They sought refuge in Strassbourg , a stronghold of Calvinism . Gebhard had been a member of the Cathedral Chapter there since 1576 . Three other canons from Cologne had also taken refuge in Strassbourg after 1583 . Shortly after their marriage in 1583 , Gebhard had written his Testament in which he left his estate to his brother , Karl , and a life @-@ time annuity to Agnes , and charged Karl with her safety and protection . Karl died on 18 June 1593 , and was buried in the Strasbourg cathedral ; Gebhard wrote a codicil leaving Agnes to the care and protection of the Dukes of Württemberg . Gebhard died on 21 May 1601 . Until her death in 1637 , she lived under the protection of the Dukes , first Friedrich I , later Johann Friedrich and then his son Eberhard . She was buried in Sulzbach .
= = = Literature = = =
Rafaela Matzigkeit , Schön , fromm , sittsam , tugendhaft ... Agnes von Mansfeld im Spiegel der Geschichte und Literatur ( Beautiful , pious , modest and chaste , Agnes von Mansfeld in the history and literature ) . In : Rund um den Quadenhof ( Düsseldorf @-@ Gerresheim ) 47 ( 1996 ) , S. 9 – 17 und S. 17 – 23
Johann Baptist Durach , Gebhard der Zweite , Kurfürst von Köln , und Agnes von Mannsfeld , Kanonissinn von Girrisheim . Eine Bischofslegende aus dem sechszehnten Jahrhundert ( Gebhard the 2nd , Prince of Cologne , and Agnes of Mansfeld , Cannoness of Gerresheim , A bishop 's legend from the 16th century ) . Geb . Hochleiter und Komp . , Wien und Leipzig 1791 .
Christoph Sigismund Grüner , Gebhard , Churfürst von Cöln , und seine schöne Agnes ( Gebhard , Prince of Cologne , and his beautiful Agnes ) Ursache und Veranlassung des gestörten Religionsfriedens , der Union und des dreißigjährigen Krieges . Eine historisch @-@ romantische Ausstellung , frei , nach geschichtlichen Quellen , Goebbels und Unzer , Königsberg 1806 .
Carl August Gottlieb Seidel , Die unglückliche Constellation oder Gräfin Agnes von Mannsfeld . Eine Sage aus der zweiten Hälfte des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts , ( The Unfortunate Constellation , or the Countess of Mansfeld , a story of the second half of the 16th century . ) Supprian , Leipzig 1796 .
Eugenie Tafel : Gräfin Agnes aus dem Hause Mansfeld . Erzählung aus dem 16 . Jahrhundert , ( Countess Agnes of the House of Mansfeld , Tales of the 16th century ) , Schloeßmann , Gotha 1897 .
= = Genealogy = =
Father : Johann Georg I of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben
Mother : Katharina of Mansfeld @-@ Hinterort
Children :
Count Ernst IV of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.13 January 1544 )
Princess Maria of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.3 / 12 / 1545 )
Count Hoyer of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1546 )
Count Peter of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1548 )
Count Philipp of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1550 )
Princess Agnes of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1551 )
Princess Anna of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1552 )
Princess Catharina of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1554 )
Princess Dorothea of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1555 )
Princess Esther of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1556 )
Princess Sibilla of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1557 )
Count Jobst of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.14 April 1558 )
= Stuart Tomlinson =
Stuart Charles Tomlinson ( born 22 May 1985 ) is an English professional wrestler and retired professional football goalkeeper . He is signed to WWE , where he performs under the ring name Hugo Knox .
As a footballer , Tomlinson progressed from the Crewe Alexandra youth team to turn professional in 2003 . He spent the next six years with the club , spending part of 2004 on loan at Stafford Rangers , and playing once on loan for Burton Albion in 2008 . He spent the 2009 – 10 campaign at Conference club Barrow , where he shared goalkeeping responsibilities with Tim Deasy . He then signed with Port Vale , and was favoured ahead of Chris Martin for the 2010 – 11 and 2011 – 12 campaigns , before choosing to leave the club in July 2012 . He signed with Burton Albion in September 2012 , but retired through injury in July 2013 .
In December 2013 , Tomlinson began training as a professional wrestler on a developmental contract with WWE , making his debut at a WWE NXT live event on 8 November 2014 .
= = Football career = =
= = = Crewe Alexandra = = =
Having graduated through the club 's youth academy , Tomlinson made his senior debut for Crewe Alexandra in a Second Division clash with Oldham Athletic on 25 January 2003 , replacing Danny Milosevic on 51 minutes after the Australian suffered an injury . He conceded a goal to Chris Armstrong after his view was obscured by a group of players , though Crewe ran out 3 – 1 winners at Boundary Park . At the end of the season he signed his first professional contract , and Crewe were promoted into the First Division as runners up in the Second Division .
His second game came on 17 March 2004 at the Boleyn Ground ; he replaced Clayton Ince after 86 minutes with the score 4 – 2 to West Ham United , after Ince was stretchered off with a knee injury . The eighteen @-@ year @-@ old held his nerve in front of over 30 @,@ 000 spectators and no goals were scored in the brief period he was on the pitch . Later in the year he had a loan spell at local non @-@ league side Stafford Rangers .
After recovering from a twisted ankle , Tomlinson 's next senior game was at Sincil Bank on 23 August 2005 , where he replaced loanee Ben Williams at half @-@ time . Lincoln City knocked the " Railwaymen " out of the League Cup , putting two past Williams and three past Tomlinson for a 5 – 2 victory . His first start came in the FA Cup Third Round clash at Deepdale on 7 January 2006 , the home side coming out 2 – 1 winners . He played his first Championship game on 28 January , replacing Ross Turnbull at half @-@ time ; Watford put two past each men for a 4 – 1 win . After signing a one @-@ year contract extension in March , Tomlinson got his first league start on 30 April , as Crewe beat Millwall 4 – 2 , Ben May scoring both of the " Lions " goals .
In May 2006 , Burton Albion put in a request to sign Tomlinson to a season long loan . The move was delayed after Tomlinson picked up a calf injury , before he managed to join Burton in time for a pre @-@ season friendly with Sheffield Wednesday . However Crewe reconsidered the loan deal and so Nigel Clough instead signed aged veteran Kevin Poole . Clough was still keen to sign Tomlinson , with the saga continuing well into the season , though no deal was made . Tomlinson picked up his first senior clean sheet on 22 August 2006 , during a 3 – 0 win at Grimsby Town 's Blundell Park in the League Cup First Round . The Crewe website described a " heroic effort " from Tomlinson in the Football League Trophy tie with Rochdale on 31 October , as he managed to three of Rochdale 's four penalties ( the penalty he did not save was a miss ) . Dario Gradi said : " Stuart is outstanding on penalties because he is positive and doesn 't flop over " . He went on to play seven League One games , and also made one appearance in the FA Cup . However he did not play in the 2007 end of the season , partly due to a torn groin that kept him out of action for a number of weeks . In the summer there was once again talk of a possible loan move to Burton .
He was only used by Steve Holland once throughout the 2007 – 08 season , playing in a 1 – 1 draw with Chester City in the Football League Trophy on 4 September ; Chester won the game 4 – 3 on penalties . Not long after this he was on the sidelines with a broken thumb . In February , Tomlinson finally joined Conference club Burton Albion on a one @-@ month loan . He played 90 minutes for " Brewers " in a 3 – 1 defeat to Histon on 1 March , and was forced to make numerous saves . He played no further part of Burton 's season after he sustained an injury to his cruciate ligaments .
After six months of rehab he recovered earlier than expected . His 2008 – 09 season started on 25 November , as Gradi gave him a start at the Walkers Stadium , where Leicester City won 2 – 1 . The next month he played six games , keeping four clean sheets ( against Carlisle United , Cheltenham Town , Swindon Town and Millwall ) . However he attracted criticism from his manager at the end of January following heavy defeats to Northampton Town and Peterborough United , and was subsequently dropped . New manager Gudjon Thordarson told him that he would not be offered a new contract at the end of the season , thus ending Tomlinson 's long association with the club .
= = = Barrow = = =
In July 2009 he joined Port Vale for pre @-@ season training , playing 45 minutes of a pre @-@ season friendly . Micky Adams considered signing Tomlinson up whilst first choice keeper Joe Anyon was out injured . He impressed on his trial and would have been signed to a contract if the cash @-@ strapped club could find the finance , instead Adams considered offering Tomlinson non @-@ contract terms . However , Tomlinson left the club to search for a more permanent offer elsewhere . In August 2009 he joined Barrow of the Conference , just two days before the start of their season . Sharing first team duties with Tim Deasy , he appeared 27 times for Barrow in the 2009 – 10 campaign . He also won the FA Trophy with the club , appearing in the final at Wembley Stadium , where the " Bluebirds " beat Stevenage Borough 2 – 1 .
= = = Port Vale = = =
Tomlinson chose not to renew his Barrow contract at the end of the season , and instead signed a one @-@ year contract at Port Vale in May 2010 . Anyon had at by this time left Vale Park for Lincoln City , and Tomlinson was brought into provide competition for teenager Chris Martin . This required him to accept a lower wage than he would have got at Barrow .
– Micky Adams on Tomlinson .
Adams surprised many by selecting Tomlinson as the goalkeeper in the opening game of the season , and Tomlinson rewarded his manager by keeping a clean sheet . Tomlinson praised his defence for his solid start to the season . With five clean sheets in his first ten games , Tomlinson was offered a one @-@ year contract extension in September 2010 . Two months later he was reported in the Daily Star and the Daily Mirror to be a £ 250 @,@ 000 transfer target for Sheffield United and Queens Park Rangers . Adams dismissed such speculation with the comment " that amount of money wouldn 't buy Stuart 's left hand " . Sent off on New Year 's Day after a collision with Rotherham United 's Marcus Marshall , Tomlinson lost his place in the first eleven due to injury and suspension , but then won back his place after Martin conceded a comical own goal in a 3 – 1 defeat to Stevenage on 2
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Olympics in Los Angeles , stating that he " won 't enter the 5000 metres for Finland has at least three excellent men for that event . "
In April 1932 , the executive council of the International Amateur Athletics Federation ( IAAF ) suspended Nurmi from international athletics events pending an investigation into his amateur status by the Finnish Athletics Federation . The Finnish authorities criticized the IAAF for acting without a hearing , but agreed to launch an investigation . It was customary of the IAAF to accept the final decision of its national branch , and the Associated Press wrote that " there is little doubt that if the Finnish federation clears Nurmi the international body will accept its decision without question . " A week later , the Finnish Ahletics Federation ruled in favor of Nurmi , finding no evidence for the allegations of professionalism . Nurmi was hopeful that his suspension would be lifted in time for the Games .
On 26 June 1932 Nurmi started his first marathon at the Olympic trials . Not drinking a drop of liquid , he ran the old @-@ style ' short marathon ' of 40 @.@ 2 km ( 25 miles ) in 2 : 22 : 03 @.@ 8 — on the pace to finish in about 2 : 29 : 00 , just under Albert Michelsen 's marathon world record of 2 : 29 : 01 @.@ 8 . At the time , he led Armas Toivonen , the eventual Olympic bronze medalist , by six minutes . Nurmi 's time was the new unofficial world record for the short marathon . Confident that he had done enough , Nurmi stopped and retired from the race owing to problems with his Achilles tendon . The Finnish Olympic Committee entered Nurmi for both the 10 @,@ 000 m and the marathon . The Guardian reported that " some of his trial times were almost unbelievable , " and Nurmi went on to train at the Olympic Village in Los Angeles despite his injury . Nurmi had set his heart on ending his career with a marathon gold medal , as Kolehmainen had done shortly after the First World War .
= = = 1932 Olympics and later career = = =
Less than three days before the 10 @,@ 000 m , a special commission of the IAAF , consisting of the same seven members that had suspended Nurmi , rejected the Finn 's entries and barred him from competing in Los Angeles . Sigfrid Edström , president of the IAAF and chairman of its executive council , stated that the full congress of the IAAF , which was scheduled to start the next day , could not reinstate Nurmi for the Olympics but merely review the phases and political angles related to the case . The AP called this " one of the slickest political maneuvers in international athletic history " , and wrote that the Games would now be " like Hamlet without the celebrated Dane in the cast . " Thousands protested against the action in Helsinki . Details of the case were not released to the press , but the evidence against Nurmi was believed be the sworn statements from German race promoters that Nurmi had received $ 250 – 500 per race when running in Germany in autumn 1931 . The statements were produced by Karl Ritter von Halt after Edström had sent him increasingly threatening letters , warning that if evidence against Nurmi is not provided , he " will unfortunately have to take stringent action against the German Athletics Association . "
On the eve of the marathon , all the entrants of the race except for the Finns , whose positions were known , filed a petition asking Nurmi 's entry to be accepted . Edström 's right @-@ hand man Bo Ekelund , secretary general of the IAAF and head of the Swedish Athletics Federation , approached the Finnish officials and stated that he might be able to arrange for Nurmi to participate in the marathon outside the competition . However , Finland maintained that as long as the athlete is not declared a professional , he must have the right to participate in the race officially . Although he had been diagnosed with a pulled Achilles tendon two weeks earlier , Nurmi stated he would have won the event by five minutes . The congress concluded without Nurmi being declared a professional , but the council 's authority to disbar an athlete was upheld on a 13 – 12 vote . However , due to the close vote , the matter was postponed until the 1934 meet in Stockholm . Finns charged that the Swedish officials had used devious tricks in their campaign against Nurmi 's amateur status , and ceased all athletic relations with Sweden . A year earlier , controversies on the track and in the press had led Finland to withdraw from the Finland @-@ Sweden athletics international . After Nurmi 's suspension , Finland did not agree to return to the event until 1939 .
Nurmi refused to turn professional , and continued running as amateur in Finland . In 1933 , he ran his first 1500 m in three years and won the national title with his best time since 1926 . At the IAAF meet in August 1934 , Finland launched two proposals that lost . The council then brought forward its resolution empowering it to suspend athletes that it finds in violation of the IAAF amateur code . With a 12 – 5 vote , with many not voting , Nurmi 's suspension from international amateur athletics became definite . Less than three weeks later , Nurmi retired from running with a 10 @,@ 000 m victory in Viipuri on 16 September 1934 . Nurmi remained undefeated in the distance throughout his 14 @-@ year top @-@ level career . In cross country running , his win streak lasted 19 years .
= = Later life = =
While active as a runner , Nurmi was known to be secretive about his training methods . Always running alone , he upped his pace and quickly exhausted anyone who was bold enough to join him . Even his club mate Harri Larva had learned little from him . After ending his career , Nurmi became a coach for the Finnish Athletics Federation and trained runners for the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin . In 1935 , Nurmi along with the entire board of directors quit the federation after a heated 40 – 38 vote to resume athletic relations with Sweden . However , Nurmi returned to coaching three months later and the Finnish distance runners went on to take three gold medals , three silvers and a bronze at the Games . In 1936 , Nurmi also opened a men 's clothing store ( haberdashery ) in Helsinki . It became a popular tourist attraction , and Emil Zátopek was among those who visited the store trying to meet Nurmi . The Finn spent his time in the back room , running another new business venture ; construction . As a contractor , Nurmi built forty apartment buildings in Helsinki with about a hundred flats in each . Within five years , he was rated a millionaire . His fiercest rival Ritola ended up living in one of Nurmi 's flats , at half price . Nurmi also made money on the stock market , eventually becoming one of Finland 's richest people .
In February 1940 , during the Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union , Nurmi returned to the United States with his protégé Taisto Mäki , who had become the first man to run the 10 @,@ 000 m under 30 minutes , to raise funds and rally support to the Finnish cause . The relief drive , directed by former president Herbert Hoover , included a coast @-@ to @-@ coast tour by Nurmi and Mäki . Hoover welcomed the two as " ambassadors of the greatest sporting nation in the world . " While in San Francisco , Nurmi received news that one of his apprentices , 1936 Olympic champion Gunnar Höckert , had been killed in action . Nurmi left for Finland in late April , and later served in the Continuation War in a delivery company and as a trainer in the military staff . Before he was discharged in January 1942 , Nurmi was promoted first to a staff sergeant ( ylikersantti ) and later to a sergeant first class ( vääpeli ) .
In 1952 , Nurmi was persuaded by Urho Kekkonen , Prime Minister of Finland and former chairman of the Finnish Athletics Federation , to carry the Olympic torch into the Olympic Stadium at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki . His appearance astonished the spectators , and Sports Illustrated wrote that " his celebrated stride was unmistakable to the crowd . When he came into view , waves of sound began to build throughout the stadium , rising to a roar , then to a thunder . When the national teams , assembled in formation on the infield , saw the flowing figure of Nurmi , they broke ranks like excited schoolchildren , dashing toward the edge of the track . " After lighting the flame in the Olympic Cauldron , Nurmi passed the torch to his idol Kolehmainen , who lighted the beacon in the tower . In the cancelled 1940 Summer Olympics , Nurmi had been planned to lead a group of fifty Finnish gold medal winners .
Nurmi felt that he got too much credit as an athlete and too little as a businessman , but his interest in running never died . He even returned to the track himself a few times . In 1946 , he faced his old rival Edvin Wide in Stockholm in a benefit for the victims of the Greek Civil War . Nurmi ran for the last time on 18 February 1966 at the Madison Square Garden , invited by the New York Athletic Club . In 1962 , Nurmi predicted that welfare countries would start to struggle in the distance events : " The higher the standard of living in a country , the weaker the results often are in the events which call for work and trouble . I would like to warn this new generation : ' Do not let this comfortable life make you lazy . Do not let the new means of transport kill your instinct for physical exercise . Too many young people get used to driving in a car even for small distances . ' " In 1966 , he took the microphone in front of 300 sports club guests and criticised the state of distance running in Finland , reproaching the sports executives as publicity seekers and tourists , and demanding athletes sacrifice everything to accomplish something . Nurmi lived to see the renaissance of Finnish running in the 1970s , led by athletes such as the 1972 Olympic gold medalists Lasse Virén and Pekka Vasala . He had complimented the running style of Virén , and advised Vasala to concentrate on Kipchoge Keino .
Although he accepted an invitation from President Lyndon B. Johnson to revisit the White House in 1964 , Nurmi lived a very secluded life until the late 1960s when he began granting some press interviews . On his 70th birthday , Nurmi agreed to an interview for Yle , Finland 's national public @-@ broadcasting company , only after learning that President Kekkonen would act as the interviewer . Suffering from health problems , with at least one heart attack , a stroke and failing eyesight , Nurmi at times spoke bitterly about sports , calling it a waste of time compared to science and art . He died in 1973 in Helsinki and was given a state funeral . Kekkonen attended the funeral and praised Nurmi : " People explore the horizons for a successor . But none comes and none will , for his class is extinguished with him . " At the request of Nurmi , who enjoyed classical music and played the violin , Konsta Jylhä 's Vaiennut viulu ( The Silenced Violin ) was played during the ceremony . Nurmi 's last record fell in 1996 ; his 1925 world record for the indoor 2000 m lasted as the Finnish national record for 71 years .
= = Personal life and public image = =
Nurmi was married to socialite Sylvi Laaksonen from 1932 to 1935 . Laaksonen , who was not interested in athletics , opposed Nurmi raising their newborn son Matti to be a runner and stated to the Associated Press in 1933 , " [ H ] is concentration on athletics at last forced me to go to the judge for a divorce . " Matti Nurmi did become a middle @-@ distance runner , and later a " self @-@ made " businessman . Nurmi 's relationship with his son was termed " uneasy " . Matti admired his father more as a businessman than as an athlete , and the two never discussed his running career . As a runner , Matti was at his best in the 3000 m , where he equaled his father 's time . In the famous race on 11 July 1957 when the " three Olavis " ( Salsola , Salonen and Vuorisalo ) broke the world record for the 1500 m , Matti Nurmi finished a distant ninth with his personal best , 2 @.@ 2 seconds slower than his father 's world record from 1924 . Hollywood actress Maila Nurmi , best known as the horror icon " Vampira " , was often referred to as Paavo Nurmi 's niece . However , the kinship is not supported by official documents .
Nurmi enjoyed the Finnish sports massage and sauna @-@ bathing traditions , crediting the Finnish sauna for his performances during the Paris heat wave in 1924 . He had a versatile diet , although he had practiced vegetarianism between the ages of 15 and 21 . Nurmi , who identified as neurasthenic , was known to be " taciturn " , " stony @-@ faced " and " stubborn " . He was not believed to have had any close friends , but he had occasionally socialized and showed his " sarcastic sense of humour " among the small circles he knew . Acclaimed the biggest sporting figure in the world at his peak , Nurmi was averse to publicity and the media , stating later on his 75th birthday , " [ W ] orldly fame and reputation are worth less than a rotten lingonberry . " French journalist Gabriel Hanot questioned Nurmi 's intensive approach to sports and wrote in 1924 that Nurmi " is ever more serious , reserved , concentrated , pessimistic , fanatic . There is such coldness in him and his self @-@ control is so great that never for a moment does he show his feelings . " Some contemporary Finns nicknamed him Suuri vaikenija ( The Great Silent One ) , and Ron Clarke noted that Nurmi 's persona remained a mystery even to Finnish runners and journalists : " Even to them , he was never quite real . He was enigmatic , sphinx @-@ like , a god in a cloud . It was as if he was all the time playing a role in a drama . "
Nurmi was more responsive to his fellow athletes than to the media . He exchanged ideas with sprinter Charley Paddock and even trained with his rival Otto Peltzer . Nurmi told Peltzer to forget his opponents : " Conquering yourself is the greatest challenge of an athlete . " Nurmi was known to emphasize the importance of psychological strength : " Mind is everything ; muscle , pieces of rubber . All that I am , I am because of my mind . " Regarding Nurmi 's track antics , Peltzer found that " in his impenetrability he was a Buddha gliding on the track . Stopwatch in hand , lap after lap , he ran towards the tape , subject only to the laws of a mathematical table . " Marathoner Johnny Kelley , who first met his idol at the 1936 Olympics , said that while Nurmi appeared cold to him at first , the two chatted for quite a while after Nurmi had asked for his name : " He grabbed ahold of me — he was so excited . I couldn 't believe it ! "
Nurmi 's speed and elusive personality led to nicknames such as the " Phantom Finn " , the " King of Runners " and " Peerless Paavo " , while his mathematical prowess and use of a stopwatch led the press to characterize him as a running machine . One newspaperman dubbed Nurmi " a mechanical Frankenstein created to annihilate time . " Phil Cousineau noted that " his own innovation — the tactic of pacing himself with a stopwatch — both inspired and troubled people in an era when the robot was becoming symbolic of the modern soulless human being . " Among the popular newspaper rumours about Nurmi was that he had a " freakish heart " with a very low pulse rate . During the debate over his amateur status , Nurmi was joked to have " the lowest heartbeat and the highest asking price of any athlete in the world . "
= = Legacy = =
Nurmi broke 22 official world records on distances between 1500 m and 20 km ; a record in running . He also set several more unofficial ones for a total of 58 . His indoor world records were all unofficial as the IAAF did not ratify indoor records until the 1980s . Nurmi 's record for most Olympic gold medals was matched by gymnast Larisa Latynina in 1964 , swimmer Mark Spitz in 1972 and fellow track and field athlete Carl Lewis in 1996 , and broken by swimmer Michael Phelps in 2008 . Nurmi 's record for most medals in the Olympic Games stood until Edoardo Mangiarotti won his 13th medal in fencing in 1960 . Time selected Nurmi as the greatest Olympian of all time in 1996 , and IAAF named him among the first twelve athletes to be inducted into the IAAF Hall of Fame in 2012 .
Nurmi introduced the " even pace " strategy to running , pacing himself with a stopwatch and spreading his energy uniformly over the race . He reasoned that " when you race against time , you don 't have to sprint . Others can 't hold the pace if it is steady and hard all through to the tape . " Archie Macpherson stated that " with the stopwatch always in his hand , he elevated athletics to a new plane of intelligent application of effort and was the harbinger of the modern scientifically prepared athlete . " Nurmi was considered a pioneer also in regards to training ; he developed a systematic all @-@ year @-@ round training program that included both long @-@ distance work and interval running . Peter Lovesey wrote in The Kings of Distance : A Study of Five Great Runners that Nurmi " accelerated the progress of world records ; developed and actually came to personify the analytic approach to running ; and he was a profound influence not only in Finland , but throughout the world of athletics . Nurmi , his style , technique and tactics were held to be infallible , and really seemed so , as successive imitators in Finland steadily improved the records . " Cordner Nelson , founder of Track & Field News , credited Nurmi for popularizing running as a spectator sport : " His imprint on the track world was greater than any man ’ s before or after . He , more than any man , raised track to the glory of a major sport in the eyes of international fans , and they honored him as one of the truly great athletes of all sports .
Nurmi 's achievements and training methods inspired future track stars of many generations . Emil Zátopek chanted " I am Nurmi ! I am Nurmi ! " when he trained as a child , and based his training system on what he was able to find out about Nurmi 's methods . Lasse Virén idolized Nurmi and was scheduled to meet him for the first time on the day that Nurmi died . Hicham El Guerrouj was inspired to become a runner so that he could " repeat the achievements of the great man of whom his grandfather spoke . " He became the first man after Nurmi to win the 1500 m and the 5000 m at the same Games . Nurmi 's influence stretched further than running on the Olympic arena . At the 1928 Olympics , Kazimierz Wierzyński won the lyric gold medal with his poem Olympic Laurel that included a verse on Nurmi . In 1936 , Ludwig Stubbendorf and his horse Nurmi won the individual and team gold medals in eventing .
A bronze statue of Nurmi was sculpted by Wäinö Aaltonen in 1925 . The original is held at the art museum Ateneum , but copies cast from the original mould exist in Turku , in Jyväskylä , in front of the Helsinki Olympic Stadium and at the Olympic Museum in Lausanne , Switzerland . In a widely publicized prank by the students of the Helsinki University of Technology , a miniature copy of the statue was discovered from the 300 @-@ year @-@ old wreck of the Swedish war ship Vasa when it was lifted from the bottom of the sea in 1961 . Statues of Nurmi were also sculpted by Renée Sintenis in 1926 and by Carl Eldh , whose 1937 work Löpare ( Runners ) depicts a battle between Nurmi and Edvin Wide . Boken om Nurmi ( The Book about Nurmi ) , released in Sweden in 1925 , was the first biographical book on a Finnish sportsman . Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä named the main belt asteroid 1740 Paavo Nurmi after Nurmi in 1939 , while Finnair named its first DC @-@ 8 Paavo Nurmi in 1969 . Nurmi 's former rival Ville Ritola boarded the plane when he moved back to Finland in 1970 .
Paavo Nurmi Marathon , held annually since 1969 , is the oldest marathon in Wisconsin and the second @-@ oldest in the American Midwest . In Finland , another marathon bearing the name has been held in Nurmi 's hometown of Turku since 1992 , along with the athletics competition Paavo Nurmi Games that was started in 1957 . Finlandia University , an American college with Finnish roots , named their athletic center after Nurmi . A ten @-@ mark bill featuring a portrait of Nurmi was issued by the Bank of Finland in 1987 . The other revised bills honored architect Alvar Aalto , composer Jean Sibelius , Enlightenment thinker Anders Chydenius and author Elias Lönnrot , respectively . The Nurmi bill was replaced by a new 20 @-@ mark note featuring Väinö Linna in 1993 . In 1997 , a historic stadium in Turku was renamed the Paavo Nurmi Stadium . Twenty world records have been set at the stadium , including John Landy 's records on the 1500 m and the mile , Nurmi 's record on the 3000 m and Zátopek 's record on the 10 @,@ 000 m . In fiction , Nurmi appears in William Goldman 's 1974 novel Marathon Man as the idol of the protagonist , who aims to become a greater runner than Nurmi . The opera on Nurmi , Paavo the Great . Great Race . Great Dream . , written by Paavo Haavikko and composed by Tuomas Kantelinen , debuted at the Helsinki Olympic Stadium in 2000 . In a 2005 episode of The Simpsons , Mr. Burns brags that he once outraced Nurmi in his antique motorcar .
= = Career summary ( 1920 – 34 ) = =
= = = Seasons = = =
= = = Events = = =
= = = Olympics = = =
= = World records = =
= = = IAAF @-@ ratified = = =
= = = Unofficial = = =
= Anjem Choudary =
Anjem Choudary ( Urdu : انجم چودهرى ; born 1967 ) is a British Muslim social and political activist . He was previously a solicitor and served as the chairman of the Society of Muslim Lawyers , and , until it was proscribed , the spokesman for Islam4UK .
With Omar Bakri Muhammad , he helped form an Islamist organisation , al @-@ Muhajiroun . The group organised several anti @-@ Western demonstrations , including a banned protest march in London for which Choudary was summonsed to appear in court . The UK government banned Al @-@ Muhajiroun and Choudary was present at the launch of its intended successor , Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaah . He later helped form Al Ghurabaa , which was also banned . Choudary then became the spokesman for Islam4UK . He receives little support from mainstream UK Muslims and has been largely criticised in the country 's media .
A critic of the UK 's involvement in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan , Choudary praised those responsible for the 11 September 2001 and 7 July 2005 attacks . He supports the implementation of Sharia law throughout the UK and marched in protest at the Jyllands @-@ Posten cartoons controversy , following which he was prosecuted for organising an unlawful demonstration . He was investigated , but not charged , for his comments in 2006 regarding Pope Benedict XVI . Choudary is currently on trial for allegedly inviting support of a proscribed organisation , namely the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant .
= = Early life = =
Born in the UK on 18 January 1967 , Anjem Choudary is the son of a Welling market trader and is of Pakistani descent . He attended Mulgrave Primary School , in Woolwich . He enrolled as a medical student at the University of Southampton , where he was known as Andy , but failed his first @-@ year exams . Responding to claims that he was a " party animal " who joined his friends in " getting stoned " , in 2014 Choudary commented " I admit that I wasn 't always practising ... I committed many mistakes in my life . " He switched to law and spent his final year as a legal student ( 1990 – 1991 ) at Guildford , before moving to London to teach English as a second language . He found work at a legal firm and completed his legal qualifications to become a lawyer . Choudary became the chairman of the Society of Muslim Lawyers , but was removed from the roll of solicitors ( the official register of legal practitioners ) in 2002 .
Choudary first came to public attention in 1999 , when The Sunday Telegraph identified him as having been involved in the recruitment of Muslim trainees leaving Britain to fight abroad . He told the newspaper " before they go abroad to fight for organisations like the IIF , the volunteers are trained in Britain . Some of the training does involve guns and live ammunition . "
= = Organisations = =
= = = Al @-@ Muhajiroun = = =
Choudary embraced Islamism and , with the Islamist militant leader Omar Bakri Muhammed , co @-@ founded al @-@ Muhajiroun a Salafi Wahabi organization . The two men had met at a local mosque , where Bakri was giving a tafsir ( an interpretation of the Qur 'an ) . In 2002 , following a bazaar organised by al @-@ Muhajiroun ( advertised by leaflet and word of mouth ) , Choudary gave a talk on education at Slough . His lecture outlined his ideas for a parallel system of Islamic education in the UK and included elements of the group 's ideology . In the same year , although they were refused a permit by the then Mayor of London Ken Livingstone , on 25 August the group held a rally in London . Choudary was summonsed to Bow Street Magistrates ' Court in January 2003 , on charges which included " exhibiting a notice , advertisement or any other written or pictorial matter " , " using apparatus for the amplification of sound " , " making a public speech or address " and " organising an assembly " .
In 2003 or 2004 he organised an Islamic @-@ themed camping trip , at which Bakri lectured , on the 54 @-@ acre ( 220 @,@ 000 m2 ) grounds of the Jameah Islamiyah School in East Sussex . Advertised by word @-@ of @-@ mouth , the trip was attended by 50 Muslim men , most of whom were members of al @-@ Muhajiroun . Bakri later claimed the camp 's activities included lectures on Islam , football and paintballing . In September 2006 , following allegations that it was used in the training and recruitment of terrorists , police searched the school . According to testimony from Al Qaeda suspects held at the Guantanamo Bay detainment camp , in 1997 and 1998 Abu Hamza and groups of around 30 of his followers held training camps at the school , which included training with AK47 rifles and handguns , and a mock rocket launcher . No arrests were made , and students and faculty were allowed to return on 23 September 2006 , the first day of Ramadan .
The UK government had investigated expelling Bakri even before the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 , and in July 2003 the headquarters of al @-@ Muhajiroun , and the homes of Bakri and Choudary , were raided by the police . The following year , under new anti @-@ terrorist legislation , the government announced that it wanted to ban al @-@ Muhajiroun . In 2005 Bakri learned that he was at risk of prosecution for his support of the 7 July 2005 London bombers , and in August left the UK for Lebanon , where he claimed that he was on holiday . After leaving a television station where he said " I will not return to Britain unless I want to go there as a visitor or as a tourist " , he was detained by Lebanon 's general security department and held in a Beirut prison . Several days later , Bakri was excluded from returning to Britain by the Home Secretary , Charles Clarke , on the grounds that his presence in Britain was " not conducive to the public good . " Choudary condemned the decision and demanded to know what Bakri had done to justify the ban . He claimed that ministers were inventing rules to ensure that Bakri could not return . In November Choudary and three other followers of Bakri were deported from Lebanon , and returned to the UK . Choudary blamed the Foreign and Commonwealth Office for orchestrating their deportations , claiming that the four were there to help Bakri set up a madrasah .
Following his deportation , Choudary attended the launch in London of Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaah , the intended successor organisation to al @-@ Muhajiroun . Choudary said that Bakri was not on the committee of the new group , but that " we would love for the sheikh to have a role . " The organisation operates mainly through an invitation @-@ only internet forum , to which Choudary contributes under the screen name Abou Luqman . A reporter visiting the site found calls for holy war , and recordings by Osama Bin Laden , Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri , and Omar Bakri Mohammed .
Al @-@ Muhajiroun attempted a relaunch in June 2009 at Conway Hall , in Holborn . Several speakers were invited to share a platform with Choudary , but some later claimed that they had been invited under false pretences . When the group refused to allow women into the meeting , the chairman of the society which runs the hall cancelled the event . He was heckled by many of those in the audience . Choudary took the microphone from the chairman and led chants of " sharia for UK " , saying in reference to the exclusion of women : " Jews and Christians will never make peace with you until you either become like them or adopt their ways . " Outside the hall , Choudary criticised British society , and predicted that Muslims would make up the majority within one or two decades . When asked why , if society was so bad , he lived here , he replied : " We come here to civilise people , get them to come out of the darkness and injustice into the beauty of Islam . "
= = = Al Ghurabaa = = =
Choudary was also a spokesman for Al Ghurabaa , believed to have been an offshoot of al @-@ Muhajiroun . It was proscribed in 2006 by the then Home Secretary John Reid . Choudary was outraged : " The easy option when one is losing an argument is to ban the opposition voice . ... We [ al @-@ Ghurabaa ] are not a military organisation ; we have only been vociferous in our views — views concerning everything from the government 's foreign policy in Iraq and Afghanistan to the host of draconian laws , which they ’ ve introduced against us in this country . "
= = = Islam4UK = = =
In November 2008 , Choudary organised a meeting of the then recently formed Islam4UK , which , according to its website , was " established by sincere Muslims as a platform to propagate the supreme Islamic ideology within the United Kingdom as a divine alternative to man @-@ made law " , and to " convince the British public about the superiority of Islam ... thereby changing public opinion in favour of Islam in order to transfer the authority and power ... to the Muslims in order to implement the Sharee ’ ah ( here in Britain ) " . According to Ed Husain , co @-@ founder of the counter @-@ terrorism think @-@ tank the Quilliam Foundation , Islam4UK was a " splinter group of al @-@ Muhajiroun and Hizb ut @-@ Tahrir , the originators of extremism in Britain . " The meeting , advertised as a conference to " rise to defend the honour of the Muslims " , was held at the Brady Arts and Community Centre in Tower Hamlets . Choudary then announced that Bakri would be speaking , via a video @-@ conference link , although technical problems meant that his address was instead given over a telephone line . When asked by a Muslim woman how the comments of one of the event 's speakers could be justified , with regards to Islam being a religion of peace , Choudary stated , " Islam is not a religion of peace ... It is a religion of submission . We need to submit to the will of Allah . "
With the announcement by Islam4UK that it planned to hold a protest march through Wootton Bassett ( known for the military funeral repatriations of dead British soldiers returning from the war in Afghanistan ) , Choudary said " You may see one or two coffins being returned to the UK every other day , but when you think about the people of Afghanistan its a huge number [ being killed ] in comparison [ ... ] I intend to write a letter to the parents of British soldiers telling them the reality of what they died for . " Choudary 's open letter was published on 3 January 2010 . It explained his reasons for proposing the march , endorsed his religious beliefs , and claimed that UK politicians had been lying about the war . Choudary wrote that the proposed march was to " engage the British public 's minds on the real reasons why their soldiers are returning home in body bags and the real cost of the war . " In an interview with Sky News , he stated that the location was chosen to effect a level of media attention which " it would not have gained anywhere else " . The proposal was condemned by the British Prime Minister , Gordon Brown , who said that to offend the families of dead or wounded troops would be " completely inappropriate " . The Minhaj @-@ ul @-@ Quran International UK centre in Forest Gate also condemned the proposal , as did the Muslim Council of Britain , which stated that it " condemns the call by the fringe extremist group Islam4UK for their proposed march in Wootton Bassett . " The planned march was cancelled by the group , on 10 January 2010 .
From 14 January 2010 , Islam4UK was proscribed under the Terrorism Act 2000 , making membership illegal and punishable by imprisonment . Choudary condemned the order . In an interview on BBC Radio he said " we are now being targeted as an extremist or terrorist organisation and even banned for merely expressing that " and " I feel this is a failure of the concept of democracy and freedom . " Following his arrest and subsequent release in September 2014 on suspicion of encouraging terrorism , Choudary claimed he was questioned about his membership of or support for proscribed groups including Islam4UK and Need4Khalifah , both of which the government believes are successors to al @-@ Muhajiroun .
= = Views = =
Choudary referred to the 11 September 2001 terrorists as " magnificent martyrs " . In 2003 he said that al @-@ Muhajiroun would " encourage people to fulfil their Islamic duties and responsibilities " , although he also said that the group was a political movement and not responsible for individual actions . In 2004 he said that a terror attack on British soil was " a matter of time " . He refused to condemn the 7 July 2005 London bombings , but accused the Muslim Council of Britain ( who had ) of " selling their souls to the devil " . He blamed the 2013 murder of Lee Rigby , an off @-@ duty British soldier , on British foreign policy .
Choudary has voiced support for the Muslim community in Somalia , who , he claims , have been " violated " by Christian @-@ backed Ethiopians , and has also called for other members to fight jihad .
The Wall Street Journal describes Choudary as a supporter of " the fundamentalist strain of Islamic teaching known as Salafism " . He believes in the primacy of Islam over all other faiths , and the implementation of Sharia Law , in its entirety , in the UK . In 2001 he stated that his allegiance is to Islam , and not a country . He believes that , for a true Muslim , " a British passport is no more than a travel document . " In October 2006 he addressed an audience at Trinity College , Dublin to oppose the motion that " This house believes that Islamist violence can never be justified " . In February 2008 the Archbishop of Canterbury , Rowan Williams , commented that " as a matter of fact certain provisions of sharia are already recognised in our society and under our law " . Choudary responded by saying that Sharia " has to be adopted wholesale " , and that " it will come either by embracing Islam because it is the fastest growing religion in the country , or by an Islamic country conquering Britain or by elements embracing Islam and imposing it . "
In 2008 he spoke of the " flag of Sharia " flying over Downing Street by 2020 , claimed that some Muslim families in east London were having " 10 or 12 children each " , and that hundreds were converting to Islam each day . Choudary has spoken against elements of the Christian faith . In December 2008 he posted a sermon on an Islamic website , in which he stated : " Every Muslim has a responsibility to protect his family from the misguidance of Christmas , because its observance will lead to hellfire . Protect your Paradise from being taken away – protect yourself and your family from Christmas " .
In an interview with Iran 's Press TV ( which was subsequently posted online on 11 April 2013 ) , Choudary stated " As Muslims , we reject democracy , we reject secularism , and freedom , and human rights . We reject all of the things that you espouse as being ideals ... There is nothing called a republic in Islam . When we talk about the shari 'a , we are talking about only the shari 'a . We are talking about rejecting the U.N. , the IMF , and the World Bank . "
In 2013 the British pressure group Hope not Hate presented a report which identified Choudary as " a serious player on the international Islamist scene " , saying that although there was no evidence that he was directly responsible for instigating any terrorist plots , " he helped shape the mindset of many of those behind them " and " through his networks linked them up to terror groups and supporters across the world . " Choudary dismissed the claims as " fanciful " , that if they were true , UK security services would have arrested him .
In September 2014 , Choudary described Abu Bakr al @-@ Baghdadi , leader of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant , as " the caliph of all Muslims and the prince of the believers " .
On 5 August 2015 , Choudary was charged with one offence under section 12 of the Terrorism Act 2000 for inviting support of a proscribed organisation , namely Islamic State , between June 2014 and March 2015 . An expected trial date until 7 March 2016 has been given . His trial was postponed to 27 June 2016 , and is expected to last no more than four weeks .
= = Activism = =
Choudary has regularly attended public marches and , following a protest march outside the Danish Embassy in London on 3 February 2006 , held in response to the Jyllands @-@ Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy , he was a member of a panel of interviewees on the BBC news programme Newsnight . He defended Muslims in Britain , saying that " we live in peace with the host community , we are not allowed to target people here " , and claimed that the police had inspected and allowed the controversial placards used in the demonstration . Choudary was criticised by his fellow panellists , who included Ann Cryer , then MP for Keighley , Humera Khan , of the al @-@ Nisa Muslim Women 's Group ( who accused him of demonising Islam ) , Sayeeda Warsi , the vice @-@ chair of the Conservative Party , Professor Tariq Ramadan ( who claimed that Choudary 's actions were designed to evoke a strong response from the media ) , and Roger Knapman , the leader of the UK Independence Party . On 15 March 2006 he was among five men arrested in connection with the demonstration , which had been organised by al Ghurabaa . He was arrested again on 4 May at Stansted Airport for an alleged breach of bail , and charged with organising the protest without notifying police . He was bailed to appear before Bow Street Magistrates Court on 11 May . On 4 July 2006 he was convicted and fined £ 500 with £ 300 court costs .
The following day , at an Al Ghurabaa press conference at the Al Badr centre in Leyton , Choudary claimed that the blame for the London bombings lay with the British government , and said that the then Prime Minister , Tony Blair , had " blood on his hands " . He also urged Muslims to defend themselves against perceived attacks by " whatever means they have at their disposal " , and referred to the 2 June 2006 Forest Gate raid in which Mohammed Abdul Kahar was shot in the shoulder . He encouraged Muslims not to co @-@ operate with the police under any circumstances . Local council leader Clyde Loakes criticised Choudary 's comments , stating " I am sure the vast majority of Waltham Forest residents do not support these views . " Several days later , on 9 June 2006 , Choudary organised a demonstration outside the Forest Gate police station in London , to protest against the arrest of the two Forest Gate men . The men 's families said that an extremist protest would " only give another opportunity for our community to be portrayed in a negative light " and sent a statement to more than twenty mosques ( read to worshippers during prayers ) urging them to disassociate themselves from the event . About 35 men and 15 women attended the demonstration .
In September 2006 Pope Benedict XVI gave a speech on the question of the " reasonableness " of the Christian faith , to the University of Regensburg in Germany . In the Regensburg lecture he spoke about rationality in faith , and cited comments by the fourteenth @-@ century Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos , who , as the Pope put it , said " show me just what Mohamed brought that was new , and there you will find things only evil and inhuman , such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached . " The citation attracted severe criticism from Muslims around the world , including the parliament of Pakistan which condemned the Pope for his comments , and which sought an apology from him . Following the speech , on 17 September Choudary led a protest outside Westminster Cathedral , where he told reporters " Whoever insults the message of Mohammed is going to be subject to capital punishment . " The Daily Mail reported him as saying : " I am here [ to ] have a peaceful demonstration , but there may be people in Italy and other parts that would carry that out . " The Metropolitan Police investigated his comments , but concluded that " no substantive offences " were committed during the demonstration . The Shadow Home Secretary , David Davis , who had called for action to be taken against Choudary , said : " It is quite disgraceful . It sends out a message to Muslim extremists that we , as a country , do not have the moral courage to stand up to them . "
He attempted to enter France to demonstrate against the French government 's decision to ban the burka , but was stopped at the port of Calais . His passport was seized and he was issued documents banning him from France indefinitely .
On 13 December 2013 Choudary led a march in Brick Lane , organised by the east London @-@ based Sharia Project , demanding a ban on alcohol being sold by Muslim establishments . An East London Mosque official , speaking of the patrols , identified The Shariah Project as " strongly linked " to Anjem Choudary 's banned group Al @-@ Muhajiroun . Abu Rumaysah of The Shariah Project had predicted " hundreds " would join the demonstration , claiming that groups of Muslims would come from as far away as the Midlands to take part . In the event , only a few dozen protesters took part in the march . Choudary afterwards explained its purpose : “ What we did is we posted a notice to the shop owners saying that under Sharia and under the Koran the sale of alcohol is prohibited and if one were to also drink alcohol , that would be 40 lashes . We were there to teach them that just because they are living among non @-@ Muslims is no excuse because Sharia law will be implemented in Britain , and so they should be aware that just because it is not Sharia today , they can ’ t just do whatever they like . ” Choudary said that the Shariah Project group would be arranging many more such rallies .
= = Public reception = =
Choudary has been largely criticised by most UK newspapers , some of whom describe him as an extremist , or radical cleric or preacher . In January 2010 , Guardian contributor Mehdi Hasan wrote : " Is Choudary an Islamic scholar whose views merit attention or consideration ? No . Has he studied under leading Islamic scholars ? Nope . Does he have any Islamic qualifications or credentials ? None whatsoever . So what gives him the right to pontificate on Islam , British Muslims or ' the hellfire ' ? Or proclaim himself a ' sharia judge ' ? " , and claimed that Choudary was " as unrepresentative of British Muslim opinion , as he is of British anti @-@ war opinion . "
The Conservative Party leader David Cameron said that Choudary " is one of those people who needs to be looked at seriously in terms of the legality of what he 's saying because he strays , I think , extremely close to the line of encouraging hatred , extremism and violence . "
Salma Yaqoob , then leader of the Respect Party , said in 2010 of Choudary : " He is a bigot whose goal in life is to provoke division . He engages in these provocations because he is deeply hostile to any coming together of Muslims and non @-@ Muslims . For him , the fact that a majority of the British people – Muslim and non @-@ Muslim – oppose the war in Afghanistan is not something to be celebrated , but is something to be feared . " Rod Liddle , writing in The Spectator , said : " Anjem Choudray ... is one of those thick @-@ as @-@ mince gobby little chancers who could only possibly come from Britain . " Conservatives in the United States have also been critical of Choudary . Fox News host Sean Hannity called Choudary " one sick , miserable , evil S.O.B. " during a segment on his show discussing the 2011 Egyptian protests .
Choudary has received little support from the mainstream Muslim community . However , in January 2010 Jamie Bartlett , a writer for the Telegraph , speculated that he might have " some " support among the minority of Muslims in the UK who could be considered to hold conservative views . The following year , Peter Oborne , defending Baroness Warsi 's criticism of how British Muslims have been treated , singled out Choudary as an exception to the majority that were " decent people " .
Tabloid criticism of Islam4UK and Choudary since news of the proposed march first became public has , generally , been vitriolic , calling him a " hate preacher " . In January 2010 , appearing on the BBC 's The Daily Politics , he was asked by its presenter , Andrew Neil , for his opinions on the banning of Islam4UK , before being asked to comment on his financial status , claiming that it was " relevant to our viewers " . Choudary told Neil that his finances were a personal matter , and that he was " doing something , and I don 't want to discuss that with you . I 'm not on Jobseeker 's allowance , but at the same time I have family allowance , I have very firmly held views which I 'm propagating at the same time . " Responding to the media 's criticism of him , Choudary said " I do believe that people have been whipped up into an anti @-@ Islam anti @-@ Muslim frenzy . "
= = Personal life = =
In 1996 , Choudary married Rubana Akhtar , or Akhgar , who was then 22 years old and had recently joined al @-@ Muhajiroun , which he led at the time . She later became the group 's head of women . The couple have four children .
= Thorne and Hatfield Moors =
Thorne and Hatfield Moors form the largest area of lowland raised peat bog in the United Kingdom . They are situated in South Yorkshire , to the north @-@ east and east of Doncaster near the town of Thorne , and are part of Hatfield Chase . They had been used for small @-@ scale extraction of peat for fuel from medieval times , and probably much earlier , but commercial extraction of the peat for animal bedding began in the 1880s . The peat was cut on the moors and , once it had dried , transported to several works on 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge tramways , always called trams locally . The wagons were pulled by horses to works at Creyke 's Siding , Moorends , Medge Hall , Swinefleet and Hatfield . There was also a network of canals supplying the Moorends Works .
The industry suffered a downturn between the two world wars , as working horses were replaced by lorries and peat demand dropped , but after the Second World War peat was used by the horticultural industry in increasing volumes , and harvesting expanded again . From 1947 , experiments were made with locomotives on the tramways , and they soon replaced horses . A total of 23 had worked on the system by the time it was closed down . The extraction process was mechanised in the 1960s , with the introduction of machines that could cut and stack the peat turves . In 1981 mechanical loading of the turves into the trains was introduced . Surface milling of the peat was introduced in 1985 , which completely stripped the surface of large areas of the moors .
Some environmental bodies considered the moors to be worthless , but tireless campaigning by William Bunting after the Second World War , culminating in direct action by a group known as Bunting 's Beavers in 1972 , resulted in a change of policy . The nature of the moor habitat has gradually been recognised as an ecological resource . From 1971 the Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust has managed a small area of Crowle Moor for conservation , and the Nature Conservancy Council bought another small area in 1985 . A major change occurred in 1994 , when Fisons company gave English Nature 2 @,@ 340 acres ( 946 ha ) of moorland , although they retained the right to continue extracting peat on some of it . By 2002 , Scotts owned the cutting rights but most cutting of peat effectively ended in 2001 , since the government buy @-@ out in 2002 of the extraction rights from Scotts occurred before the cutting season had begun . Removal of peat stockpiled on the moors continued into 2006 . Since then the moors have been managed as a National Nature Reserve by Natural England . Scotts still have a works at Hatfield , which processes imported peat .
= = Location = =
Thorne Moors and Hatfield Moors together cover an area of some 8 @,@ 201 acres ( 3 @,@ 319 ha ) , and are a small remnant of a much larger wetland system that once covered around 770 square miles ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) known as the Humberhead Levels . The moors lie to the east of the town of Thorne and the M18 motorway . Thorne Moors are situated to the north of the M180 motorway , while Hatfield Moors lie to the south of that road . Although much reduced in size , they are still the largest area of lowland raised peat bog in the United Kingdom .
Thorne Moors are also called Swinefleet Moors , and both terms describe Crowle Moor , Goole Moor , Rawcliffe Moor , Snaith and Cowick Moor , and Thorne Waste collectively .
= = History = =
The moors had been used as a source for domestic fuel , in the form of peat , since at least the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries , and probably as early as the Roman or pre @-@ Roman periods . In the early 1800s , peat was still being formed : William Harrison reported that a short time after moving to Thorne , a rise in the surface of the moors has obscured Crowle Church , previously visible from his home .
The area saw major changes in its hydrology in the 1630s , as a result of the drainage works of Cornelius Vermuyden . The River Don was routed northwards from Stainforth , passing to the west of the moors ; the River Idle routed along the southern edge of Hatfield Chase , and a new channel was cut for the River Torne , which was isolated from the surrounding land by new flood banks . These works had less effect on Thorne Moors , which became isolated from Hatfield Moors with the completion of the Stainforth and Keadby Canal in 1802 , running in an east @-@ west direction between them . The moors were " warped " during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , a process by which silt @-@ laden floodwater from the River Trent and the River Ouse was allowed to cover the land , resulting in silt building up on the surface . The Swinefleet Warping Drain can still be seen , running along the eastern edge of the moors , and connecting to the Ouse below Goole . It was last used for this purpose just before the First World War , in connection with land reclamation near Medge Hall , Crowle . This was the last known occasion on which warping was used in the moors to the south of the Humber .
The Thorne Moors Improvement Company was set up in 1848 , authorised by the Thorne Moor Drainage and Improvement Act . They were charged with improving parts of the bog . Their activities increased in the 1880s , when they began to lease areas to companies who extracted the peat commercially for use as animal bedding . In order to do this , ditches had to be cut to begin the process of drainage . As the extent of the workings increased , a Dutch company cut canals in the peat . Horses pulled barges from canal paths alongside in order to remove the peat from the moors . Subsequently , a network of small railways were constructed along the canals to transport the peat .
Until the mid @-@ twentieth century , all peat was cut by hand . Although the effects of the industry on the ecology of the moors were serious , hand cutting mainly affected the surface of the moors . It left behind trenches and ditches , which soon became waterlogged , and were re @-@ colonised to become part of the diverse habitat . Once the cutting process was mechanised , peat could be cut from a greater depth , and at a faster rate , resulting in less ability for the moors to recover . Mechanical peat cutting was introduced to the moors in the early 1960s , and the process was similar to hand cutting , in that the peat was extracted over a small area but to a considerable depth . More destructive to the ultimate regeneration of the moors was the introduction of peat milling in 1985 , where a thin layer of peat was stripped from a wider area . Thus in 1910 , around 56 tonnes per acre were extracted from 1 @,@ 240 acres ( 500 ha ) of the moors , whereas in 1985 the yield was 10 tonnes per acre over double that area . As early as the late 1960s , academics and conservation agencies expressed concerns that the moors had been so badly damaged by peat extraction and farming that they were not worth saving .
= = = Environmental campaigning = = =
A scheme to cover the moors with ash from coal @-@ fired power stations , and possibly municipal rubbish , was proposed in 1962 , and again in 1969 . Another plan of the 1960s was to build a regional airport on the moors ; this proposal was revived in 1971 . Further ash @-@ tipping schemes were voiced in 1974 , as was a third plan for an airport in 1976 . There were also plans to use the moor as a dump for colliery waste in 1978 , when Thorne Colliery was upgraded and reopened .
= = = = William Bunting = = = =
Although official attitudes did not place much value on the moors , William Bunting moved to Thorne after the Second World War and became
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and raw materials , Egypt mainly exported grain , gold , linen , and papyrus , in addition to other finished goods including glass and stone objects .
= = Language = =
= = = Historical development = = =
The Egyptian language is a northern Afro @-@ Asiatic language closely related to the Berber and Semitic languages . It has the second longest history of any language ( after Sumerian ) , having been written from c . 3200 BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer . The phases of ancient Egyptian are Old Egyptian , Middle Egyptian ( Classical Egyptian ) , Late Egyptian , Demotic and Coptic . Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic , but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes .
Ancient Egyptian was a synthetic language , but it became more analytic later on . Late Egyptian develops prefixal definite and indefinite articles , which replace the older inflectional suffixes . There is a change from the older verb – subject – object word order to subject – verb – object . The Egyptian hieroglyphic , hieratic , and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic Coptic alphabet . Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the Egyptian Orthodox Church , and traces of it are found in modern Egyptian Arabic .
= = = Sounds and grammar = = =
Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro @-@ Asiatic languages . These include pharyngeal and emphatic consonants , voiced and voiceless stops , voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless affricates . It has three long and three short vowels , which expanded in Later Egyptian to about nine . The basic word in Egyptian , similar to Semitic and Berber , is a triliteral or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants . Suffixes are added to form words . The verb conjugation corresponds to the person . For example , the triconsonantal skeleton S @-@ Ḏ @-@ M is the semantic core of the word ' hear ' ; its basic conjugation is sḏm , ' he hears ' . If the subject is a noun , suffixes are not added to the verb : sḏm ḥmt , ' the woman hears ' .
Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call nisbation because of its similarity with Arabic . The word order is predicate – subject in verbal and adjectival sentences , and subject – predicate in nominal and adverbial sentences . The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun . Verbs and nouns are negated by the particle n , but nn is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences . Stress falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable , which can be open ( CV ) or closed ( CVC ) .
= = = Writing = = =
Hieroglyphic writing dates from c . 3000 BC , and is composed of hundreds of symbols . A hieroglyph can represent a word , a sound , or a silent determinative ; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts . Hieroglyphs were a formal script , used on stone monuments and in tombs , that could be as detailed as individual works of art . In day @-@ to @-@ day writing , scribes used a cursive form of writing , called hieratic , which was quicker and easier . While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction ( though typically written from right to left ) , hieratic was always written from right to left , usually in horizontal rows . A new form of writing , Demotic , became the prevalent writing style , and it is this form of writing — along with formal hieroglyphs — that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone .
Around the first century AD , the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script . Coptic is a modified Greek alphabet with the addition of some Demotic signs . Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century , towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them . As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded , knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost . Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods in Egypt , but only in 1822 , after the discovery of the Rosetta stone and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean @-@ François Champollion , were hieroglyphs almost fully deciphered .
= = = Literature = = =
Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs . It was primarily an occupation of the scribes , who worked out of the Per Ankh institution or the House of Life . The latter comprised offices , libraries ( called House of Books ) , laboratories and observatories . Some of the best @-@ known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature , such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts , were written in Classical Egyptian , which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300 BC . Later Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside administrative documents , love poetry and tales , as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts . During this period , the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography , such as those of Harkhuf and Weni . The genre known as Sebayt ( " instructions " ) was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles ; the Ipuwer papyrus , a poem of lamentations describing natural disasters and social upheaval , is a famous example .
The Story of Sinuhe , written in Middle Egyptian , might be the classic of Egyptian literature . Also written at this time was the Westcar Papyrus , a set of stories told to Khufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests . The Instruction of Amenemope is considered a masterpiece of near @-@ eastern literature . Towards the end of the New Kingdom , the vernacular language was more often employed to write popular pieces like the Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any . The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt . From about 700 BC , narrative stories and instructions , such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy , as well as personal and business documents were written in the demotic script and phase of Egyptian . Many stories written in demotic during the Greco @-@ Roman period were set in previous historical eras , when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as Ramesses II .
= = Culture = =
= = = Daily life = = =
Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land . Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members , and were constructed of mud @-@ brick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day . Each home had a kitchen with an open roof , which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread . Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings . Floors were covered with reed mats , while wooden stools , beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture .
The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance . Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk . Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness ; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin . Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white , and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs , jewelry , and cosmetics . Children went without clothing until maturity , at about age 12 , and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved . Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children , while the father provided the family 's income .
Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them . Early instruments included flutes and harps , while instruments similar to trumpets , oboes , and pipes developed later and became popular . In the New Kingdom , the Egyptians played on bells , cymbals , tambourines , drums , and imported lutes and lyres from Asia . The sistrum was a rattle @-@ like musical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies .
The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities , including games and music . Senet , a board game where pieces moved according to random chance , was particularly popular from the earliest times ; another similar game was mehen , which had a circular gaming board . Juggling and ball games were popular with children , and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan . The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed hunting and boating as well .
The excavation of the workers ' village of Deir el @-@ Madinah has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world that spans almost four hundred years . There is no comparable site in which the organisation , social interactions , working and living conditions of a community were studied in such detail .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time ; indeed , the cuisine of modern Egypt retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients . The staple diet consisted of bread and beer , supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic , and fruit such as dates and figs . Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis . Fish , meat , and fowl could be salted or dried , and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill .
= = = Architecture = = =
The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world : the Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes . Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes , but also to reinforce the power of the pharaoh . The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders ; using simple but effective tools and sighting instruments , architects could build large stone structures with accuracy and precision .
The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mud bricks and wood , and have not survived . Peasants lived in simple homes , while the palaces of the elite were more elaborate structures . A few surviving New Kingdom palaces , such as those in Malkata and Amarna , show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people , birds , water pools , deities and geometric designs . Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of bricks . The architectural elements used in the world 's first large @-@ scale stone building , Djoser 's mortuary complex , include post and lintel supports in the papyrus and lotus motif .
The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples , such as those at Giza , consist of single , enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns . In the New Kingdom , architects added the pylon , the open courtyard , and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temple 's sanctuary , a style that was standard until the Greco @-@ Roman period . The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the mastaba , a flat @-@ roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground burial chamber . The step pyramid of Djoser is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other . Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms , but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock @-@ cut tombs . The Twenty @-@ fifth dynasty was a notable exception , as all Twenty @-@ fifth dynasty pharaohs constructed pyramids .
= = = Art = = =
The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes . For over 3500 years , artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom , following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change . These artistic standards — simple lines , shapes , and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth — created a sense of order and balance within a composition . Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls , coffins , stelae , and even statues . The Narmer Palette , for example , displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs . Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance , ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity .
Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone to carve statues and fine reliefs , but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute . Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores ( red and yellow ochres ) , copper ores ( blue and green ) , soot or charcoal ( black ) , and limestone ( white ) . Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes , which could be moistened with water when needed .
Pharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle , royal decrees , and religious scenes . Common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art , such as shabti statues and books of the dead , which they believed would protect them in the afterlife . During the Middle Kingdom , wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb . In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife , these models show laborers , houses , boats , and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife .
Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art , the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes . After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period , Minoan @-@ style frescoes were found in Avaris . The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the Amarna period , where figures were radically altered to conform to Akhenaten 's revolutionary religious ideas . This style , known as Amarna art , was quickly and thoroughly erased after Akhenaten 's death and replaced by the traditional forms .
= = = Religious beliefs = = =
Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception ; pharaonic rule was based on the divine right of kings . The Egyptian pantheon was populated by gods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection . However , the gods were not always viewed as benevolent , and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers . The structure of this pantheon changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy , but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting myths and stories into a coherent system . These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality .
Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king 's behalf . At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine . Temples were not places of public worship or congregation , and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship . Normally , the god 's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials . Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes , and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos . After the New Kingdom , the pharaoh 's role as a spiritual intermediary was de @-@ emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods . As a result , priests developed a system of oracles to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people .
The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or aspects . In addition to the body , each person had a šwt ( shadow ) , a ba ( personality or soul ) , a ka ( life @-@ force ) , and a name . The heart , rather than the brain , was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions . After death , the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will , but they required the physical remains ( or a substitute , such as a statue ) as a permanent home . The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ka and ba and become one of the " blessed dead " , living on as an akh , or " effective one " . For this to happen , the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial , in which the heart was weighed against a " feather of truth " . If deemed worthy , the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form .
= = = Burial customs = = =
The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death . These customs involved preserving the body by mummification , performing burial ceremonies , and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife . Before the Old Kingdom , bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation . The arid , desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor , who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite . Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification , which involved removing the internal organs , wrapping the body in linen , and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin . Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty , some parts were preserved separately in canopic jars .
By the New Kingdom , the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification ; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs , removing the brain through the nose , and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron . The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin . Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases . Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras , while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy , which was decorated .
Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items , but all burials , regardless of social status , included goods for the deceased . Beginning in the New Kingdom , books of the dead were included in the grave , along with shabti statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife . Rituals in which the deceased was magically re @-@ animated accompanied burials . After burial , living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased .
= = Military = =
The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion , and for maintaining Egypt 's domination in the ancient Near East . The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods . The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes , such as those found at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia . Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases , such as the fortress at Sile , which was a base of operations for expeditions to the Levant . In the New Kingdom , a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer Kush and parts of the Levant .
Typical military equipment included bows and arrows , spears , and round @-@ topped shields made by stretching animal skin over a wooden frame . In the New Kingdom , the military began using chariots that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders . Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze : shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle , spears were tipped with a bronze point , and the Khopesh was adopted from Asiatic soldiers . The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army ; it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs , such as Seqenenre Tao II and his sons , did do so . However , it has also been argued that " kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders , fighting alongside their troops . " Soldiers were recruited from the general population , but during , and especially after , the New Kingdom , mercenaries from Nubia , Kush , and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt .
= = Technology , medicine , and mathematics = =
= = = Technology = = =
In technology , medicine and mathematics , ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication . Traditional empiricism , as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri ( c . 1600 BC ) , is first credited to Egypt . The Egyptians created their own alphabet and decimal system .
= = = Faience and glass = = =
Even before the Old Kingdom , the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as faience , which they treated as a type of artificial semi @-@ precious stone . Faience is a non @-@ clay ceramic made of silica , small amounts of lime and soda , and a colorant , typically copper . The material was used to make beads , tiles , figurines , and small wares . Several methods can be used to create faience , but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core , which was then fired . By a related technique , the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as Egyptian Blue , also called blue frit , which is produced by fusing ( or sintering ) silica , copper , lime , and an alkali such as natron . The product can be ground up and used as a pigment .
The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill , but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently . It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre @-@ made ingots , which they melted and finished . However , they did have technical expertise in making objects , as well as adding trace elements to control the color of the finished glass . A range of colors could be produced , including yellow , red , green , blue , purple , and white , and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque .
= = = Medicine = = =
The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment . Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites , which caused liver and intestinal damage . Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat . The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints , and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body . The grit and sand from stone @-@ ground flour abraded teeth , leaving them susceptible to abscesses ( though caries were rare ) .
The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars , which promoted periodontal disease . Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls , the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence . Adult life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women , but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one @-@ third of the population died in infancy .
Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills , and some , such as Imhotep , remained famous long after their deaths . Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians , with some treating only the head or the stomach , while others were eye @-@ doctors and dentists . Training of physicians took place at the Per Ankh or " House of Life " institution , most notably those headquartered in Per @-@ Bastet during the New Kingdom and at Abydos and Saïs in the Late period . Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy , injuries , and practical treatments .
Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat , white linen , sutures , nets , pads , and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection , while opium thyme and belladona were used to relieve pain . The earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies . Prayers were made to the goddess Isis . Moldy bread , honey and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns . Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms . Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds , set broken bones , and amputated diseased limbs , but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred .
= = = Maritime technology = = =
Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull and had mastered advanced forms of shipbuilding as early as 3000 BC . The Archaeological Institute of America reports that the oldest planked ships known are the Abydos boats . A group of 14 discovered ships in Abydos were constructed of wooden planks " sewn " together . Discovered by Egyptologist David O 'Connor of New York University , woven straps were found to have been used to lash the planks together , and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams . Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy , originally they were all thought to have belonged to him , but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BC , and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating . The ship dating to 3000 BC was 75 feet ( 23 m ) long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh . According to professor O 'Connor , the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old ship may have even belonged to Pharaoh Aha .
Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together , using pitch for caulking the seams . The " Khufu ship " , a 43 @.@ 6 @-@ metre ( 143 ft ) vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza in the Fourth Dynasty around 2500 BC , is a full @-@ size surviving example that may have filled the symbolic function of a solar barque . Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints .
Large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern Mediterranean , especially Byblos ( on the coast of modern @-@ day Lebanon ) , and in several expeditions down the Red Sea to the Land of Punt . In fact one of the earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a " Byblos Ship " , which originally defined a class of Egyptian seagoing ships used on the Byblos run ; however , by the end of the Old Kingdom , the term had come to include large seagoing ships , whatever their destination .
In 2011 archaeologists from Italy , the United States , and Egypt excavating a dried @-@ up lagoon known as Mersa Gawasis have unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages like Hatshepsut 's Punt expedition onto the open ocean . Some of the site 's most evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians ' seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes , made from papyrus , coiled in huge bundles . And in 2013 a team of Franco @-@ Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world 's oldest port , dating back about 4500 years , from the time of King Cheops on the Red Sea coast near Wadi el @-@ Jarf ( about 110 miles south of Suez ) .
In 1977 , an ancient north @-@ south canal dating to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt was discovered extending from Lake Timsah to the Ballah Lakes . It was dated to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course .
= = = Mathematics = = =
The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic Naqada period , and show a fully developed numeral system . The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land , labor , and grain . Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations — addition , subtraction , multiplication , and division — use fractions , compute the volumes of boxes and pyramids , and calculate the surface areas of rectangles , triangles , and circles . They understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry , and could solve simple sets of simultaneous equations .
Mathematical notation was decimal , and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million . Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number ; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred , the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively . Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one , they had to write fractions as the sum of several fractions . For example , they resolved the fraction two @-@ fifths into the sum of one @-@ third + one @-@ fifteenth . Standard tables of values facilitated this . Some common fractions , however , were written with a special glyph — the equivalent of the modern two @-@ thirds is shown on the right .
Ancient Egyptian mathematicians had a grasp of the principles underlying the Pythagorean theorem , knowing , for example , that a triangle had a right angle opposite the hypotenuse when its sides were in a 3 – 4 – 5 ratio . They were able to estimate the area of a circle by subtracting one @-@ ninth from its diameter and squaring the result :
Area ≈ [ ( 8 ⁄ 9 ) D ] 2 = ( 256 ⁄ 81 ) r 2 ≈ 3.16r 2 @,@
a reasonable approximation of the formula πr 2 .
The golden ratio seems to be reflected in many Egyptian constructions , including the pyramids , but its use may have been an unintended consequence of the ancient Egyptian practice of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony .
= = Population = =
= = Legacy = =
The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world . The cult of the goddess Isis , for example , became popular in the Roman Empire , as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome . The Romans also imported building materials from Egypt to erect Egyptian @-@ style structures . Early historians such as Herodotus , Strabo , and Diodorus Siculus studied and wrote about the land , which Romans came to view as a place of mystery .
During the Middle Ages and The Renaissance , Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later Islam , but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul @-@ Nun al @-@ Misri and al @-@ Maqrizi . In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries , European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys , leading to a wave of Egyptomania across Europe . This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt , who took , purchased , or were given many important antiquities .
Although the European colonial occupation of Egypt destroyed a significant portion of the country 's historical legacy , some foreigners left more positive marks . Napoleon , for example , arranged the first studies in Egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt 's natural history , which was published in the Description de l 'Égypte .
In the 20th century , the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations . The Supreme Council of Antiquities now approves and oversees all excavations , which are aimed at finding information rather than treasure . The council also supervises museums and monument reconstruction programs designed to preserve the historical legacy of Egypt .
= Æthelberht of Kent =
Æthelberht ( also Æthelbert , Aethelberht , Aethelbert , or Ethelbert , Old English Æðelberht / ˈæðelberxt / ) / English pronunciation : / ˈæθəlbərt / / ( c . 560 – 24 February 616 ) was King of Kent from about 589 until his death . The eighth @-@ century monk Bede , in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , lists him as the third king to hold imperium over other Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms . In the late ninth century Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle he is referred to as a bretwalda , or " Britain @-@ ruler " . He was the first English king to convert to Christianity .
Æthelberht was the son of Eormenric , succeeding him as king , according to the Chronicle . He married Bertha , the Christian daughter of Charibert , king of the Franks , thus building an alliance with the most powerful state in contemporary Western Europe ; the marriage probably took place before he came to the throne . Bertha 's influence may have led to Pope Gregory I 's decision to send Augustine as a missionary from Rome . Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet in east Kent in 597 . Shortly thereafter , Æthelberht converted to Christianity , churches were established , and wider @-@ scale conversion to Christianity began in the kingdom . He provided the new church with land in Canterbury , thus establishing one of the foundation stones of what ultimately became the Anglican Communion .
Æthelberht 's law for Kent , the earliest written code in any Germanic language , instituted a complex system of fines ; the law code is preserved in the Textus Roffensis . Kent was rich , with strong trade ties to the continent , and he may have instituted royal control over trade . Coinage probably began circulating in Kent during his reign for the first time since the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion . He later came to be regarded as a saint for his role in establishing Christianity among the Anglo @-@ Saxons . His feast day was originally 24 February , but was changed to 25 February .
= = Historical context = =
In the fifth century , raids on Britain by continental peoples had developed into full @-@ scale migrations . The newcomers are known to have included Angles , Saxons , Jutes , and Frisians , and there is evidence of other groups as well . These groups captured territory in the east and south of England , but at about the end of the fifth century , a British victory at the battle of Mount Badon ( Mons Badonicus ) halted the Anglo @-@ Saxon advance for fifty years . From about 550 , however , the British began to lose ground once more , and within twenty @-@ five years it appears that control of almost all of southern England was in the hands of the invaders .
Anglo @-@ Saxons probably conquered Kent before Mons Badonicus . There is both documentary and archaeological evidence that Kent was primarily colonized by Jutes , from the southern part of the Jutland peninsula . According to legend , the brothers Hengist and Horsa landed in 449 as mercenaries for a British king , Vortigern . After a rebellion over pay and Horsa 's death in battle , Hengist established the Kingdom of Kent . Some historians now think the underlying story of a rebelling mercenary force may be accurate ; most now date the founding of the kingdom of Kent to the middle of the fifth @-@ century , which is consistent with the legend . This early date , only a few decades after the departure of the Romans , also suggests that more of Roman civilization may have survived into Anglo @-@ Saxon rule in Kent than in other areas .
Overlordship was a central feature of Anglo @-@ Saxon politics which began before Æthelberht 's time ; kings were described as overlords as late as the ninth century . The Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion may have involved military coordination of different groups within the invaders , with a leader who had authority over many different groups ; Ælle of Sussex may have been such a leader . Once the new states began to form , conflicts among them began . Tribute from dependents could lead to wealth . A weaker state also might ask or pay for the protection of a stronger neighbour against a warlike third state .
Sources for this period in Kentish history include the Ecclesiastical History of the English People , written in 731 by Bede , a Northumbrian monk . Bede was interested primarily in England 's Christianization . Since Æthelberht was the first Anglo @-@ Saxon king to convert to Christianity , Bede provides more substantial information about him than about any earlier king . One of Bede 's correspondents was Albinus , abbot of the monastery of St. Peter and St. Paul ( subsequently renamed St. Augustine 's ) in Canterbury . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , a collection of annals assembled c . 890 in the kingdom of Wessex , mentions several events in Kent during Æthelberht 's reign . Further mention of events in Kent occurs in the late sixth century history of the Franks by Gregory of Tours . This is the earliest surviving source to mention any Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom . Some of Pope Gregory the Great 's letters concern the mission of St. Augustine to Kent in 597 ; these letters also mention the state of Kent and its relationships with neighbours . Other sources include regnal lists of the kings of Kent and early charters ( land grants by kings to their followers or to the church ) . Although no originals survive from Æthelberht 's reign , later copies exist . A law code from Æthelberht 's reign also survives .
= = Ancestry , accession and chronology = =
According to Bede , Æthelberht was descended directly from Hengist . Bede gives the line of descent as follows : " Ethelbert was son of Irminric , son of Octa , and after his grandfather Oeric , surnamed Oisc , the kings of the Kentish folk are commonly known as Oiscings . The father of Oeric was Hengist . " An alternative form of this genealogy , found in the Historia Brittonum among other places , reverses the position of Octa and Oisc in the lineage . The first of these names that can be placed historically with reasonable confidence is Æthelberht 's father , whose name now usually is spelled Eormenric . The only direct written reference to Eormenric is in Kentish genealogies , but Gregory of Tours does mention that Æthelberht 's father was the king of Kent , though Gregory gives no date . Eormenric 's name provides a hint of connections to the kingdom of the Franks , across the English channel ; the element " Eormen " was rare in names of the Anglo @-@ Saxon aristocracy , but much more common among Frankish nobles . One other member of Æthelberht 's family is known : his sister , Ricole , who is recorded by both Bede and the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as the mother of Sæberht , king of the East Saxons ( i.e. Essex ) .
The dates of Æthelberht 's birth and accession to the throne of Kent are both matters of debate . Bede , the earliest source to give dates , is thought to have drawn his information from correspondence with Albinus . Bede states that when Æthelberht died in 616 he had reigned for fifty @-@ six years , placing his accession in 560 . Bede also says that Æthelberht died twenty @-@ one years after his baptism . Augustine ’ s mission from Rome is known to have arrived in 597 , and according to Bede , it was this mission that converted Æthelberht . Hence Bede ’ s dates are inconsistent . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , an important source for early dates , is inconsistent with Bede and also has inconsistencies among different manuscript versions . Putting together the different dates in the Chronicle for birth , death , and length of reign , it appears that Æthelberht 's reign was thought to have been either 560 – 616 , or 565 – 618 , but that the surviving sources have confused the two traditions .
It is possible that Æthelberht was converted to Christianity before Augustine 's arrival . Æthelberht 's wife was a Christian and brought a Frankish bishop with her , to attend her at court , so Æthelberht would have had knowledge of Christianity before the mission reached Kent . It also is possible that Bede had the date of Æthelberht 's death wrong ; if , in fact , Æthelberht died in 618 , this would be consistent with his baptism in 597 , which is in accord with the tradition that Augustine converted the king within a year of his arrival .
Gregory of Tours , in his Historia Francorum , writes that Bertha , daughter of Charibert , king of the Franks , married the son of the king of Kent . Bede says that Æthelberht received Bertha " from her parents " . If Bede is interpreted literally , the marriage would have had to take place before 567 , when Charibert died . The traditions for Æthelberht 's reign , then , would imply that Æthelberht married Bertha before either 560 or 565 .
The extreme length of Æthelberht 's reign also has been regarded with skepticism by historians ; it has been suggested that he died in the fifty @-@ sixth year of his life , rather than the fifty @-@ sixth year of his reign . This would place the year of his birth approximately at 560 , and he would not then have been able to marry until the mid 570s . According to Gregory of Tours , Charibert was king when he married Ingoberg , Bertha 's mother , which places that marriage no earlier than 561 . It therefore is unlikely that Bertha was married much before about 580 . These later dates for Bertha and Æthelberht also solve another possible problem : Æthelberht 's daughter , Æthelburh , seems likely to have been Bertha 's child , but the earlier dates would have Bertha aged sixty or so at Æthelburh 's likely birthdate using the early dates .
Gregory , however , also says that he thinks that Ingoberg was seventy years old in 589 ; and this would make her about forty when she married Charibert . This is possible , but seems unlikely , especially as Charibert seems to have had a preference for younger women , again according to Gregory 's account . This would imply an earlier birth date for Bertha . On the other hand , Gregory refers to Æthelberht at the time of his marriage to Bertha simply as " a man of Kent " , and in the 589 passage concerning Ingoberg 's death , which was written in about 590 or 591 , he refers to Æthelberht as " the son of the king of Kent " . If this does not simply reflect Gregory 's ignorance of Kentish affairs , which seems unlikely given the close ties between Kent and the Franks , then some assert that Æthelberht 's reign cannot have begun before 589 .
While all of the contradictions above cannot be reconciled , the most probable dates that may be drawn from available data place Æthelberht 's birth at approximately 560 and , perhaps , his marriage to Bertha at 580 . His reign is most likely to have begun in 589 or 590 .
= = Kingship of Kent = =
The later history of Kent shows clear evidence of a system of joint kingship , with the kingdom being divided into east Kent and west Kent , although it appears that there generally was a dominant king . This evidence is less clear for the earlier period , but there are early charters , known to be forged , which nevertheless imply that Æthelberht ruled as joint king with his son , Eadbald . It may be that Æthelberht was king of east Kent and Eadbald became king of west Kent ; the east Kent king seems generally to have been the dominant ruler later in Kentish history . Whether or not Eadbald became a joint king with Æthelberht , there is no question that Æthelberht had authority throughout the kingdom .
The division into two kingdoms is most likely to date back to the sixth century ; east Kent may have conquered west Kent and preserved the institutions of kingship as a subkingdom . This was a common pattern in Anglo @-@ Saxon England , as the more powerful kingdoms absorbed their weaker neighbours . An unusual feature of the Kentish system was that only sons of kings appeared to be legitimate claimants to the throne , although this did not eliminate all strife over the succession .
The main towns of the two kingdoms were Rochester , for west Kent , and Canterbury , for east Kent . Bede does not state that Æthelberht had a palace in Canterbury , but he does refer to Canterbury as Æthelberht 's " metropolis " , and it is clear that it is Æthelberht 's seat .
= = Relations with the Franks = =
There are many indications of close relations between Kent and the Franks . Æthelberht 's marriage to Bertha certainly connected the two courts , although not as equals : the Franks would have thought of Æthelberht as an under @-@ king . There is no record that Æthelberht ever accepted a continental king as his overlord and , as a result , historians are divided on the true nature of the relationship . Evidence for an explicit Frankish overlordship of Kent comes from a letter written by Pope Gregory the Great to Theuderic , king of Orléans , and Theudebert , king of Metz . The letter concerned Augustine 's mission to Kent in 597 , and in it Gregory says that he believes " that you wish your subjects in every respect to be converted to that faith in which you , their kings and lords , stand " . It may be that this is a papal compliment , rather than a description of the relationship between the kingdoms . It also has been suggested that Liudhard , Bertha 's chaplain , was intended as a representative of the Frankish church in Kent , which also could be interpreted as evidence of overlordship .
A possible reason for the willingness of the Franks to connect themselves with the Kentish court is the fact that a Frankish king , Chilperic I , is recorded as having conquered a people known as the Euthiones during the mid @-@ sixth century . If , as seems likely from the name , these people were the continental remnants of the Jutish invaders of Kent , then it may be that the marriage was intended as a unifying political move , reconnecting different branches of the same people . Another perspective on the marriage may be gained by considering that it is likely that Æthelberht was not yet king at the time he and Bertha were wed : it may be that Frankish support for him , acquired via the marriage , was instrumental in gaining the throne for him .
Regardless of the political relationship between Æthelberht and the Franks , there is abundant evidence of strong connections across the English Channel . There was a luxury trade between Kent and the Franks , and burial artefacts found include clothing , drink , and weapons that reflect Frankish cultural influence . The Kentish burials have a greater range of imported goods than those of the neighbouring Anglo @-@ Saxon regions , which is not surprising given Kent 's easier access to trade across the English Channel . In addition , the grave goods are both richer and more numerous in Kentish graves , implying that material wealth was derived from that trade . Frankish influences also may be detected in the social and agrarian organization of Kent . Other cultural influences may be seen in the burials as well , so it is not necessary to presume that there was direct settlement by the Franks in
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= = Rise to dominance = =
= = = Bretwalda = = =
In his Ecclesiastical History , Bede includes his list of seven kings who held " imperium " over the other kingdoms south of the Humber . The usual translation for " imperium " is " overlordship " . Bede names Æthelberht as the third on the list , after Ælle of Sussex and Ceawlin of Wessex . The anonymous annalist who composed one of the versions of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle repeated Bede 's list of seven kings in a famous entry under the year 827 , with one additional king , Egbert of Wessex . The Chronicle also records that these kings held the title " bretwalda " , or " Britain @-@ ruler " . The exact meaning of bretwalda has been the subject of much debate ; it has been described as a term " of encomiastic poetry " , but there also is evidence that it implied a definite role of military leadership .
The prior bretwalda , Ceawlin , is recorded by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as having fought Æthelberht in 568 . The entry states that Æthelberht lost the battle and was driven back to Kent . The dating of the entries concerning the West Saxons in this section of the Chronicle is thought to be unreliable and a recent analysis suggests that Ceawlin 's reign is more likely to have been approximately 581 – 588 , rather than the dates of 560 – 592 that are given in the Chronicle . The battle was at " Wibbandun " , which may be translated as Wibba 's Mount ; it is not known where this was .
At some point Ceawlin ceased to hold the title of bretwalda , perhaps after a battle at Stoke Lyne , in Oxfordshire , which the Chronicle dates to 584 , some eight years before he was deposed in 592 ( again using the Chronicle 's unreliable dating ) . Æthelberht certainly was a dominant ruler by 601 , when Gregory the Great wrote to him : Gregory urges Æthelberht to spread Christianity among those kings and peoples subject to him , implying some level of overlordship . If the battle of Wibbandun was fought c . 590 , as has been suggested , then Æthelberht must have gained his position as overlord at some time in the 590s . This dating for Wibbandun is slightly inconsistent with the proposed dates of 581 – 588 for Ceawlin 's reign , but those dates are not thought to be precise , merely the most plausible given the available data .
= = = Relationships with other kingdoms = = =
In addition to the evidence of the Chronicle that Æthelberht was accorded the title of bretwalda , there is evidence of his domination in several of the southern kingdoms of the Heptarchy . In Essex , Æthelberht appears to have been in a position to exercise authority shortly after 604 , when his intervention helped in the conversion of King Sæberht of Essex , his nephew , to Christianity . It was Æthelberht , and not Sæberht , who built and endowed St. Pauls in London , where St Paul 's Cathedral now stands . Further evidence is provided by Bede , who explicitly describes Æthelberht as Sæberht 's overlord .
Bede describes Æthelberht 's relationship with Rædwald , king of East Anglia , in a passage that is not completely clear in meaning . It seems to imply that Rædwald retained ducatus , or military command of his people , even while Æthelberht held imperium . This implies that being a bretwalda usually included holding the military command of other kingdoms and also that it was more than that , since Æthelberht is bretwalda despite Rædwald 's control of his own troops . Rædwald was converted to Christianity while in Kent but did not abandon his pagan beliefs ; this , together with the fact that he retained military independence , implies that Æthelberht 's overlordship of East Anglia was much weaker than his influence with the East Saxons . An alternative interpretation , however , is that the passage in Bede should be translated as " Rædwald , king of the East Angles , who while Æthelberht lived , even conceded to him the military leadership of his people " ; if this is Bede 's intent , then East Anglia firmly was under Æthelberht 's overlordship .
There is no evidence that Æthelberht 's influence in other kingdoms was enough for him to convert any other kings to Christianity , although this is partly due to the lack of sources — nothing is known of Sussex 's history , for example , for almost all of the seventh and eighth centuries . Æthelberht was able to arrange a meeting in 602 in the Severn valley , on the northwestern borders of Wessex , however , and this may be an indication of the extent of his influence in the west . No evidence survives showing Kentish domination of Mercia , but it is known that Mercia was independent of Northumbria , so it is quite plausible that it was under Kentish overlordship .
= = Augustine 's mission and early Christianization = =
The native Britons had converted to Christianity under Roman rule . The Anglo @-@ Saxon invasions separated the British church from European Christianity for centuries , so the church in Rome had no presence or authority in Britain , and in fact , Rome knew so little about the British church that it was unaware of any schism in customs . However , Æthelberht would have known something about the Roman church from his Frankish wife , Bertha , who had brought a bishop , Liudhard , with her across the Channel , and for whom Æthelberht built a chapel , St Martin 's .
In 596 , Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine , prior of the monastery of St. Andrew in Rome , to England as a missionary , and in 597 , a group of nearly forty monks , led by Augustine , landed on the Isle of Thanet in Kent . According to Bede , Æthelberht was sufficiently distrustful of the newcomers to insist on meeting them under the open sky , to prevent them from performing sorcery . The monks impressed Æthelberht , but he was not converted immediately . He agreed to allow the mission to settle in Canterbury and permitted them to preach .
It is not known when Æthelberht became a Christian . It is possible , despite Bede 's account , that he already was a Christian before Augustine 's mission arrived . It is likely that Liudhard and Bertha pressed Æthelberht to consider becoming a Christian before the arrival of the mission , and it is also likely that a condition of Æthelberht 's marriage to Bertha was that Æthelberht would consider conversion . Conversion via the influence of the Frankish court would have been seen as an explicit recognition of Frankish overlordship , however , so it is possible that Æthelberht 's delay of his conversion until it could be accomplished via Roman influence , might have been an assertion of independence from Frankish control . It also has been argued that Augustine 's hesitation — he turned back to Rome , asking to be released from the mission — is an indication that Æthelberht was a pagan at the time Augustine was sent .
At the latest , Æthelberht must have converted before 601 , since that year Gregory wrote to him as a Christian king . An old tradition records that Æthelberht converted on 1 June , in the summer of the year that Augustine arrived . Through Æthelberht 's influence Sæberht , king of Essex , also was converted , but there were limits to the effectiveness of the mission . The entire Kentish court did not convert : Eadbald , Æthelberht 's son and heir , was a pagan at his accession . Rædwald , king of East Anglia , was only partly converted ( apparently while at Æthelberht 's court ) and retained a pagan shrine next to the new Christian altar . Augustine also was unsuccessful in gaining the allegiance of the British clergy .
= = Law code = =
Some time after the arrival of Augustine 's mission , perhaps in 602 or 603 , Æthelberht issued a set of laws , in ninety sections . These laws are by far the earliest surviving code composed in any of the Germanic countries , and they were almost certainly among the first documents written down in Anglo @-@ Saxon , as literacy would have arrived in England with Augustine 's mission . The only surviving early manuscript , the Textus Roffensis , dates from the twelfth century , and it now resides in the Medway Studies Centre in Strood , Kent . Æthelberht 's code makes reference to the church in the very first item , which enumerates the compensation required for the property of a bishop , a deacon , a priest , and so on ; but overall , the laws seem remarkably uninfluenced by Christian principles . Bede asserted that they were composed " after the Roman manner " , but there is little discernible Roman influence either . In subject matter , the laws have been compared to the Lex Salica of the Franks , but it is not thought that Æthelberht based his new code on any specific previous model .
The laws are concerned with setting and enforcing the penalties for transgressions at all levels of society ; the severity of the fine depended on the social rank of the victim . The king had a financial interest in enforcement , for part of the fines would come to him in many cases , but the king also was responsible for law and order , and avoiding blood feuds by enforcing the rules on compensation for injury was part of the way the king maintained control . Æthelberht 's laws are mentioned by Alfred the Great , who compiled his own laws , making use of the prior codes created by Æthelberht , as well as those of Offa of Mercia and Ine of Wessex .
One of Æthelberht 's laws seems to preserve a trace of a very old custom : the third item in the code states that " If the king is drinking at a man 's home , and anyone commits any evil deed there , he is to pay twofold compensation . " This probably refers to the ancient custom of a king traveling the country , being hosted , and being provided for by his subjects wherever he went . The king 's servants retained these rights for centuries after Æthelberht 's time .
Items 77 – 81 in the code have been interpreted as a description of a woman 's financial rights after a divorce or legal separation . These clauses define how much of the household goods a woman could keep in different circumstances , depending on whether she keeps custody of the children , for example . It has recently been suggested , however , that it would be more correct to interpret these clauses as referring to women who are widowed , rather than divorced .
= = Trade and coinage = =
There is little documentary evidence about the nature of trade in Æthelberht 's Kent . It is known that the kings of Kent had established royal control of trade by the late seventh century , but it is not known how early this control began . There is archaeological evidence suggesting that the royal influence predates any of the written sources . It has been suggested that one of Æthelberht 's achievements was to take control of trade away from the aristocracy and to make it a royal monopoly . The continental trade provided Kent access to luxury goods which gave it an advantage in trading with the other Anglo @-@ Saxon nations , and the revenue from trade was important in itself .
Kentish manufacture before 600 included glass beakers and jewelry . Kentish jewellers were highly skilled , and before the end of the sixth century they gained access to gold . Goods from Kent are found in cemeteries across the channel and as far away as at the mouth of the Loire . It is not known what Kent traded for all of this wealth , although it seems likely that there was a flourishing slave trade . It may well be that this wealth was the foundation of Æthelberht 's strength , although his overlordship and the associated right to demand tribute would have brought wealth in its turn .
It may have been during Æthelberht 's reign that the first coins were minted in England since the departure of the Romans : none bear his name , but it is thought likely that the first coins predate the end of the sixth century . These early coins were gold , and probably were the shillings ( scillingas in Old English ) that are mentioned in Æthelberht 's laws . The coins are also known to numismatists as " thrymsas " .
= = Death and succession = =
Æthelberht died on 24 February 616 and was succeeded by his son , Eadbald , who was not a Christian — Bede says he had been converted but went back to his pagan faith , although he ultimately did become a Christian king . Eadbald outraged the church by marrying his stepmother , which was contrary to Church law , and by refusing to accept baptism . Sæberht of the East Saxons also died at approximately this time , and he was succeeded by his three sons , none of whom were Christian . A subsequent revolt against Christianity and the expulsion of the missionaries from Kent may have been a reaction to Kentish overlordship after Æthelberht 's death as much as a pagan opposition to Christianity .
In addition to Eadbald , it is possible that Æthelberht had another son , Æthelwald . The evidence for this is a papal letter to Justus , archbishop of Canterbury from 619 to 625 , that refers to a king named Aduluald , who is apparently different from Audubald , which refers to Eadbald . There is no agreement among modern scholars on how to interpret this : " Aduluald " might be intended as a representation of " Æthelwald " , and hence an indication of another king , perhaps a sub @-@ king of west Kent ; or it may be merely a scribal error which should be read as referring to Eadbald .
= = Liturgical celebration = =
Æthelberht was later regarded as a saint for his role in establishing Christianity among the Anglo @-@ Saxons . His feast day was originally 24 February but was changed to 25 February . In the 2004 edition of the Roman Martyrology , he is listed under his date of death , 24 February , with the citation : ' King of Kent , converted by St Augustine , bishop , the first leader of the English people to do so ' . The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Southwark , which contains Kent , commemorates him on 25 February . He is honoured together with his wife Bertha on the liturgical calendar of The Episcopal Church on 27 May .
= SM UB @-@ 45 =
SM UB @-@ 45 was a Type UB II submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. UB @-@ 45 operated in the Mediterranean and the Black Seas , and was sunk by a mine in November 1916 .
UB @-@ 45 was ordered in July 1915 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in September . UB @-@ 45 was about 37 metres ( 121 ft 5 in ) in length and displaced between 270 and 305 tonnes ( 266 and 300 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She was equipped to carry a complement of four torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and had an 5 @-@ centimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun . As part of a group of six submarines selected for Mediterranean service , UB @-@ 45 was broken into railcar @-@ sized components and shipped to Pola where she was assembled and then launched and commissioned in May 1916 .
In five patrols in her six @-@ month career , UB @-@ 45 sank four ships of 15 @,@ 361 gross register tons ( GRT ) . In early November 1916 , UB @-@ 45 was departing from the base at Varna , Bulgaria , when the U @-@ boat struck a mine and sank rapidly . Fifteen of the twenty men on board were killed in the attack ; one of the five crewmen rescued from UB @-@ 45 later died from his injuries . UB @-@ 45 's wreck was located and raised by the Bulgarian Navy in the 1930s with an eye toward rebuilding the submarine . Engineers from AG Weser determined that restoration of the submarine was feasible , but this was never accomplished . Remains recovered from the wreck were buried in Varna after a funeral procession through town in November 1938 .
= = Design and construction = =
The German UB II design improved upon the design of the UB I boats , which had been ordered in September 1914 . In service , the UB I boats were found to be too small and too slow . A major problem was that , because they had a single propeller shaft / engine combo , if either component failed , the U @-@ boat became almost totally disabled . To rectify this flaw , the UB II boats featured twin propeller shafts and twin engines ( one shaft for each engine ) , which also increased the U @-@ boat 's top speed . The new design also included more powerful batteries , larger torpedo tubes , and a deck gun . As a UB II boat , U @-@ 45 could also carry twice the torpedo load of her UB I counterparts , and nearly ten times as much fuel . To contain all of these changes the hull was larger , and the surface and submerged displacement was more than double that of the UB I boats .
The German Imperial Navy ordered UB @-@ 45 from AG Weser on 31 July 1915 as one of a series of six UB II boats ( numbered from UB @-@ 42 to UB @-@ 47 ) . UB @-@ 45 was 36 @.@ 90 metres ( 121 ft 1 in ) long and 4 @.@ 37 metres ( 14 ft 4 in ) abeam . She had a single hull with saddle tanks and had a draught of 3 @.@ 68 metres ( 12 ft 1 in ) when surfaced . She displaced 305 tonnes ( 300 long tons ) while submerged but only 272 tonnes ( 268 long tons ) on the surface .
The submarine was equipped with twin Daimler diesel engines and twin Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motors — for surfaced and submerged running , respectively . UB @-@ 45 had a surface speed of up to 8 @.@ 82 knots ( 16 @.@ 33 km / h ; 10 @.@ 15 mph ) and could go as fast as 6 @.@ 22 knots ( 11 @.@ 52 km / h ; 7 @.@ 16 mph ) while underwater . The U @-@ boat could carry up to 27 tonnes ( 27 long tons ) of diesel fuel , giving her a range of 6 @,@ 940 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 850 km ; 7 @,@ 990 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) . Her electric motors and batteries provided a range of 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) while submerged . UB @-@ 45 was equipped with two 50 @-@ centimeter ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry four torpedoes . The U @-@ boat was also armed with one 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) Uk L / 30 deck gun .
UB @-@ 45 was laid down by AG Weser at its Bremen shipyard on 3 September 1915 . As one of six U @-@ boats selected for service in the Mediterranean while under construction , UB @-@ 45 was broken into railcar @-@ sized components and shipped overland to the Austro @-@ Hungarian port of Pola . Shipyard workers from Weser assembled the boat and her five sisters at Pola , where she was launched on 12 May 1916 .
= = Service career = =
SM UB @-@ 45 was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy on 26 May 1916 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Karl Palis . UB @-@ 45 , Palis ' second U @-@ boat command , was assigned to the Navy 's Pola Flotilla ( German : Deutsche U @-@ Halbflotille Pola ) . Although the flotilla was based in Pola , the site of the main Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy base , boats of the flotilla operated out of the Austro @-@ Hungarian base at Cattaro which was located farther south and closer to the Mediterranean . German U @-@ boats typically returned to Pola only for repairs .
In mid @-@ July , UB @-@ 45 's first success occurred when in three days she sank two steamers . The first , Virginia , was sunk on the 16th while carrying salt destined for Calcutta . Two men on board the 4 @,@ 279 @-@ ton British ship were lost when she went down 42 nautical miles ( 78 km ; 48 mi ) off Cape Matapan . Two days later , the French ship Ville de Rouen was sunk 120 nautical miles ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) southwest of Cape Matapan . The 4 @,@ 721 @-@ ton Ville de Rouen would be UB @-@ 45 's largest victim .
Germany 's conquest of Romania provided the German Imperial Navy with sufficient fuel oil for submarines to operate in the Black Sea . UB @-@ 45 and three of her sister ships in the Pola Flotilla were ordered to Constantinople and , en route , had to navigate through the Dardanelles , which had been heavily mined by the Allies in the middle of 1916 . UB @-@ 45 joined the Constantinople Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote der Mittelmeerdivision in Konstantinopal ) on 12 August .
The German submarines in the Black Sea accomplished little , sinking only six ships between August and the end of the year ; UB @-@ 45 accounted for two of these while in the Black Sea . On 31 August , UB @-@ 45 sank the 2 @,@ 660 @-@ ton Italian steamer Tevere off Poti . Tevere had been requisitioned by the Imperial Russian Navy and was in use as a transport ship at the time . Two days later , the U @-@ boat torpedoed the 3 @,@ 701 @-@ ton Gioconda , another Russian transport , 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) off Trebizond . Gioconda was the last ship sunk by UB @-@ 45 .
At 14 : 30 on 6 November , UB @-@ 45 was departing Varna , Bulgaria , under escort by the Bulgarian torpedo boat Strogi that had cleared a path through Russian mines . At what was thought to be the edge of the minefield , UB @-@ 45 swung around Strogi 's port side directly into a second minefield that had been laid by Russian forces the night before . A Hertz horn mine exploded between UB @-@ 45 's control room and engine room with enough force to break the boat in half . UB @-@ 45 sank so rapidly that the only survivors were three men on the conning tower and two on deck , all of whom were injured ; the other fifteen men on board perished in the attack . One of the survivors died from the severity of his wounds the following day .
In 1932 , the Bulgarian Navy conceived a plan to search for the wreck of UB @-@ 45 with the intent of raising it for restoration as a training vessel , or , at the very least , to recover the sunken U @-@ boat 's 8 @.@ 8 @-@ centimeter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) deck gun . An additional consideration was the recovery of the remains of UB @-@ 45 's crew . On 19 July 1934 , after a two @-@ year search , Bulgarian minesweepers discovered the location of the wreck , which was resting at position 43 ° 12 ′ N 28 ° 09 ′ E , near the then Bulgarian – Romanian border . UB @-@ 45 's wreck was raised in an operation that cost several times less than the cost of a new 8 @.@ 8 @-@ centimeter gun . The remains recovered were buried on 26 February 1936 in a Varna cemetery , after a procession through the town .
Engineers from AG Weser , UB @-@ 45 's German builder , inspected the hulk and determined that repair of the wreck was feasible . A restoration of the submarine to operating condition , as either a training vessel or a military , would cost 21 million leva ( about US $ 250 @,@ 000 in 1936 dollars ) , significantly less than the 56 to 65 million leva ( $ 680 @,@ 000 to $ 790 @,@ 000 ) that a comparable new submarine would cost . Ultimately , the Bulgarian Navy opted to order new submarines from Germany rather than repair UB @-@ 45 . UB @-@ 45 's deck gun was reused , however , and one of the U @-@ boat 's diesel engines was restored to operating condition and used on the training ship Assen .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
= Paige ( wrestler ) =
Saraya @-@ Jade Bevis ( born 17 August 1992 ) is an English professional wrestler and actress currently signed to WWE under the ring name Paige , performing on the Raw brand . She is a two @-@ time Divas Champion and was the inaugural NXT Women 's Champion in WWE 's developmental branch , NXT . She is the only person to have held both championships concurrently , and as of July 2016 , her 308 @-@ day reign as the NXT Women 's Champion is the longest in the title 's history .
In 2005 , at the age of 13 , Bevis made her debut in the World Association of Wrestling , a promotion run by her family , under the ring name Britani Knight . She went on to hold several championships on independent circuits within Europe . In 2011 , she signed a contract with WWE and started wrestling within its developmental systems , eventually debuting on WWE 's main roster in April 2014 . In her debut match on the main roster , she won the Divas Championship , becoming the youngest champion in the title 's history at the age of 21 .
= = Early life = =
Bevis was born and raised in Norwich , Norfolk , the daughter of professional wrestlers Ian Bevis and Julia Hamer @-@ Bevis , who once unknowingly wrestled while she was seven months pregnant with Bevis . As a child , Bevis was scared of wrestling because of the injuries her family received and the concept that her parents fought other people for a living . She also intended to become a zoologist . When she was around 10 or 11 years old , her father started running a wrestling training school every month . She took this opportunity to occasionally enter the wrestling ring , where her brothers taught her about wrestling . She did this until she was 13 , when she officially made her debut as a wrestler . At the age of 15 , Bevis worked as a bouncer and bartender at her parents ' bar while they were away . She attended The Hewett School in Norwich , graduating in 2008 .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = European independent circuit ( 2005 – 2011 ) = = =
Bevis made her debut in 2005 , at the age of 13 , when her father , who was running the show , asked her to replace a wrestler who failed to turn up . Her earliest recorded match was in April 2006 when she , using the ring name Britani Knight , teamed with her mother for a loss in a triple threat tag team match in World Association of Wrestling ( WAW ) . Knight then allied with Melodi to form a tag team called the Norfolk Dolls ( based on the movie The California Dolls ) and they wrestled in multiple English promotions . The Norfolk Dolls won the new World Association of Women 's Wrestling ( WAWW ) Tag Team Title in June 2007 by defeating the Legion of Womb , but it became inactive due to no title defenses by the Norfolk Dolls .
At the age of 14 , Knight sent résumés to numerous wrestling promotions around Europe and earned a chance to wrestle in countries like Scotland , Wales , Belgium , France , Turkey , Denmark , Norway , and Germany , as well as the United States , managing to travel by herself at 14 . She began to compete for singles championships without much initial success . In Scotland , Knight competed for the World Wide Wrestling League ( W3L ) Women 's Title , but lost to Sara in the tournament finals in September 2007 . In December 2007 , Knight took part in a tournament where the winner would become the first WAWW British Champion , but lost in the finals to Jetta . In 2008 , Knight challenged both Sara and Jetta for their respective titles , but failed in her title bids .
Knight went on to achieve more singles success from 2009 . In August 2009 , Knight defeated her mother Sweet Saraya in a two out of three falls match to capture the vacant Herts and Essex ( HEW ) Women 's Championship . Later that month , Knight once again defeated Saraya to capture the WAWW British Title . In November 2009 , Knight captured the Real Deal Wrestling ( RDW ) Women 's Title from her mother in an elimination match also featuring Chelsey Love and Stacey Baybie . In December 2009 , while in HEW , Knight won the RQW Women 's Championship by defeating Jetta in a champion vs. champion match with her HEW Women 's Title on the line . In May 2010 , Knight and her mother challenged Amazon and Ananya for the PWF Ladies Tag Team Championship , which they won . On 17 July 2010 , Knight lost the HEW Women 's Championship to her mother .
On 22 January 2011 , Knight captured the German Stampede Wrestling Ladies ' Title from Blue Nikita . Knight also competed at debut show of Turkish Power Wrestling in Ankara in January 2011 , with a losing effort against Shanna for the inaugural TPW Ladies Crown . On 11 March , she recaptured the HEW Women 's Championship from her mother . Knight returned to Pro Wrestling : EVE on 8 April to participate in a two @-@ night tournament to crown the first ever Pro @-@ Wrestling : EVE Champion . In the first night , Knight lost a four @-@ way match to Jenny Sjödin , won a Last Chance battle royal , then defeated Sjödin in the quarter @-@ final match . The next day , she defeated Jetta in the semi @-@ final match , and later in the finals defeated Nikki Storm to win the Pro Wrestling : EVE Championship . On 30 April , Knight won the SCW Ladies Title by defeating champion Amy Cooper . Also in 2011 , Knight won an elimination match to become WAWW Hardcore Champion .
On 4 June , Knight lost her Pro @-@ Wrestling : EVE Championship to Jenny Sjödin , and on 26 June , Knight lost her SCW Ladies Title to her mother during a four @-@ way match also involving Amy Cooper and Laura Wellings . On 2 August , Knight and her mother lost their PWF Ladies Tag Team Championship to Amazon and Destiny in a two out of three falls match . On 12 November , Knight vacated the HEW Women 's Championship . Knight also lost the WAWW British Championship to Liberty on 19 November 2011 , while also vacating the RQW Women 's Championship on that day .
= = = Shimmer Women Athletes ( 2011 ) = = =
Bevis , again billed as Britani Knight , debuted for the American all @-@ female promotion Shimmer Women Athletes on 26 March 2011 at the tapings of Volume 37 in Berwyn , Illinois . Teaming with her mother Saraya Knight , as the Knight Dynasty , they were managed by Rebecca Knox and defeated Nikki Roxx and Ariel via disqualification after the other team used the Dynasty 's brass knuckles . This led to the Knight Dynasty receiving Shimmer Tag Team Championship match against the Seven Star Sisters ( Hiroyo Matsumoto and Misaki Ohata ) at Volume 38 , which the Knight Dynasty lost .
In October 2011 at Volume 42 , the Knight Dynasty lost another Shimmer Tag Team Championship match against champions Ayako Hamada and Ayumi Kurihara when Saraya refused to help Britani . Saraya then scolded Britani after the match . At Volume 43 , Britani lost to Jessie McKay , which was her third consecutive loss . This led to Saraya disowning ( in storyline ) and slapping Britani , before a brawl between the two ensued and had to be pulled apart . Britani subsequently challenged Saraya to a match , at Volume 44 , where Britani defeated Saraya under no disqualification rules , in what was her final Shimmer match .
= = = WWE = = =
= = = = Florida Championship Wrestling ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = = =
Bevis was first informed that there would be try @-@ outs for WWE when a talent scout came to a show in England . She was unsuccessful in her first try in November 2010 , but succeeded in April 2011 . In September 2011 , Bevis signed a contract with WWE and was assigned to its then @-@ developmental territory , Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) . She made her debut for FCW at a house show on 5 January 2012 , using the ring name Saraya . Her ring name was then changed to Paige , as she made her televised debut in an appearance on the 26 February episode of FCW TV . From March 2012 , Paige formed an alliance with Sofia Cortez , dubbing themselves the " Anti @-@ Diva Army " . Paige made her televised in @-@ ring debut in a tag team match alongside Cortez on 19 March , where the duo lost to Audrey Marie and Kaitlyn . Paige and Cortez then formed a brief association with Rick Victor , winning a mixed tag team match against Audrey Marie and Aiden English . On 6 May , Paige pinned the FCW Divas Champion , Raquel Diaz in a non @-@ title triple threat match , which also involved Audrey Marie . This earned Paige a championship match against Diaz on the 27 May episode of FCW TV , where Diaz 's chicanery led to Paige being disqualified and Diaz retained her title . Dissension was teased within the Anti @-@ Diva Army as Paige moved on to feud with Audrey Marie . Paige lost to Marie on 11 June on FCW TV after Cortez interfered against her , signalling the end of the alliance . On the final episode of FCW TV on 15 July , Paige and Cortez ended their feud with Marie emerging victorious in a no disqualification match .
= = = = NXT ( 2012 – 2014 ) = = = =
WWE went on to rebrand its developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) , into WWE NXT . Paige 's NXT television debut took place on the third episode of the rebooted WWE NXT , taped at Full Sail University , in which she lost to Sofia Cortez . From September 2012 , after gaining a large surge in crowd support Paige went on a winning streak defeating the likes of Audrey Marie , Sasha Banks , Emma , Aksana , and multiple victories over Alicia Fox .
On 30 January 2013 , Paige was assaulted by ring announcer Summer Rae , due to Rae 's jealousy of Paige 's popularity and success . On the 13 February episode of NXT , Paige suffered a shoulder injury after brawling with Rae , which Rae exploited later that episode to end Paige 's undefeated streak . After Paige continued to confront Rae , Paige defeated Rae in a singles match , despite Rae 's pre @-@ match attack , on the 1 May episode of NXT . In June , Paige entered a tournament to determine the first NXT Women 's Champion . She defeated Tamina Snuka and Alicia Fox en route to the final , in which she defeated Emma to become the inaugural champion .
Paige made her first successful title defense on the 14 August episode of NXT , defeating Summer Rae . In the following months , Paige teamed up with Emma to feud with Summer Rae and Sasha Banks . Paige successfully defended her title against Natalya on 4 December , on NXT , and on 27 February 2014 , at NXT Arrival against Emma . On 24 April , Paige was forced to vacate her NXT Women 's Championship , ending her reign at 308 days , due to being elevated to the main roster and winning the WWE Divas Championship .
= = = = Divas Champion ( 2014 ) = = = =
Paige made her unannounced debut on the main roster on the 7 April 2014 episode of Raw the night after WrestleMania XXX , congratulating WWE Divas Champion AJ Lee on her successful title defense at the pay @-@ per @-@ view event . AJ slapped Paige , challenging her to an impromptu match for the championship , which Paige quickly won , making her the youngest WWE Divas Champion in history at the age of 21 , the first Diva to win the title in her debut match and the only woman to hold both WWE Divas and NXT Women 's Championships . Paige had her first successful title defense on 28 April episode of Raw in an impromptu match against Brie Bella , which went to a no contest due to Kane attacking Brie , as Paige escaped . In her first successful title defense on pay – per – view , Paige defeated Tamina Snuka on 4 May at Extreme Rules .
She suffered her first defeat on the main roster on the 19 May episode of Raw against Alicia Fox in a non – title match which led to a title match between the two at Payback , where Paige prevailed . In June , Paige started a feud with Cameron and defeated her in two non – title matches . However , Cameron 's tag team partner , Naomi , went on to defeat Paige in a non – title match and was granted a title match Money in the Bank , which Paige won . During this time , WWE was criticized for failing to develop Paige 's character despite being able to do so for Paige 's opponents and for portraying Paige as a vulnerable champion while she was proving herself in the storyline .
On the post – Money in the Bank episode of Raw , on 30 June , a role reversal occurred , when a returning AJ Lee quickly defeated Paige in a title match to regain the Divas Championship , in which Paige was initially reluctant to face AJ but agreed to the match per request of the live audience . Despite the championship loss , Paige acted as if she were best friends with AJ during tag matches in which they teamed together . At Battleground , Paige lost a rematch for the Divas Championship to AJ . On the post – Battleground episode of Raw on 21 July , after Paige and AJ won a tag match against Natalya and Emma , Paige turned heel after viciously assaulting Lee . This eventually set up another title match between the two , on 17 August , Paige 's 22nd birthday , at SummerSlam , which Paige won to capture her second Divas Championship . A month later at Night of Champions , Paige lost the title back to Lee in a triple – threat match which also involved Nikki Bella . Paige then formed an alliance with Alicia Fox while still feuding against AJ but after Fox failed to secure Paige a victory in another title match against AJ at Hell in a Cell , Paige dissolved their alliance by attacking Fox the following night on Raw . At Survivor Series , Paige participated in a 4 @-@ on @-@ 4 elimination tag team match where she was the last person from her team to be eliminated , courtesy of Naomi .
= = = = The Divas Revolution ( 2015 – 2016 ) = = = =
On the 5 January 2015 episode of Raw , Paige became a fan favorite again as she rescued Natalya from a post – match assault by WWE Divas Champion Nikki Bella which led to a non – title match between the two , the following night on Main Event , which Paige won . This led to a tag team match between Paige and Natalya against The Bella Twins at the Royal Rumble , which The Bella Twins won . Following weeks of being tormented by The Bella Twins , Paige unsuccessfully challenged Nikki for the Divas Championship at Fastlane and on the 2 March episode of Raw , after which , the returning AJ Lee saved Paige from a post – match attack by The Bellas . This led to a tag team match , at Wrestlemania 31 , between Paige and AJ against The Bella Twins , which AJ and Paige won in Paige 's Wrestlemania début . On the 13 April episode of Raw , Paige won a battle royal to become the number one contender to Nikki Bella 's Divas Championship and was attacked after the match by Naomi , who injured her in the storyline and made her unable to compete . Paige returned on the 18 May episode of Raw , after a one @-@ month absence , saving Nikki Bella from an attack by Naomi and Tamina Snuka , before attacking Bella as well . This prompted a triple – threat match between Paige , Naomi and Nikki at Elimination Chamber , which Paige lost . In June , Paige went on to unsuccessfully challenge Nikki for the championship in two singles matches on Raw and Money in the Bank , after Nikki and Brie switched places and in a triple – threat match , on 4 July at The Beast in the East , which also involved Tamina .
On the 13 July episode of Raw , after weeks of being outnumbered by The Bella Twins and their ally Alicia Fox , Stephanie McMahon called for a " revolution " in the Divas division , introducing the débuting Charlotte and Becky Lynch as Paige 's allies and NXT Women 's Champion Sasha Banks as an ally of Naomi and Tamina , which led to a brawl between the three teams . The trio of Paige , Charlotte and Lynch , originally dubbed as " Submission Sorority " , was renamed to " Team PCB " , after the first – name initials of each wrestler . The three teams would ultimately face off at SummerSlam in a three team elimination match , which PCB won , after Becky Lynch pinned Brie Bella . On the 31 August episode of Raw , all members of PCB competed in the first ever " Divas beat the clock challenge " , however , Charlotte was named number one contender for the WWE Divas Championship , as Paige fought Sasha Banks to a time limit draw . This led to two matches between Paige and Banks on the 7 and 14 September episodes of Raw , which Banks won , and on the 10 September episode of SmackDown , where the two fought to a no – contest .
Charlotte won the Divas Championship from Nikki Bella on 20 September at Night of Champions , and during her celebration the following night on Raw , Paige turned on her partners and cut a worked shoot promo , where she claimed Charlotte was only there because of her father and berated other members of the Divas Division , including Lynch and Natalya , showing signs of a heel turn . This also led to Paige having multiple confrontations with Natalya . Throughout October , Paige , working as a tweener , acted as if she wanted to reconcil with Lynch and Charlotte , only to attack them and solidify her heel turn . In November , Paige became the new number one contender for Charlotte 's Divas Championship , after winning a fatal four – way match , but was unsuccessful in regaining the title , on three different occasions : at Survivor Series , when she lost by submission , the following night on Raw , in a rematch , which ended in a double count – out , and at TLC , when she once again lost .
= = = = Various feuds ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
Paige took some time off television after her rivalry with Charlotte due to injury , and returned on the 18 January 2016 episode of Raw , once again as a fan favorite , accompanying her former rival Natalya to her match against Brie Bella . Upon her return , Paige started competing in various singles and tag team matches , ending on both winning and losing sides . Paige then aligned herself with fellow Total Divas cast members Brie Bella , Natalya , Alicia Fox and Eva Marie , facing Lana , Naomi , Tamina , Summer Rae and Emma in a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match on the WrestleMania 32 kick @-@ off show , which Team Total Divas would win . After defeating WWE Women 's Champion Charlotte on two occasions , Paige was granted a title match on the 20 June episode of Raw , where she failed to capture the title , and would be attacked by Charlotte and her accomplice Dana Brooke post @-@ match , before being saved by Sasha Banks , this led to a tag team match the following week on the June 27 episode of Raw , where Paige and Banks scored the victory . On 19 July , at the 2016 WWE Draft , Paige was drafted to Raw .
= = Other media = =
In July 2012 , Channel 4 produced a documentary about Bevis and her family titled The Wrestlers : Fighting with My Family .
Paige made her video game debut as a downloadable character in WWE 2K15 , and is featured as a playable character in WWE 2K16 .
In October 2014 , Paige joined the cast of Total Divas , a reality television show produced by WWE and E ! , for the second part of the show 's third season , which began airing in 2015 . Paige guest starred on the 14 January 2016 episode of the MTV series Ridiculousness . She appeared alongside Natalya , Brie Bella , and the Chrisley family on the 88th Academy Awards edition of E ! Countdown to the Red Carpet on February 28 .
In March 2015 , Paige was featured in Smosh 's 131st installment of Game Bang , along with Xavier Woods , Seth Rollins , and Daniel Bryan . Paige frequently appears at Wizard World comic con events across the United States , hosting fan signings , photo ops , and Q & A sessions . In June 2015 , Paige became one of the judges on the sixth season of Tough Enough . Before the show started , Paige predicted that she would fulfill a role similar to Simon Cowell as a judge . On 3 August 2015 , Paige was a guest on Stone Cold Steve Austin 's Stone Cold Podcast , which aired on the WWE Network . She was a guest on Conan on 22 October .
Paige starred in her first WWE Studios film titled Santa 's Little Helper , alongside The Miz , AnnaLynne McCord , and WWE Superstar Maryse , which was released in November 2015 . She will provide a voice role in the WWE Studios and Sony Pictures Animation film Surf 's Up 2 : WaveMania , which is due for release in 2017 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Business ventures = =
In September 2015 , Bevis co @-@ launched a coffee company called The Dark Gypsy with Blackcraft Cult clothing company owners Bobby Schubenski and Jim Somers .
= = Personal life = =
Bevis is part of a professional wrestling family . Her parents , Julia Hamer @-@ Bevis and Ian Bevis , and her older brothers , Roy Bevis and Zak Frary , are professional wrestlers . The family runs the World Association of Wrestling ( WAW ) promotion in Norwich . Her mother owns and operates Bellatrix Female Warriors , a women 's wrestling promotion also based in Norwich . For a time , WWE Hall of Famer Jake " The Snake " Roberts lived with the family . Bevis cites Bull Nakano , Alundra Blayze , Lita , Rikishi and Stone Cold Steve Austin as some of her favorite wrestlers .
Bevis suffers from scoliosis . She was unaware that she had the condition until after signing with WWE , when a trainer noticed that her back looked wrong .
On the WWE reality television show Total Divas , Paige acknowledged having previously " been with " another woman . Total Divas also featured Paige having a relationship with Emarosa singer Bradley Walden . She dated A Day to Remember guitarist Kevin Skaff from May 2015 until February 2016 . In May 2016 , it was reported that Paige was dating fellow WWE wrestler Alberto Del Rio .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Black Widow ( Octopus hold ) – 2014 ; parodied from AJ Lee
Knight Light ( Independent circuit ) / Ram @-@ Paige ( WWE ) ( Cradle DDT )
Paige @-@ Turner ( Swinging leg hook fireman 's carry slam ) – 2012 – 14 , used rarely thereafter
PTO – Paige Tap Out ( Inverted sharpshooter with double chickenwing ) – adopted from Bull Nakano
Ram @-@ Paige ( Cloverleaf while kneeling on the opponent 's back – 2012 – 13
Signature moves
Fallaway slam
Fisherman suplex
Hair @-@ pull toss
High knee , to a cornered or kneeling opponent
Knight Rider ( Leg trap sunset flip powerbomb ) ( independent circuit )
Modified cross @-@ legged STF
Multiple back elbows to a cornered opponent
Multiple headbutts
Multiple knee lifts , to an opponent leaning through the ropes , with theatrics
Multiple short @-@ arm clotheslines
Multiple stomps , to the chest of an opponent seated in the corner
Rope hung Boston crab ( independent circuit )
Running single leg dropkick
Samoan drop
Somersault senton , from the ring apron
Stan Lane ( independent circuit ) / Side kick ( WWE )
Managers
Rebecca Knox
Wrestlers managed
Rick Victor
Nicknames
" The Anti @-@ Diva "
" The Diva of Tomorrow "
Entrance themes
" Faint " by Linkin Park ( Shimmer )
" Smashed in the Face " by George Gabriel ( FCW / NXT ; 19 March 2012 – 26 February 2014 )
" Stars in the Night " by CFO $ ( NXT / WWE ; 27 February 2014 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
German Stampede Wrestling
GSW Ladies Championship ( 1 time )
Herts & Essex Wrestling
HEW Women 's Championship ( 2 times )
Premier Wrestling Federation
PWF Ladies Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Sweet Saraya
Pro @-@ Wrestling : EVE
Pro @-@ Wrestling : EVE Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her No. 1 of the top 50 female wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2014
Real Deal Wrestling
RDW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Real Quality Wrestling
RQW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Rolling Stone
Diva of the Year ( 2014 )
Swiss Championship Wrestling
SCW Ladies Championship ( 1 time )
World Association of Women 's Wrestling
WAWW British Ladies Championship ( 1 time )
WAWW British Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Melodi
WAWW Ladies Hardcore Championship ( 1 time )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2015 ) Team PCB vs. Team B.A.D. vs. Team Bella
WWE NXT
NXT Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
NXT Women 's Championship Tournament ( 2013 )
WWE
WWE Divas Championship ( 2 times )
= Royal Grammar School , Guildford =
The Royal Grammar School , Guildford ( originally " The Free School " ) , commonly known as the RGS , is a selective English independent day school for boys in Guildford , Surrey . The school dates its founding to the death of Robert Beckingham in 1509 who left provision in his will to ' make a free scole at the Towne of Guldford ' ; in 1512 a governing body was set up to form the school . The school moved to the present site in the upper High Street after the granting of a royal charter from King Edward VI in 1552 . The school 's Old Building , constructed between 1557 and 1586 , is the home of a rare example of a chained library . It was established on the death of John Parkhurst , Bishop of Norwich , in 1575 . Although defined as a " free " school , the first statutes of governance , approved in 1608 , saw the introduction of school fees , at the rate of 4 shillings per annum , along with the school 's first admissions test . During the late 19th century the school ran into financial difficulty , which nearly resulted in the closure of the school . A number of rescue options were explored , including amalgamation with Archbishop Abbott 's School . Funds were eventually raised , however , which allowed the school to remain open , although boarding was no longer offered .
Fee paying continued until the school adopted voluntary controlled status under the Education Act 1944 ; thereafter tuition was free and the common entrance examination at 11 was introduced . Soon after , in 1958 , the school expanded with the construction of the New Building in the grounds of Allen House , a building used for a number of years as a boarding house and later as classrooms . Allen House was later demolished in 1964 just after the completion of the New Building . During December 1962 the historic Old Building caught fire , damaging a large part of it , including the two oldest rooms in the school . The damage was so great the reconstruction took over two years . The school became independent and fee paying in 1977 , when the parents and staff raised sufficient funds to purchase the school following concerns about the abolition of grammar school status with the introduction of comprehensive education .
The school initially educated 30 of the " poorest men 's sons " , though has since grown to have approximately 900 students , about 300 of whom are in the sixth form . The majority of pupils , approximately two thirds , enter at age 11 in the first form , a few ( 3 @-@ 5 pupils ) enter in the second form at the age of 12 , with the remainder entering at 13 in the third form . Admissions are based on an entrance examination set by the school , and an interview . The school performs well academically , and as such is placed high on published league tables . A number of students achieve places at either Oxford or Cambridge universities . The school partakes in a number of sporting activities , and has enjoyed some success , including finishing within the top two in the Daily Mail Cup twice . The school maintains a grammar school ethos , and as such runs a number of outreach programmes for students from local maintained schools , for which it won the Independent School Award 2010 for Outstanding Community / Public Benefit Initiative . The Headmaster is a member of the Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference .
= = History = =
The founding of the school dates to 1509 and the death of Robert Beckingham , a wealthy grocer , a member of the Worshipful Company of Grocers and a Freeman of the City of London . In his will he requested that the parishioners of St Olave 's Church , Southwark , should obtain a licence to endow a chantry priest to say masses for his soul . If they failed to do this within two years of his death , his executors had discretion either to use the property to ' make a free scole at the Towne of Guldford ' or to put the income to some other good charitable use . The licence was not obtained within the required time , and so in 1512 , Beckingham 's executors formally conveyed the lands in the bequest to a body of trustees consisting of the Mayor of Guildford and four ' sad and discrete men ' who had formerly been mayors . With the rents , they were to provide a free grammar school in Guildford with a ' sufficient schoolmaster ' , to teach thirty " of the poorest @-@ men 's sons " to read and write English and cast accounts perfectly , so that they would be fit to become apprentices . The school was built in 1520 in Castle Ditch ( now Castle Street ) with financial assistance from Guildford municipal corporation .
Over the coming years the school ran into financial difficulty and so " The Mayor and Approved Men " of Guildford petitioned Edward VI to grant them further endowments for maintenance . One of the King 's closest advisers , William Parr , had a particular affection for the town , having himself spent a large amount of time at the King 's manor house in Guildford , and it was he who advised the King to re @-@ appropriate some of the funds arising from the Abolition of the Chantries Acts to the school . Thus in January 1552 Edward VI ordered that there was to be " one Grammar School in Guildford called the Free Grammar School of King Edward VI for the education , institution and instruction of boys and youths in Grammar at all future times forever to endure " , along with a grant of 20 pounds per year ; the school acquired therewith the right to style itself a Royal Grammar School . The high street site was purchased in 1555 with the construction of the Grade I listed Tudor Old Building starting in 1557 . Construction was completed in 1586 .
The death of John Parkhurst , the Bishop of Norwich , in 1575 resulted in the founding of the school 's chained library . In his will he gave " the most parte of all my Latten bookes whereof shall be made a catalogue as shortelie as I may God sendinge me lief " , although obtaining these books was not without its difficulties . Initially the executors of his will used " all the cullerable shifts and practices " to prevent the books from moving to the school . These continued to such an extent that the mayor was forced to complain to the Lord High Treasurer , William Cecil , who summoned the executors to London . Upon a hearing with the executors , the Lord Treasurer referred them to Sir Walter Mildmay who was Chancellor of the Exchequer at the time . He demanded that the executors give everything left in the Will to the school . Following the ruling , however , the books passed to Edmund Freke , the new Bishop of Norwich , who kept them for himself at his residence . This continued until the school obtained letters from Her Majesty 's Privy Council requiring the books be delivered . The books then finally arrived at the school several years late , although the Bishop kept a number of the best for himself . Since this date the library has been added to , most notably between 1600 and 1800 . The library is housed within the Gallery ( now the Headmaster 's Study ) in the Old Building , with the present bookcases dating from 1897 . The oldest book within the library was printed in Venice around 1480 , with the oldest English book printed in about 1500 bearing the imprint of Wynkyn de Worde . Today the library is one of the few remaining examples of a chained library located within a school .
After the granting of the charter , it took 50 years before the first set of statutes to govern the school were completed . The Bishop of Winchester approved the statutes on 16 September 1608 , and they constituted a major change in the way the school was run . Until this point the boys were instructed in English and accounting , but following the statutes lessons were in the subjects of Latin and Greek ; with students required to speak in Latin unless licensed by the master to do otherwise . Admissions following the charter also changed , with " none to be admitted scholar into the said school before he be brought to the schoolmaster of that school , and upon his examination shall be found to have learned the rudiments of grammar , called the Accidence . " All scholars from the town of Guildford were required to pay the master 5 shillings on admission to the school , and for those from outside the town the charge was 10s . The number of pupils at the school was capped at 100 , although this number was rarely reached . The statues also saw the introduction of school fees . Although defined as a " free " school , fees were still charged at the rate of 4s. per annum , paid as 9d. per quarter for the provision of " rods and brooms " , with an additional shilling due on the feast of St. Michael , which was used to pay for " clean , wax candles " .
On the death of Joseph Nettles ( an old boy of the school ) in 1691 the school 's first university scholarship was founded . Nettles left eleven acres of land in his will to his daughter Elizabeth Brindley , then following her death to Sir Richard Onslow and his heirs , with the rents from the land to be paid to the school for the maintenance of a scholar at Oxford or Cambridge . The scholar was to be a son of a freeman of the town of Guildford who " should have read some Greek author " and " be well instructed and knowing in the Latin tongue " . His fitness in these fields was tested by the master of the school , and the rectors of the parishes of Stoke next Guildford and St. Nicholas in Guildford . If admitted to any college within the universities , he would then receive the rents from the lands for six years . At the end of six years , upon the scholar 's death , or his removal from the university ( whichever the sooner ) , another scholar was selected . If no scholar was deemed suitable and a vacancy arose , then the next scholar selected would receive the standard yearly rate , along with any rents acquired during the vacancy . The rents arising from the lands were roughly £ 23 per year . The scholarship ceased to be awarded at some point after 1951 .
In 1866 the then headmaster Revd Henry G Merriman ( headmaster 1859 – 75 ) purchased Allen House , a large house set in extensive grounds which stood opposite the school . The house took its name from Anthony Allen , Master of Chancery and Mayor of Guildford in 1740 . This was initially used as a boarding house for the school between 1866 – 74 before later being purchased by Surrey County Council in 1921 and was used by the school until its demolition in 1964 . The grounds surrounding the house were purchased in 1914 by HA Powell and donated to the school as playing fields .
During the mid to late 19th century the school fell into disrepair and decay . Guildford Municipal Charities established a committee to report into the general condition of the school and the buildings . The committee reported in 1881 that the school had no funds available for repairs and that there were only nine boys " instead of the former ordinary number of 100 " . Various suggestions were made by the Charity Commission to raise funds for the school , including a reorganisation with Archbishop Abbot 's School . The Committee for Maintaining Higher Education in Guildford was established in March 1887 to oppose the Charity Commission 's draft scheme to amalgamate the RGS , Nettle 's Charity and Archbishop Abbot 's School . The committee raised £ 2 @,@ 238 15s . 4d . ( approximately £ 108 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) towards the restoration of the RGS , ensuring its survival . A new Charity Commission scheme came into effect in November 1888 which resulted in the Old Building being restored , and the school 's continuation as a day only school . Several years later under the Education Act 1944 the school adopted voluntary controlled status ; tuition was therefore free and entrance was to be by common examination at the age of eleven .
The construction of the New Building started in 1958 in the grounds of Allen House and initially consisted of a gymnasium , assembly hall , dining hall and kitchens , caretaker 's flat , staff common rooms , junior library , cloakrooms and changing rooms , eight classrooms , science lecture theatre , five science laboratories , geography and art rooms , and various offices , stores and smaller rooms arranged in a J shape . The construction of the initial building was finished in 1963 .
On the morning of Sunday 2 December 1962 , a fire broke out in the Old Building . It caused widespread damage to a large part of the structure , including the two oldest rooms in the school , School Room and Big School . The main concern was to prevent the books contained within the chained library from being damaged , either by fire or water from the fire brigade 's hoses . The damage to the building was so great that rebuilding took over 2 years , with the unusually cold winter of 1962 – 1963 delaying the restoration . Lessons , however , continued throughout on the Allen House side of the high street .
The school became independent in 1977 when the parents and staff of the school , led by the Chairman of the Governors , John Fergrieve Brown , raised sufficient funds to purchase the school . The RGS then withdrew from the government maintained system , becoming independent and fee paying . This was followed in 1978 by the purchase of Lanesborough Preparatory School which became the junior school , preparing boys for entry to the RGS at either 11 or 13 .
More recently in 2003 construction finished on a new Sports Centre with Fitness Suite and All Weather Training Area with Shooting Range . Followed in 2006 with refurbishments to the Old Building site ; the old gymnasium was converted into a Sixth Form Centre and the Victorian science laboratories ( some of the earliest in the country ) converted into the Art School .
In 2009 / 2010 the school celebrated the quincentennial anniversary of the founding of the school by Robert Beckingham ; numerous events were organised , including a new musical work based loosely on the school hymn " To be a Pilgrim " . This year also saw a visit from Princess Anne , The Princess Royal .
RGS Guildford is due to open a campus in Doha , Qatar as part of Qatar 's Outstanding Schools Program . RGS Guildford in Qatar will open initially to boys and girls ages three to seven years old ( pre @-@ school to year 2 ) in September , with the rest of the primary school slated to open in 2017 . According to Bob Ukaih the school aims to open two separate single @-@ sex secondary schools - one for girls and one for boys - in Doha by September 2018 .
= = Academic = =
The school has a First Form ( Year 7 ) intake of four classes ; followed by another intake in the Third Form ( Year 9 ) of two classes , resulting in an average year size of 150 , and a sixth form of about 300 . The pupil teacher ratio is approximately 10 : 1 and is low by general school standards . Class sizes range from twenty to twenty @-@ five in the First Form through to GCSE , but are less than 16 by the final two years .
Pupils are required to take at least ten GCSE subjects during Fourth and Fifth forms , which must include Biology , Chemistry , Physics , Mathematics , English Literature , English Language , a Modern Foreign Language and a Humanity ( History , Religious Studies or Geography ) . In recent years the school has been offering the IGCSE in Maths , Biology , Chemistry , Physics , Modern Languages , History and Technology . Boys in the Sixth Form usually take four AS Levels and continue with three to A2 level .
It features highly in published A @-@ level and GCSE league tables for England and Wales . Pupils at the school are very successful at gaining places at both Oxford and Cambridge universities ; the school often features within the top 20 in the country with regards to number of places awarded . The school also sends pupils to other universities , including Durham , Imperial and UCL .
= = School life = =
= = = Terms = = =
As in most schools in the UK there are three terms in the academic year :
The Michaelmas Term from early September to mid @-@ December . This is the normal term for new boys to be admitted into the school
The Lent Term from early January to a time a week or two before Easter falls that year
The Trinity Term from mid @-@ late April to early July , during which time boys sit most public exams
= = = House system = = =
There are six houses at the RGS , named after various benefactors of the school :
Each pupil is assigned to one of the six houses upon joining the school , and a pupil 's house can be indicated to others by optional colour @-@ related clothing . If someone joins as the second in their direct family to do so , they are put in the same house as their relative . There are inter @-@ house competitions throughout the year ( including rugby , hockey , reading , and chess ) and then at the end of the year the points awarded in each event throughout the year are added up , and the house with most points is awarded the Cock House Cup , which is the traditional name given in British public schools for the in @-@ school competition cup .
The school 's official livery colour is green , picked as a house @-@ neutral colour .
= = = School uniform = = =
The school 's uniform up to the end of Fifth Form is a white shirt , dark or light grey trousers and a single @-@ breasted navy blue school blazer . A grey or dark blue , v @-@ neck pullover without sleeves may also be worn . For the lower and upper sixth , navy blue or grey suits are instead worn , and upper sixth formers are permitted to wear pastel shaded shirts . A woollen scarf in the school colours : green , red and white ; the sixth form scarf has longitudinal stripes . All years are required to wear one of the approved school ties . Various ties are awarded for sporting , artistic or social achievements , along with half and full colours awarded for services to the school and house colours awarded for services to the house ; Senior Prefect ties are awarded to those with the position . Recently there have also been commemorative ties celebrating 450 years since the granting of the Royal Charter , and 500 years since the founding of the school .
= = = Sport = = =
Sport is compulsory for all years during games periods and if selected for a team can require compulsory attendance on Saturdays . A once pupil at the school , John Derrick , is connected with the earliest mention of cricket in England when , in a 1598 court case about an ownership dispute over a plot of common land in Guildford , he gave witness that when he was a scholar at the " Free School at Guildford " , " hee and diverse of his fellows did runne and play [ on the common land ] at creckett and other plaies . "
In the Michaelmas term rugby union is the main sport , hockey is also played .
In the Lent term hockey is the main sport , rugby sevens is also played
In the Trinity term cricket is the main sport , athletics is an option .
The sports of badminton , cross country running , fencing , football , golf , judo , rowing , sailing , swimming and tennis are available , the list varies by year and term . Sixth form also have a " Spectrum " games option where boys are permitted to use any of the facilities at Guildford Spectrum during the games period .
The sport of target rifle shooting is an option among those in the 3rd year and above , but only available to members of the CCF . In the first and second years , before the CCF is an option , there is an air rifle club , which teaches basics before moving onto " rifles . The shooting team have had a lot of success , not only winning both major smallbore competitions , the Staniforth and the Country Life , but also finishing an impressive second at fullbore
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They emit echolocation signals orally , and thus fly with their mouths open for navigation . They can identify a metal strip 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) wide at a distance of 50 centimetres ( 20 in ) , which is moderate compared to other bats .
= = Range and habitat = =
The common vampire bat is found in parts of Mexico , Central America , and South America . They can be found as far north as 280 kilometres ( 170 mi ) south of the Mexico – United States border . Fossils of this species have been found in Florida and states bordering Mexico . The common vampire is the most common bat species in southeastern Brazil . The southern extent of its range is Uruguay , northern Argentina , and central Chile . In the West Indies , the bat is only found on Trinidad . It prefers warm and humid climates , and uses tropical and subtropical woodlands and open grasslands for foraging . Bats roost in trees , caves , abandoned buildings , old wells , and mines . Vampire bats will roost with about 45 other bat species , and tend to be the most dominant at roosting sites . They occupy the darkest and highest places in the roosts ; when they leave , other bat species move in to take over these vacated spots .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Feeding = = =
The common vampire bat feeds primarily on mammalian blood , particularly that of livestock such as cattle and horses . Vampire bats feed on wild prey like the tapir , but seem to prefer domesticated animals , and favor horses over cattle when given the choice . Female animals , particularly those in estrus , are more often targeted than males . This could be because of the hormones .
Vampire bats hunt at night , using echolocation and olfaction to track down prey . They feed in a distance of 5 to 8 km ( 3 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from their roosts . When a bat selects a target , it lands on it , or jumps up onto it from the ground , usually targeting the rump , flank , or neck of its prey ; heat sensors in the nose help it to detect blood vessels near the surface of the skin . It pierces the animal 's skin with its teeth , biting away a small flap , and laps up the blood with its tongue , which has lateral grooves adapted to this purpose . The blood is kept from clotting by an anticoagulant in the saliva .
They are protective of their host and will fend off other bats while feeding . It is uncommon for two or more bats to feed on the same host , with the exception of mothers and their offspring .
= = = Mating and reproduction = = =
A male and several females compose a group sometimes called a harem . A dominant male mates preferentially with the females of the roost and sires more of the offspring than other males . Male vampire bats guard roosting sites that attract females , but females often switch roosts
During estrus , a female releases one egg . Mating usually lasts three to four minutes ; the male bat mounts the female from the posterior end , grasps her back with his teeth , holds down her folded wings , and inseminates her . Vampire bats are reproductively active year around , although the number of conceptions and births peak in the rainy season . Females give birth to one offspring per pregnancy , following a gestation period of about seven months . The young are raised primarily by the females . Mothers leave their young to hunt , and call their young to feed upon returning . The young accompany their mothers to hunt at six months , but are not fully weaned until nine months . Female offspring usually remain in their natal groups into adulthood , unless their mothers die or move . The occasional movements of unrelated females between groups leads to the formation of multiple matrilines within groups . Male offspring tend to live in their natal groups until they are one to two years old , sometimes being forced out by the resident adult males .
= = = Cooperation = = =
Regurgitated food sharing in common vampire bats ( Desmodus rotundus ) has been studied in both the lab and field , and is predicted by kinship , association , and reciprocal help In a field study conducted in Costa Rica from 1978 to 1983 , vampire bats frequently switched between several roost trees and co @-@ roosted with kin and non @-@ kin . Mean genetic kinship within roosting groups was low ( r = 0 @.@ 03 − 0 @.@ 11 ) , but 95 % of food sharing observed in the wild occurred between close kin ( first cousins or higher ) . Most observed food sharing ( 70 % ) was mothers feeding their pups . The non @-@ maternal sharing events were kin @-@ biased suggesting that vampire bats prefer to help relatives . However , non @-@ maternal food sharing is even better explained by frequency of interaction , even after controlling for kinship . Food sharing was only observed when co @-@ roosting association was greater than 60 % . Food sharing appears to require social bonds that require development over long periods of time . Among familiar bats , the amount of food given from bat A to bat B is best predicted by the amount of food given from bat B to A. Reciprocal sharing is most obvious over longer time spans as found in primate cooperation .
Vampire bats also participate in mutual grooming ; two bats groom each other simultaneously to clean one another , and to strengthen social bonds . Bats that groom one another also share food . It was suggested that while grooming , a bat might assess the size of its partner 's abdomen to determine if it really needs to eat .
= = Relationship with humans = =
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , most bats do not have rabies . For example , even among bats submitted for rabies testing because they could be captured , were obviously weak or sick , or had been captured by a cat , only about 6 % had rabies . However , of the few cases of rabies reported in the United States every year , most are caused by bat bites .
The highest occurrence of rabies in vampire bats occurs in the large populations found in South America . The danger is not so much to the human population , but rather to livestock . Dr. Joseph Lennox Pawan , a government bacteriologist in Trinidad , found the first infected vampire bat in March 1932 . He soon proved various species of bat , including the common vampire bat , are capable of transmitting rabies for an extended period of time without artificial infection or external symptoms . Fruit bats of the Artibeus genus were later shown to demonstrate the same abilities . During this asymptomatic stage , the bats continue to behave normally and breed . At first , Pawan 's finding that bats transmitted rabies to people and animals were thought fantastic and were ridiculed .
Although most bats do not have rabies , those that do may be clumsy , disoriented , and unable to fly , which makes them more likely to come into contact with humans . There is evidence that it is possible for the rabies virus to infect a host purely through airborne transmission , without direct physical contact of the victim with the bat . Although one should not have an unreasonable fear of bats , one should avoid handling them or having them in one 's living space , as with any wild animal . Medical attention should be given to any person who awakens to discover a vampire bat in their sleeping quarters . It is possible that young children may not fully awaken due to the presence of a bat ( or its bite ) .
The unique properties of the vampire bats ' saliva have found some positive use in medicine . A genetically engineered drug called desmoteplase , which uses the anticoagulant properties of the saliva of Desmodus rotundus , has been shown to increase blood flow in stroke patients .
= Augustine of Canterbury =
Augustine of Canterbury ( first third of the 6th century – probably 26 May 604 ) was a Benedictine monk who became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in the year 597 . He is considered the " Apostle to the English " and a founder of the English Church .
Augustine was the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead a mission , usually known as the Gregorian mission , to Britain to Christianize King Æthelberht and his Kingdom of Kent from Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism . Kent was probably chosen because Æthelberht had married a Christian princess , Bertha , daughter of Charibert I the King of Paris , who was expected to exert some influence over her husband . Before reaching Kent , the missionaries had considered turning back , but Gregory urged them on , and in 597 , Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to Æthelberht 's main town of Canterbury .
King Æthelberht converted to Christianity and allowed the missionaries to preach freely , giving them land to found a monastery outside the city walls . Augustine was consecrated as a bishop and converted many of the king 's subjects , including thousands during a mass baptism on Christmas Day in 597 . Pope Gregory sent more missionaries in 601 , along with encouraging letters and gifts for the churches , although attempts to persuade the native Celtic bishops to submit to Augustine 's authority failed . Roman bishops were established at London and Rochester in 604 , and a school was founded to train Anglo @-@ Saxon priests and missionaries . Augustine also arranged the consecration of his successor , Laurence of Canterbury . The archbishop probably died in 604 and was soon revered as a saint .
= = Background to the mission = =
After the withdrawal of the Roman legions from their province of Britannia in 410 , the inhabitants were left to defend themselves against the attacks of the Saxons . Before the Roman withdrawal , Britannia had been converted to Christianity and produced the ascetic Pelagius . Britain sent three bishops to the Council of Arles in 314 , and a Gaulish bishop went to the island in 396 to help settle disciplinary matters . Material remains testify to a growing presence of Christians , at least until around 360 . After the Roman legions departed , pagan tribes settled the southern parts of the island while western Britain , beyond the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms , remained Christian . This native British Church developed in isolation from Rome under the influence of missionaries from Ireland and was centred on monasteries instead of bishoprics . Other distinguishing characteristics were its calculation of the date of Easter and the style of the tonsure haircut that clerics wore . Evidence for the survival of Christianity in the eastern part of Britain during this time includes the survival of the cult of Saint Alban and the occurrence in place names of eccles , derived from the Latin ecclesia , meaning " church " . There is no evidence that these native Christians tried to convert the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The invasions destroyed most remnants of Roman civilisation in the areas held by the Saxons and related tribes , including the economic and religious structures .
It was against this background that Pope Gregory I decided to send a mission , often called the Gregorian mission , to convert the Anglo @-@ Saxons to Christianity in 595 . The Kingdom of Kent was ruled by Æthelberht , who married a Christian princess named Bertha before 588 , and perhaps earlier than 560 . Bertha was the daughter of Charibert I , one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks . As one of the conditions of her marriage , she brought a bishop named Liudhard with her to Kent . Together in Canterbury , they restored a church that dated to Roman times — possibly the current St Martin 's Church . Æthelberht was a pagan at this point but allowed his wife freedom of worship . One biographer of Bertha states that under his wife 's influence , Æthelberht asked Pope Gregory to send missionaries . The historian Ian Wood feels that the initiative came from the Kentish court as well as the queen . Other historians , however , believe that Gregory initiated the mission , although the exact reasons remain unclear . Bede , an 8th @-@ century monk who wrote a history of the English church , recorded a famous story in which Gregory saw fair @-@ haired Saxon slaves from Britain in the Roman slave market and was inspired to try to convert their people . More practical matters , such as the acquisition of new provinces acknowledging the primacy of the papacy , and a desire to influence the emerging power of the Kentish kingdom under Æthelberht , were probably involved . The mission may have been an outgrowth of the missionary efforts against the Lombards who , as pagans and Arian Christians , were not on good relations with the Catholic church in Rome .
Aside from Æthelberht 's granting of freedom of worship to his wife , the choice of Kent was probably dictated by a number of other factors . Kent was the dominant power in southeastern Britain . Since the eclipse of King Ceawlin of Wessex in 592 , Æthelberht was the leading Anglo @-@ Saxon ruler ; Bede refers to Æthelberht as having imperium ( overlordship ) south of the River Humber . Trade between the Franks and Æthelberht 's kingdom was well established , and the language barrier between the two regions was apparently only a minor obstacle , as the interpreters for the mission came from the Franks . Lastly , Kent 's proximity to the Franks allowed support from a Christian area . There is some evidence , including Gregory 's letters to Frankish kings in support of the mission , that some of the Franks felt that they had a claim to overlordship over some of the southern British kingdoms at this time . The presence of a Frankish bishop could also have lent credence to claims of overlordship , if Bertha 's Bishop Liudhard was felt to be acting as a representative of the Frankish church and not merely as a spiritual advisor to the queen . Frankish influence was not merely political ; archaeological remains attest to a cultural influence as well .
In 595 , Gregory chose Augustine , who was the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew 's in Rome , to head the mission to Kent . The pope selected monks to accompany Augustine and sought support from the Frankish royalty and clergy in a series of letters , of which some copies survive in Rome . He wrote to King Theuderic II of Burgundy and to King Theudebert II of Austrasia , as well as their grandmother Brunhild , seeking aid for the mission . Gregory thanked King Chlothar II of Neustria for aiding Augustine . Besides hospitality , the Frankish bishops and kings provided interpreters and Frankish priests to accompany the mission . By soliciting help from the Frankish kings and bishops , Gregory helped to assure a friendly reception for Augustine in Kent , as Æthelbert was unlikely to mistreat a mission which visibly had the support of his wife 's relatives and people . Moreover , the Franks appreciated the chance to participate in mission that would extend their influence in Kent . Chlothar , in particular , needed a friendly realm across the Channel to help guard his kingdom 's flanks against his fellow Frankish kings .
Sources make no mention of why Pope Gregory chose a monk to head the mission . Pope Gregory once wrote to Æthelberht complimenting Augustine 's knowledge of the Bible , so Augustine was evidently well educated . Other qualifications included administrative ability , for Gregory was the abbot of St Andrews as well as being pope , which left the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the abbey to Augustine , the prior .
= = Arrival and first efforts = =
Augustine was accompanied by Laurence of Canterbury , his eventual successor to the archbishopric , and a group of about 40 companions , some of whom were monks . Soon after leaving Rome , the missionaries halted , daunted by the nature of the task before them . They sent Augustine back to Rome to request papal permission to return . Gregory refused and sent Augustine back with letters encouraging the missionaries to persevere . In 597 , Augustine and his companions landed in Kent . They achieved some initial success soon after their arrival : Æthelberht permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his capital of Canterbury where they used the church of St Martin 's for services . Neither Bede nor Gregory mentions the date of Æthelberht 's conversion , but it probably took place in 597 . In the early medieval period , large @-@ scale conversions required the ruler 's conversion first , and Augustine is recorded as making large numbers of converts within a year of his arrival in Kent . Also , by 601 , Gregory was writing to both Æthelberht and Bertha , calling the king his son and referring to his baptism . A late medieval tradition , recorded by the 15th @-@ century chronicler Thomas Elmham , gives the date of the king 's conversion as Whit Sunday , or 2 June 597 ; there is no reason to doubt this date , although there is no other evidence for it . Against a date in 597 is a letter of Gregory 's to Patriarch Eulogius of Alexandria in June 598 , which mentions the number of converts made by Augustine , but does not mention any baptism of the king . However , it is clear that by 601 the king had been converted . His baptism likely took place at Canterbury .
Augustine established his episcopal see at Canterbury . It is not clear when and where Augustine was consecrated as a bishop . Bede , writing about a century later , states that Augustine was consecrated by the Frankish Archbishop Ætherius of Arles , Gaul ( France ) after the conversion of Æthelberht . Contemporary letters from Pope Gregory , however , refer to Augustine as a bishop before he arrived in England . A letter of Gregory 's from September 597 calls Augustine a bishop , and one dated ten months later says Augustine had been consecrated on Gregory 's command by bishops of the German lands . The historian R. A. Markus discusses the various theories of when and where Augustine was consecrated , and suggests he was consecrated before arriving in England , but argues the evidence does not permit deciding exactly where this took place .
Soon after his arrival , Augustine founded the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul , which later became St Augustine 's Abbey , on land donated by the king . This foundation has often been claimed as the first Benedictine abbey outside Italy , and that by founding it , Augustine introduced the Rule of St. Benedict into England , but there is no evidence the abbey followed the Benedictine Rule at the time of its foundation . In a letter Gregory wrote to the patriarch of Alexandria in 598 , he claimed that more than 10 @,@ 000 Christians had been baptised ; the number may be exaggerated but there is no reason to doubt that a mass conversion took place . However , there were probably some Christians already in Kent before Augustine arrived , remnants of the Christians who lived in Britain in the later Roman Empire . Little literary traces remain of them , however . One other effect of the king 's conversion by Augustine 's mission was that the Frankish influence on the southern kingdoms of Britain was decreased .
After these conversions , Augustine sent Laurence back to Rome with a report of his success , along with questions about the mission . Bede records the letter and Gregory 's replies in chapter 27 of his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ; this section of the History is usually known as the Libellus responsionum . Augustine asked for Gregory 's advice on a number of issues , including how to organise the church , the punishment for church robbers , guidance on who was allowed to marry whom , and the consecration of bishops . Other topics were relations between the churches of Britain and Gaul , childbirth and baptism , and when it was lawful for people to receive communion and for a priest to celebrate mass .
Further missionaries were sent from Rome in 601 . They brought a pallium for Augustine and a present of sacred vessels , vestments , relics , and books . The pallium was the symbol of metropolitan status , and signified that Augustine was now an archbishop unambiguously associated with the Holy See . Along with the pallium , a letter from Gregory directed the new archbishop to ordain 12 suffragan bishops as soon as possible and to send a bishop to York . Gregory 's plan was that there would be two metropolitans , one at York and one at London , with 12 suffragan bishops under each archbishop . As part of this plan , Augustine was expected to transfer his archiepiscopal see to London from Canterbury . The move from Canterbury to London never happened ; no contemporary sources give the reason , but it was probably because London was not part of Æthelberht 's domains . Instead , London was part of the kingdom of Essex , ruled by Æthelberht 's nephew Saebert of Essex , who converted to Christianity in 604 . The historian S. Brechter has suggested that the metropolitan see was indeed moved to London , and that it was only with the abandonment of London as a see after the death of Æthelberht that Canterbury became the archiepiscopal see . This theory contradicts Bede 's version of events , however .
= = Additional work = =
In 604 , Augustine founded two more bishoprics in Britain . Two men who had come to Britain with him in 601 were consecrated , Mellitus as Bishop of London and Justus as Bishop of Rochester . Bede relates that Augustine , with the help of the king , " recovered " a church built by Roman Christians in Canterbury . It is not clear if Bede meant that Augustine rebuilt the church or that Augustine merely reconsecrated a building that had been used for pagan worship . Archaeological evidence seems to support the latter interpretation ; in 1973 the remains of an aisled building dating from the Romano @-@ British period were uncovered just south of the present Canterbury Cathedral . The historian Ian Wood argues that the existence of the Libellus points to more contact between Augustine and the native Christians because the topics covered in the work are not restricted to conversion from paganism , but also dealt with relations between differing styles of Christianity .
Augustine failed to extend his authority to the Christians in Wales and Dumnonia to the west . Gregory had decreed that these Christians should submit to Augustine and that their bishops should obey him , apparently believing that more of the Roman governmental and ecclesiastical organisation survived in Britain than was actually the case . According to the narrative of Bede , the Britons in these regions viewed Augustine with uncertainty , and their suspicion was compounded by a diplomatic misjudgement on Augustine 's part . In 603 , Augustine and Æthelberht summoned the British bishops to a meeting south of the Severn . These guests retired early to confer with their people , who , according to Bede , advised them to judge Augustine based upon the respect he displayed at their next meeting . When Augustine failed to rise from his seat on the entrance of the British bishops , they refused to recognise him as their archbishop . There were , however , deep differences between Augustine and the British church that perhaps played a more significant role in preventing an agreement . At issue were the tonsure , the observance of Easter , and practical and deep @-@ rooted differences in approach to asceticism , missionary endeavours , and how the church itself was organised . Some historians believe that Augustine had no real understanding of the history and traditions of the British church , damaging his relations with their bishops . Also , there were political dimensions involved , as Augustine 's efforts were sponsored by the Kentish king , and at this period the Wessex and Mercian kingdoms were expanding to the west , into areas held by the Britons .
= = Further success = =
Gregory also instructed Augustine on other matters . Temples were to be consecrated for Christian use , and feasts , if possible , moved to days celebrating Christian martyrs . One religious site was revealed to be a shrine of a local St Sixtus , whose worshippers were unaware of details of the martyr 's life or death . They may have been native Christians , but Augustine did not treat them as such . When Gregory was informed , he told Augustine to stop the cult and use the shrine for the Roman St Sixtus .
Gregory legislated on the behaviour of the laity and the clergy . He placed the new mission directly under papal authority and made it clear that English bishops would have no authority over Frankish counterparts nor vice versa . Other directives dealt with the training of native clergy and the missionaries ' conduct .
The King 's School , Canterbury claims Augustine as its founder , which would make it the world 's oldest existing school , but the first documentary records of the school date from the 16th century . Augustine did establish a school , and soon after his death Canterbury was able to send teachers out to support the East Anglian mission . Augustine received liturgical books from the pope , but their exact contents are unknown . They may have been some of the new mass books that were being written at this time . The exact liturgy that Augustine introduced to England remains unknown , but it would have been a form of the Latin language liturgy in use at Rome .
= = Death and legacy = =
Before his death , Augustine consecrated Laurence of Canterbury as his successor to the archbishopric , probably to ensure an orderly transfer of office . Although at the time of Augustine 's death , 26 May 604 , the mission barely extended beyond Kent , his undertaking introduced a more active missionary style into the British Isles . Despite the earlier presence of Christians in Ireland and Wales , no efforts had been made to try to convert the Saxon invaders . Augustine was sent to convert the descendants of those invaders , and eventually became the decisive influence in Christianity in the British Isles . Much of his success came about because of Augustine 's close relationship with Æthelberht , which gave the archbishop time to establish himself . Augustine 's example also influenced the great missionary efforts of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Church .
Augustine 's body was originally buried in the portico of what is now St Augustine 's , Canterbury , but it was later exhumed and placed in a tomb within the abbey church , which became a place of pilgrimage and veneration . After the Norman Conquest the cult of St Augustine was actively promoted . After the Conquest , his shrine in St Augustine 's Abbey held a central position in one of the axial chapels , flanked by the shrines of his successors Laurence and Mellitus . King Henry I of England granted St. Augustine 's Abbey a six @-@ day fair around the date on which Augustine 's relics were translated to his new shrine , from 8 September through 13 September .
A life of Augustine was written by Goscelin around 1090 , but this life portrays Augustine in a different light than Bede 's account . Goscelin 's account has little new historical content , mainly being filled with miracles and imagined speeches . Building on this account , later medieval writers continued to add new miracles and stories to Augustine 's life , often quite fanciful . These authors included William of Malmesbury , who claimed that Augustine founded Cerne Abbey , the author ( generally believed to be John Brompton ) of a late medieval chronicle containing invented letters from Augustine , and a number of medieval writers who included Augustine in their romances . Another problem with investigating Augustine 's saintly cult is the confusion resulting because most medieval liturgical documents mentioning Augustine do not distinguish between Augustine of Canterbury and Augustine of Hippo , a fourth @-@ century saint . Medieval Scandinavian liturgies feature Augustine of Canterbury quite often , however . During the English Reformation , Augustine 's shrine was destroyed and his relics were lost .
Augustine 's shrine was re @-@ established in March 2012 at the church of St. Augustine in Ramsgate , Kent , very close to the mission 's landing site . St Augustine 's Cross , a Celtic cross erected in 1884 , marks the spot in Ebbsfleet , Thanet , East Kent , where Augustine is said to have landed .
= Madagascar =
Madagascar ( / ˌmædəˈɡæskər / ; Malagasy : Madagasikara ) , officially the Republic of Madagascar ( Malagasy : Repoblikan 'i Madagasikara [ republiˈkʲan madaɡasˈkʲarə ̥ ] ; French : République de Madagascar ) , and previously known as the Malagasy Republic , is an island country in the Indian Ocean , off the coast of Southeast Africa . The nation comprises the island of Madagascar ( the fourth @-@ largest island in the world ) , as well as numerous smaller peripheral islands . Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana , Madagascar split from the Indian peninsula around 88 million years ago , allowing native plants and animals to evolve in relative isolation . Consequently , Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot ; over 90 % of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth . The island 's diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the rapidly growing human population and other environmental threats .
The first archaeological evidence for human foraging on Madagascar dates to 2000 BC . Human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and AD 550 by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo . These were joined around AD 1000 by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa . Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time , each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life . The Malagasy ethnic group is often divided into 18 or more sub @-@ groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands .
Until the late 18th century , the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances . Beginning in the early 19th century , most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles . The monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire , from which the island gained independence in 1960 . The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods , termed republics . Since 1992 , the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo . However , in a popular uprising in 2009 , president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign and presidential power was transferred in March 2009 to Andry Rajoelina . Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014 , when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair and transparent by the international community . Madagascar is a member of the United Nations , the Organisation internationale de la francophonie and the Southern African Development Community ( SADC ) .
In 2012 , the population of Madagascar was estimated at just over 22 million , 90 % of whom live on less than $ 2 per day . Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state . The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs , Christianity , or an amalgamation of both . Ecotourism and agriculture , paired with greater investments in education , health , and private enterprise , are key elements of Madagascar 's development strategy . Under Ravalomanana , these investments produced substantial economic growth , but the benefits were not evenly spread throughout the population , producing tensions over the increasing cost of living and declining living standards among the poor and some segments of the middle class . As of 2014 , the economy had been weakened by the then recently concluded political crisis , and quality of life remains low for the majority of the Malagasy population .
= = Etymology = =
In the Malagasy language , the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara [ madaɡasʲˈkʲarə ̥ ] and its people are referred to as Malagasy . The island 's appellation " Madagascar " is not of local origin , but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans . The name Madageiscar was first recorded in the memoirs of 13th @-@ century Venetian explorer Marco Polo as a corrupted transliteration of the name Mogadishu , the Somali port with which Polo had confused the island .
On St. Laurence 's Day in 1500 , Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island and christened it São Lourenço . Polo 's name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps . No single Malagasy @-@ language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island , although some communities had their own name for part or all of the land they inhabited .
= = Geography = =
At 592 @,@ 800 square kilometres ( 228 @,@ 900 sq mi ) , Madagascar is the world 's 46th largest country and the fourth @-@ largest island . The country lies mostly between latitudes 12 ° S and 26 ° S , and longitudes 43 ° E and 51 ° E. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east , as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte to the north west . The nearest mainland state is Mozambique , located to the west .
The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana separated the Madagasca – Antarctica – India landmass from the Africa – South America landmass around 135 million years ago . Madagascar later split from India about 88 million years ago , allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation . Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island 's remaining tropical lowland forest .
To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1 @,@ 500 m ( 2 @,@ 460 to 4 @,@ 920 ft ) above sea level . These central highlands , traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo , are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced , rice @-@ growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region . To the west of the highlands , the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast .
Madagascar 's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs : Maromokotro 2 @,@ 876 m ( 9 @,@ 436 ft ) in the Tsaratanana Massif is the island 's highest point , followed by Boby Peak 2 @,@ 658 m ( 8 @,@ 720 ft ) in the Andringitra Massif , and Tsiafajavona 2 @,@ 643 m ( 8 @,@ 671 ft ) in the Ankaratra Massif . To the east , the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of man @-@ made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km ( 370 mi ) .
The western and southern sides , which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands , are home to dry deciduous forests , spiny forests , and deserts and xeric shrublands . Due to their lower population densities , Madagascar 's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau . The western coast features many protected harbors , but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains .
= = = Climate = = =
The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoons produces a hot rainy season ( November – April ) with frequently destructive cyclones , and a relatively cooler dry season ( May – October ) . Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island 's eastern coast ; the heavy precipitation supports the area 's rain forest ecosystem . The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still , and a semi @-@ arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island .
Tropical cyclones annually cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life . In 2004 Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar . The storm killed 172 people , left 214 @,@ 260 homeless and caused more than US $ 250 million in damage .
= = = Ecology = = =
As a result of the island 's long isolation from neighboring continents , Madagascar is home to an abundance of plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth . Approximately 90 % of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic , including the lemurs ( a type of strepsirrhine primate ) , the carnivorous fossa and many birds . This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the " eighth continent " , and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot .
More than 80 percent of Madagascar 's 14 @,@ 883 plant species are found nowhere else in the world , including five plant families . The family Didiereaceae , composed of four genera and 11 species , is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar . Four @-@ fifths of the world 's Pachypodium species are endemic to the island . Three @-@ fourths of Madagascar 's 860 orchid species are found here alone , as are six of the world 's nine baobab species .
The island is home to around 170 palm species , three times as many as on all of mainland Africa ; 165 of them are endemic . Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions . The drugs vinblastine and vincristine , used to treat Hodgkin 's disease , leukemia and other cancers , were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle . The traveler 's palm , known locally as ravinala and endemic to the eastern rain forests , is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo .
Like its flora , Madagascar 's fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism . Lemurs have been characterized as " Madagascar 's flagship mammal species " by Conservation International . In the absence of monkeys and other competitors , these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species . As of 2012 , there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur , 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008 . They are almost all classified as rare , vulnerable , or endangered . At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar , all of which were larger than the
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0 residents of Madagascar accessing the internet from home or in one of the nation 's many internet cafes in December 2011 .
= = Health = =
Medical centers , dispensaries and hospitals are found throughout the island , although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo . Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy , especially in the rural areas , and many recourse to traditional healers .
= = Education = =
Prior to the 19th century , all education in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural values , including respect for ancestors and elders . The first formal European @-@ style school was established in 1818 at Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society ( LMS ) . The LMS was invited by King Radama I ( 1810 – 28 ) to expand its schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children . The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835 but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death .
By the end of the 19th century Madagascar had the most developed and modern school system in pre @-@ colonial Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period , with French language and basic work skills becoming the focus of the curriculum . During the post @-@ colonial First Republic , a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers , and French as the language of instruction , displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power .
Consequently , under the socialist Second Republic , French instructors and other nationals were expelled , Malagasy was declared the language of instruction and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two @-@ year national service policy .
This policy , known as malgachization , coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education . Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects and struggled to find employment , forcing many to take low @-@ paying jobs in the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty . Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy , from 1992 to 1996 , Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure .
Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration ( 2002 – 09 ) , and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13 . The primary schooling cycle is five years , followed by four years at the lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level . During Ravalomanana 's first term , thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed , older buildings were renovated , and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained . Primary school fees were eliminated and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students .
Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per fokontany and one lower secondary school within each commune . At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the larger urban centers . The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo ( founded in 1961 ) , Mahajanga ( 1977 ) and Fianarantsoa ( 1988 ) . These are complemented by public teacher @-@ training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges .
As a result of increased educational access , enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006 . However , education quality is weak , producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout . Education policy in Ravalomanana 's second term focused on quality issues , including an increase in minimum education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate ( BEPC ) to a high school leaving certificate ( BAC ) , and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from traditional didactic instruction to student @-@ centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation in the classroom . Public expenditure on education was 13 @.@ 4 percent of total government expenditure and 2 @.@ 9 percent of GDP in 2008 . Primary classrooms are crowded , with average pupil to teacher ratios of 47 : 1 in 2008 .
= = Demographics = =
In 2012 , the population of Madagascar was estimated at 22 million . The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2 @.@ 9 percent in 2009 . The population grew from 2 @.@ 2 million in 1900 to an estimated 22 million in 2012 .
Approximately 42 @.@ 5 percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age , while 54 @.@ 5 percent are between the ages of 15 and 64 . Those aged 65 and older form three percent of the total population . Only two general censuses , in 1975 and 1993 , have been carried out after independence . The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast , contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains .
= = = Ethnic groups = = =
The Malagasy ethnic group forms over 90 percent of Madagascar 's population and is typically divided into eighteen ethnic sub @-@ groups . Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend of Southeast Asian and East African genes , although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or East African origins or some Arab , Indian or European ancestry .
Southeast Asian origins – specifically from the southern part of Borneo – are most predominant among the Merina of the central highlands , who form the largest Malagasy ethnic sub @-@ group at approximately 26 percent of the population , while certain communities among the coastal peoples ( collectively called côtiers ) have relatively stronger East African origins . The largest coastal ethnic sub @-@ groups are the Betsimisaraka ( 14 @.@ 9 percent ) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava ( 6 percent each ) .
Chinese , Indian and Comorian minorities are present in Madagascar , as well as a small European ( primarily French ) populace . Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations , occasionally in abrupt waves , such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976 , following anti @-@ Comoran riots in Mahajanga . By comparison , there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples . The number of Europeans has declined since independence , reduced from 68 @,@ 430 in 1958 to 17 @,@ 000 three decades later . There were an estimated 25 @,@ 000 Comorans , 18 @,@ 000 Indians , and 9 @,@ 000 Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid @-@ 1980s .
= = = Languages = = =
The Malagasy language is of Malayo @-@ Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island . The numerous dialects of Malagasy , which are generally mutually intelligible , can be clustered under one of two sub @-@ groups : eastern Malagasy , spoken along the eastern forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo and western Malagasy , spoken across the western coastal plains . French became the official language during the colonial period , when Madagascar came under the authority of France . In the first national Constitution of 1958 , Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic . Madagascar is a francophone country , and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication .
No official languages were recorded in the Constitution of 1992 , although Malagasy was identified as the national language . Nonetheless , many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages , eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000 , on the grounds that the publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional . The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that , in the absence of a language law , French still had the character of an official language .
In the Constitution of 2007 , Malagasy remained the national language while official languages were reintroduced : Malagasy , French , and English . English was removed as an official language from the constitution approved by voters in the November referendum 2010 . The outcome of the referendum , and its consequences for official and national language policy , are not recognized by the political opposition , who cite lack of transparency and inclusiveness in the way the election was organized by the High Transitional Authority .
= = = Religion = = =
Approximately half of the country 's population practice traditional religion , which tends to emphasize links between the living and the razana ( ancestors ) . The veneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building , as well as the highlands practice of the famadihana , whereby a deceased family member 's remains may be exhumed to be periodically re @-@ wrapped in fresh silk shrouds before being replaced in the tomb . The famadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor 's memory , reunite with family and community , and enjoy a festive atmosphere . Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party , where food and rum are typically served and a hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present .
Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to fady , taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them . It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways , they may intervene on behalf of the living . Conversely , misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected . The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors . In addition , the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god , called Zanahary or Andriamanitra .
Almost half the Malagasy are Christian , with practitioners of Protestantism slightly outnumbering adherents to Roman Catholicism . In 1818 the London Missionary Society sent the first Christian missionaries to the island , where they built churches , translated the Bible into the Malagasy language and began to gain converts . Beginning in 1835 Queen Ranavalona I persecuted these converts as part of an attempt to halt European cultural and political influence on the island . In 1869 a successor , Queen Ranavalona II , converted the court to Christianity and encouraged Christian missionary activity , burning the sampy ( royal idols ) in a symbolic break with traditional beliefs .
Today , many Christians integrate their religious beliefs with traditional ones related to honoring the ancestors . For instance , they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a Christian minister to consecrate a famadihana reburial . The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar ( Roman Catholic , Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar , Lutheran , and Anglican ) and has been an influential force in Malagasy politics .
Newer groups such as Seventh @-@ day Adventists are rapidly growing in rural areas through the establishment of intellectual discussion groups , as well as clinics and churches .
Islam is also practiced on the island . Islam was first brought to the island in the Middle Ages by Arab and Somali Muslim traders , who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast . While the use of Arabic script and loan words and the adoption of Islamic astrology would spread across the island , the Islamic religion failed to take hold in all but a handful of southeastern coastal communities . Today , Muslims constitute 7 percent of the population of Madagascar and are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana . The vast majority of Muslims are Sunni . Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity , Indians , Pakistanis and Comorians . More recently , Hinduism was introduced to Madagascar through Gujarati people immigrating from the Saurashtra region of India in the late 19th century . Most Hindus in Madagascar speak Gujarati or Hindi at home .
= = Culture = =
Each of the many ethnic sub @-@ groups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs , practices and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities . However , there are a number of core cultural features that are common throughout the island , creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity . In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of the ancestors , the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize fihavanana ( solidarity ) , vintana ( destiny ) , tody ( karma ) , and hasina , a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family . Other cultural elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision ; strong kinship ties ; a widespread belief in the power of magic , diviners , astrology and witch doctors ; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles , commoners , and slaves .
Although social castes are no longer legally recognized , ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status , economic opportunity and roles within the community . Malagasy people traditionally consult Mpanandro ( " Makers of the Days " ) to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or famadihana , according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs . Similarly , the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre @-@ colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as the ombiasy ( from olona @-@ be @-@ hasina , " man of much virtue " ) of the southeastern Antemoro ethnic group , who trace their ancestry back to early Arab settlers .
The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions . The most emblematic instrument of Madagascar , the valiha , is a bamboo tube zither carried to Madagascar by early settlers from southern Borneo , and is very similar in form to those found in Indonesia and the Philippines today . Traditional houses in Madagascar are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism and construction , featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar . Reflecting a widespread veneration of the ancestors , tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material , typically stone , and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living . The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island 's earliest settlers , and Madagascar 's national dress , the woven lamba , has evolved into a varied and refined art .
The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in Malagasy cuisine , in which rice is consumed at every meal , typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes . African influence is reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner 's wealth , traditions originating on the African mainland . Cattle rustling , originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept , has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers .
= = = Arts = = =
A wide variety of oral and written literature has developed in Madagascar . One of the island 's foremost artistic traditions is its oratory , as expressed in the forms of hainteny ( poetry ) , kabary ( public discourse ) and ohabolana ( proverbs ) . An epic poem exemplifying these traditions , the Ibonia , has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island , and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities . This tradition was continued in the 20th century by such artists as Jean @-@ Joseph Rabearivelo , who is considered Africa 's first modern poet , and Elie Rajaonarison , an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry . Madagascar has also developed a rich musical heritage , embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal salegy or highland hiragasy that enliven village gatherings , local dance floors and national airwaves .
The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island . In addition to the tradition of silk weaving and lamba production , the weaving of raffia and other local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats , baskets , purses and hats . Wood carving is a highly developed art form , with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony railings and other architectural elements . Sculptors create a variety of furniture and household goods , aloalo funerary posts , and wooden sculptures , many of which are produced for the tourist market . The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the Zafimaniry people of the central highlands was inscribed on UNESCO 's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008 .
Among the Antaimoro people , the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long @-@ established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco @-@ tourists . Embroidery and drawn thread work are done by hand to produce clothing , as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets . A small but growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo , and several other urban areas , offer paintings by local artists , and annual art events , such as the Hosotra open @-@ air exhibition in the capital , contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar .
= = = Sport and recreation = = =
A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar . Moraingy , a type of hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions . It is traditionally practiced by men , but women have recently begun to participate . The wrestling of zebu cattle , which is named savika or tolon @-@ omby , is also practiced in many regions . In addition to sports , a wide variety of games are played . Among the most emblematic is fanorona , a board game widespread throughout the Highland regions . According to folk legend , the succession of King Andrianjaka after his father Ralambo was partially due to the obsession that Andrianjaka 's older brother may have had with playing fanorona to the detriment of his other responsibilities .
Western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries . Rugby Union is considered the national sport of Madagascar . Football is also popular . Madagascar has produced a world champion in pétanque , a French game similar to lawn bowling , which is widely played in urban areas and throughout the Highlands . School athletics programs typically include football , track and field , judo , boxing , women 's basketball and women 's tennis . Madagascar sent its first competitors to the Olympic Games in 1964 and has also competed in the African Games . Scouting is represented in Madagascar by its own local federation of three scouting clubs . Membership in 2011 was estimated at 14 @,@ 905 .
Because of its advanced sports facilities , Antananarivo gained the hosting rights for several of Africa 's top international basketball events , including the 2011 FIBA Africa Championship , the 2009 FIBA Africa Championship for Women , the 2014 FIBA Africa Under @-@ 18 Championship , the 2013 FIBA Africa Under @-@ 16 Championship , and the 2015 FIBA Africa Under @-@ 16 Championship for Women .
= = = Cuisine = = =
= Scientific jury selection =
Scientific jury selection , often abbreviated SJS , is the use of social science techniques and expertise to choose favorable juries during a criminal or civil trial . Scientific jury selection is used during the jury selection phase of the trial — when lawyers have the opportunity to question jurors and they and the judge choose which people will be on the jury . It almost always entails an expert 's assistance in the attorney 's use of peremptory challenges — the right to reject a certain number of potential jurors without stating a reason — during jury selection . The practice is currently confined to the American legal system .
SJS has roots in criminal trials during the Vietnam War era , but in modern times is usually employed in high @-@ stakes civil litigation ( where only money is usually at issue , in contrast to criminal trials , where the defendant can go to prison ) . SJS practitioners determine what background characteristics and attitudes predict favorable results , and then coordinate with attorneys in choosing the jury . Studies are mixed as to the effectiveness of the practice , though it is clear that the evidence presented at trial is the most important determiner of verdicts ( the trial result ) and that SJS is more likely to have an impact where that evidence is ambiguous . SJS 's potential to unfairly skew the jury has led to some reform proposals , but none have yet been implemented . The limited fictional portrayals of SJS have been negative towards the practice .
= = History and use = =
During jury selection in the United States , attorneys have two options for excluding potential jurors . The first option is a challenge for cause , in which attorneys must state the reason for a challenge ( such as clear bias or a conflict of interest ) , the opposing party is allowed to respond , and the judge decides whether to exclude the juror . The second option is a peremptory challenge , where an attorney can exclude a juror without stating any reason . While challenges for cause are unlimited , attorneys have a limited number of peremptory challenges , sometimes as few as four , although 10 is more common in non @-@ capital felony cases .
Attorneys have long used peremptory challenges to exclude undesirable prospective jurors , but have not always been successful . Much of the early efforts were based on lawyers ' folklore about who makes a good juror for their case . Early examples of scientific jury selection were similar . For example , in the 1975 Joan Little trial , defense attorneys used an astrologer to help choose the jury . More rigorous methodology was on display during the first major use of SJS , the 1972 Harrisburg Seven trial . During that trial , social scientists used demographic characteristics to identify biases in favor of conviction . The consultants in the case had conducted surveys that indicated women and Democrats would make defense @-@ friendly jurors , and the religious , those with college degrees , and Reader 's Digest subscribers would be better for the prosecution . Although surveys had indicated that 80 % of citizens in conservative Harrisburg , Pennsylvania would convict the defendants , they were acquitted of all serious charges .
A jury consultant helped pick the jury in the O. J. Simpson murder trial . Criminologist Jo @-@ Ellan Dimitrius used surveys to determine the ideal defense juror demographic ( black women ) and analyzed and judged the prospective jurors ' answers to a questionnaire and response and body language during voir dire ( the stage of jury selection where lawyers are permitted to directly question the jury ) . Prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi gives more credit to the traditional change of venue . He argues that transferring the case to a section of Los Angeles with more blacks in the jury pool was most detrimental to the selection of a prosecution @-@ friendly jury . Incidentally , the prosecutor fired her court @-@ appointed jury consultant early in the process .
Contemporary jury consultants are often sociologists , people with experience in communications and marketing , or attorneys themselves , but they are most frequently psychologists and specialize in legal psychology . Although most of the practice 's roots are in criminal trials , modern jury consultants are more often involved in torts ( civil litigation ) , particularly where wealthy corporate defendants fear an enormous monetary judgment for the plaintiff , or where plaintiffs ’ attorneys have invested large sums of money in an important lawsuit . Since the 1980s , large jury consulting and trial consulting firms have sprouted up with multi @-@ million dollar incomes , mostly from such high @-@ stakes civil litigation . The simultaneous shift from ad @-@ hoc groups of academics to a business model has sparked the criticism that SJS magnifies the distorting effect money has on trials , since only the wealthy can afford it . Jury consultants argue that they operate in an adversarial process the same way lawyers do ; by pursuing their clients ' interests in a rule @-@ bound framework . Jeffrey Abramson , who has written extensively about juries , argues that even if SJS is ethical or has zero effect , the mere myth of powerful , effective jury manipulators shakes public confidence in the jury system .
= = Methods = =
The theory behind SJS is that juror attitudes predict voting preferences most effectively . By discovering what relationships exist between certain attitudes , attorneys can exclude those from the jury whose attitudes would predispose them to a bad verdict . Researcher Shari Diamond indicates that jury consultants primarily rely on two methods : telephone surveys and mock trials ( trial simulations ) . Telephone surveys are the practitioners ' " primary research method " . During a survey of the community where the trial is taking place , jury consultants ask about :
background characteristics of the jury pool such as race , sex , marital status , age , income , and job ; and perhaps more specific questions that depend upon the case itself ;
beliefs and attitudes likely associated with a favorable or unfavorable verdict ; and
( after reading a summary of the facts of the case ) which verdict the survey respondent would favor .
Diamond writes that jury consultants then compare the three data sets to determine which background characteristics correlate to favorable attitudes and verdicts , and which attitudes correlate to favorable verdicts . Attorneys can then use that information to select favorable jurors , based either on prospective jurors ' characteristics or whatever an attorney can learn about jurors ' attitudes . This has prompted the most frequent criticism of SJS : that consultants stack juries with inexorably biased or dumb jurors ; in turn , practitioners insist this is impossible and that bias can only be removed from a jury pool .
An alternative is to test respondents at the researcher 's facility with opening statements or a full @-@ blown mock trial instead of reading a case summary over the telephone . The higher cost of a mock trial allows for a more realistic portrayal of the real trial and ( researchers hope ) more accurate data . It also provides a better opportunity to question the subjects , before and after the trial simulation . On the other hand , telephone surveys provide a larger and more representative sample of the jury pool . Diamond indicates that since both methods have advantages , SJS practitioners commonly rely on both in the same case .
Besides the occasional astrologer or psychic , a few practitioners use unorthodox methods , such as in @-@ courtroom assessment of posture , pupil dilation , or breathing to judge jurors both during selection and during trial . Though such methods have the veneer of science , psychologists reject them as nonsense and " science fiction " . Notwithstanding this , Jo @-@ Ellan Dimitrius ( from the Simpson trial ) indicates that she also relies on appearance , body language , conduct , and even smells such as perfume or medication . She sometimes decides based upon her " gut feeling " about a juror .
Research psychologists Kassin and Wrightsman indicate that the model employed ( demographic factors predict attitudes that predict verdicts ) has empirical weaknesses . That attitudes predict verdicts is taken for granted and rarely studied . For example , veterans might favor current troops , but that does not necessarily translate into a likelihood to acquit their brethren of crimes . However , the relationship between demographics and verdicts can be more reliably predicted by mock trials . Successful prediction of jury verdicts often requires data specific to the case and jurisdiction . The sheer number of ways that one case can be unique outstrips the published research on the subject , so original research is often required . That necessity is exacerbated by the fact that many modern consultants are reluctant to share knowledge , even with other firms , because of paranoia , client confidentiality , and their regard for their work as " trade secrets " .
One important variation is " group dynamics analysis " . Some jury selection is concerned with the attitudes and bias of individuals . Some trial consultants also try to predict how individuals will form themselves into groups in the jury and which jurors will become leaders and followers in those groups . Consultants also use this tool after jury selection is over .
= = Efficacy = =
Although advocates and practitioners of scientific jury selection claim the practice is overwhelmingly effective at choosing juries that will render the desired verdict , its true effect is often more difficult to discern . Part of this difficulty is in duplicating the conditions of a real trial . In one experiment , two kinds of shadow juries watched a trial and rendered a verdict . The results indicated that the juries were substantially different , but that this difference was likely due to the two experimental juries ’ knowledge that they were not deciding an actual verdict , prompting a lower burden of proof .
Another simplified experiment indicated that lawyers trained in a systematic selection method made better predictions of juror verdicts in two of four cases – the sale of illegal drugs and a military court @-@ martial ( the other two cases were murder and drunk driving ) . The systematic method was more effective in those two cases where the predictive relationships between demographic variables and attitudes / verdicts were strongest , and least effective where such predictive relationships were weak or nonexistent .
Some academic researchers argue that the actual efficacy of SJS is obscured by poor research methodology . Specifically , demographic characteristics used to predict juror attitudes and juror verdicts may not hold true across all kinds of cases . For example , men convict more frequently than women in some types of criminal trials but less frequently in others . Besides this , demographic characteristics are often less predictive than the attitudes jurors hold ; for example , attitudes towards rape are better verdict @-@ predictors than gender in rape trials .
The actual efficacy of jury consultants may not be very important because the demographic composition of the jury has little effect on the verdict it renders , usually causing only a 5 % – 15 % variance in verdicts . The evidence presented at trial has far more impact on what the verdict will be . As Kressel and Kressel indicate , " when the evidence is strong , nothing else matters much " and even when the evidence is ambiguous , demographic characteristics of jurors are a relatively minor influence . Some researchers argue that a significant improvement in jury selection , however small , may be worthwhile when the stakes are high , like for a defendant accused of a capital crime or a corporation that stands to lose millions of dollars in a civil suit .
A popular " proof is in the pudding " argument is often made , especially by consultants themselves ; the argument goes that since attorneys and clients pay such high fees ( sometimes as much as $ 500 @,@ 000 ) for consultants , their services must be effective . Others argue that most attorneys are unaware of the social science research on the topic .
The effectiveness of scientific jury selection has also been comparison tested against other methods , such as attorney folklore and intuition . For trial attorneys , justifying the expense of SJS is contingent upon an improvement of their own jury selection abilities . Several empirical studies of traditional jury selection ( by attorneys acting alone ) have indicated that it and SJS are about equally effective .
= = Suggested reforms = =
In light of the criticisms leveled against scientific jury selection — that it lets lawyers stack juries and distorts the effect of money — several reforms have been proposed . One common reform proposal is the elimination of peremptory challenges . Supreme Court precedent already forbids use of peremptories ( peremptory challenges ) to exclude jurors based solely on their race or sex.1 Proponents argue that doing away with peremptories altogether will eliminate the perceived and real injustice of permitting lawyers to eliminate jurors dispositionally unfavorable to them without a challenge for cause argument in open court . Opponents counter that attorneys cannot always ferret out actionable evidence of juror bias , particularly in the context of a limited voir dire .
Other proposals include :
lower the number of peremptories to force attorneys to use them only on the most clearly biased jurors and severely curtail their ability to " shape " the jury with peremptory challenges .
ban jury consulting through legislative action , though it may be impossible to fairly draw a line that excludes SJS but doesn 't exclude advice from other attorneys in the same firm , for example .
limit useful information by severely curtailing verbal questioning and written questionnaires of prospective jurors . This may have the perverse effect of encouraging many erroneous Batson challenges based solely on race or gender instead of more sophisticated metrics of bias .
prohibit investigation of the jury pool or release the list of prospective jurors on the eve of jury selection to make investigation of prospective jurors impossible .
force disclosure of consultant use by making surveys of prospective jurors or the community discoverable by ( legally accessible to ) the opposing party . If consultants ' research is discoverable , each party could use and benefit from their research .
Despite serious discussion among lawyers , scholars , legislators , and others about various reform proposals , none have been implemented and no consensus exists about which remedy , if any , would be the most appropriate and effective .
= = In fiction = =
The major fictional representations to date have largely portrayed jury consultants as villains that are highly effective at influencing the jury , often using illegal tactics that mainstream practitioners do not use . Consultants are major characters in John Grisham 's novel The Runaway Jury and the similar film adaptation . In the film , Rankin Fitch , " jury consultant for the defense , " leads a team that uses high technology and sometimes @-@ illegal tactics to prevent a judgment against their corporate client in what Salon calls " our worst nightmare of corporate arm @-@ twisting . " Writing about the book , Kressel and Kressel say Grisham " plays on fears that the American justice system has been hijacked by crafty attorneys and immensely effective hired @-@ gun social scientists . " Jean Hanff Korelitz 's A Jury of Her Peers stretches the known reality of consulting much further . Korelitz 's fictional consultants are part of an unscrupulous firm that charges prosecutors to kidnap homeless people , program them with drugs into conviction @-@ only jurors , and substitute them for those hoping to avoid jury duty . Jonakait says the novel is " hardly realistic " but " reveals the distrust engendered by jury consultants . "
In a fifth @-@ season episode of the CBS television series Numb3rs , entitled " Guilt Trip , " an illegal arms dealer ( James Marsters ) is tried for racketeering and the murder of the key witness against him . After he is unexpectedly acquitted , the investigation reveals that he had hired a sleazy jury consultant to not only identify those jurors who would most likely sway the rest of the jury 's deliberations , so as to bribe and extort them into pushing for acquittal , but also train one of his henchmen to pose as the perfect " prosecutor 's juror " and get placed on the jury . In season one , episode eleven , of the television series Leverage , a pharmaceutical company is under fire for a wrongful death case involving a stimulative all natural herbal supplement . In an attempt to prevent major losses for the pharmaceutical company in question , and to protect the investment of a soon to be parent company 's subsidiary , scientific jury selection is used . However , the Leverage team thwarts their efforts every step of the way similar to a giant chess match .
= = Endnotes = =
^ 1 Batson v. Kentucky ( 1986 ) is the seminal case in this area , finding race @-@ based use of peremptory challenges by prosecutors unconstitutional . Georgia v. McCollum ( 1992 ) extended the same prohibition to defense attorneys . The relevant precedents in civil law are Edmonson v. Leesville Concrete Company ( 1991 ) ( regarding race ) and J.E.B. v. Alabama ( 1994 ) ( regarding gender ) .
= Alien : Isolation =
Alien : Isolation is an action @-@ adventure video game developed by Creative Assembly and based on the Alien science fiction horror film series . It was published by Sega and originally released for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 and Xbox One on 7 October 2014 . The game is set 15 years after the events of Ridley Scott 's 1979 Alien film and follows Amanda Ripley , daughter of Alien protagonist Ellen Ripley , and her efforts to investigate the disappearance of her mother .
Unlike previous video game adaptations of the Alien franchise , Alien : Isolation places a strong emphasis on stealth and survival horror gameplay , requiring the player to avoid and outsmart a single alien creature over the course of the game with the help of gadgets like a motion tracker and a flamethrower . It was designed more in line with Scott 's film as opposed to James Cameron 's more action @-@ oriented 1986 sequel Aliens , and features a similar lo @-@ fi , 1970s vision of what the future would look like . The game runs on an entirely new engine that was built from scratch to accommodate technical aspects like the game 's atmospheric and lighting effects as well as the alien 's behavioural design . Creative Assembly originally intended to make Alien : Isolation a third @-@ person game , but the perspective was later shifted to first @-@ person in order to create a more intense experience .
Upon release , Alien : Isolation received generally positive reviews from video game journalists and sold over two million copies in Europe and the US as of May 2015 . Critics praised the game 's retro @-@ futuristic art direction , sound design , and the alien 's artificial intelligence , but criticized its story , characters , and voice acting . The game won several year @-@ end awards , including Best Audio at the 2015 Game Developers Choice Awards and Audio Achievement at the 2015 British Academy of Film and Television Arts Awards . Several downloadable content packs that extend the game with new missions and challenges were also released .
= = Gameplay = =
Alien : Isolation is a single @-@ player action @-@ adventure game with stealth and survival horror features , in which the player controls the protagonist , Amanda Ripley , from a first @-@ person perspective to interact with the environment . To advance through the game , the player must explore a space station and complete numerous objectives while avoiding , outsmarting and defeating enemies like human occupants or hostile androids . Objectives range from activating computers to collecting certain items or reaching a specific area in the game . The player has the ability to run , climb ladders , and sneak into vents . The player can also crouch and hide behind objects to break the line of sight with enemies , and covertly peek over or lean around to gain view . The player has also the ability to go under nearby tables or inside lockers to hide from enemies .
Unlike previous video game adaptations of the Alien franchise , Alien : Isolation features a single alien creature that pursues the player over the course of the game . The alien creature cannot be defeated , requiring the player to use stealth tactics in order to survive . Instead of following a predetermined path , the alien has the ability to actively investigate disturbances and hunt the player by sight or sound . Along the way , the player can use both a flashlight and a motion tracker to detect the alien 's movements . However , using any of these increases the chance of the alien finding the player . For example , if the alien is moving and close enough , the tracker 's sound will attract the alien , forcing the player to wisely use the tracker and remove it as soon as it detects motion . The motion tracker cannot detect enemies when they are not moving and cannot determine whether the alien creature is up in the ducts or on the ground level .
Although the player can use certain weapons to defeat enemies , Alien : Isolation emphasizes evasion over direct combat by providing the player with limited ammunition . The game features four weapons that become available as the player progresses throughout the game : a revolver , a shotgun , a bolt gun , and a flamethrower . The player can also craft several items by collecting schematics and different kind of materials throughout the game . Items range from EMP mines to noisemakers , molotov cocktails and pipe bombs , among others . These items help the player deal with enemies and the alien . For example , the noisemaker can be used to attract enemies in one particular direction . The alien is afraid of fire , so using the flamethrower or a molotov cocktail will force it to retreat into the station 's ventilation system . The player has a limited amount of health which decreases when attacked by enemies . Nevertheless , the player can restore lost health using medkits , which can be crafted with materials in Amanda 's inventory .
The space station is divided into multiple sections connected by trams and elevators . Each section is composed of a set of rooms and corridors separated by doors . Some doors require certain actions to be performed first before entry is allowed . For example , some doors require a keycard or a numbered entry code , while others need to be cut with a variety of welding torches or hacked using an electronic device . The player may also encounter computer terminals that can be used to access information or trigger in @-@ game actions like disabling security cameras or manipulating the space station 's air @-@ purification mechanism . The game features an automap to help players navigate the different areas of the game . To save their progress , players need to locate a terminal in the game and manually insert Amanda 's access card in it . If Amanda dies , the player will need to start the game again from the last saved point . In addition to the campaign mode , Alien : Isolation features a separate game mode , called Survivor Mode , that focuses on short , player @-@ versus @-@ alien scenarios . In each scenario , the player needs to complete a set of objectives while avoiding the alien under a time limit .
= = Plot = =
In 2137 , 15 years after the disappearance of the Nostromo spacecraft , Amanda Ripley , daughter of Ellen Ripley , is approached by the android Christopher Samuels of the Weyland @-@ Yutani corporation . Samuels informs her that the flight recorder of the Nostromo was recently located by a ship named the Anesidora and is being held aboard Sevastopol , a remote space station owned by the Seegson Corporation , in orbit around the gas giant KG348 . He offers her a place on the Weyland @-@ Yutani team sent to retrieve it so that she can have closure regarding the fate of her missing mother . Ripley , Samuels , and Weyland @-@ Yutani executive Nina Taylor travel to Sevastopol on board the courier ship Torrens , owned by captain Diane Verlaine . The group arrives at Sevastopol to find the station damaged and its communications offline . Ripley , Samuels , and Taylor attempt to spacewalk over to the station to investigate , but their EVA line is severed by debris , and Ripley is separated from them and forced to enter the station on her own .
Ripley attempts to find help , but is confronted by Axel , a survivor who explains that Sevastopol is out of control due to a " monster " loose aboard the station . Although Ripley convinces him to help her in exchange for a ride off the station aboard the Torrens , Axel is soon killed by said monster , an alien creature . While exploring the station , Ripley finds the Nostromo 's flight recorder but discovers , to her dismay , that it contains no data . After contacting Samuels and recovering medical supplies from the station 's medical bay to treat an injured Taylor , Ripley reunites with the station 's marshal , Waits , and his deputy , Ricardo . Waits explains that the alien was brought on board the station by Anesidora captain Henry Marlow , who is now in Waits ' custody . After speaking with Marlow , Ripley learns that the Anesidora crew discovered the flight recorder near the planetoid LV @-@ 426 , where they also found a derelict ship previously found by the Nostromo crew and the nest of alien eggs contained within . While exploring the ship , Marlow 's wife was attacked by a facehugger . Marlow then brought her aboard Sevastopol for emergency medical treatment , but an alien ultimately hatched from her . Waits convinces Ripley to help him contain the alien by luring it into a remote section of the station and sealing it inside . Ripley is successful , but Waits truly plotted to use Ripley as bait , and ejects the module from the station . As the module careens into space , Ripley manages to space @-@ jump back to Sevastopol using an EVA suit .
Ripley makes her way back to Ricardo , who explains that the station 's androids abruptly started slaughtering the remaining crew , including Waits . He also tells her that Samuels is attempting to interface with the station 's controlling artificial intelligence , APOLLO , to cease the rampage . However , APOLLO 's defensive countermeasures electrocute Samuels shortly after he managed to open a path for Ripley into APOLLO 's control core . Upon reaching APOLLO , Ripley discovers that Seegson , who has been trying to sell off Sevastopol for years , has finally found a buyer : Weyland @-@ Yutani , who instructed APOLLO to protect the alien . When Ripley tells APOLLO that the creature is no longer aboard the station and demands to cease all activity , APOLLO refuses and turns its attention to the station 's reactor . Ripley descends to the base of the reactor and learns that it has been converted into an alien nest . She then initiates a reactor purge to destroy the nest , but multiple alien creatures escape and begin to overrun Sevastopol in the process . Ripley learns from Ricardo that Taylor was sent by Weyland @-@ Yutani to retrieve the alien , and that she freed Marlow in exchange for the location of LV @-@ 426 . However , Marlow double @-@ crosses her and takes her hostage aboard the Anesidora .
Aboard the Anesidora , Ripley discovers a message from her mother after her initial report of the events on the Nostromo , thus finally giving her closure . Marlow then appears with Taylor and tells Ripley that he plans to overload the Anesidora 's fusion reactor and destroy the station , thus ensuring that no aliens survive . In the ensuing confrontation , both Marlow and Taylor are killed by an electric discharge and Ripley is forced to escape the Anesidora shortly before it explodes . Ricardo tells Ripley that the Anesidora explosion destroyed Sevastopol 's orbital stabilizers , causing the station to slowly drift into KG348 's atmosphere . Ripley and Ricardo manage to contact the Torrens for extraction , but Ricardo is attacked and paralyzed by a facehugger . After making her way outside to help the Torrens detach from the station , Ripley is surrounded by several alien creatures and then thrown into the ship due to a blast . Aboard the Torrens , Ripley makes her way to the bridge to find Verlaine , but is confronted by another alien . Still in her EVA suit , Ripley is cornered into the airlock and is forced to open it , jettisoning both herself and the alien into space . The final shot of the game depicts Ripley , adrift and unconscious in her EVA suit , suddenly awakened by a searchlight that crosses her face .
= = Development = =
Alien : Isolation was developed by the Creative Assembly , which is best known for their work on the Total War real @-@ time strategy video game series . The idea of developing a game based on the Alien film series from 20th Century Fox was conceived when the company finished Viking : Battle for Asgard in 2008 , after publisher Sega acquired the rights to develop Alien games in December 2006 . A six @-@ person team developed a small multiplayer game to pitch the idea to Sega , a " hide and seek " prototype where one of the players had to control the alien while the others would need to conceal themselves in the environment . The game captured the attention of Sega and the project was eventually approved . Since the Creative Assembly had no experience with survival horror games , the company had to hire several people from other studios like Bizarre Creations , Black Rock , Crytek , Ubisoft , and Realtime Worlds for the project . According to director Alistair Hope , the development team grew from " a couple of guys crammed in with the Total War team " to a group of 100 people by 2014 .
The Creative Assembly decided to design the game more in line with Ridley Scott 's 1979 film Alien as opposed to James Cameron 's more action @-@ oriented 1986 sequel Aliens . To help the designers authentically recreate the atmosphere of the film , Fox provided them with three terabytes of original production material , including costume photography , concept art , set design , behind the scenes photos , videos , and the film 's original sound effect recordings . As artist John Mckellan recalls , " It was a proper gold mine . We saw angles of things we 'd never seen before . " During the first stage of development , the developers deconstructed the film to find out what made its setting unique . This would allow them to build new environments that were faithful to it . Similarly , the film 's original soundtrack was deconstructed so that composers could identify the main cues , which would then be used as templates to extend the soundtrack and fill out the length of the game . The developers also had the chance to meet Alien and Blade Runner editor Terry Rawlings , who would give them additional insight .
Rather than go for a shiny , high @-@ tech science fiction look , the designers opted to recreate the setting and feel of the original Alien film using the work of concept artists Ron Cobb and Mœbius . As a result , the game features a lo @-@ fi , 1970s vision of what the future would look like . For example , the game features clunky machinery like phone receivers , monochrome displays , and distorted CRT monitors . To create period authentic distortion on in @-@ game monitors , the developers recorded their in game animations onto VHS and Betamax video recorders , then filmed those sequences playing on an " old curvy portable TV " while adjusting the tracking settings . As digital hacking was not conceived in the 1970s , the game 's hacking device was built the way it would have been built on the set of the movie , and requires players to tune into a computer 's signal while selecting icons on its screen . Artist Jon McKellan noted , " We had this rule : If a prop couldn 't have been made in ' 79 with the things that they had around , then we wouldn 't make it either . "
The Creative Assembly wanted Alien : Isolation to have a story that was closely related to the film . As a result , the team decided to explore a story set 15 years after the events of the film which would involve Ellen Ripley 's daughter and the Nostromo 's flight recorder . Writer Will Porter explained that the process of creating a backstory for Amanda was " refreshing " as he felt that she was an overlooked character of the Alien universe . The derelict ship the Nostromo crew previously found in the film was also included in the game since the developers felt it was a central point in the Alien canon . Actress Sigourney Weaver agreed to reprise her role as Ellen Ripley to voice small sections throughout the game because she felt that the story was interesting and true to the film . Along with Weaver , the original Alien cast , which includes Tom Skerritt , Veronica Cartwright , Harry Dean Stanton , and Yaphet Kotto , reprised their roles for the game 's separate downloadable content missions , marking the first time they were brought back together since the release of the film . All the characters were created with 3D face scans .
Alien : Isolation runs on an entirely new engine that was built from scratch by the Creative Assembly . The new engine allowed the development team to accommodate technical aspects like the game 's atmospheric and lighting effects as well as the alien 's behavioural design . The alien itself was designed to look similar to H. R. Giger 's original design for the creature from the film , including the skull underneath its semitransparent head . However , the designers did alter its humanoid legs with recurved ones to provide the alien a walk cycle that would hold up to scrutiny during longer encounters with the player . Between 70 and 80 different sets of animation for the alien were created . The alien 's artificial intelligence was programmed with a complex set of behavioural designs that evolve as it encounters the player , creating the illusion that the alien learns from each encounter and appropriately adjusts its hunting strategy . As gameplay designer Gary Napper explains , " We needed something that would be different every time you played it . You ’ re going to die a lot , which means restarting a lot , and if the alien was scripted , you ’ d see the same behaviour . That makes the alien become predictable , and a lot less scary . " The save system was inspired by a scene in the film where Captain Dallas uses a key @-@ card to access Nostromo 's computer , Mother .
The developers originally planned to add a feature that would allow players to craft weapons , but the idea was ultimately discarded . According to Hope , " We thought about what people would want to do in order to survive . We explored different ideas , and one of them was fashioning weapons to defend yourself . That was quite early on , but then we realised that this game isn 't really about pulling the trigger . " Another cancelled feature was the alien 's iconic acid blood as a game mechanic , which could melt through metal like in the film . Although the feature was implemented at one point , it was eventually removed from the game because the developers felt it would change the course of the game in a " weird " direction . In addition , the developers considered the possibility for the game to be played from a third @-@ person perspective , but then realized that it would significantly change the experience . Hope explained that it would become " a game about jockeying the camera and looking after your avatar . But in first @-@ person it 's you that 's being hunted . If you 're hiding behind an object and you want to get a better view of your surroundings , you have to move . " The actual development of the game took overall four years to complete after the Creative Assembly first pitched the idea to Sega . The game went gold on 9 September 2014 and is dedicated to Simon Franco , a programmer of the game , who died during its development .
= = Marketing and release = =
Alien : Isolation was first unveiled on 12 May 2011 when UK government minister Ed Vaizey visited the Creative Assembly and revealed on his Twitter account that the studio was hiring for an Alien game . Although no gameplay details were confirmed , the Creative Assembly did confirm to CVG that the game would be released for consoles , but did not specify any format . Sega boss Mike Hayes also said that the game was going to be " very much a triple @-@ A project . We want this to be a peer to the likes of Dead Space 2 . " Although the game 's name was anticipated following a trademark registration in October 2013 and some screenshots of the game were leaked in December 2013 , Alien : Isolation was formally announced and confirmed for the Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 , and Xbox One platforms with the release of a teaser trailer on 7 January 2014 . The developers also stated that they were not worried about the fact that Sega 's previous Alien game , Aliens : Colonial Marines , received a negative public reaction . According to Napper , " It did completely reaffirm to us that there was a massive Alien fanbase out there [ and ] just to see such a vocal reaction to the game , everything that they 've said they want is something that we 're building and we 're very excited about that . "
In June 2014 , Alien : Isolation was presented at the Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) , where journalists had a chance to play a demonstration of the game . The game was also playable on the Oculus Rift virtual reality ( VR ) headset that was shown at the show . Danielle Riendeau of Polygon described the demo as " one of the most effectively terrifying slices of a game I 've ever played in my life . " The game was awarded Best VR Game and was nominated for Game of the Show , Best Xbox One Game , Best PlayStation 4 Game , Best PC Game , and Best Action Game at the IGN 's Best of E3 2014 Awards . Similarly , at the 2014 Game Critics Awards , the game was nominated for Best of Show , Best Console Game , and Best Action / Adventure Game . In August 2014 , a cinematic trailer for the game was shown at Gamescom .
Alien : Isolation was released on 7 October 2014 , featuring two pre @-@ order downloadable content missions that allow players to play two scenes from the original film . The first mission
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of the socially disadvantaged across the country . In his book American Pictures ( 1977 ) , a worldwide success , he contrasted these with photographs of the American elite , hoping to provide a basis for social reform .
Today Danish press photographers are as active as ever . Jan Grarup , in particular , has covered wars and conflicts around the globe over the past 20 years , earning prestigious awards at home and abroad . Claus Bjørn Larsen , also working as a war photographer , won the World Press Photo of the Year award in 1999 for his work in Kosovo .
Documentary photography has also flourished outside the press . As an example , Jette Bang ( 1914 – 1964 ) was fascinated by Greenland and the Greenlanders . From 1936 , she took over 12 @,@ 000 black @-@ and @-@ white photographs of the country and its inhabitants , showing how close to nature people lived .
= = Art or science ? = =
Since the very beginning , Danes have argued about the precise place of photography in society . In 1839 , Crown Prince Frederik deposited Falbe 's daguerreotypes with Ørsted , the secretary of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters , despite the fact that Daguerre , the inventor , was an artist . In 1842 , the artist Johan Frederik Møller was refused a grant from the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts for studying photography in France on the grounds that it was not an art . Photographers came within neither the scope of the Academy of Sciences nor that of the Academy of Fine Arts but were regarded as manual workers .
The confusion continued until the end of the 19th century when artists began to use photography as an aid to painting . Notable examples are Peder Severin Krøyer , Jens Ferdinand Willumsen and Laurits Andersen Ring who used photography to obtain more detail and realism in their paintings .
With the advent of photographic societies such as Danske Kamera Piktorialister ( Danish Camera Pictorialists ) in the 1930s , there was increasing pressure from activists such as H. B. J. Cramer to have photography recognized as an art form . Indeed , the movement continued right up to the 1970s . A counter @-@ movement to pictorialism , the 1920s ' Neue Sachlichkeit was slow to reach Denmark but surfaced in 1948 when Keld Helmer @-@ Petersen published his abstract colour studies in 122 Colour Photographs .
Apart from the 20 rather amateurish artistic photography events arranged by Aage Remfeldt between 1946 and 1976 at Charlottenborg , Denmark had few photographic exhibitions until the 1960s . The situation improved in 1963 when Jesper Høm arranged an exhibition at the Danish Museum of Art & Design with photographers from New York , Moscow and Paris . Another positive influence was Keld Helmer @-@ Petersen 's book Fragments of a City with photographs of fire escapes and artistically silhouetted cranes taken while he was a student at Chicago 's Institute of Design , some of which were published in the magazine Perspectiv .
In the winter of 1968 – 1969 , Jens Juncker @-@ Jensen went even further with an excellent exhibition Fotografiet som udtryksmiddel ( Photography as a means of expression ) for which he drew the very best material from the few photographic books of the time , attracting not only professional and amateur photographers but also architects and television producers . It provided a basis for six TV programmes over the following months . There was , however , little real discussion of photography as an art form .
In the early 1970s , under the influence of the United States where photography had become an academic discipline , exhibitions such as New American Photography in Copenhagen 's Bella Center presented top artistic photographers of the 1950s and 1960s including Harry Callahan , Jerry Uelsmann and Diane Arbus . This was followed in 1973 by the opening of Galleriet for Creativ Fotografi ( Gallery for Creative Photography ) in Copenhagen , to be followed in 1977 by the IMAGE gallery in Aarhus which encouraged experimental photography . Subsequent exhibitions involved the landscape photographer Kirsten Klein , the pioneers of staged photography Nanna Bisp Büchert and Lis Steincke , as well as the magic realist Per Bak Jensen .
In the 1990s , after Per Bak Jensen had joined the teaching staff at the Royal Academy in Copenhagen , it was clear that photography had been accepted as an art form . As evidence , in October 2004 , for the very first time , a number of the Academy 's students and graduates presented their photographs at an exhibition in Copenhagen 's Galleri Asbæk under the common title ” Eye of the Beholder – et blik på portrættet ” .
= = Contemporary photographers = =
Recognizing the growing status of photography as an art form , artists such as Richard Winther , Stig Brøgger , Jytte Rex , Peter Brandes and Ane Mette Ruge have actively contributed to its development . On the digital front , younger artists like Lisa Rosenmeier have combined classical techniques of art and photography with digitized forms of expression .
Some of Denmark 's more widely recognized contemporary photographers are :
Rigmor Mydtskov ( 1925 – 2010 ) was a Danish court photographer who is remembered both for her portraits of artists performing in Danish theatres but also for her many portraits of Queen Margrethe and other members of the Danish royal family . Realizing that people in such positions tend to act as if masked , she sought to portray the person behind the mask , although she often succeeded in maintaining a little of the secrecy . As a portrait photographer , she was gentle , intuitive and confident . Her life 's work is a result of a constant , concentrated effort .
Per Bak Jensen ( born 1949 ) seeks to capture timelessness or " the being of places " in his work . A pioneer of modern landscape photography , his topics are unusual : a field of corn stubble , thistles , or twigs lying in the snow . Much of his recent work includes photographs from Iceland and Greenland , some with stark images of minerals and rocks . While he is extremely attentive to angle , light and exposure , he never manipulates his photographs once they have been taken . He has successfully exhibited across Denmark for many years and more recently in New York , London and Paris .
Krass Clement ( born 1946 ) graduated as a film director but soon turned to still photography , publishing his first book Skygger af øjeblikke ( Shadows of the Moment ) in 1978 . He has since become an active documentary photographer , focusing on people from both Denmark and elsewhere . His earlier work is black and white but since 2000 he has also worked with colour .
Kirsten Klein ( born 1945 ) studied portrait and museum photography before specializing in landscapes . Her black @-@ and @-@ white photographs often make use of older techniques such as cyanotype and platinum printing . Concentrating on landscapes , she conveys a sensitive , poetic and often melancholic mood . Since 1976 , she has lived on the Danish island of Mors where she has photographed the ever @-@ changing countryside and coastline .
Steen Brogaard ( born 1961 ) began his career in Copenhagen in 1984 photographing Greenpeace meetings and demonstrations . In 1987 , while in the United States , he was contacted by a Danish gossip magazine where he learnt the technique of photographing celebrities . Since the late 1990s , he has been a court photographer , following the lives of the Crown Prince , the Crown Princess and their family . This has allowed him to travel widely in China and the Far East . One of his recent interests is Denmark and the Danes , examining " what they do best in a great little country " .
Asger Carlsen ( born 1973 ) , who now lives in New York , has had considerable success with the cleverly doctored black @-@ and @-@ white images presented in his book Wrong . Everyday scenes suddenly become depictions of a surreal alternate reality , bordering on hallucinations . Carlsen explains his approach as " an expression of never really belonging anywhere . "
Astrid Kruse Jensen ( born 1975 , educated in the Netherlands and Scotland ) specializes in photographs taken at night which evoke the zone between reality and imagination . Carefully combining the effects of artificial light with the surrounding darkness , she creates mysterious images of lakes , swimming pools and solitary figures in the twilight . Since 2003 , she has participated in key exhibitions in Denmark and elsewhere .
Jacob Aue Sobol ( born 1976 ) studied at Fatamorgana , the Danish School of Art Photography . His first book Sabine presents vivid pictures of his Greenlandic girlfriend and the remote village where she lives . For his series on the Gomez Brito family from Quiché in Guatemala , he won the 2005 World Press Photo prize for Daily Life Stories . Commenting on his book I , Tokyo , Miranda Gavin appreciates how " the sensitivity of his approach shines through the work and sets him apart as one of a new generation of photographers with the ability to allow eroticism and danger to seep through his images without becoming sordid or clichéd . "
Klaus Thymann ( born 1974 ) lives in London . His HYBRIDS project was published in 2007 and featured documentary photography with a global perspective exploring peculiar hybrid cultures around the planet , such as Snow Polo in St. Mortiz , Gay Rodeo in LA , Underwater Striptease in Chile , Underground Gardening in Tokyo and more .
= = Photographic museums and galleries in Denmark = =
National Museum of Photography , the Royal Library , Copenhagen .
Fotografisk Center , Copenhagen
Annexone.org , Copenhagen
Danish Museum of Photographic Art , Odense .
Phototek Esbjerg , Esbjerg
Galleri Image , Aarhus
Danmarks Fotomuseum , Herning
= A Little Kiss =
" A Little Kiss " is the two @-@ part fifth season premiere of the American television drama series Mad Men . Officially counted as the first two episodes of the season , it figures as the 53rd and 54th overall episodes of the series . It was written by series creator and executive producer Matthew Weiner , and directed by Jennifer Getzinger . It originally aired on the AMC channel in the United States on March 25 , 2012 .
The premiere centers on Don Draper 's fortieth birthday , opening on Memorial Day weekend 1966 . The office prepares for Don 's surprise party while also dealing with the Heinz Beans account recently brought into the agency . The relationship between Megan and Don turns bitter after she performs a sensual dance during the party , while Peggy and Pete both suffer through professional conflict with their fellow co @-@ workers .
" A Little Kiss " was the first Mad Men episode to air in 17 months following heated contract negotiations between AMC and Matthew Weiner . A consequence of the hiatus saw the show switch from airing in the Summer / Fall to the Spring for the remainder of its run . Christopher Stanley ( Henry Francis ) , Jessica Paré ( Megan Draper ) , and Jay R. Ferguson ( Stan Rizzo ) were all added as main cast members beginning with the premiere . The theme of the episode relates to the boredom and discontent among the main characters as they settle into their rather uneventful lives . The episode was well received by television critics and , at a runtime of 90 minutes , is the longest episode of Mad Men to date . It was also the highest rated episode of Mad Men to date with 3 @.@ 54 million viewers tuning in , a substantial jump over the fourth season average owing in large part to the lengthy time between seasons .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part I = = =
On the street below the Young & Rubicam office , African American protesters are picketing in support of equal @-@ opportunity employment . Several employees lean out the office window and drop bags of water on them . The protesters and journalists then enter the office to catch the employees ready with water @-@ filled bags .
At his new apartment , Don Draper ( Jon Hamm ) cooks breakfast for Sally ( Kiernan Shipka ) , Bobby ( Mason Vale Cotton ) and Gene . He only gets to see them for a short time before he returns them to Betty and Henry ’ s impressive ( but quite old ) home . Don is now married to Megan , and turning forty ( Dick Whitman 's birthday having been several months earlier and Don Draper 's about to occur ) . Megan , who now works under Peggy Olson ( Elisabeth Moss ) in creative , is planning a big surprise party for his birthday . Peggy , knowing Don 's aversion to birthdays , is reserved about the idea , but Megan insists that no one could dislike parties .
Roger Sterling ( John Slattery ) shows Don and Pete Campbell ( Vincent Kartheiser ) a newspaper article shaming Y & R for the water @-@ bomb stunt . Roger suggests running a mock ad touting Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce as an equal @-@ opportunity employer .
Pete arrives at a lunch meeting with representatives from Mohawk Airlines and unexpectedly finds Roger sharing drinks with them . Roger had spied on Pete 's appointment calendar . Pete is overcome with anger over Roger ’ s antics , especially since the charismatic Roger makes a much better impression .
During a presentation for Heinz , Peggy pitches an ambitious , cutting @-@ edge " ballet of beans " ad , which does not impress the Heinz executives . Don enters to assure the company men that his firm will think of a new pitch . Peggy protests that he did not fight hard enough for her idea , and complains to Stan that Don has changed .
On the evening of the surprise party ( which is inadvertently given away by Roger ) , Megan presents her birthday gift : She sings a French song , " Zou Bisou Bisou " , and dances provocatively . The guests clap and whistle , although Don seems unimpressed . Peggy , while talking to Don and Megan , makes a snide remark about having to return to the office later , since she is the only one really working on the weekend . After the party , Don , tired of the day , collapses on the bed fully clothed . Megan asks if he enjoyed the party ; he tells her not to waste money on such things . Not fazed by his demeanor , she teases and kisses him , wanting to talk about the party . He declines and insists on going to sleep , so she leaves the room upset .
= = = Part II = = =
The next morning , Lane Pryce ( Jared Harris ) finds a man 's wallet in a cab . Inspecting it , he becomes fascinated with a photo of a young woman named Delores . He later telephones the wallet ’ s owner but reaches Delores , the owner ’ s girlfriend . He flirts with her on the phone , and she promises the wallet be retrieved . The owner of the wallet comes to Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce in order to retrieve it . Lane secretly removes Delores ’ photo and the owner does not notice .
Joan Harris ( Christina Hendricks ) has given birth to a son named Kevin , who is now a few months old . Her mother , Gail Holloway ( Christine Estabrook ) , has come to stay with her to help with the baby but constantly argues with Joan over the subject of Joan returning to work , saying that Joan 's husband is a doctor . Insisting that the company needs her , Joan does not want to break her promise to go back . Gail shows Joan the company 's newspaper ad and claims that it is evidence that they intend to replace her . Joan stops by the office with baby Kevin in tow . In Lane ’ s office , she tearfully asks if they are planning to replace her . He assures her that the ad is a poor joke and that everyone is eagerly awaiting her return .
Megan overhears some particularly lewd comments from Harry about her dance , eventually ranting to Peggy about the office ’ s cynical culture . She tells her that Don did not appreciate the surprise party . Peggy apologizes for her rude comment at the party and Megan goes home early . Peggy goes to Don ’ s office to apologize to him as well . After hearing that Megan went home early , Don also leaves for the day . At the apartment , he asks Megan why she left work . She then disrobes and angrily cleans up the mess left from the party in just her black bra and panties . Don tries to initiate sex , but Megan says no and forcefully pushes him away several times . Don grabs her roughly , saying she " [ wants ] it so bad right now " , and the two have sex on the floor . Afterwards , Megan complains that she is not liked at the office and wonders if she ought to stop working there . Don tells her he does not care about work - he only cares about her .
Pete is given Harry 's office , which is larger and has windows , in order to impress his clients . As revenge for Roger crashing his earlier meeting with Mohawk Airlines , Peter later tricks Roger into going on a 6 : 00 a.m. meeting with Coca @-@ Cola that doesn ’ t exist .
At the office the next morning , Don and Megan enter the reception area to find a large group of African @-@ American women and men . They are responding to the newspaper ad , not aware it was a joke . The receptionist interrupts with a piece of traditional African art , sent from Y & R. Realizing that the applicants have seen the artifact , Cooper sends Lane into the reception area . He dismisses the men , by saying they are only seeking secretaries , and collects resumes from the women .
= = Production = =
" A Little Kiss " was directed by Jennifer Getzinger and written by series creator Matthew Weiner . This was the second episode to be solely written by Weiner and directed by Getzinger , the other being the fourth season episode " The Suitcase " . Although the first to be aired of the season , it was actually produced after the following episode " Tea Leaves " , due to January Jones ' pregnancy . Despite the long break , 85 percent of the crew from the fourth season returned for the fifth . " There 's a sense of boredom , there 's a sense of anxiety , there 's a sense of discontent with the contentedness " , Weiner said , in regards to the positions of the characters at the beginning of the new season . Weiner considered the main question of the first episode " What is Don Draper like when he is happy ? " , with the twist of the first episode being Don 's disinterest in work . The episode was expanded from its regular runtime of 47 minutes into a 90 @-@ minute episode aired over two hours , after Weiner realized the story broken for the premiere was " 85 percent too big " . " We just put everything into it that we had . I think when you see it in its completeness , you 'll get it . "
Intense contract negotiations between the end of the fourth and fifth season led Matthew Weiner to quit during the downtime between Season 4 and Season 5 . AMC and Weiner were locked in intense negotiations , with AMC asking Weiner to cut two main cast members every season starting with the fifth , a shorter running time to make room for more commercials , and more product placement within the series . During the negotiations , Weiner said , " First of all , the number that 's been published is not true . Second of all , I offered to have less money , to save the cast , and to leave the show in the running time that it 's supposed to be . The harder that I 've fought for the show , the more money that they 've offered me . " After conversations with the network stalled , Weiner gave up hope on returning to the series . " I quit ... during the negotiation . I had come to terms with the fact that it was over ... In the most protective and demanding way , I did not feel that it was worth going back to work to make a show that was not the show I 'd been making . I had this argument with my wife , where I said : ' You don 't understand - it 's not just a matter of changing the show . I don 't want to go to work and do it different . I just figured out how it works ' ... [ But ] in the end , everything worked out . " AMC eventually relented , signing a new deal with Weiner that keeps him on board as showrunner for the fifth and sixth season , with a strong possibility for a final seventh season .
Weiner explained that the delay in the airing of the series and the 17 @-@ month break between the fourth and fifth season was not his decision . Although , he did admit that the plan to keep Mad Men off the air in 2011 was in place before the negotiations . He said , " There was a plan in place in 2010 that the show would not be on the air in 2011 . You don 't just throw in Breaking Bad because Mad Men is not available . They have four shows . They do them one at a time , and God bless them for the fact that Breaking Bad got an audience , because of where they were this summer . I 'm very happy about that , because people should see that show . "
= = = " The Look of Love " song change = = =
The original screener of " A Little Kiss " sent out to critics included the use of the Dusty Springfield song " The Look of Love " . However , critics soon pointed out that " The Look of Love " was not released until 1967 , six months after the time period that " A Little Kiss " takes place . When critics pointed this out to showrunner Matthew Weiner , he sent out a letter to critics , which was reprinted in many publications and websites . Weiner 's letter included him telling reporters that , " Although we take license for artistic purposes with the end @-@ title music , we never want the source music to break from the time period we are trying to recreate . As someone who has a deep appreciation for details , I want to thank you for bringing this to our attention . It ’ s a privilege to work on a show that generates an ongoing dialog with you and our amazing fans so please — keep those notes and comments coming ! " The 1966 Dusty Springfield song " You Don 't Have To Say You Love Me " was used during the end titles , though this was not a replacement for " The Look of Love " . An article by The New York Times indicated that " The Look of Love " was originally played by the band at Don Draper 's fortieth birthday party .
= = = Young & Rubicam protest incident = = =
In an unusual departure for the series , the opening scene of the season premiere was largely a re @-@ creation of a true event that occurred at the Young & Rubicam advertising agency . The original story detailing the event was published on Page 1 of the May 28 , 1966 edition of The New York Times . The " Goldwater ' 68 " poster seen in the window of Young & Rubicam during " A Little Kiss " was also present on the day of the real event , including another poster that read " If you want money , get a job " ( echoed by one character 's scream of " Get a job ! " at the protesters in the premiere ) .
The incident was notable for water bombs thrown from the executive floor , which housed the Young & Rubicam advertising agency . The two water balloons struck 19 @-@ year @-@ old James Hill , who slipped and fell on pavement , but was not seriously hurt . The other hit 9 @-@ year @-@ old Mike Robinson . His mother , Mrs. Esme Robinson , along with other Black protestors and a New York Times reporter , came to the executive floor to complain . Mike Robinson , Esme Robinson , protestor Vivian Harris , and Times reporter John Kifner were all portrayed in the opening scene . The dialogue in the scene was also taken directly from the original article . Vivian Harris originally said the , " And they call us savages " line , which television critic Mike Hale called " unfortunately hamhanded " and fellow critic Matt Zoller Seitz called " a terrible line " when they reviewed the premiere , apparently unaware that it was a real quote . On the day of the real event , Young & Rubicam office manager Frank Coppola apologized to the women for the incident , saying that " we have 1 @,@ 600 people in this building and I can 't control all of them . I 've ordered all of the windows closed and I have men patrolling all the floors to make sure this doesn 't happen again . " Coppola 's assurance that the windows were closed is similar to character Don Draper 's idea of " Our windows don 't open " in Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce 's mocking want ad seen later in the episode .
After the head researcher for Mad Men , Allison Hill , found the original article , she handed it to showrunner Matthew Weiner , who was " blown away " . “ I just loved the level of outrage from the participants in the protest . It was so eloquently said , and it struck to the heart of the conflict . They were being lampooned . This was a very serious issue for them and a joke to everyone else , " Weiner said . The original New York Times reporter , John Kifner , does not remember the actual event , mentioning that he did " a lot of poverty and racial stuff . " He could not remember the original article , but was greatly excited when he heard that his story inspired the premiere . The current chief executive of Young & Rubicam , David Sable , did not know whether the original employees were fired , but found their actions " completely repulsive and not in line with the values of our company " .
= = = " Zou Bisou Bisou " = = =
The episode includes a scene where Megan Draper serenades Don with a rendition of " Zou Bisou Bisou " , which is a French Yé @-@ yé song originally released in 1960 by Gillian Hills . Creator Matthew Weiner prepared Jessica Paré for her performance of " Zou Bisou Bisou " and gave her a detailed list of notes to help her . She worked with choreographer Marianne Ann Kellogg during three six @-@ hour sessions to work out the dance routine . It took the actress about a week and a half to learn the entire routine . She recorded the actual song in a studio . Paré said to reporters the day after the original episode airing , “ It ’ s been gathering a lot of really great attention . I can ’ t believe I ’ m new on the show and one of the first things I have to do is an entire song and dance routine for the entire cast of Mad Men . ” Weiner characterized the dance as a symbol of the oncoming generation gap and " open sexuality " .
Olivia Fleming of Daily Mail praised the surprise 40th birthday party scene saying " … sultry style icon , Megan Draper , captured America 's attention … seducing the audience - if not her new husband Don Draper . " She also noted the performance 's " … unyielding coyness and high voltage sexuality . " Alexandra Kaptik of The Wall Street Journal said " One of the most talked @-@ about scenes … was Megan Draper ’ s sultry performance … " Slate 's Haglund described the song as " The centerpiece of the Mad Men season 5 premiere " . Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone described the scene as " a highlight of the two @-@ hour episode " , stating that " Megan sings … for her husband , who can barely suppress his embarrassment and discomfort . " Bill Keveney of USA Today said " Paré … had fans buzzing … with her character 's sexy rendition … " Patrick Kevin Day of the Los Angeles Times stated that the scene " … has people talking " , describing it as follows : " Pare … serenades her husband … with the sexy , slinky number " Zou Bisou Bisou " while wearing a barely there miniskirt . " Lori Rackl of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times noted that the performance was the talk the premiere and said : " Showing a lot of leg — and chutzpah — the new Mrs. Megan Draper ( Jessica Paré ) delivered a sexy serenade … purring the early ’ 60s French pop song " Zou Bisou Bisou . " The … performance made the unflappable Don Draper blush and his co @-@ workers ’ jaws hit the floor … " Lauren Moraski of CBS News said " Probably one of the best scenes … took place when the new Mrs. Don Draper ( Jessica Paré as Megan ) sang an awkward @-@ turned @-@ sultry version of the French ' 60s pop song " Zou Bisou Bisou " … " Erin Carlson of The Hollywood Reporter described Paré 's performance as " bizarre , come @-@ hither burlesque " , noting that she " … stunned partygoers who openly ogled her while the ad exec ( Jon Hamm ) squirmed with polite embarrassment . " Ethan Sacks of the New York Daily News described the scene as " The sexy scene in which Megan serenades Don … with the song and transitions into a lap dance … "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" A Little Kiss " was the most watched @-@ episode of Mad Men to date , with 3 @.@ 5 million viewers and 1 @.@ 6 million viewers in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . Before the fifth season , Mad Men had never gotten above a 1 @.@ 00 in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . The premiere 's core viewer demographic was adults aged 25 – 54 at 1 @.@ 7 million viewers . This was an increase from the same core group during the season four premiere at 1 @.@ 4 million viewers . Charlie Collier , AMC ’ s president , said that " For each of the five Mad Men seasons Matthew Weiner and his team have crafted a beautifully told story and each season a larger audience has responded ; a rare accomplishment . We couldn ’ t be more proud of this program , the brilliant writers , cast and crew , and the entire team on each side of the camera . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
" A Little Kiss " received very approving reviews from the television critic community . USA Today writer Robert Bianco gave it four out of four stars , praising the high level of achievement in the writing and directing as well as the cast led by the " shockingly under @-@ Emmyed Jon Hamm , playing a man who is his own deeply flawed invention and letting us see the effort and pain behind the charade . But there 's not a weak performer on view Sunday , from the preternaturally assured Kiernan Shipka as Sally to old pro Robert Morse as Bert . " TV Guide critic Matt Roush opined that " the civil rights movement provides ironic bookends for the episode , reflecting how insular the universe is for these smug but deeply flawed purveyors of the American dream , none more memorable and maddening than Don Draper ( Jon Hamm ) , the alpha hunk who appears to have it all . But some things never change in the world of Mad Men : the high quality of acting , writing , production design and detail . " Newsday reviewer Verne Gay gave it an " A " grade , citing that " Mad Men is back and back in all the right ways -- the humor , the writing , the period details , and best of all , the flawless attention to these characters and their cluttered interior worlds . " Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said that " the premiere suggests that the only other show that belongs with it in the discussion for the best drama on television is the same one we were talking about last season . At the top level , there is Breaking Bad , and there is also — finally , thankfully , exceptionally — Mad Men , and then there is everything else . "
TV Fanatic ’ s Dan Forcella gave the two @-@ hour season premiere 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars by saying , " Honestly , the first 45 minutes or so were basically just setting the scene for the new season , so it was a smart move to make this premiere two hours long . After that , though , everything began to pick up . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club rated this episode an A- and commented on the series ' take on the 1960s , saying : " The ' 60s are both incredibly important to the show and something almost incidental to what makes it work so well . It ’ s a show , on the one hand , about how people deal with sweeping social change , even when it 's happening way , way off their radar ( as we see in the final scene of tonight 's episode ) , but it ’ s also a show about what it means to live through a decade . " Lori Rackl of Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the season five premiere four stars : " After a dark and often depressing season four , it 's refreshing to start things off on a more jovial , lighter note . That 's not to say the premiere is devoid of angst , disappointment and drama . It 's just buoyed by an unusually high amount of humor . " The Los Angeles Times ' Robert Lloyd spoke about the series ' continued success : " It works because it 's less about who we were then — it 's a fantasy of who we were then , really — than about who we are now . "
Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times , however , was one of the very few reviewers to give the season premiere a low score : " A show that became a hit because it seemed so original has been so co @-@ opted that it now looks like a cliché . The personalities on Mad Men don 't change , but the times do . At this point , the context may be more interesting than the characters . " On Twitter , Hollywood Reporter critic Tim Goodman characterized Stanley 's critique as a " bullshit ramble @-@ review " , saying that Stanley " just wants us to know she 's above the material she 's covering . " In his review , Goodman was laudatory , saying that " the party , more than anything else , was a central defining moment of where we 're going . Everything about it was different . Newer . We 're not in 1960 anymore . And if you think about it , the show we all know and love is about to change as well . It 's going to look different , above and beyond the characters changing . " Time writer James Poniewozik wrote a cooler review saying that , " I ’ m glad to have Mad Men back , but “ A Little Kiss ” was not a great episode . Mad Men return episodes generally aren ’ t : they take their time and do a lot of table setting . " Poniewozik was simultaneously intrigued and unsettled by Megan 's addition as " essentially a new female lead " and reasoned that Weiner used Megan 's " unfamiliarity as an advantage and as a storytelling device . The very fact that she is an unknown quantity among these very well @-@ known quantities may give us a chance to see everyone we think we know differently — through the eyes of a relative stranger . " Chuck Barney of the Contra Costa Times said the premiere was off to a " methodical start " that reintroduced us to the " enigmatic characters " but that " Eventually , it gains traction , weaving threads of heartfelt poignancy with doses of dark humor . What hasn 't changed is the quality of the endeavor . Mad Men remains a show that often feels more like literature than TV . The top @-@ notch acting is still intact , as is the attention to aesthetic detail . So , after that excruciating delay , are we still in love with this show ? Truly , deeply -- madly . " David Weigard of the San Francisco Chronicle called the premiere a " stunner " and compared to the character of Don Draper to legendary American characters like Jake Barnes , Charles Foster Kane , Tony Soprano , Huck Finn , Natty Bumppo , Elmer Gantry and " most of all , to F. Scott Fitzgerald 's creation of Jimmy Gatz , who assumed an entirely new identity as Jay Gatsby in 1925 . "
= Phantom Power ( Super Furry Animals album ) =
Phantom Power is the sixth album by Welsh indie rock band Super Furry Animals , released on 21 July 2003 by Epic Records in the United Kingdom . The record was originally conceived as a ten song concept album using D @-@ A @-@ D @-@ D @-@ A @-@ D guitar tuning , but the band chose to abandon this idea during recording as they didn 't want to constrain themselves . The group did attempt to create a " more coherent " album than their past efforts by choosing songs which worked well together . Phantom Power was recorded at the band 's own studio , AV Happenings , in Cardiff with the Super Furries producing and engineering themselves for the first time . The album features a range of musical styles , from country rock to techno , although many of the tracks are based around the acoustic guitar . According to chief songwriter and vocalist Gruff Rhys , the album 's lyrics deal with " broken relationships and war " .
The album , like their previous record Rings Around the World , was simultaneously released on CD , vinyl and DVD . The DVD featured a surround sound mix of the album along with animations , commentary by Mario Caldato Jr . ( who mixed the record ) and remixes . The majority of these remixes were re @-@ released as the album Phantom Phorce in 2004 . Phantom Power was well received , with many critics suggesting it was the best album of the band 's career .
= = Origins and recording = =
Phantom Power was originally conceived as a ten song cycle in the " unconventional " D @-@ A @-@ D @-@ D @-@ A @-@ D guitar tuning . Singer Gruff Rhys wrote many of the songs on the album in this tuning and in the key of D major during the space of a few days . These tracks , which included the " Father Father " instrumentals , " Golden Retriever " , " Hello Sunshine " , " Cityscape Skybaby " and " Out of Control " , were then demoed at the house of regular producer Gorwel Owen with overdubs added at the band 's own office @-@ block based studio , AV Happenings , in Cardiff .
The group took a hands @-@ on approach to the actual recording sessions for Phantom Power , engineering and producing themselves for the first time . Recording largely took place at AV Happenings during the second half of 2002 , with the band working through the night so as not to disturb staff who worked in other parts of the building during the day . According to bassist Guto Pryce this involved a fair amount of trial and error as the band " didn 't really know what [ they ] were doing " . Soundproof booths were improvised by setting up tents in the office corridors : " we 'd record a guitar and it 'd sound rubbish and we had to figure out why . So we started experimenting with different tent designs . In the end it was the wigwam that was easiest to put up and sounded best " . The band had to take these booths down before office workers arrived in the morning , a process that guitarist Huw Bunford has described as " ghosts in the night ... a bit clandestine " . A brief two @-@ week session with Gorwel Owen at Rockfield Studios saw some of the album 's more " straight ahead " tracks recorded with live vocals before the band returned to AV Happenings and " messed around " with them . When the album was almost finished the band enlisted the services of Tony Doogan who engineered sessions during which several vocal parts were recorded .
The ten song D @-@ A @-@ D @-@ D @-@ A @-@ D concept was eventually abandoned with Pryce stating " we don 't like constraining ourselves and if you 've got a concept , you 're doing that . And we had some other really nice tunes so we just chose the best songs " . According to Rhys the only plan the group stuck to was to make a " more coherent " record : " In the past ... we 'd put ideas kind of side by side , and on this record we wanted all those sounds to be more blended " . Following arguments over the track listing of previous album Rings Around the World , after a " lot of songs " were recorded necessitating four months worth of discussions about which tracks to leave off the record , the group recorded just 16 largely acoustic based songs during the sessions for Phantom Power . Rhys 's initial batch of songs were augmented by , among others , the Huw Bunford penned " Sex , War & Robots " , the first time the guitarist had had one of his songs included on a Super Furry Animals album and also the first time he had sung lead vocals for the group , " Slow Life " , which grew out of an electronic piece of music keyboardist Cian Ciaran had been working on for several years and " The Piccolo Snare " which was partly written in the studio .
= = Music = =
After the more produced Rings Around the World , which relied heavily on computers and electronics , the group were keen to make Phantom Power " a little more human " with guitarist Huw Bunford stating : " with technology you can do anything these days , but sometimes less is more " . Many songs on the album are acoustic based and bass player Guto Pryce has claimed that they sounded " pretty good right from the start " which also contributed to the decision to avoid " over @-@ tweak [ ing ] them in the studio " . Despite this the group did work electronic loops into several tracks after Ciaran bought a large number of " sound effect and light music " vinyl records from a man who worked in the same building . According to Rhys : " he knocked on the door just as we were beginning the album : " hey , I 've got these records to sell , are ya interested ? " And Cian went down to check them out and gave him a hundred pounds on the spot and carried 700 albums back to our tiny room " .
The album showcases an eclectic range of sounds from the country rock of " Sex , War & Robots " , featuring pedal steel guitar , to the heavy metal and punk of " Out of Control " and the glam rock of first single " Golden Retriever " . " Slow Life " , a track which singer Gruff Rhys has described as the " most sonically impressive " song on Phantom Power , features techno influences and is based on a piece of electronic music written by keyboardist Cian Ciaran several years earlier . Ciaran encouraged the band to jam on top of his original track to produce a fusion of techno and guitar @-@ pop . " The Undefeated " is inspired by ska and reggae music , although the group removed a " cheesy white reggae " section from the song because it sounded " fucking horrible " and actively tried not to make it sound too much like a ska or reggae track as they felt they " couldn 't pull it off " . Many tracks feature close vocal harmonies , with all the band apart from Pryce contributing . These harmonies give the album a California / West Coast of America feel , with comparisons being drawn to the work of The Beach Boys , particularly on the song " Venus and Serena " .
= = Lyrical themes = =
Singer and chief lyric writer Gruff Rhys has claimed that Phantom Power is about " broken relationships and war " with " a positive outlook to the future " . As " BBC News 24 addicts " Rhys and the band absorbed " fucked up war images " from the Iraq War during the making of the album which affected the way songs were written : " We seem to be living in such a heavy time . We 're just absorbing all the words thrown at us from the TV and regurgitating them back . " Frustration with the George Bush administration and its foreign policy had an impact on the record with Rhys claiming that he feels qualified to address the subject as United States foreign policy " effectively decides what the foreign policy is in the UK " .
The two most overtly " political " tracks on Phantom Power are " The Piccolo Snare " and " Liberty Belle " . " The Piccolo Snare " is about " societies torn apart by war and the waste of human life " . The track uses the vocabulary of the Falklands War ( Tumbledown , Skyhawks etc . ) but Rhys claims it is applicable to any war . " Liberty Belle " tells the story of two cartoon characters devised by Rhys , ' Liberty Belle ' and ' Memory Lane ' , the former representing the " bells of freedom " , specifically the American Dream , and the latter representing " history 's harsh lessons " which Liberty Belle has failed to learn . The song is told from the perspective of a " bird living almost in a parallel universe to humans , oblivious to the gravity of the games which are being played around us " , something which Rhys admits to feeling himself much of the time . " Venus and Serena " uses a story of a child who talks to his pet tortoises , Venus and Serena , as he can 't communicate with his elders to make a similar point : that people feel alienated from their elected leaders . Both " Out of Control " and " Slow Life " feature regurgitated media buzzwords , with " Out of Control 's " " flippant " lyrics designed to create the feel of " an over @-@ dramatic theme to a current affairs programme " . " Bleed Forever " deals specifically with the nuclear fallout from the Chernobyl disaster which fell over North Wales , allegedly causing an increase in incidents of leukaemia among children in the area .
However , Rhys has been keen to point out that the record is not a forcefully political one , claiming that most of the band 's songs are " fragments of daily life ; occasionally politics are a part of that . Super Furry Animals is about exploration , not political campaigning " . " Valet Parking " , for example , is a song about " the glories of pan @-@ European travel " , documenting a road trip from Cardiff to Vilnius , " Golden Retriever " is about " the relationship between [ Gruff Rhys 's ] girlfriend 's two dogs - a male and a female " and " The Undefeated " , inspired by a poor run of results for the Welsh football team , is about " underdogs and overdogs " .
= = DVD = =
The DVD of Phantom Power contains the 14 songs featured on the CD version of the album in surround sound , 16 remixes , commentary by Mario Caldato Jr. who mixed the record and provided one of the remixes , and song lyrics .
According to singer Gruff Rhys , the concept behind the DVD was based on the success of platform games : the listener can play the album as if it were a game and spend " months ... instead of weeks " exploring the content . Unlike the DVD version of previous album Rings Around the World , which featured videos for every track , the songs on the DVD are accompanied by slowly moving animations . Rhys has stated that the Super Furry Animals wanted to use " really bland images " as viewers began to place too much emphasis on the videos on Rings Around the World and the band wanted them to concentrate on the music .
Keyboardist Cian Ciaran stated at the time of Phantom Power 's release that the band would issue a DVD with every future album , claiming that " this is just the way we make records now " . However , the band 's next two albums , Love Kraft and Hey Venus ! , were not made available on DVD and , in a 2008 interview with Uncut , Rhys suggested that the release had been something of a failure : " no one gave a shit because people just want to rock n ' roll ! "
The remixes on the DVD version of Phantom Power vary from radical reworkings such as Killa Kella 's beatbox treatment of " Golden Retriever " and Wauvenfold 's " unrecognisable " version of " Sex , War and Robots " , to the likes of Mario Caldato Jr 's take on " Liberty Belle " and High Llamas ' " Valet Parking " which are merely " spruced up " . The majority of the remixes were reissued on CD as the album Phantom Phorce in 2004 . According to drummer Dafydd Ieuan the band didn 't have the money to pay the artists involved for their remix work so , in order to provide them with royalties , promised to release an album featuring the tracks on their own label , Placid Casual .
Hidden footage of the band firing machine guns can be reached by selecting the song " The Undefeated " , waiting 22 seconds until the lettering starts to blink and pressing ' Enter ' ( ' Enter ' must be pressed before the lettering blinks for a second time at 24 seconds ) Guitarist Huw Bunford has described this footage as being " exactly how it looked on the tin ... noisy , full of testosterone , with pumped up guys in the woods trying to kill furry animals ! "
= = Release = =
Phantom Power was released on CD , vinyl and DVD on 21 July 2003 in the United Kingdom on Sony 's Epic imprint . The album reached # 4 in the UK Albums Chart . In America the album was released on 22 July 2003 by Beggars Banquet US . Phantom Power was released on 21 July 2003 in Japan with two additional tracks , " Summer Snow " and " Blue Fruit " , added after " Slow Life " at the end of the album . " Golden Retriever " was released as the first single from the album , reaching # 13 in the UK Singles Chart , followed by " Hello Sunshine " in October 2003 which peaked at # 31 . The Slow Life EP was released as a free download from the website of the band 's record label , Placid Casual , on 12 April 2004 , featuring the title track , " Lost Control " ( a remix of " Out of Control " ) , and the Goldie Lookin Chain collaboration , " Motherfokker " . The majority of the remixes from the DVD version of Phantom Power were released as Phantom Phorce on Placid Casual on 19 April 2004 . Initial copies of this album came bundled with a CD version of the Slow Life EP . Phantom Power has been certified silver in the United Kingdom , denoting sales of more than 60 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Critical reception = =
Phantom Power received generally positive reviews from critics with a score of 87 on Metacritic , denoting " universal acclaim " . Drowned in Sound described the album as " another fine , esoteric wonder of an LP " , while the NME claimed it is the group 's " most focussed , energetic pop record since Radiator " and went on to state that " for a band to be hitting such form six albums into a steady career is astonishing " . Q called it " the band 's best work to date , as accessible as it is inventive " ; The Times agreed , calling Phantom Power " the Furries ’ most satisfying album to date ... one to cherish . " Several critics commented on the " summery pop " nature of the record with Tiny Mix Tapes likening the album to " the sun shining through following a large and brooding thunderstorm " and The Times calling it " mellow summer listening " despite the " grim view of the world " expressed in Gruff Rhys 's lyrics . The NME found that Phantom Power compares favourably with the band 's previous release , Rings Around the World , losing some of that album 's mainstream polish . AllMusic agreed , expressing relief that the band had loosened up following Rings ... , which the website described as " often sounding constrained by its polished widescreen aspirations " . Irish website entertainment.ie saw Phantom Power as " a highly polished affair , filled with the widescreen classic pop that Gruff Rhys and co. carry off so effortlessly ... thankfully free of the techno experiments that marred so much of their previous work " .
There was some criticism of the album with The Guardian accusing the band of " treading water " , the album suffering from overfamiliarity as the group 's sixth release despite being a " lovely record " . Stylus Magazine expressed similar views , claiming that Phantom Power " feels very much like business as usual for the Welsh wizards , as if they 've made just another album " . In a 2008 interview with Uncut Rhys described Phantom Power as his favourite Super Furries album , although he conceded that all the band 's records " have their moments " .
= = = Accolades = = =
* denotes an unordered list
= = Track listing = =
= Hurricane Klaus =
Hurricane Klaus was a minimal Atlantic hurricane that dropped heavy rainfall across the Lesser Antilles in October 1990 . The eleventh tropical cyclone and sixth hurricane of the 1990 Atlantic hurricane season , Klaus developed from a tropical wave on October 3 a short distance east of Dominica . It drifted northwestward , and quickly intensified to attain hurricane status on October 5 . Though its closest approach to the Lesser Antilles was within 12 miles ( 19 km ) , the strongest winds remained to its northeast due to strong wind shear , which caused Klaus to steadily weaken . After deteriorating into a tropical depression , Klaus briefly restrengthened over the Bahamas before dissipating on October 9 under the influence of developing tropical storm , Marco .
Heavy rainfall on Saint Lucia destroyed about 15 % of its yearly banana crop . Damage was heaviest on Martinique , where seven casualties occurred and 1 @,@ 500 people were left homeless as the heavy rainfall caused severe flooding on the island , resulting in some landslides . The remnant moisture of Klaus entered the southeastern United States , dropping heavy rainfall and causing four casualties ; the same area was affected with more precipitation a few days later by Tropical Storm Marco . Due to the damage caused by the storm , the name Klaus was retired from the list of tropical cyclone names .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 27 . It tracked westward to the south of a subtropical ridge , becoming convectively active , and a low @-@ level circulation was observed as it passed south of the Cape Verde islands on September 28 . The organization of the convection oscillated over the subsequent days , and a few times the system showed signs of developing into a tropical depression . As it approached the Lesser Antilles it organized further , and despite unfavorable upper @-@ level wind shear the system developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen on October 3 while located about 115 miles ( 185 km / h ) east of Dominica . Located in an area of weak steering currents , the depression drifted to the northwest , and about six hours after first developing the cyclone intensified into a tropical storm ; the National Hurricane Center designated it with the name Klaus .
Upon becoming a tropical storm , Klaus was located in an area of 29 mph ( 47 km / h ) of wind shear , although concurrently it was located over warm water temperatures of 83 @.@ 1 ° F ( 28 @.@ 4 ° C ) . Tracking through a highly baroclinic environment , the storm became better organized , and at 1200 UTC on October 5 Klaus attained hurricane status about 30 miles ( 50 km ) east of Antigua ; shortly thereafter , it passed 12 miles ( 19 km ) east of Barbuda , its closest point of approach to the Lesser Antilles . Klaus reached peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 985 @.@ 0 mbar ( 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) , though most of its deep convection and strong winds remained to its northeast due to wind shear . At the time the hurricane was forecast to continue tracking to the north @-@ northwest . However , after weakening to a tropical storm on October 6 , Klaus turned westward .
Klaus continued tracking just north of the Lesser Antilles , and after continuing to deteriorate from the wind shear , the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression on October 8 to the north of Puerto Rico . Later that day , convection redeveloped over the center , and Klaus re @-@ attained tropical storm status as it accelerated toward the northeast Bahamas ; it briefly reached winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . A low pressure area to its west over Cuba had been steadily intensifying and building toward the surface , and on October 9 it developed into a tropical depression ; the cyclone became the dominant system , eventually becoming Marco , and Klaus dissipated under the influence of the system late on October 9 . The remnant moisture continued to the northwest , reaching the coast of South Carolina by October 11 .
= = Preparations = =
Shortly after Klaus attained tropical storm status early on October 4 , a tropical storm warning was issued for the northern Leeward Islands from Saint Martin to Antigua , which was upgraded to a hurricane warning as its quick strengthening became apparent ; additionally , the government of France issued a tropical storm warning for Guadeloupe . A hurricane watch was issued for the
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Virgin Islands , though it was dropped as Klaus began to weaken . In Guadeloupe , officials advised citizens to transport livestock to safer areas , and also to avoid potentially flooded areas . Prior to its arrival , schools were closed in Martinique , Sint Maarten , and Antigua . The VC Bird International Airport was closed during the passage of the hurricane .
Later in its duration , the government of The Bahamas issued a tropical storm warning for the central and later northern Bahamas , though it was discontinued as the cyclone dissipated . Due to Hurricane Klaus , Space Shuttle Columbia 's launch was delayed .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Klaus dropped moderate to heavy rainfall across the Lesser Antilles , potentially as high as 15 inches ( 380 mm ) ; the hurricane affected many areas struck by Hurricane Hugo in the previous year . On Barbados , flooding from the rainfall blocked a few roads and forced a few families to move to safer areas ; lightning from the outskirts of the storm left a portion of the island without power . High winds and rainfall affected the island of Saint Lucia , which destroyed about 15 % of the nation 's banana crop for the year ; damage totaled about $ 1 million ( 1990 USD ) .
The rainfall resulted in severe flooding on Martinique , which accrued to almost 10 feet ( 3 m ) in some locations ; two sisters drowned near Saint @-@ Joseph after a bridge was washed away . Several landslides were reported on the island . The passage of the cyclone left damaged and power and telephone systems . 750 people evacuated their homes in Le Lamentin due to flooding , and a total of 1 @,@ 500 residents were left homeless on the island . Offshore , rough conditions damaged a fishing vessel , leaving its two passengers drifting on the boat for 25 days before being rescued about 640 miles ( 1035 km ) to the north @-@ northwest of Martinique . In all , seven people were killed on the island .
On Dominica , winds from the hurricane damaged power lines and downed trees in the northern portion of the island . High winds on Antigua damaged a few roofs , and also downed communications from two radio networks . The outer rainbands of the storm dropped light rainfall on the United States Virgin Islands , reaching about 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 32 mm ) on Saint Thomas ; wind gusts peaked at 33 mph ( 53 km / h ) on Saint Croix . Moderate rainfall continued into the Turks and Caicos Islands , with Grand Turk reporting a total of 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in 36 hours .
On the east coast of Florida , Klaus produced 15 foot ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) waves and tides of 3 feet ( 1 m ) above normal . Beach erosion was reported along the east coast , due to persistent easterly winds . As the remnant moisture of Klaus entered the southeastern United States , it produced heavy rainfall between 10 – 15 inches ( 250 – 380 mm ) of rainfall in South Carolina , with slightly lower totals in North Carolina . In South Carolina , the rainfall caused a dam to burst , killing four people . About two days after the remnants of Klaus entered the southeastern United States , Tropical Storm Marco made landfall on northwestern Florida , dropping more heavy rainfall and causing heavy damage across the region .
= = Retirement = =
Due to its impact on Martinique , the government of France requested the retirement of the name Klaus ; the World Meteorological Organization retired the name from the list of tropical cyclone names in the following year and replaced it with the name Kyle .
= New Jersey Route 57 =
Route 57 is a state highway located in Warren County in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It runs 21 @.@ 10 mi ( 33 @.@ 96 km ) from an interchange with U.S. Route 22 ( US 22 ) in Lopatcong Township to an intersection with Route 182 and County Route 517 ( CR 517 ) in Hackettstown . The route passes through mostly rural areas of farmland and mountains in Warren County . It also passes through Washington , where Route 57 crosses Route 31 . The route is designated a scenic byway , the Warren Heritage Scenic Byway , by the state of New Jersey due to the physical environments it passes through as well as from historical sites along the way such as the Morris Canal .
The current alignment of Route 57 was designated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 in 1917 . In 1927 , Route 24 was designated along this route between the Phillipsburg area and Penwell in Mansfield Township while a spur of Route 24 called Route S24 replaced pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 between Penwell and US 46 in Hackettstown . When New Jersey renumbered its state highways in 1953 , the portion of Route S24 between Penwell and CR 517 in Hackettstown became a part of Route 24 to complete a gap in that route while Route S24 north of there became Route 57 . A never @-@ built segment of Route 57 running from the intersection of Route 24 and Route 57 to US 46 east of Hackettstown was legislated in 1965 . Around 1970 , Route 57 was designated along Route 24 west of Hackettstown while the portion of Route 57 in Hackettstown became Route 182 .
= = Route description = =
Route 57 begins at an interchange with US 22 in Lopatcong Township , where the only movements possible here between the two highways are westbound Route 57 to westbound US 22 and vice @-@ versa . The road heads to the east on the Morris and Essex Turnpike , a two @-@ lane undivided road . The route heads through a mix of businesses and farm fields , with Norfolk Southern 's Washington Secondary rail line paralleling the road to the south . The railroad line eventually runs farther to the south of Route 57 before the route crosses County Route 519 ( Uniontown Road ) .
Past this intersection , the road heads northeast through farmland within the Pohatcong Creek valley , situated between Pohatcong Mountain to the south and Scotts Mountain to the north . It enters Greenwich Township , where the route crosses County Route 637 ( Liberty Road / North Main Street ) before passing through residential areas . Route 57 heads into farmland with intermittent residences , crossing into Franklin Township . The route continues to New Village , where residences become more dense . A short distance after the intersection with County Route 603 ( Edison Road ) , Route 57 heads back into farm fields . The road reaches the residential community of Broadway , where it comes to a junction with County Route 643 ( Asbury Broadway Road ) . Route 57 continues through agricultural areas with more residences and businesses , crossing into Washington Township , where it intersects County Route 648 ( Little Philadelphia Road ) and County Route 623 ( Brass Castle Road ) .
Past this intersection , Route 57 enters Washington Boro , where it becomes Washington Avenue . Here , the road passes residences and businesses before heading into the commercial downtown of Washington . It crosses Route 31 and passes through a mix of residences , businesses , and industrial establishments . It crosses back into Washington Township , where Route 57 becomes the Morris and Essex Turnpike again , crossing over the Norfolk Southern rail line before intersecting County Route 630 ( Washburn Avenue ) and County Route 651 ( McCullough Road ) in Port Colden . From here , the road heads east into a mix of agricultural and residential areas with some businesses , entering Mansfield Township . Here , the route is known as the Admiral John D. Bulkeley Memorial Highway , named after Vice Admiral John D. Bulkeley , a United States Navy officer who served in World War II .
In Mansfield Township , the road passes through the residential community of Anderson and intersects County Route 632 ( Anderson Road ) and County Route 628 ( Port Murray Road ) . From here , Route 57 turns northeast and parallels the Musconetcong River , heading through wooded areas around Upper Pohatcong Mountain with some farmland . In Stephensburg , the road passes through a wooded residential region and intersects County Route 652 ( Watters Road ) . Past this intersection , the road continues alongside the wooded Musconetcong River , with residential and commercial development increasing past the Hazen Road intersection . Route 57 enters Hackettstown , where it becomes the Morris and Essex Turnpike before coming to its terminus at an intersection with the southern terminus of Route 182 and County Route 517 , which continues south from this intersection as well as north along Route 182 .
From milepost 2 @.@ 07 ( 3 @.@ 33 km ) to its eastern terminus , Route 57 is designated a scenic byway , the Warren Heritage Scenic Byway , by the state of New Jersey due to its mountain and valley scenery , historic districts , and the adjacent Morris Canal , which was built in 1831 and had the greatest elevation change among all canals across the world .
= = History = =
The present @-@ day alignment of Route 57 was legislated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 , a route that was designated to run from Paterson west to Phillipsburg in 1917 . A one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) stretch of the road in Franklin Township was the first concrete road built in New Jersey , having been constructed in 1912 . The concrete was supplied by Thomas Edison 's Portland cement company and some of the original concrete is still in use on the road today . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , this portion of pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 west of Penwell in Mansfield Township was legislated as a part of Route 24 , a route that was to run from Phillipsburg to Newark , while the portion between Penwell and U.S. Route 46 in Hackettstown was designated as Route S24 , a spur of Route 24 .
The portion of Route S24 between Penwell and County Route 517 in the southern part of Hackettstown ( Route 57 ’ s current eastern terminus ) became part of mainline Route 24 in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering in order to complete the gap that existed in that route between Penwell and Long Valley . The portion of Route S24 from this point north to U.S. Route 46 was designated as Route 57 . In 1965 , a portion of Route 57 was designated to bypass Hackettstown , running from its intersection with Route 24 to U.S. Route 46 east of Hackettstown ; this was never built . Around 1970 , Route 24 west of Hackettstown became part of Route 57 while the portion of Route 57 that had existed between Route 24 and U.S. Route 46 was designated Route 182 .
In the 2000s , the New Jersey Department of Transportation worked with communities along Route 57 to create a land use and transportation plan for the area surrounding the route , as part of their Future In Transportation plan .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Warren County .
= SMS Irene =
SMS Irene was a protected cruiser or Kreuzerkorvette of the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) and the lead ship of the Irene class . She had one sister , Prinzess Wilhelm ; the two ships were the first protected cruisers built by the German Navy . Irene was laid down in 1886 at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin , launched in July 1887 , and commissioned into the fleet in May 1888 . The cruiser was named after Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine , sister @-@ in @-@ law of Kaiser Wilhem II . As built , the ship was armed with a main battery of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns and had a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Irene saw extensive service with the German fleet in the first years of her career , frequently escorting Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht on cruises throughout Europe . In 1894 , she was deployed to East Asian waters ; she was in dock for engine maintenance in November 1897 when Otto von Diederichs seized the naval base Kiaochou Bay , and so she was not present during the operation . She was present in the Philippines in the immediate aftermath of the Battle of Manila Bay between American and Spanish squadrons during the Spanish – American War in 1898 . Irene eventually returned to Germany in 1901 . She remained in service until early 1914 , when she was retired from front @-@ line service and converted into a submarine tender . She served in this capacity until 1921 , when she was sold for scrap and broken up the following year .
= = Design = =
Irene was the first protected cruiser built by the German navy . She was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Elisabeth " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1886 . She was launched on 23 July 1887 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the German navy on 25 May 1888 . The ship was 103 @.@ 7 meters ( 340 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 2 m ( 47 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 74 m ( 22 @.@ 1 ft ) forward . She displaced 5 @,@ 027 t ( 4 @,@ 948 long tons ; 5 @,@ 541 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal Wolfsche 2 @-@ cylinder double @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical double @-@ boilers . These provided a top speed of 18 kn ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) and a range of approximately 2 @,@ 490 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 610 km ; 2 @,@ 870 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . She had a crew of 28 officers and 337 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with four 15 cm K L / 30 guns in single pedestal mounts , supplied with 400 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 8 @,@ 500 m ( 27 @,@ 900 ft ) . Irene also carried ten shorter @-@ barreled 15 cm K L / 22 guns in single mounts . These guns had a much shorter range , at 5 @,@ 400 m ( 17 @,@ 700 ft ) . The gun armament was rounded out by six 3 @.@ 7 cm revolver cannon . She was also equipped with three 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes , two launchers were mounted on the deck and the third was in the bow , below the waterline . In 1893 , the ship was modernized in Wilhelmshaven in 1903 ; work lasted until 1905 . The ship 's armament was significantly improved ; the four L / 30 guns were replaced with a new model with an increased range of 10 @,@ 000 m ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) . Eight 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns were installed in place of the L / 22 guns , and six 5 cm SK L / 10 QF guns were added .
= = Service history = =
In the summer of 1888 , Irene joined the fleet that steamed to Great Britain to celebrate the coronation of Kaiser Wilhelm II . She was assigned to the I Division , along with the ironclad corvettes Sachsen and Baden and the casemate ironclad Oldenburg . The Kaiser 's brother , Prince Heinrich commanded the Division , his flag flying in Irene . The fleet then held training maneuvers in the North Sea under command of Rear Admiral Friedrich Hollmann . Over the winter of 1889 – 1890 , Irene and the II Division of the fleet went into the Mediterranean to escort the Kaiser 's yacht , Hohenzollern . Prince Heinrich remained in command of Irene during the cruise . The Kaiser made state visits to Turkey and Italy , and called in ports throughout the region , including Athens and Venice . Irene and the rest of the squadron returned to Germany in April 1890 .
In August 1890 , Irene again escorted Hohenzollern to Britain , to participate in the Cowes Regatta . Directly thereafter , the two ships steamed to the island of Helgoland to celebrate the ceremonial transfer from Britain ; there , the entire German fleet joined Irene and Hohenzollern for the ceremonies . In late November 1894 , Irene was dispatched to Casablanca to protest the murder of a German businessman in the city . She then proceeded on to Asian waters to join the German naval presence in the region in the aftermath of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War . Under Rear Admiral Paul Hoffmann , Irene became the flagship of the Cruiser Division , along with three older cruisers . By 1895 , she had been joined by her sister Prinzess Wilhelm , the rebuilt old ironclad Kaiser , the light cruiser Cormoran , the corvette Arcona , and the gunboat Iltis .
In 1896 , Otto von Diederichs arrived in Asia to command the Cruiser Division ; he spent the year reconnoitering the region for a suitable naval base . Late in the year , Irene had to put into Hong Kong for extensive engine maintenance , which was completed on 30 November . She rejoined the fleet on 3 December . In the meantime , Diederichs had completed the seizure of the Kiaochou Bay concession ; the Cruiser Division was sent reinforcements and promoted to the East Asia Squadron . Irene was assigned to the I Division of the Squadron . In the Spring of 1898 , Irene was sent to Shanghai for periodic maintenance .
During the Spanish – American War in 1898 , Irene steamed to Manila in the Philippines in the aftermath of the Battle of Manila Bay ; she arrived in the harbor on 6 May . By 27 June , Irene had been joined by several other German warships , including Kaiserin Augusta , Diederichs 's flagship . On the 27th , Irene was steaming into Manila Bay when she was stopped by the American revenue cutter Hugh McCulloch . On 5 July , Diederichs dispatched Irene to survey Subic Bay and to evacuate any German nationals in the area that were threatened by Filipino insurgents . While steaming off Isla Grande , Irene encountered the rebel ship Companie de Filipinas , which was threatening the Spanish garrison at Isla Grande . The rebel commander came aboard Irene to inform her captain of his activities ; Obenheimer informed him that any act of war committed under the rebel flag was an act of piracy under international law . The rebels therefore agreed to return to port . Obenheimer inspected both the Spanish garrison on the island and the nearby rebel base in Olongapo . After unsuccessfully searching for German nationals in the area , Irene evacuated the noncombatants on Isla Grande on 7 July ; while steaming out of Subic Bay , Irene encountered the American warships Raleigh and Concord without issue .
The American press exaggerated the encounter between Irene and the American ships , which prompted Diederichs to decide to send Irene away from the area to deflate tensions between the two countries . After returning to Manila and debarking the non @-@ combatants , Irene was ordered to depart the Philippines . Irene relieved Arcona in Kiaochou , which was in turn ordered to steam to the Caroline and Mariana Islands to observe the American capture of Guam . Irene coaled in Mariveles before departing for Kiaochou on 9 July . While in Kiaochou , Irene conducted crew training . She returned to Manila in November , but remained there only briefly , before she was replaced by Kaiserin Augusta . Irene returned to Germany after 1901 ; in 1903 she went into drydock at the Imperial Shipyard in Wilhelmshaven for modernization , which was completed by 1905 . She was stricken on 17 February 1914 and used as a submarine tender , based in Kiel . In 1916 , she was transferred to Wilhelmshaven . She remained there until 26 November 1921 , when she was sold for scrapping for 909 @,@ 000 Marks . She was broken up the following year in Wilhelmshaven .
= Climatic regions of Argentina =
Due to its vast size and range of altitudes , Argentina possesses a wide variety of climatic regions , ranging from the hot subtropical region in the north to the cold subantarctic in the far south . Lying between those is the Pampas region , featuring a mild and humid climate . Many regions have different , often contrasting , microclimates . In general , Argentina has four main climate types : warm , moderate , arid , and cold in which the relief features , and the latitudinal extent of the country , determine the different varieties within the main climate types .
Northern parts of the country are characterized by hot , humid summers with mild , drier winters , and highly seasonal precipitation . Mesopotamia , located in northeast Argentina , has a subtropical climate with no dry season and is characterized by high temperatures and abundant rainfall because of exposure to moist easterly winds from the Atlantic Ocean throughout the year . The Chaco region in the center @-@ north , despite being relatively homogeneous in terms of precipitation and temperature , is the warmest region in Argentina , and one of the few natural areas in the world located between tropical and temperate latitudes that is not a desert . Precipitation decreases from east to west in the Chaco region because eastern areas are more influenced by moist air from the Atlantic Ocean than the west , resulting in the vegetation transitioning from forests and marshes to shrubs . Northwest Argentina is predominantly dry , hot , and subtropical although its rugged topography results in a diverse climate .
Central Argentina , which includes the Pampas to the east , and the Cuyo region to the west , has a temperate climate with hot summers and cool , drier winters . In the Cuyo region , the Andes obstruct the path of rain @-@ bearing clouds from the Pacific Ocean ; moreover , its latitude coincides with the subtropical high . Both factors render the region dry . With a wide range of altitudes , the Cuyo region is climatically diverse , with icy conditions persisting at altitudes higher than 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The Pampas is mostly flat and receives more precipitation , averaging 500 mm ( 20 in ) in the western parts to 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) in the eastern parts . The weather in the Pampas is variable due to the contrasting air masses and frontal storms that impact the region . These can generate thunderstorms with intense hailstorms and precipitation , and are known to have the most frequent lightning , and highest convective cloud tops , in the world .
Patagonia , in the south , is mostly arid or semi – arid except in the extreme west where abundant precipitation supports dense forest coverage , glaciers , and permanent snowfields . Its climate is classified as temperate to cool temperate with the surrounding oceans moderating temperatures on the coast . Away from the coast , areas on the plateaus have large daily and annual temperature ranges . The influence of the Andes , in conjunction with general circulation patterns , generates one of the strongest precipitation gradients ( rate of change in mean annual precipitation in relation to a particular location ) in the world , decreasing rapidly to the east . In much of Patagonia precipitation is concentrated in winter with snowfalloccurring occasionally , particularly in the mountainous west and south ; precipitation is more evenly distributed in the east and south . One defining characteristic is the strong winds from the west which blow year @-@ round , lowering the perception of temperature ( wind chill ) , while being a factor in keeping the region arid by favouring evaporation .
= = Definition of the regions = =
The vast size , and wide range of altitudes , contribute to Argentina 's diverse climate . Consequently , there is a wide variety of biomes in the country , including subtropical rain forests , semi @-@ arid and arid regions , temperate plains in the Pampas , and cold subantarctic in the south . In general , Argentina has four main climate types : warm , moderate , arid , and cold in which the relief features , and the latitudinal extent of the country , determine the different varieties in the main climate types . Despite the diversity of biomes , about two @-@ thirds of Argentina is arid or semi @-@ arid . Argentina is best divided into six distinct regions reflecting the climatic conditions of the country as a whole . From north to south , these regions are Northwest , Chaco , Northeast , Cuyo / Monte , Pampas , and Patagonia . Each climatic region has distinctive vegetation .
= = Mesopotamia = =
The region of Mesopotamia includes the provinces of Misiones , Entre Ríos and Corrientes . It lies between the Uruguay and Paraná rivers , which serve as natural borders for the region .
It has a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa according to the Köppen climate classification ) . whose main features are high temperatures and abundant rainfall throughout the year . This year @-@ round rainfall occurs because most of the region lies north of the subtropical high pressure belt even in winter , exposing it to moist easterly winds from the Atlantic Ocean throughout the year . Water deficiencies and extended periods of drought are uncommon , and much of the region has a positive water balance ( i.e. the precipitation exceeds the potential evapotranspiration ) .
= = = Precipitation = = =
Mesopotamia is the wettest region in Argentina with average annual precipitation ranges from less than 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) in the southern parts , to approximately 1 @,@ 800 mm ( 71 in ) in the eastern parts.Precipitation is slightly higher in summer than in winter , and generally decreases from east to west and from north to south . Summer ( December – February ) is the most humid season , with precipitation ranging from 300 to 450 mm ( 12 to 18 in ) . Fall ( March – May ) is the rainiest season , with many places receiving over 350 mm ( 14 in ) . Most of the rainfall during summer and fall is caused by convective thunderstorms . Winter ( June – August ) is the driest season , with a mean precipitation of 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) throughout the region . Most of the winter precipitation is the result of synoptic scale , low pressure weather systems ( large scale storms such as extratropical cyclones ) , particularly the sudestada , which often bring long periods of precipitation , cloudiness , cooler temperatures , and strong winds . Snowfall is extremely rare and mainly confined to the uplands of Misiones Province where the last significant snowfall occurred in 1975 in Bernardo de Irigoyen . Spring ( September – November ) is similar to fall with a mean precipitation of 340 mm ( 13 in ) .
= = = Temperatures = = =
Mean annual temperatures range from 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) in the south to 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) in the north . Summers are hot and humid while winters are mild . The mean January temperature throughout most of the region is 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) except in the uplands of Misiones Province where they are lower owing to its higher elevation . During heat waves , temperatures can exceed 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) in the summer months , while in the winter months , cold air masses from the south can push temperatures below freezing , causing frost . However , such cold fronts are brief , and are less intense than in areas further south or at higher altitudes .
= = = Statistics for selected locations = = =
= = Chaco = =
The Chaco region in the center @-@ north completely includes the provinces of Chaco , and Formosa . Eastern parts of Jujuy Province , Salta Province , and Tucumán Province , and northern parts of Córdoba Province and Santa Fe Province are part of the region . As well , most of Santiago del Estero Province lies within the region .
The region has a subtropical climate . Under the Köppen climate classification , western parts have a semi @-@ arid climate ( Bs ) while the east has a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) . Chaco is one of the few natural regions in the world located between tropical and temperate latitudes that is not a desert . Precipitation and temperature are relatively homogeneous throughout the region . The general atmospheric circulation influences the climate of the region , primarily by two permanent high pressure systems - the South Pacific High and the South Atlantic High - and a low pressure system that develops over northeast Argentina called the Chaco Low . The interaction between the South Atlantic High and the Chaco Low generates a pressure gradient that brings moist air from the east and northeast to eastern coastal and central regions of Argentina . In summer , this interaction strengthens , favouring the development of convective thunderstorms that can result in heavy rainfall . In contrast , winters are dry due to these systems weakening , and the lower insolation that weakens the Chaco Low , and the northward displacement of westerly winds . During the entire year , the South Pacific High influences the climate by bringing cold , moist air masses originating in Patagonia leading to cold temperatures and frost , particularly during winter . Summers feature more stable weather than winter since the South Atlantic and South Pacific highs are at their southernmost positions , making the entrance of cold fronts more difficult .
= = = Precipitation = = =
Mean annual precipitation ranges from 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) in the eastern parts of Formosa Province to a low of 450 to 500 mm ( 18 to 20 in ) in the west and southwest . Most of the precipitation is concentrated in the summer and decreases from east to west . Summer rains are intense , and torrential rain is common , occasionally causing floods and soil erosion . During the winter months , precipitation is sparse . Eastern areas receive more precipitation than western areas since they are more influenced by moist air from the Atlantic Ocean . This penetrates the eastern areas more than the west , bringing it more precipitation . As a result , the vegetation differs with eastern areas being covered by forests , savannas , marshes , and subtropical wet forest , while western areas are dominated by medium and low forests of mesophytic and xerophytic trees , and a dense understory of shrubs and grasses . The western part has a pronounced dry winter season while the eastern parts have a slightly drier season . In all parts of the region , precipitation is highly variable from year to year . The eastern part of the region receives just enough precipitation to have a positive water balance . By contrast , the western parts of the region have a negative water balance ( the potential evapotranspiration exceeds the precipitation ) owing to lower precipitation .
= = = Temperatures = = =
The Chaco region is the hottest in Argentina , with a mean annual temperature of 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . With mean summer temperatures reaching 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) , the region has the hottest summers in the country . Winters are mild and brief , with mean temperatures in July ranging from 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) in the northern parts to 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) in the southernmost parts . Absolute maximum temperatures can reach up to 49 ° C ( 120 ° F ) while during cold waves , temperatures can fall to − 6 ° C ( 21 ° F ) . Eastern areas are more strongly influenced by maritime climate than western areas , leading to a smaller thermal amplitude ( difference between average high and average low temperatures ) . This results in absolute maximum and minimum temperatures being 43 ° C ( 109 ° F ) and − 2 @.@ 5 ° C ( 27 @.@ 5 ° F ) in the east compared to more than 47 ° C ( 117 ° F ) and − 7 @.@ 2 ° C ( 19 @.@ 0 ° F ) in the west .
= = = Statistics for selected locations = = =
= = Northwest = =
Northwest Argentina consists of the provinces of Catamarca , Jujuy , La Rioja , and western parts of Salta Province , and Tucumán Province . Although Santiago del Estero Province is part of northwest Argentina , much of the province lies in the Chaco region .
Northwest Argentina is predominantly dry , hot , and subtropical . Owing to its rugged topography , the region is climatically diverse , depending on the altitude , temperature , and distribution of precipitation . Consequently , vegetation differs within these different climate types . In general , the climate can be divided into two main types : a cold arid or semi @-@ arid climate at the higher altitudes , and warmer subtropical climate in the eastern parts of the region . Under the Köppen climate classification , the region has 5 different climate types : semi – arid ( BS ) , arid ( BW ) , temperate climate without a dry season and with a dry season ( Cf and CW respectively ) , and an alpine climate at the highest altitudes .
The atmospheric circulation is controlled by the two semi – permanent South Atlantic and South Pacific highs , and the Chaco Low . During summer , the interaction between the South Atlantic High and the Chaco Low brings northeasterly and easterly winds that carry moisture to the region , particularly in the northern parts . The movement of moist air into the region during summer results in very high precipitation . Most of the precipitation comes from the east since the Andes block most moisture from the Pacific Ocean . Southern parts of the region are influenced by cold fronts travelling northward . These cold fronts are responsible for producing precipitation during summer . For example , in Tucumán Province , cold fronts are responsible for 70 % of the rainfall in that province . Furthermore , the intertropical convergence zone ( or doldrums ) reaches the region during the summer months , leading to enhanced precipitation . During the winter months , the intertropical convergence zone , the South Pacific , and the South Atlantic highs move northward while the Chaco Low weakens , all of which results in the suppression of rain during the winter . With the Andes blocking most rain bearing clouds from the Pacific Ocean , along with atmospheric circulation patterns unfavourable for rain , this results in a dry season during winter . The Chaco Low attracts air masses from the South Pacific High , creating a dry and cold wind , particularly during winter . At the highest altitudes , westerly winds from the Pacific Ocean can penetrate during the winter months , leading to snowstorms .
= = = Precipitation = = =
Precipitation is highly seasonal and mostly concentrated in the summer months . It is distributed irregularly owing to the country 's topography although it generally decreases from east to west . As moist air reaches the eastern slopes of the mountains , it rises and cools adiabatically , leading to the formation of clouds that generate copious amounts of rain . The eastern slopes of the mountains receive between 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 mm ( 39 to 59 in ) of precipitation a year although some places receive up to 2 @,@ 500 mm ( 98 in ) of precipitation annually owing to orographic precipitation . In the south , the orographic effect is enhanced by advancing cold fronts from the south , resulting in increased precipitation . The high rainfall on these first slopes creates the thick Yungas jungle that extends in a narrow strip along these ranges . During fall , the jungles are covered by fog and complete cloud cover . Beyond the first slopes of the Andes into the valleys , the air descends , warming adiabatically , and becoming drier than on the eastern slopes . The north – south orientation of the mountains , which increase in altitude to the west , and a discontinuous topography , creates valleys with regions of relatively high orographic precipitation in the west and drier regions in east .
The temperate valleys , which include major cities such as Salta and Jujuy , have an average precipitation ranging between 500 to 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 20 to 39 in ) . For example , in the Lerma Valley , which is surrounded by tall mountains , ( only the northeastern part of the valley is surrounded by shorter mountains ) , precipitation ranges from 695 mm ( 27 in ) in Salta to 1 @,@ 395 mm ( 55 in ) in San Lorenzo , just 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) away . Rainfall in the temperate valleys is mainly concentrated in the summer months , often falling in short but heavy bursts .
Valleys in the southern parts of the region are drier than valleys in the north due to the greater height of the Andes and the Sierras Pampeanas on the eastern slopes compared to the mountains in the north ( ranging from 3 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 900 m ( 9 @,@ 800 to 22 @,@ 600 ft ) ) , presenting a significant orographic barrier that blocks moist winds from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans . These valleys receive less than 200 mm ( 8 in ) of precipitation per year , and are characterized by sparse vegetation adapted to the arid climate .
The area further west is the Puna region , a plateau with an average altitude of 3 @,@ 900 m ( 12 @,@ 800 ft ) that is mostly a desert due the easterly winds being blocked by the Andes and the northwest extension of the Sierras Pampeanas . Precipitation in the Puna region averages less than 200 mm ( 8 in ) a year while potential evapotranspiration ranges from 500 to 600 mm ( 20 to 24 in ) a year , owing to the high insolation , strong winds , and low humidity that exacerbates the dry conditions . This results in the Puna region having a water deficit in all months . The southeast parts of the Puna region are very arid receiving an average of 50 mm ( 2 in ) , while in the northeastern area , average annual precipitation ranges from 300 to 400 mm ( 12 to 16 in ) . Although easterly winds are rare in the Puna region , they bring 88 % – 96 % of the area 's precipitation . Snowfall is rare , averaging less than five days of snow per year . Due to the aridity of these mountains at high altitudes , the snowline can extend as far up as 6 @,@ 000 m ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level . The El Niño – Southern Oscillation influences precipitation levels in northwest Argentina . During an El Niño year , westerly flow is strengthened , while moisture content from the east is reduced resulting in a drier rainy season . In contrast , during a La Niña year , there is enhanced easterly moisture transport , resulting in a more intense rainy season . Nonetheless , this trend is highly variable both spatially and temporally .
= = = Temperatures = = =
Temperatures in northwest Argentina vary by altitude . The temperate valleys have a temperate climate , with mild summers , and dry and cool winters with regular frosts . The diurnal range in cities is fairly wide , particularly in the winter . In the Yungas jungle to the east , the climate is hot and humid with temperatures that vary significantly based on latitude and altitude . Mean annual temperatures in the Yungas range between 14 to 26 ° C ( 57 to 79 ° F ) .
The mean annual temperatures in the Quebrada de Humahuaca valley range from 12 @.@ 0 to 14 @.@ 1 ° C ( 53 @.@ 6 to 57 @.@ 4 ° F ) , depending on altitude . In the Calchaquí Valleys in Salta Province , the climate is temperate and arid with large thermal amplitudes , long summers , and a long frost free period which varies by altitude . In both the Quebrada de Humahuaca and Calchaquí valleys , winters are cold with frosts that can occur between March and September .
In the valleys in the south in La Rioja and Catamarca Provinces , along with the southwest parts of Santiago del Estero Province , temperatures during the summer are very high averaging 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) in January , while winters are mild averaging 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) . Temperatures can exceed 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) during the summer , particularly in the central valley of Catamarca ( Valle Central de Catamarca ) and the valley of La Rioja Capital which lie at lower altitudes . During winter , cold fronts from the south bringing cold Antarctic air can cause temperatures to fall between − 8 to − 14 ° C ( 18 to 7 ° F ) with severe frosts . In contrast , the Zonda wind , which occurs more often during the winter months , can raise temperatures up to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) with strong gusts , sometimes causing crop damage .
Temperatures are much colder in the Puna region , with a mean annual temperature of less than 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) owing to its high altitude . The Puna region is characterized by being cold but sunny throughout the year , with frosts that can occur in any month . The diurnal range is large , with a thermal amplitude that can exceed 40 ° C ( 72 ° F ) due to the low humidity and the intense sunlight throughout the year . Absolute maximum temperatures in the Puna region can reach up to 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) while absolute minimum temperatures can fall below − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) .
= = = Statistics for selected locations = = =
= = Cuyo = =
The Cuyo region includes the provinces of Mendoza , San Juan , and San Luis . Western parts of La Pampa Province ( as shown in map ) also belong in this region , having similar climatic and soil characteristics to it .
It has an arid or semi @-@ arid climate . The wide range in latitudes , combined with altitudes ranging from 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) to nearly 7 @,@ 000 m ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) , means that it has a variety of different climate types . In general , most of the region has a temperate climate , with higher altitude valleys having a more milder climate . At the highest altitudes ( over 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) ) , icy conditions persist year round . With very low humidity , abundant sunshine throughout the year , and a temperate climate , the region is suitable for wine production .
The Andes prevent rain @-@ bearing clouds from the Pacific Ocean from moving in , while its latitude puts it in a band of the sub @-@ tropical high pressure belt keeping the region dry . Droughts are often frequent and prolonged . The Cuyo region is influenced by the subtropical , semi – permanent South Atlantic High to the east in the Atlantic , the semi @-@ permanent South Pacific High to the west of the Andes , and the development of the Chaco Low and westerlies in the southern parts of the region . Most of the precipitation falls during the summer due to the stronger interaction between the Chaco Low and the South Atlantic High .
= = = Precipitation = = =
Average annual precipitation ranges between 100 to 500 mm ( 4 to 20 in ) though this varies from year to year . More than 85 % of the annual rainfall occurs from October to March , which constitutes the warm season . Eastern and southeastern areas of the region receive more precipitation than western areas since they receive more summer rainfall . As such , most of Mendoza and San Juan Provinces receive the lowest annual precipitation , with mean summer precipitation averaging less than 100 mm ( 4 in ) and in rare cases , no summer rainfall . Further eastward , in San Luis Province , mean summer rainfall averages around 500 mm ( 20 in ) and can exceed 700 mm ( 28 in ) in some areas . Higher altitude locations receive precipitation in the form of snow during the winter months . In the Cuyo region , annual precipitation is highly variable from year to year and appears to follow a cycle between dry and wet years in periods of about 2 , 4 – 5 , 6 – 8 , and 16 – 22 years . In wet years , easterly winds caused by the subtropical South Atlantic High are stronger , which causes more moisture to flow towards this region ; during the dry years , these winds are weaker .
= = = Temperatures = = =
Summers in the region are hot and generally very sunny , averaging as much as 10 hours of sunshine per day . The average temperature in January is 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) in most of the region . In contrast , winters are dry and cold and average around 7 – 8 hours of sunshine per day . July temperatures range from 7 to 8 ° C ( 45 to 47 ° F ) . Since this region has a wide range of altitudes ranging from 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) to nearly 7 @,@ 000 m ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) , temperatures can vary widely with altitude . The Sierras Pampeanas , which cross into both San Juan and San Luis Provinces , have a milder climate with mean annual temperatures ranging from 12 to 18 ° C ( 54 to 64 ° F ) . In all locations , at altitudes over 3 @,@ 800 m ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) , permafrost is present , while icy conditions persist year round at altitudes over 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The region is characterized by a large diurnal range with very hot temperatures during the day followed by cold nights .
The Zonda wind , a foehn wind characterized by warm , dry air can cause temperatures to exceed 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . In some cases , such as in 2003 , they can exceed 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) . This wind often occurs before the passage of a cold front across Argentina , and tends to occur when a low pressure system brings heavy rain to the Chilean side , and when an upper level trough allows the winds to pass over the Andes to descend downwards . As such , the temperature may rise as much as 20 ° C ( 36 ° F ) in a few hours , with humidity approaching 0 % during a Zonda wind event . In contrast , cold waves are also common , owing to the Andes channeling cold air from the south , allowing cold fronts to come frequently during the winter months , causing cool to cold temperatures with temperatures that can fall below freezing . Temperatures can dip below − 10 to − 30 ° C ( 14 to − 22 ° F ) at the higher altitudes .
= = = Statistics for selected locations = = =
= = Pampas = =
The Pampas includes all of Buenos Aires Province , eastern and southern Córdoba Province , eastern La Pampa Province , and southern Santa Fe Province . It is subdivided into two parts : the humid Pampas to the east , and the dry / semi – arid Pampas to the west .
This region 's land is appropriate for agricultural and livestock activities . It is mostly a flat area , interrupted only by the Tandilia and Ventana hills in its southern portion . The climate of the Pampas is temperate and humid with no dry season , featuring hot summers and mild winters ( Cfa / Cfb according to the Köppen climate classification ) . The weather in the Pampas is variable due to the contrasting air masses and frontal storms that impact the region . Maritime polar air from the south produces the cool pampero winds , while warm humid tropical air from the north produces sultry nortes - a gentle wind usually from the northeast formed by trade winds , and the South Atlantic High that brings cloudy , hot , and humid weather and is responsible for bringing heat waves . The Pampas are influenced by the El Niño – Southern Oscillation which is responsible for variations in annual precipitation . An El Niño year often leads to higher precipitation , while a La Niña year leads to lower precipitation . The Pampas are moderately sunny , ranging from an average of 4 – 5 hours of sunshine per day during the winter months to 8 – 9 hours in summer .
= = = Precipitation = = =
Precipitation decreases from east to west , and ranges from 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) in the northeast , to under 500 mm ( 20 in ) in the south and west . Most regions receive 700 to 800 mm ( 28 to 31 in ) of precipitation per year . Precipitation is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year in the easternmost parts , while in the western parts most of the precipitation is concentrated during the summer months and winters are drier . In many places precipitation , which mostly occurs in the form of convective thunderstorms , is high during summer . These thunderstorms form when cold air from the south , caused by the pampero wind , meets humid tropical air masses from the north , and are some of the most intense storms in the world , with the most frequent lightning and the highest convective cloud tops . These severe thunderstorms produce intense amounts of precipitation and hailstorms , and can cause both floods and flash floods . As well , the Pampas is the most consistently active tornado region outside the central and southeastern United States . Autumn and spring bring periods of very rainy weather followed by dry , mild stretches . Places in the east receive rainfall throughout autumn , whereas in the west it quickly becomes very dry . Winters are drier in most places due to weaker easterly winds , and stronger southerly winds , which prevent moist air from coming in . In winter , most of the precipitation occurs from frontal systems associated with cyclogenesis and strong southeasterly winds ( sudestada ) , which bring long periods of precipitation , and cloudiness , particularly in the southern and eastern parts . As such , precipitation is more evenly distributed in the eastern parts than the western parts , which are further away from these frontal systems . Dull , grey , and damp weather characterize winters in the Pampas . Snowfall is extremely rare ; when it does snow , it usually lasts for only a day or two .
= = = Temperatures = = =
Annual temperatures range from 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) in the northern parts to 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) in the south . Summers in the Pampas are hot and humid ; coastal areas are moderated by the cold Malvinas Current . Heat waves that can bring temperatures in the 36 to 40 ° C ( 97 to 104 ° F ) range for a few days . These are usually followed by a day or two of strong pampero winds from the south , which bring cool , dry air . Autumn arrives in March and brings periods of mild daytime temperatures and cool nights . Generally , frost arrives in early April in the southernmost areas , and in late May in the north and ends by mid @-@ September - although the dates of the first and last frosts can vary from year to year . Frost is rarely intense , nor prolonged , and does not occur in some years . Winters are mild with frequent frosts and cold spells . Temperatures are usually mild during the day and cold during the night . Occasionally , tropical air masses from the north may move southward , providing relief from the cool , damp temperatures . On the other hand , the sudestada and the pampero winds bring periods of cool to cold temperatures .
= = = Statistics for selected locations = = =
= = Patagonia = =
Chubut , Neuquén , Río Negro , Santa Cruz , and Tierra del Fuego are the provinces that make up Patagonia .
The Patagonian climate is classified as arid to semi @-@ arid and temperate to cool temperate . The exception is the Bosque Andino Patagónico , a forested area located in the extreme west and southern parts of Tierra del Fuego Province , which has a humid , wet , and cool to cold climate . One defining characteristic is the strong winds from the west which blow year round ( stronger in summer than in winter ) . These favor evaporation , and are a factor in making the region mostly arid . Mean annual wind speeds range between 15 to 22 km / h ( 9 to 14 mph ) , although gusts of over 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) are common . There are three major factors that influence the climate of this region : the Andes , the South Pacific and the South Atlantic Highs , and higher insolation in eastern than in western areas .
The Andes play a crucial role in determining the climate of Patagonia because their north – south orientation creates a barrier for humid air masses coming from the Pacific Ocean . Since the predominant wind is from the west and most air masses come from the Pacific Ocean , the Andes cause these air masses to ascend , cooling adiabatically . Most of the moisture is dropped on the Chilean side , resulting in abundant precipitation , while in much of the Argentine side , the air warms adiabatically and becomes drier as it descends . As a result , the Andes create an extensive rain @-@ shadow in much of Argentine Patagonia , causing most of the region to be arid . South of 52oS , the Andes are lower in elevation , reducing the rain shadow effect in Tierra del Fuego Province , allowing forests to thrive on the Atlantic coast .
Patagonia is located between the subtropical high pressure belt , and the subpolar low pressure zone , meaning it is exposed to westerly winds that are strong , since south of 40o S , there is little land to block these winds . Being located between the semipermanent South Pacific and the South Atlantic Highs at around 30oS , and the Subpolar Low at arount 60o S , the movement of the high and low pressure systems , along with ocean currents , determine the precipitation pattern . During winter , both the South Pacific and South Atlantic highs move to the north , while the Subpolar Low strengthens , which , when combined with higher ocean temperatures than the surrounding land , results in higher precipitation during this time of the year . Due to the northward migration of the South Pacific High , more frontal systems can pass through , allowing for more precipitation to occur . During summer , the South Pacific High migrates southward , preventing the passage of fronts , and cyclones that can cause precipitation to occur , resulting in lower precipitation during this time of the year . Northeastern areas , along with southern parts of the region , are influenced by air masses from the Atlantic Ocean , resulting in precipitation being more evenly distributed throughout the year . Most precipitation comes from frontal systems , particularly stationary fronts that bring humid air from the Atlantic Ocean .
Cold fronts usually move from west to east , or from southwest to northeast , but rarely from the south . Because of this , these cold fronts do not result in the cold being intense since they are moderated as they pass over the surrounding oceans . In the rare cases when cold fronts move northwards from the south ( Antarctica ) , the cold air masses are not moderated by the surrounding oceans , resulting in very cold temperatures throughout the region . In general , the passage of cold fronts is more common in the south than in the north , and occurs more in winter than in summer . The movement of warm , subtropical air into the region occurs frequently in summer up to 46oS . When warm subtropical air arrives in the region , the air is dry , resulting in little precipitation , and causes temperatures to be higher than the those observed in northeast Argentina .
= = = Precipitation = = =
The influence of the Pacific Ocean , general circulation patterns , and the topographic barrier caused by the Andes , results in one of the strongest precipitation gradients in the world . Precipitation decreases steeply from west to east , ranging from 4 @,@ 000 mm ( 160 in ) in the west on the Andean foothills at 41oS , to 150 mm ( 6 in ) in the central plateaus . For example , while mean annual precipitation is more 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) at the Andean foothills , in less than 100 km ( 62 mi ) to the east , precipitation decreases to 200 mm ( 8 in ) . The high precipitation in the Andes in this region supports glaciers and permanent snowfields .
Most of the region receives less than 200 mm ( 8 in ) of precipitation per year , although some areas can receive less than 100 mm ( 4 in ) . In northern Río Negro Province and eastern Neuquén Province , mean annual precipitation is around 300 mm ( 12 in ) while south of 50oS , precipitation increases southwards , reaching up to 600 to 800 mm ( 24 to 31 in ) . There is a narrow transition zone running down from 39oS to 47oS that receives about 400 mm ( 16 in ) of precipitation a year . Much of northwestern Patagonia in the Andes , corresponding to the northern parts of the Bosque Andino Patagónico region , receives abundant precipitation in winter with occasional droughts in summer , allowing it to support forests with dense coverage . With the exception of certain areas such as Puerto Blest , no major towns receive more than 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) of precipitation a year . The southern parts of the Bosque Andino Patagónico region receive only 200 to 500 mm ( 8 to 20 in ) resulting in less dense forest coverage . The lower precipitation , compared to the northern parts , is due to the winds being more intense and drier , favouring evaportranspiration .
The aridity of the region is due to the combination of low precipitation , strong winds , and high temperatures in the summer months , each of which cause high evaporation rates . Mean evapotranspiration ranges from 550 to 750 mm ( 22 to 30 in ) , which decreases from northeast to southwest . In most of Patagonia , precipitation is concentrated in the winter months with the exception of northeastern and southern areas of the region which have a more even distribution of precipitation throughout the year . As a result , except for these areas , the winter maxima in precipitation results in a strong water deficit in the summer . Most precipitation events are light ; each event usually results in less than 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) . Thunderstorms are infrequent in the region , occurring an average of 5 days per year , only during summer . In Tierra del Fuego , thunderstorms are non @-@ existent . Snowfall occurs on 5 to 20 days per year , mainly in the west and south . These snowfall events can result in strong snow storms .
Despite the low precipitation , Patagonia is cloudy , with the mean cloud cover ranging from 50 % in eastern parts of Neuquén
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Based on his studies of the results of a March 1960 expedition , Osman Hill concluded that " ufiti " , or Bili ape , was a remarkable chimpanzee . Citing older reports of chimpanzees from the dense forests of Malawi , he suggested that the Bili ape represented an undiscovered subspecies of chimpanzee , more similar to the western chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes verus ) , despite being located nearer the eastern chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii ) .
= = Legacy = =
Osman Hill is remembered as a " distinguished anatomist " , " eminent primatologist " , and the foremost authority on primate anatomy of his time . However , he did not consider himself a primatologist , but instead related best to old @-@ school anatomists and naturalists , who studied the entire biological world and considered their own observations and recordings as sufficient . To these ends , he used his curiosity and broad knowledge of natural history .
Osman Hill was remembered for his skill at dissection , and was noted for his ability to make quick , but accurate sketches of the anatomical features his scalpel revealed . He is also remembered for his work as a " painstaking investigator " , physician , and anthropologist . In his honour , two species have been named after him : Osman Hill 's mangabey ( Lophocebus osmani ) and the Colombo wolf snake ( Lycodon osmanhilli ) . The Primate Society of Great Britain named their Osman Hill Medal award after him . The award is given every two years for distinguished contributions to primatology .
He is responsible for describing one subspecies of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur ( Varecia variegata ) , the southern black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur ( V. v. editorum ) in 1952 ; one subspecies of toque macaque ( Macaca sinica ) , the highland toque macaque ( M. s. opisthomelas ) in 1942 ; one subspecies of red slender loris ( Loris tardigradus ) , the Horton Plains slender loris ( L. t. nycticeboides ) in 1942 ; and two subspecies of grey slender loris ( Loris lydekkerianus ) , the highland slender loris ( L. l. grandis ) in 1932 and the dry zone slender loris ( L. l. nordicus ) in 1933 .
His extensive collection of biological primate specimens , which included tissues and skeletons , is preserved at the Royal College of Surgeons of England .
= = Personal life = =
Osman Hill married his wife , Yvonne Stranger , in 1947 . Yvonne , the only daughter of Harold Stranger KC , MP , was not only his devoted wife , but also a collaborator and illustrator of his works . The couple preferred a small , close @-@ knit circle of friends , and the dinners they hosted for their friends included the best wines and exotic dishes , such as python stew . Yvonne died close to a year after her husband .
Osman Hill was described in a memorial published in the International Journal of Primatology ( 1981 ) as being " short and rotund , with twinkling blue eyes , a quiet manner , and a strong sense of humor . " He was particularly remembered for his eagerness to help young researchers . In the Journal of Medical Primatology he was described as an " entertaining companion with a quick and ready wit . " In another memorial , published in the Journal of Anatomy in 1975 , he was described as friendly and tolerant , as well as " a merry man , vigorous , of humane culture , having the humour and good sense natural to those bred in the Provinces : a good Englishman . " He was known to value simple citizenship and academics , and held small regard for people who " aspired to monarchy . " At Yerkes in Atlanta , some staff members viewed him as " the archetypical English scholar @-@ gentleman who viewed those from the ' colonies ' as a step below the British . "
In the British Who 's Who , Osman Hill named field ornithology , botany , photography , and travel as his recreations . Other casual interests included drugstore ice cream , good eating , old buildings , and gardening with his wife .
= Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant =
The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant began during the turbulent Reconstruction period following the American Civil War . Grant was elected the 18th President of the United States in 1868 and was re @-@ elected to the office in 1872 , serving from March 4 , 1869 , to March 4 , 1877 . Grant was a Republican , and his main supporters were the Radical and Stalwart factions . The United States was at peace with the world throughout the era , and was prosperous until the Panic of 1873 , a severe national depression , that dominated Grant 's second term . Grant bolstered the Executive Branch 's enforcement powers by signing into law the Department of Justice and Office of Solicitor General that was implemented to protect the civil rights of African Americans . Grant expanded federal authority that protected African American civil rights against domestic terrorism in the South . Grant 's presidency represented the Civil War values that included " union , freedom and equality . " Grant 's Reconstruction policy , however , was challenged by the complexities of using the U.S. Army to impose democracy and legal equality regardless of the resistance of Democrats in the South . Grant worked hard to ensure the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment that gave black men the right to vote . Grant 's notable efforts as President included civil rights , civil service reform , and Indian policy . Grant 's foreign policy under Hamilton Fish was successful and improved Anglo @-@ American relations .
Grant was opposed by the Liberal faction of the Republican Party , many of them founding fathers of the GOP , who denounced Grant for violating the party 's emphasis on fighting corruption . The Liberals insisted that Reconstruction had been successful , that slavery and secessionism were dead . Liberals demanded that Army troops should be withdrawn from the South so that normal political life could resume . The Liberals nominated long @-@ time Republican spokesman Horace Greeley in 1872 , depriving Grant of the intellectual base of the Republican Party . Greeley was quietly supported by the Democrats , but was decisively defeated by Grant . Rather than develop a cadre of trustworthy political advisers , Grant was overconfident in choosing his Cabinet ; he relied heavily on former Army associates who had a thin understanding of politics and a weak sense of civilian ethics . His presidential reputation was severely damaged by repeated scandals and frauds .
Having struggled to be a self @-@ made man , Grant was extremely loyal to himself and his family , while trusting of close military associates that in turn caused dissension among reformers whom he believed were plotting to overthrow his presidency . Grant dismissed three Cabinet members without notice or explanation . Two of his Cabinet secretaries ( War and Navy ) , his personal secretary , and high officials he named to the Treasury department joined federal bribery or tax @-@ evasion syndicates . Corruption charges were rampant in the Department of the Interior in 1874 , until Grant appointed a reformer . Grant often defended the culprits , rather than the integrity of government service , while he attacked their accusers . Middle @-@ class public opinion , a key element in the Republican Party base , turned hostile to Grant . Some scholars , however , maintain that corruption charges were exaggerated during the Grant administration , and that Grant implemented civil service reform and ended the moiety system .
Grant played a role in thwarting the Gold Ring in 1869 and the prosecution of the Whiskey Ring in 1875 . His Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont and Postmaster General John A. J. Creswell made sweeping reforms in their respected departments , and several of Grant 's Cabinet initiated civil service in their own departments . After a false start with weak selections , Grant named to his Cabinet leading reformers including Hamilton Fish , Benjamin Bristow , Alphonso Taft , and Amos T. Akerman . Fish , as Secretary of State , negotiated the Treaty of Washington and was successful at keeping the United States out of trouble with Britain and Spain . Bristow , as Secretary of Treasury , ended the corruption of the Whiskey Ring where distillers and corrupt officials made millions from tax evasion . Taft , a brilliant jurist as Attorney General , successfully negotiated for bipartisan panel to peacefully settle the controversial Election of 1876 . Grant and Attorney General Akerman enforced civil rights legislation that protected African Americans and destroyed the Ku Klux Klan . Grant encouraged peaceful Congressional negotiations after the controversial Election of 1876 ; signed the Electoral Commission Act of 1877 ; while the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction .
Economically , Grant was a conservative who favored a hard @-@ money , gold @-@ based , anti @-@ inflationary policy that entailed paying off the large national debt with gold . He reduced governmental spending , decreased the federal work force , and reduced the national debt , while tax revenues increased in the Treasury Department . During his second term in office , the Panic of 1873 , caused by rampant railroad speculation , shook the nation 's financial institutions ; banks failed , prices fell , and unemployment surged . Before the Panic there had been eight years of tremendous industrial growth after the Civil War that fueled lavish money making schemes , personal greed , and national corruption . President Grant 's contraction of money supply worsened the panic ; the ensuing major U.S. depression that followed lasted for five years causing massive economic damage to the country . The Panic wiped out both the fortunes of business and corruption . Southern Reconstruction continued that included escalated sectional violence over the status of freedmen and fractured state party alliances and elections .
With the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 , the West was wide open to expansionism that sometimes was challenged by hostile Native Americans . Grant implemented an innovative peace policy , though not always successful , with Native Americans . Hostilities took place with the Modoc War , the Red River War , and the Great Sioux War that culminated with the famous Battle of Little Bighorn where Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer was killed . In 1874 , millions of buffalo were being slaughtered to make room for settlers and ranchers . Grant , who favored ranchers land use for domestic cattle , rejected legislation that would have limited the slaughter of the bison . After the fatal Modoc peace commission in 1873 , Grant 's Native American policy incorporated the military strategies favored by William T. Sherman and Phil Sheridan . Grant gave legislative support to the early suffragette movement . Corruption was rampant in the Department of Indian Affairs under Secretary of Interior Columbus Delano . However , Grant and Secretary Delano did have success in the establishment of America 's first national park , Yellowstone , and the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation . The Interior Department corruption was cleaned up by Grant 's Secretary Zachariah Chandler in 1875 . Grant 's presidential legacy has suffered due to his heavy @-@ handed use of the U.S. Army to prop up his political allies in southern states . However , since the mid @-@ 1990s his presidential reputation has improved as historians emphasize his enforcement of African American civil rights in the South and his Peace policy towards Indians .
= = Presidency 1869 – 1877 = =
Grant 's presidency has traditionally been viewed by historians as incompetent and full of corruption . An examination of his presidency reveals Grant had both successes and failures during his two terms in office . In recent years historians have elevated his presidential rating because of his support for African American civil rights . He leaned heavily toward the Radical camp and often sided with their Reconstruction policies , signing into law Force Acts to prosecute the Ku Klux Klan . In foreign policy Grant won praise for the Treaty of Washington , settling the Alabama Claims issue with Britain through arbitration . Economically he sided with Eastern bankers and signed the Public Credit Act that paid U.S. debts in gold specie , but was blamed for the severe economic depression that lasted 1873 – 1877 . Grant , wary of powerful congressional leaders , was the first President to ask for a line item veto .
In the century after he left office most historians denounced the Reconstruction policies followed by Grant . More recently , Grant 's support for and enforcement of African Americans civil rights has earned him praise from scholars . While graft and corruption existed in the Southern state governments he supported with the Army , many civil rights advances were made for African Americans . He was vigorous in his enforcement of the 14th and 15th amendments and prosecuted thousands of persons who violated African American civil rights ; he used military force to put down political insurrections in Louisiana , Mississippi , and South Carolina .
The depression of 1873 , along with the increasingly unpopular Reconstruction program , weakened his reputation and his party , allowing the resurgent Democrats to gain a majority in the House of Representatives in 1875 . His Presidency was inundated with many scandals caused by low standards and carelessness with his political appointees and personal associates . Nepotism , practiced by Grant , was unrestrained with almost forty family members or relatives who financially benefited from government appointments or employment .
Grant and Sumner were often at odds with each other on matters of foreign policy and political patronage . Sumner followed his own foreign policy and detested Grant 's practice of nepotism in making political appointments . One historian , Mary L. Hinsdale , described the Grant Administration as " a most extraordinary array of departures from the normal course " and a " military " rule , in close connection with a select Republican Senatorial group . In an unsuccessful effort to annex the island country of Santo Domingo , Grant bypassed the State Department by sending his military associate Orville E. Babcock to produce the treaty . Grant disregarded the opinion of Attorney General Ebenezer R. Hoar over the McGarrahan mining claim patents .
Grant 's foreign policy was heavily influenced by the able Secretary of State Hamilton Fish . Grant depended on Fish 's advice on domestic issues such as money policy and Reconstruction . His Secretary of Treasury , George Boutwell , was given full charge of national economic policies . In 1874 , Grant began a series of appointments that included reformers and qualified statesmen to his Administration , starting with Benjamin Bristow who prosecuted the Whiskey Ring . With the departure of Orville E. Babcock and William W. Belknap from the White House in 1876 , the Grant Administration took on a civilian rather than " military " style .
= = Election of 1868 = =
There were two main divisive issues in 1868 . The first was the continued Reconstruction of the South . The Democrats advocated allowing former Confederate soldiers to hold elective offices , and the Republicans endorsed the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution which allowed African Americans to vote . The other controversial issue concerned the redemption of war bonds either in gold or paper money known as greenbacks . The Democrats wanted to redeem the bonds with $ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in greenbacks and the rest with gold . The greenbacks were known as " cheap money " and would be inflationary . The Republicans wanted to pay the redemption of war bonds only with gold , a position attractive to investors and bankers .
Finding a popular hero who endorsed their Reconstruction policies , the Republicans nominated Grant and Speaker of the House Schuyler Colfax . The Democrats , ignoring politically damaged President Andrew Johnson ( who was a political independent ) , nominated Horatio Seymour – former governor of New York – and Francis P. Blair from Missouri . Seymour was a wealthy conservative who came under GOP attack for weakness during the war and favoring the anti @-@ war Copperheads . The campaigning was nasty , as the Republicans waved the " bloody shirt " of treason against the Democrats @-@ as @-@ Copperheads . Grant himself never campaigned , except for his slogan " Let us have peace " and his apology to Jewish voters for his 1862 General Order No. 11 that banned Jewish merchants from his zone during the Civil War because of alleged profiteering . Grant won with 52 @.@ 7 % of the popular vote and won by a landslide in the Electoral College with 214 votes to Seymour 's 80 votes . Grant was helped by the fact that six southern states were controlled by Radical Republicans who kept many ex @-@ Confederates from voting .
= = First Term 1869 – 1873 = =
= = = Cabinet = = =
Grant took an unorthodox approach to his cabinet choices , declining to consult with the Senate and keeping his choices secret until he submitted them for confirmation . Grant purposely avoided choosing Republican Party leaders in an effort to create national harmony . Out of personal loyalty , Grant appointed his friends Elihu B. Washburne to the State Department and John A. Rawlins as Secretary of War . Washburne served only twelve days before resigning over claims of ill @-@ health ; the plan was designed to give him greater diplomatic clout when Grant appointed him Minister to France . Grant then appointed Hamilton Fish , a conservative New York statesman , as Secretary of State . Fish would be Grant 's most successful appointment . His relationship with Fish grew out of a strong friendship between the two men 's wives . Rawlins later died of tuberculosis and was replaced by William W. Belknap . Grant selected several non @-@ politicians to his cabinet , including Adolph E. Borie and A.T. Stewart , with limited success . Borie served briefly as Secretary of Navy , replaced by George M. Robeson , while Stewart was lawfully prevented from becoming Secretary of Treasury by a 1789 statute and by Senator Charles Sumner 's and Senator Roscoe Conkling 's opposition to amend the law . In place of Stewart , Grant appointed George S. Boutwell , known for his integrity , as Secretary of Treasury . Grant 's other cabinet appointments — Jacob D. Cox ( Interior ) , John Creswell ( Postmaster General ) , and Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar ( Attorney General ) — were well @-@ received and uncontroversial . Some of Grant 's cabinet members did not even know their names were offered to the Senate for confirmation . Grant 's independent , at times problematic , manner in choosing his cabinet started a rift between Republican party veterans who were denied consultation .
= = = Modified Tenure of Office Act = = =
In March 1869 , President Grant made it known he desired the Tenure of Office Act repealed , stating it was a " stride toward a revolution in our free system " . The Tenure of Office Act was passed by Congress in 1867 , sponsored by Radical Republicans , to curb the power of the President Andrew Johnson in making government office appointments . The controversial law had been invoked during the impeachment trial of Johnson in 1868 . On March 5 , 1869 , a bill was brought before Congress to repeal the act , but Senator Charles Sumner was opposed , unwilling to give Grant a free hand in making appointments . Grant , to bolster the repeal effort , declined to make any new appointments except for vacancies , until the law was overturned , thus , agitating political office seekers to pressure Congress to repeal the law . Under national pressure for governmental reform , a compromise was reached and a new bill was passed that allowed the President to have complete control over removing his own cabinet , however , government appointees needed the approval of Congress within a thirty @-@ day period . Grant , who did not desire a party split over the matter , signed the bill ; afterwards , he received criticism for not getting a full repeal of the law . The unpopular measure was completely repealed in 1887 . Grant was criticized for appointing many family members considered unqualified to highly sought government posts , a practice known as nepotism .
= = = Political defections = = =
Initially , President Grant was popular among many political and newspaper elite . Political defections began as early as the spring and fall of 1869 when both Charles A. Dana and Henry Adams became critical and discouraged over Grant 's Presidency in the aftermath of the Black Friday scandal . By 1870 , Horace Greeley lost enthusiasm for the Administration with the resignations of Attorney General Ebenezer R. Hoar and Ambassador to Britain John L. Motley . Prominent journalists Samuel Bowles , Horace White , E. L. Godkin , and William C. Bryant became concerned over alleged incompetence and lack of national direction from Grant . Personal animosity remained between Charles Sumner and Grant over the Senate rejection of the Santo Domingo Treaty . The common citizen , however , revered Grant for his gallant service in the Civil War .
= = = Reconstruction and civil rights = = =
During Reconstruction , Freedmen ( freed slaves ) , were given the vote by Congress and became active in state politics ; fourteen were elected to Congress . In state government they were never governor but did become lieutenant governors or secretaries of state . They formed the voting base of the Republican party along with some local whites ( called " Scalawags " ) and new arrivals from the North ( called " Carpetbaggers " . ) Most Southern whites opposed the Republicans ; they called themselves " Conservatives " or " Redeemers " . Grant repeatedly took a role in state affairs ; for example on December 24 , 1869 , he established federal military rule in Georgia and restored black legislators who had been expelled from the state legislature .
Most historians in the 21st century consider Reconstruction to be a failure . However , historian Mark Summers in 2014 has argued that :
if we see Reconstruction 's purpose as making sure that the main goals of the war would be filled , of a Union held together forever , of a North and South able to work together , of slavery extirpated , and sectional rivalries confined , of a permanent banishment of the fear of vaunting appeals to state sovereignty , backed by armed force , then Reconstruction looks like what in that respect it was , a lasting and unappreciated success .
= = = = Fifteenth amendment = = = =
According to biographer , William S. McFeely , Grant and many in the north believed the American Civil War extended democracy to the African American freedmen . Grant used political pressure to ensure the states ratified the Fifteenth Amendment , guaranteeing that " no citizen can be denied the right to vote based upon race , color , or previous condition of servitude " . When it passed he hailed it as " a measure of grander importance than any other one act of the kind from the foundation of our free government to the present day " . Many in the south , however , were determined that the African American males ' right to vote would be unenforceable .
= = = = Department of Justice = = = =
On June 22 , 1872 , Grant signed a bill into law passed by Congress that created the Department of Justice and to aid the Attorney General , the Office of Solicitor General . Grant appointed Amos T. Akerman as Attorney General and Benjamin H. Bristow as America 's first Solicitor General . Both Akerman and Bristow used the Department of Justice to vigorously prosecute Ku Klux Klan members in the early 1870s . In the first few years of Grant 's first term in office there were 1000 indictments against Klan members with over 550 convictions from the Department of Justice . By 1871 , there were 3000 indictments and 600 convictions with most only serving brief sentences while the ringleaders were imprisoned for up to five years in the federal penitentiary in Albany , New York . The result was a dramatic decrease in violence in the South . Akerman gave credit to Grant and told a friend that no one was " better " or " stronger " then Grant when it came to prosecuting terrorists . Akerman 's successor , George H. Williams , in December 1871 , continued to prosecute the Klan throughout 1872 until the Spring of 1873 during Grant 's second term in office . William 's clemency and moratorium on Klan prosecutions was due in part that the Justice Department , having been inundated by Klan outrage cases , did not have the effective man power to continue the prosecutions .
= = = = Naturalization Act of 1870 = = = =
On July 14 , 1870 Grant signed into law the Naturalization Act of 1870 that allowed persons of African descent to become citizens of the United States . This revised an earlier law , the Naturalization Act of 1790 that only allowed white persons of good moral character to become U.S. citizens . The law also prosecuted persons who used fictitious names , misrepresentations , or identities of deceased individuals when applying for citizenship .
= = = = Force Acts of 1870 and 1871 = = = =
To add enforcement to the 15th Amendment , Congress passed an act that guaranteed the protection of voting rights of African Americans ; Grant signed the bill , known as the Force Act of 1870 into law on May 31 , 1870 . This law was designed to keep the Redeemers from attacking or threatening African Americans . This act placed severe penalties on persons who used intimidation , bribery , or physical assault to prevent citizens from voting and placed elections under Federal jurisdiction .
On January 13 , 1871 President Grant submitted to Congress a report on violent acts committed by the Ku Klux Klan in the South . On March 20 , President Grant told a reluctant Congress the situation in the South was dire and federal legislation was needed that would " secure life , liberty , and property , and the enforcement of law , in all parts of the United States . " President Grant stated that the U.S. mail and the collection of revenue was in jeopardy . Congress investigated the Klan 's activities and eventually passed the Force Act of 1871 to allow prosecution of the Klan . This Act , also known as the " Ku Klux Klan Act " and written by Representative Benjamin Butler , was passed by Congress to specifically go after local units of the Ku Klux Klan . Although sensitive to charges of establishing a military dictatorship , Grant signed the bill into law on April 20 , 1871 after being convinced by Secretary of Treasury , George Boutwell , that federal protection was warranted , having cited documented atrocities against the Freedmen . This law allowed the President to suspend habeas corpus on " armed combinations " and conspiracies by the Klan . The Act also empowered the president " to arrest and break up disguised night marauders " . The actions of the Klan were defined as high crimes and acts of rebellion against the United States .
The Ku Klux Klan consisted of local secret organizations formed to violently oppose Republican rule during Reconstruction ; there was no organization above the local level . Wearing white hoods to hide their identity the Klan would attack and threaten Republicans . The Klan was strong in South Carolina between 1868 and 1870 ; South Carolina Governor Robert K. Scott , who was mired in corruption charges , allowed the Klan to rise to power . Grant , who was fed up with their violent tactics , ordered the Ku Klux Klan to disperse from South Carolina and lay down their arms under the authority of the Enforcement Acts on October 12 , 1871 . There was no response , and so on October 17 , 1871 , Grant issued a suspension of habeas corpus in all the 9 counties in South Carolina . Grant ordered federal troops in the state who then captured the Klan ; who were vigorously prosecuted by Att . Gen. Akerman and Sol . Gen. Bristow . With the Klan destroyed other white supremacist groups would emerge , including the White League and the Red Shirts .
= = = = Amnesty Act of 1872 = = = =
Texas was readmitted into the Union on March 30 , 1870 , Mississippi was readmitted February 23 , 1870 , and Virginia on January 26 , 1870 . Georgia became the last Confederate state to be readmitted into the Union on July 15 , 1870 . All members for the House of Representatives and Senate were seated from the 10 Confederate states who seceded . Technically , the United States was again a united country .
To ease tensions , Grant signed the Amnesty Act of 1872 on May 23 , 1872 that gave amnesty to former Confederates . This act allowed most former Confederates , who before the war had taken an oath to uphold the Constitution of the United States , to hold elected public office . Only 500 former Confederates remained unpardonable and therefore forbidden to hold elected public office .
= = = Indian affairs and human rights = = =
= = = = " Peace Policy " for Indians = = = =
Grant 's 1868 campaign slogan , " Let us have peace , " defined his policy toward reconstructing the South and opening a new era in relations with the western Indian tribes .
In a major address , Grant stated :
The building of rail @-@ roads and the access thereby given to all the agricultural and mineral regions of the country is rapidly bringing civilized settlements into contact with all the tribes of indians . No matter what ought to be the relations between such settlements and the aborigines , the fact is they do not get on together , and one or the other has to give way in the end . A system which looks to the extinction of a race is too abhorant for a Nation to indulge in without without entailing upon the wrath of all Christendom , and without engendering in the Citizen a disregard for human life , and the rights of others , dangerous to society . I see no remedy for this except in placing all the indians on large reservations ... and giving them absolute protection there .
The goal of his " peace policy " was to minimize military conflict with the Indians , looking forward to " any course toward them which tends to their civilization and ultimate citizenship " . Indians were to stay on reservations where they would receive government subsidies and training supervised by religious denominations . Indians were no longer allowed to engage in raids or send war parties off the reservations ; the Army 's job was to force them back . The goal was to assimilate the Indians into American society ; any Indian could leave the reservation at any time and join the larger society , and have full citizenship . The Indians on reservations were made U.S. citizens in 1924 .
Grant 's Peace Policy was a sharp reversal of federal policy toward Native Americans . " Wars of extermination ... are demoralizing and wicked . " , he told Congress in his second Inaugural Address of 1873 . The president lobbied , though not always successfully , to preserve Native American lands from encroachment by the westward advance of pioneers . The economic forces of western expansionism led to conflicts between Native Americans , settlers , and the U.S. military . Native Americans were increasingly forced to live on reservations . Statistical data of the number of Indian wars per year between 1850 and 1890 , revealed that battles decreased during Grant 's two terms in office from 101 in 1869 to 43 in 1877 . In 1875 there were only 15 battles , the lowest rate since 1853 at 13 battles .
In 1869 , Grant appointed his aide General Ely S. Parker , a Seneca Indian , as the first Native American Commissioner of Indian Affairs . During Parker 's first year in office , the number of Indian Wars per year dropped by 43 from 101 to 58 . Chief of the Oglala Sioux Red Cloud wanted to meet President Grant , after learning that Parker was appointed Indian Commissioner . Red Cloud , along with chief of the Brulé Sioux Spotted Tail , came to Washington , D.C. by train and met with Parker and President Grant in 1870 . Grant held no personal animosity towards Native Americans and personally treated them with dignity . When Red Cloud and Spotted Tail first met Grant at the White House on May 7 , 1870 , they were given a bountiful dinner and entertainment equal to what was shown to a young Prince Arthur at a White House visit from Britain in 1869 . At their second meeting on May 8 , Red Cloud informed Grant that Whites were trespassing on Native American lands and that his people needed food and clothing . Out of concern for Native Americans , Grant ordered all Generals in the West to " keep intruders off by military force if necessary " . To prevent Native American hostilities and wars , Grant lobbied for and signed the Indians Appropriations Act of 1870 – 1871 . This act ended the governmental policy of treating tribes as independent sovereign nations . Native Americans would be treated as individuals or wards of the state and Indian policies would be legislated by Congressional statues .
Historians have debated issues of " paternalism " and " colonialism " but have glossed over the significance of contingencies , inconsistencies , and political competition involved in forging a substantive federal policy , according to scholar David Sim ( 2008 ) . He examined the peace policy , emphasizing incoherence in its formulation and implementation . . While the Grant administration focused on well @-@ meaning but limited goals of placing " good men " in positions of influence and convincing native peoples of their fundamental dependency on the US government , attempts to create a new departure in federal @-@ native relations were characterized by conflict and disagreement . According to Sim , The muddled creation of what has become known as the peace policy thus tells much about the varied and divergent attitudes Americans had toward the consolidation of their empire in the West following the Civil War .
The innovation in Grant 's Native American peace policy was in appointing Quakers as US Indian agents to various posts throughout the nation . This destroyed the power of patronage , as Congress would be reluctant to go after church appointments . On April 10 , 1869 , Congress created the Board of Indian Commissioners . Grant appointed volunteer members who were " eminent for their intelligence and philanthropy " ; a previous commission had been set up under the Andrew Johnson Administration in 1868 . The Grant Board was given extensive power to supervise the Bureau of Indian Affairs and " civilize " Native Americans . After the Piegan Massacre on January 23 , 1870 , when Major Edward M. Baker killed 173 tribal members , mostly women and children , Grant was determined to divide Native American post appointments " up among the religious churches " ; by 1872 , 73 Indian agencies were divided among religious denominations . Quakers or Protestant clergy predominantly controlled most of the central and southern Plains Indian territories , while all other surrounding territories were under the control of appointed military officers .
= = = = = Evaluations = = = = =
Congressional reaction to the losses suffered by Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer 's unit at the Battle of the Little Big Horn in 1876 was shock and dismay at the failure of the Peace Policy . Grant blamed Custer wholly for the defeat stating that the sacrifice of troops was unnecessary . The Indian appropriations measure of August 1876 marked the end of Grant 's Peace Policy . The Sioux were given the choice of either selling their lands in the Black Hills for cash or not receiving government gifts of food and other supplies . The historian Robert M. Utley ( 1984 ) contended that Grant , as a pragmatist , saw no inconsistencies with dividing up Native American posts among religious leaders and military officers . He added that Grant 's " Quaker Policy " , despite having good intentions , failed to solve the real dilemma of the misunderstandings between " the motivations , purposes , and ways of thinking " between both White and Native American cultures . These inconsistencies were evident in the breakdown of peace negotiations between the U.S. military and the Modoc tribal leaders during the Modoc War from 1872 to 1873 .
In 1871 , President Grant 's Indian peace policy , enforced and coordinated by Brig. Gen. George Stoneman in Arizona , required the Apache to be put on reservations where they would receive supplies and agriculture education . The Apache slipped out and occasionally raided white settlers . In one raid , believed to have been conducted by Apache warriors , settlers and mail runners were murdered near Tuscan , Arizona . The townspeople traced this raid to Apache reservation from Camp Grant . 500 Apache lived at the Camp Grant near Dudleyville . Angered over the murders , the Tuscan townspeople hired 92 Papago Indians , 42 Mexicans , and 6 whites to take revenge on the Apache . When the war party reached Camp Grant on April 30 , they murdered 144 Apaches , mostly women and children , in what became known as the Camp Grant Massacre . Twenty @-@ seven captured Apache children were sold into Mexican slavery . In May , an attempt was made by a small federal military party to capture Apache leader Cochise ; during the chase they killed 13 Apache . Grant immediately removed Stoneman of his command in Arizona .
Most detrimental to Grant 's Peace Policy was rampant corruption in the Department of the Interior under Secretary of Interior Columbus Delano . During Sec . Delano 's tenor , federal money intended to supply Native American tribes with food and clothing was skimmed off by corrupt Indian agents and clerks , often allied with traders . In addition , persons posing as " Indian Attorneys " charged Indian tribes money for bogus representation in Washington D.C. After newspapers exposed Delano 's delinquency , Grant defended him rather than investigate the matter . Although Sec . Delano supported and defined Grant 's Indian peace policy and was instrumental in the creation of the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation in 1872 , he was not a reformer and was careless in his administration of the Department of the Interior . The previous Grant appointment , Secretary Jacob D. Cox , had run the department with efficiency and merit . Cox had been considered to be one of the best secretaries of Interior in the nation 's history . When Cox resigned in 1870 , Grant appointed Delano out of patronage considerations to appease Stalwart party bosses . After Sec . Delano finally resigned in 1875 , his replacement , Sec . Zachariah Chandler , reformed the Department of the Interior , banned " Indian Attornies " , and fired the corrupt clerks working in the Department of Indian Affairs . Grant 's Secretary of War , William W. Belknap , who was in charge of all Indian Trading posts under the Department of War , received illicit profit payments from the Fort Sill Indian tradership . Sec . Belknap resigned and was replaced by reformer Alphonso Taft . Belknap was impeached by the House ; put on trial in the Senate during the Summer of 1876 and acquitted .
= = = = West Point hazing reduced = = = =
While President Grant advocated that African Americans enter the West Point Academy , he initially failed in 1870 and 1871 to protect the first African American West Point Academy cadet , James Albert Smith , from racist hazing by other cadets . This lack of protection was influenced by Grant 's son , then West Point cadet Frederick Dent Grant , who participated in the hazing against Smith . Maj. Gen. Thomas H. Ruger , however , was appointed Superintendent of West Point in 1871 , reformed the Academy ; having reduced the amount of hazing of cadets by 1873 and made strong efforts to eradicate the " discreditable " practice . In 1871 , other African Americans eventually followed Smith 's entrance into West Point and Henry O. Flipper , who was admitted to the Academy in 1873 , became the first to graduate from the Academy in 1877 . In 1874 , Smith was forced out of the Academy due to having failed an unconventional private test , in defiance of traditional West Point practice , administrated by Prof. Peter S. Michie . Smith was finally commissioned an officer by West Point in 1997 , one hundred and twenty three years later .
= = = = Utah territory polygamy = = = =
In 1862 , during the American Civil War President Lincoln signed into law the Morrill bill that outlawed polygamy in all U.S. Territories . Mormons who practiced polygamy in Utah for the most part resisted the Morrill law and the territorial governor . During the 1868 election , Grant had mentioned he would enforce the law against polygamy . Tensions began as early as 1870 , when Mormons in Ogden , Utah began to arm themselves and practice military drilling . By the Fourth of July , 1871 Mormon militia in Salt Lake City , Utah were on the verge of fighting territorial troops , however , leveler heads prevailed and violence was averted . President Grant , however , who believed Utah was in a state of rebellion was determined to arrest those who practiced polygamy outlawed under the Morrill Act . In October , 1871 hundreds of Mormons were rounded up by U.S. marshals , put in a prison camp , arrested , and put on trial for polygamy . One convicted polygamist received a $ 500 fine and 3 years in prison under hard labor . On November 20 , 1871 Mormon leader Brigham Young , in ill health , had been charged with polygamy . Young 's attorney stated that Young had no intention to flee the court . Other persons during the polygamy shut down were charged with murder or intent to kill . The Morrill Act , however , proved hard to enforce since proof of marriage was required for conviction . On December 4 , 1871 President Grant stated that polygamists in Utah were " a remnant of barbarism , repugnant to civilization , to decency , and to the laws of the United States . "
= = = = Comstock Act = = = =
In March 1873 , anti @-@ obscenity moralists , led by the YMCA 's Anthony Comstock , easily secured passage of the Comstock Act which made it a federal crime to mail articles " for any indecent or immoral use " . Grant signed the bill after he was assured that Comstock would personally enforce it . Comstock went on to become a special agent of the Post Office appointed by Secretary James Cresswell . Comstock prosecuted pornographers , imprisoned abortionists , banned nude art , stopped the mailing of information about contraception , and tried to ban what he considered bad books .
= = = Early suffrage movement = = =
During Grant 's presidency the early Women 's suffrage movement led by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton gained national attention . Anthony lobbied for female suffrage , equal gender pay , and protection of property for women who resided in Washington D.C. In April 1869 , Grant signed into law the protection of married women 's property from their husbands ' debts and the ability for women to sue in court in Washington D.C. In March 1870 Representative Samuel M. Arnell introduced a bill , coauthored by suffragist Bennette Lockwood , that would give women federal workers equal pay for equal work . Two years later Grant signed a modified Senate version of the Arnell Bill into law . The law required that all federal female clerks would be paid the fully compensated salary , however , lower tiered female clerks were exempted . The law increased women 's clerk salaries from 4 % to 20 % during the 1870s , however , the culture of patronage and patriarchy continued . The Republicans , who needed women to campaign for Grant in the 1872 Presidential Election , added to their platform open discussion of women 's rights without actually endorsing women 's rights .
= = = Economy and Treasury reform = = =
On taking office Grant 's first move was signing the Act to Strengthen the Public Credit , which the Republican Congress had just passed . It ensured that all public debts , particularly war bonds , would be paid only in gold rather than in greenbacks . The price of gold on the New York exchange fell to $ 130 per ounce – the lowest point since the suspension of specie payment in 1862 .
On May 19 , 1869 , Grant protected the wages of those working for the U.S. Government . In 1868 , a law was passed that reduced the government working day to 8 hours ; however , much of the law was later repealed that allowed day wages to also be reduced . To protect workers Grant signed an executive order that " no reduction shall be made in the wages " regardless of the reduction in hours for the government day workers .
Treasury Secretary George S. Boutwell reorganized and reformed the United States Treasury by discharging unnecessary employees , started sweeping changes in Bureau of Printing and Engraving to protect the currency from counterfeiters , and revitalized tax collections to hasten the collection of revenue . These changes soon led the Treasury to have a monthly surplus . By May 1869 , Boutwell reduced the national debt by $ 12 million . By September the national debt was reduced by $ 50 million , which was achieved by selling the growing gold surplus at weekly auctions for greenbacks and buying back wartime bonds with the currency . The New York Tribune wanted the government to buy more bonds and greenbacks and the New York Times praised the Grant administration 's debt policy .
The first two years of the Grant administration with George Boutwell at the Treasury helm expenditures had been reduced to $ 292 million in 1871 – down from $ 322 million in 1869 . The cost of collecting taxes fell to 3 @.@ 11 % in 1871 . Grant reduced the number of employees working in the government by 2 @,@ 248 persons from 6 @,@ 052 on March 1 , 1869 to 3 @,@ 804 on December 1 , 1871 . He had increased tax revenues by $ 108 million from 1869 to 1872 . During his first administration the national debt fell from $ 2 @.@ 5 billion to $ 2 @.@ 2 billion .
In a rare case of preemptive reform during the Grant Administration , Brevet Major General Alfred Pleasonton was dismissed for being unqualified to hold the position of Commissioner of Internal Revenue . In 1870 , Pleasonton , a Grant appointment , approved an unauthorized $ 60 @,@ 000 tax refund and was associated with an alleged unscrupulous Connecticut firm . Treasury Secretary George Boutwell promptly stopped the refund and personally informed Grant that Pleasonton was incompetent to hold office . Refusing to resign on Boutwell 's request , Pleasonton protested openly before Congress . President Grant removed Pleasonton before any potential scandal broke out .
= = = Yellowstone , buffalo , and conservation = = =
Organized exploration of the upper Yellowstone River began in fall 1869 when the Cook – Folsom – Peterson Expedition made a month @-@ long journey up the Yellowstone River and into the geyser basins . In 1870 , the somewhat more official Washburn – Langford – Doane Expedition explored the same regions of the upper Yellowstone and geyser basins , naming Old Faithful and many other park features . Official reports from Lieutenant Gustavus Cheyney Doane and Scribner 's Monthly accounts by Nathaniel P. Langford brought increased public awareness to the natural wonders of the region . Influenced by Jay Cooke of the Northern Pacific Railroad and Langford 's public speeches about the Yellowstone on the East Coast , geologist Ferdinand Hayden sought funding from Congress for an expedition under the auspices of the U.S. Geological Survey . In March 1871 Grant signed into law Congressional legislation appropriating $ 40 @,@ 000 to finance the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871 . Hayden was given instructions by Grant 's Secretary of Interior , Columbus Delano . The expedition party was composed of 36 civilians , mostly scientists , and two military escorts . Among the survey party were artist Thomas Moran and photographer William Henry Jackson . Hayden 's published reports , magazine articles , along with paintings by Moran and photographs by Jackson convinced Congress to preserve the natural wonders of the upper Yellowstone . On December 18 , 1871 , a bill was introduced simultaneously in the Senate , by Senator S.C. Pomeroy of Kansas , and in the House of Representatives , by Congressman William H. Clagett of the Montana Territory , for the establishment of a park at the headwaters of the Yellowstone River . Hayden 's influence on Congress is readily apparent when examining the detailed information contained in the report of the House Committee on Public Lands : " The bill now before Congress has for its objective the withdrawal from settlement , occupancy , or sale , under the laws of the United States a tract of land fifty @-@ five by sixty @-@ five miles , about the sources of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers , and dedicates and sets apart as a great national park or pleasure @-@ ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people . " When the bill was presented to Congress , the bill 's chief supporters , ably prepared by Langford , Hayden and Jay Cooke , convinced their colleagues that the region 's real value was as a park area , to be preserved in its natural state . The bill was approved by a comfortable margin in the Senate on January 30 , 1872 , and by the House on February 27 . On March 1 , 1872 , Grant played his role , in signing the " Act of Dedication " into law . It established the Yellowstone region as the nation ’ s first national park , made possible by three years of exploration by Cook @-@ Folsom @-@ Peterson ( 1869 ) , Washburn @-@ Langford @-@ Doane ( 1870 ) , and Hayden ( 1871 ) .
In 1872 , around two thousand white buffalo hunters working between Wichita , Kansas , and Arkansas were killing buffalo for their hides by the many thousands . Acres of land were dedicated solely for drying the hides of the slaughtered buffalo . Native Americans protested at the " wanton destruction " of their food supply . By 1874 , 3 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 bison had been destroyed on the western and southern plains of the United States . Concern for the destruction of the buffalo mounted , and a bill in Congress was passed , HR 921 , that would have made buffalo hunting illegal for whites . Taking advice from Secretary Delano , Grant chose to pocket @-@ veto the bill , believing that the demise of the buffalo would reduce Indian wars and force tribes to stay on their respected reservations and to adapt an agricultural lifestyle rather than roaming the plains and hunting buffalo . Ranchers favored the buffalo slaughter to open pasture land for their cattle herds . With the buffalo food supply lowered , Native Americans were forced to stay on reservations .
The 1872 Yellowstone Act prohibited fish and game , including buffalo , from " wanton destruction " within the confines of the park . However , Congress did not appropriate funds or legislation for the enforcement against poaching ; as a result , Secretary Delano could not hire people to aid tourists or protect Yellowstone from encroachment . By the 1880s buffalo herds dwindled to only a few hundred , a majority found mostly in Yellowstone National Park . As the Indian wars ended , Congress appropriated money and enforcement legislation in 1894 , signed into law by President Grover Cleveland , that protected and preserved buffalo and other wildlife in Yellowstone . Grant also signed legislation that protected northern fur seals on Alaska ’ s Pribilof Islands . This was the first law in U.S. history that specifically protected wildlife on federally owned land .
= = = Foreign policies = = =
The foreign @-@ policy of the Administration was generally successful , except for the attempt to annex Santo Domingo . The annexation of Santo Domingo was President Grant 's " not unrealistic " effort to relieve the plight of blacks in the South during Reconstruction and was a first step to end slavery in Cuba and Brazil . The dangers of a confrontation with Britain on the Alabama question were resolved peacefully , and to the monetary advantage of the United States . Issues regarding the Canadian boundary were easily settled . The achievements were the work of Secretary Hamilton Fish , who was a spokesman for caution and stability . A poll of historians has stated that Secretary Fish was one of the greatest Secretraries of States in United States history . Fish was appointed Secretary of State by Grant on March 17 , 1869 and served on Grant 's Cabinet until the end of Grant 's second term on March 4 , 1877 . Afterwards Secretary Fish briefly served on President Rutherford B. Hayes Cabinet until March 12 , 1877 .
= = = = Dominican Republic annexation treaty = = = =
In 1869 , Grant proposed to annex the independent largely black nation of the Dominican Republic , then known as Santo Domingo . Previously in 1868 , President Andrew Johnson had attempted to annex the Dominican Republic and Santo Domingo , but the House of Representatives defeated two resolutions for the protection of the Dominican Republic and Santo Domingo and for the annexation of the Dominican Republic . In July , 1869 Grant sent Orville E. Babcock and Rufus Ingalls who negotiated a draft treaty with Dominican Republic President Buenaventura Báez for the annexation of Santo Domingo to the United States and the sale of Samaná Bay for $ 2 million . To keep the island nation and Báez secure in power , Grant ordered naval ships , unauthorized by Congress , to secure the island from invasion and internal insurrection . Báez signed an annexation treaty on November 19 , 1869 offered by Babcock under federal State department authorization . Secretary Fish drew up a final draft of the proposal and offered $ 1 @.@ 5 million to the Dominican national debt , the annexation of Santo Domingo as an American state , the United States ' acquisition of the rights for Samaná Bay for 50 years with an annual $ 150 @,@ 000 rental , and guaranteed protection from foreign intervention . On January 10 , 1870 the Santo Domingo treaty was submitted to the Senate for ratification . Despite his support of the annexation , Grant made the mistakes of not informing Congress of the treaty or encouraging national acceptance and enthusiasm .
Not only did Grant believe that the island would be of use to the Navy tactically , particularly Samaná Bay , but also he sought to use it as a bargaining chip . By providing a safe haven for the freedmen , he believed that the exodus of black labor would force Southern whites to realize the necessity of such
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literature , as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry , helping to develop the Habbie stanza as a poetic form . James Macpherson was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation , claiming to have found poetry written by Ossian , he published translations that acquired international popularity , being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics . Fingal written in 1762 was speedily translated into many European languages , and its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about the Romantic movement in European , and especially in German , literature , influencing Herder and Goethe . Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic , but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience .
Robert Burns and Walter Scott were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle . Burns , an Ayrshire poet and lyricist , is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major figure in the Romantic movement . As well as making original compositions , Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland , often revising or adapting them . His poem ( and song ) " Auld Lang Syne " is often sung at Hogmanay ( the last day of the year ) , and " Scots Wha Hae " served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country . Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads . His first prose work , Waverley in 1814 , is often called the first historical novel . It launched a highly successful career that probably more than any other helped define and popularise Scottish cultural identity .
In the late 19th century , a number of Scottish @-@ born authors achieved international reputations . Robert Louis Stevenson 's work included the urban Gothic novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde ( 1886 ) , and played a major part in developing the historical adventure in books like Kidnapped and Treasure Island . Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes stories helped found the tradition of detective fiction . The " kailyard tradition " at the end of the century , brought elements of fantasy and folklore back into fashion as can be seen in the work of figures like J. M. Barrie , most famous for his creation of Peter Pan and George MacDonald whose works including Phantasies played a major part in the creation of the fantasy genre .
= = = Art and architecture = = =
Scotland in this era produced some of the most significant British artists and architects . The influence of Italy was particularly significant , with over fifty Scottish artists and architects known to have travelled there in the period 1730 – 80 . Many painters of the early part of the eighteenth century remained largely artisans , like the members of the Norie family , James ( 1684 – 1757 ) and his sons , who painted the houses of the peerage with Scottish landscapes that were pastiches of Italian and Dutch landscapes . The painters Allan Ramsay ( 1713 – 84 ) , Gavin Hamilton ( 1723 – 98 ) , the brothers John ( 1744 – 1768 / 9 ) and Alexander Runciman ( 1736 – 85 ) , Jacob More ( 1740 – 93 ) and David Allan ( 1744 – 96 ) , mostly began in the tradition of the Nories , but were artists of European significance , spending considerable portions of their careers outside Scotland , and were to varying degree influenced by forms of Neoclassicism .
The shift in attitudes to a romantic view of the Highlands at the end of the 18th century had a major impact on Scottish art . Romantic depictions can be seen in the work of 18th @-@ century artists including Jacob More , and Alexander Runciman. and the next generation of artists , including the portraits of Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) , and the landscapes of Alexander Nasmyth ( 1758 – 1840 ) and John Knox ( 1778 – 1845 ) . The Royal Scottish Academy of Art was created in 1826 , allowing professional painters to more easily exhibit and sell their works . Andrew Geddes ( 1783 – 1844 ) and David Wilkie ( 1785 – 1841 ) were among the most successful portrait painters . The tradition of highland landscape painting was continued by figures such as Horatio McCulloch ( 1806 – 67 ) , Joseph Farquharson ( 1846 – 1935 ) and William McTaggart ( 1835 – 1910 ) . Aberdeen born William Dyce ( 1806 – 64 ) , emerged as one of the most significant figures in art education in the United Kingdom . The Glasgow School , which developed in the late 19th century , and flourished in the early 20th century , produced a distinctive blend of influences including the Celtic Revival the Arts and Crafts Movement , and Japonisme , which found favour throughout the modern art world of continental Europe and helped define the Art Nouveau style . Among the most prominent members were the loose collective of The Four : acclaimed architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh , his wife the painter and glass artist Margaret MacDonald , her sister the artist Frances , and her husband , the artist and teacher Herbert MacNair .
Scotland produced some of the most significant British architects of the 18th century , including : Colen Campbell ( 1676 – 1729 ) , James Gibbs ( 1682 – 1754 ) , James ( 1732 – 94 ) , John ( 1721 – 92 ) and Robert Adam ( 1728 – 92 ) and William Chambers ( 1723 – 96 ) , who all created work that to some degree looked to classical models . Edinburgh 's New Town was the focus of this classical building boom in Scotland . From the mid @-@ eighteenth century the it was laid out according to a plan of rectangular blocks with open squares , drawn up by James Craig . This classicism , together with its reputation as a major centre of the Enlightenment , resulted in the city being nicknamed " The Athens of the North " . However , the centralisation of much of the government administration , including the king 's works , in London , meant that a number of Scottish architects spent most of all of their careers in England , where they had a major impact on Georgian architecture .
= = Early 20th century = =
In the 20th century Scotland made a major contribution to the British participation in the two world wars and suffered relative economic decline , which only began to be offset with the exploitation of North Sea Oil and Gas from the 1970s and the development of new technologies and service industries . This was mirrored by a growing sense of cultural and political distinctiveness , which towards the end of the century , culminated in the establishment of a separate Scottish Parliament within the confines of the United Kingdom .
= = = Before the First World War 1901 – 13 = = =
In the Khaki Election of 1900 , nationalist concern with the Boer War meant that the Conservatives and their Liberal Unionist allies gained a majority of Scottish seats for the first time , although the Liberals regained their ascendancy in the next election . Various organisations , including the Independent Labour Party , joined to make the British Labour Party in 1906 , with Keir Hardie as its first chairman . The Unionists and Conservatives merged in 1912 , usually known as the Conservatives in England and Wales , they adopted the name Unionist Party in Scotland .
The years before the First World War were the golden age of the inshore fisheries . Landings reached new heights , and Scottish catches dominated Europe 's herring trade , accounting for a third of the British catch . High productivity came about thanks to the transition to more productive steam @-@ powered boats , while the rest of Europe 's fishing fleets were slower because they were still powered by sails . However , in general the Scottish economy stagnated leading to growing unemployment and political agitation among industrial workers .
= = = First World War 1914 – 18 = = =
Scotland played a major role in the British effort in the First World War . It especially provided manpower , ships , machinery , food ( particularly fish ) and money . With a population of 4 @.@ 8 million in 1911 , Scotland sent 690 @,@ 000 men to the war , of whom 74 @,@ 000 died in combat or from disease , and 150 @,@ 000 were seriously wounded . Thus , although Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population , they made up 15 per cent of the national armed forces and eventually accounted for 20 per cent of the dead . Concern for their families ' standard of living made men hesitate to enlist ; voluntary enlistment rates went up after the government guaranteed a weekly stipend for life to the survivors of men who were killed or disabled . Clydeside shipyards and the engineering shops of west @-@ central Scotland became the most significant centre of shipbuilding and arms production in the Empire . In the Lowlands , particularly Glasgow , poor working and living conditions led to industrial and political unrest . After the end of the war in June 1919 the German fleet interned in Scapa Flow was scuttled by its crews , to avoid its ships being taken over by the victorious allies .
= = = Inter @-@ war period 1919 – 38 = = =
After World War I the Liberal Party began to disintegrate . As the Liberals splintered Labour emerged to become the party of progressive politics in Scotland , gaining a solid following among working classes of the urban lowlands , and as a result the Unionists were able to gain most of the votes of the middle classes , who now feared Bolshevik revolution , setting the social and geographical electoral pattern in Scotland that would last until the late 20th century . With all the main parties committed to the Union new nationalist and independent political groupings began to emerge , including the National Party of Scotland in 1928 and Scottish Party in 1930 . They joined together to form the Scottish National Party ( SNP ) in 1934 with the goal of creating an independent Scotland , but it enjoyed little electoral success in the Westminster system .
The interwar years were marked by economic stagnation in rural and urban areas , and high unemployment . Thoughtful Scots pondered their declension , as the main social indicators such as poor health , bad housing , and long @-@ term mass unemployment , pointed to terminal social and economic stagnation at best , or even a downward spiral . The heavy dependence on obsolescent heavy industry and mining was a central problem , and no one offered workable solutions . The despair reflected what Finlay ( 1994 ) describes as a widespread sense of hopelessness that prepared local business and political leaders to accept a new orthodoxy of centralised government economic planning when it arrived during the Second World War .
The shipbuilding industry had expanded by a third during the war and had expected continued prosperity , but instead it shrank drastically . A serious depression hit the economy by 1922 and it did not fully recover until 1939 . The most skilled craftsmen were especially hard hit , because there were few alternative uses for their specialised skills . The yards went into a long period of decline , interrupted only by the Second World War 's temporary expansion . The war had seen the emergence of a radical movement led by militant trades unionists . John MacLean became a key political figure in what became known as Red Clydeside , and in January 1919 , the British Government , fearful of a revolutionary uprising , deployed tanks and soldiers in central Glasgow . Formerly a Liberal stronghold , the industrial districts switched to Labour by 1922 , with a base in the Irish Catholic working class districts . Women were especially active in building neighbourhood solidarity on housing and rent issues . However , the " Reds " operated within the Labour Party and had little influence in Parliament ; in the face of heavy unemployment the workers ' mood changed to passive despair by the late 1920s .
Emigration of young people continued apace with 400 @,@ 000 Scots , ten per cent of the population , estimated to have left the country between 1921 and 1931 . The economic stagnation was only one factor ; other push factors included a zest for travel and adventure , and the pull factors of better job opportunities abroad , personal networks to link into , and the basic cultural similarity of the United States , Canada , and Australia . Government subsidies for travel and relocation facilitated the decision to emigrate . Personal networks of family and friends who had gone ahead and wrote back , or sent money , prompted emigrants to follow .
= = = Scottish renaissance = = =
In the early 20th century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature and art , influenced by modernism and resurgent nationalism , known as the Scottish Renaissance . The leading figure in the movement was Hugh MacDiarmid ( the pseudonym of Christopher Murray Grieve ) . MacDiarmid attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including " A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle " ( 1936 ) , developing a form of Synthetic Scots that combined different regional dialects and archaic terms . Other writers that emerged in this period , and are often treated as part of the movement , include the poets Edwin Muir and William Soutar , the novelists Neil Gunn , George Blake , Nan Shepherd , A J Cronin , Naomi Mitchison , Eric Linklater and Lewis Grassic Gibbon , and the playwright James Bridie . All were born within a fifteen @-@ year period ( 1887 and 1901 ) and , although they cannot be described as members of a single school they all pursued an exploration of identity , rejecting nostalgia and parochialism and engaging with social and political issues .
In art , the first significant group to emerge in the 20th century were the Scottish Colourists in the 1920s : John Duncan Fergusson ( 1874 – 1961 ) , Francis Cadell ( 1883 – 1937 ) , Samuel Peploe ( 1871 – 1935 ) and Leslie Hunter ( 1877 – 1931 ) . Influenced by the Fauvists , they have been described as the first Scottish modern artists and were the major mechanism by which post @-@ impressionism reached Scotland . In the inter @-@ war period , elements of modernism and the Scottish Renaissance , were incorporated into art by figures including Stanley Cursiter ( 1887 – 1976 ) , who was influenced by Futurism , and William Johnstone ( 1897 – 1981 ) , whose work marked a move towards abstraction . Johnstone also played a part in developing the concept of a Scottish Renaissance with poet Hugh MacDiarmid , which attempted to introduce elements of modernism into Scottish cultural life and bring it into line with contemporary art elsewhere . James McIntosh Patrick ( 1907 – 98 ) and Edward Baird ( 1904 – ) were influenced by elements of surrealism .
= = = Second World War 1939 – 45 = = =
The Second World War brought renewed prosperity , despite extensive bombing of cities by the Luftwaffe . It saw the invention of radar by Robert Watson @-@ Watt , which was invaluable in the Battle of Britain , as was the leadership at RAF Fighter Command of Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding .
As in World War I , Scapa Flow in Orkney served as an important Royal Navy base . Attacks on Scapa Flow and Rosyth gave RAF fighters their first successes downing bombers in the Firth of Forth and East Lothian . The shipyards and heavy engineering factories in Glasgow and Clydeside played a key part in the war effort , and suffered attacks from the Luftwaffe , enduring great destruction and loss of life . As transatlantic voyages involved negotiating north @-@ west Britain , Scotland played a key part in the battle of the North Atlantic . Shetland 's relative proximity to occupied Norway resulted in the Shetland Bus by which fishing boats helped Norwegians fled the Nazis , and expeditions across the North Sea to assist resistance . Perhaps Scotland 's most unusual wartime episode occurred in 1941 when Rudolf Hess flew to Renfrewshire , possibly intending to broker a peace deal through the Duke of Hamilton .
Scottish industry came out of the depression slump by a dramatic expansion of its industrial activity , absorbing unemployed men and many women as well . The shipyards were the centre of more activity , but many smaller industries produced the machinery needed by the British bombers , tanks and warships . Agriculture prospered , as did all sectors except for coal mining , which was operating mines near exhaustion . Real wages , adjusted for inflation , rose 25 per cent , and unemployment temporarily vanished . Increased income , and the more equal distribution of food , obtained through a tight rationing system , dramatically improved the health and nutrition ; the average height of 13 @-@ year @-@ olds in Glasgow increased by 2 inches .
Prime Minister Winston Churchill appointed Labour politician Tom Johnston as Secretary of State for Scotland in February 1941 ; he controlled Scottish affairs until the war ended . As Devine ( 1999 ) concludes , " Johnson was a giant figure in Scottish politics and is revered to this day as the greatest Scottish Secretary of the century ... in essence , Johnson was promised the powers of a benign dictator " . Johnston launched numerous initiatives to promote Scotland . Opposed to the excessive concentration of industry in the English Midlands , he attracted 700 businesses and 90 @,@ 000 new jobs through his new Scottish Council of Industry . He set up 32 committees to deal with any number of social and economic problems , ranging from juvenile delinquency to sheep farming . He regulated rents , and set up a prototype national health service , using new hospitals set up in the expectation of large numbers of casualties from German bombing . His most successful venture was setting up a system of hydro electricity using water power in the Highlands . A long @-@ standing supporter of the Home Rule movement , Johnston persuaded Churchill of the need to counter the nationalist threat north of the border and created a Scottish Council of State and a Council of Industry as institutions to devolve some power away from Whitehall .
= = Postwar 1946 – present = =
= = = Postwar politics = = =
In this period the Labour Party usually won most Scottish parliamentary seats , losing this dominance briefly to the Unionists in the 1950s . Support in Scotland was critical to Labour 's overall electoral fortunes as without Scottish MPs it would have gained only two UK electoral victories in the 20th century ( 1944 and 1966 ) . The number of Scottish seats represented by Unionists ( known as Conservatives from 1965 onwards ) went into steady decline from 1959 onwards , until it fell to zero in 1997 . The Scottish National Party gained its first seat at Westminster in 1945 and became a party of national prominence during the 1970s , achieving 11 MPs in 1974 . However , a referendum on devolution in 1979 was unsuccessful as it did not achieve the support of 40 per cent of the electorate ( despite a small majority of those who voted supporting the proposal ) and the SNP went into electoral decline during the 1980s . The introduction in 1989 by the Thatcher @-@ led Conservative government of the Community Charge ( widely known as the Poll Tax ) , one year before the rest of the United Kingdom , contributed to a growing movement for a return to direct Scottish control over domestic affairs . On 11 September 1997 , the 700th anniversary of Battle of Stirling Bridge , the Blair @-@ led Labour government again held a referendum on the issue of devolution . A positive outcome led to the establishment of a devolved Scottish Parliament in 1999 . The new Scottish Parliament Building , adjacent to Holyrood House in Edinburgh , opened in 2004 . Although not reaching its 1970s peak in Westminster elections , the SNP had more success in the Scottish Parliamentary elections with their system of mixed member proportional representation . It became the official opposition in 1999 , a minority government in 2007 , a majority government from 2011 and a second minority government in 2016 .
= = = Economics = = =
After World War II , Scotland 's economic situation became progressively worse due to overseas competition , inefficient industry , and industrial disputes . This only began to change in the 1970s , partly due to the discovery and development of North Sea oil and gas and partly as Scotland moved towards a more service @-@ based economy . The discovery of the giant Forties oilfield in October 1970 signalled that Scotland was about to become a major oil producing nation , a view confirmed when Shell Expro discovered the giant Brent oilfield in the northern North Sea east of Shetland in 1971 . Oil production started from the Argyll field ( now Ardmore ) in June 1975 , followed by Forties in November of that year . Deindustrialisation took place rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s , as most of the traditional industries drastically shrank or were completely closed down . A new service @-@ oriented economy emerged to replace traditional heavy industries . This included a resurgent financial services industry and the electronics manufacturing of Silicon Glen .
= = = Twentieth @-@ century religion = = =
In the 20th century existing Christian denominations were joined by other organisations , including the Brethren and Pentecostal churches . Although some denominations thrived , after World War II there was a steady overall decline in church attendance and resulting church closures for most denominations . In the 2011 census , 53 @.@ 8 % of the Scottish population identified as Christian ( declining from 65 @.@ 1 % in 2001 ) . The Church of Scotland is the largest religious grouping in Scotland , with 32 @.@ 4 % of the population . The Roman Catholic Church accounted for 15 @.@ 9 % of the population and is especially important in West Central Scotland and the Highlands . In recent years other religions have established a presence in Scotland , mainly through immigration and higher birth rates among ethnic minorities , with a small number of converts . Those with the most adherents in the 2011 census are Islam ( 1 @.@ 4 % , mainly among immigrants from South Asia ) , Hinduism ( 0 @.@ 3 % ) , Buddhism ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) and Sikhism ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) . Other minority faiths include the Bahá 'í Faith and small Neopagan groups . There are also various organisations which actively promote humanism and secularism , included within the 43 @.@ 6 % who either indicated no religion or did not state a religion in the 2011 census .
= = = Twentieth @-@ century education = = =
The Scottish education system underwent radical change and expansion in the 20th century . In 1918 Roman Catholic schools were brought into the system , but retained their distinct religious character , access to schools by priests and the requirement that school staff be acceptable to the Church . The school leaving age was raised to 14 in 1901 , and although plans to raise it to 15 in the 1940s were never ratified , increasing numbers stayed on beyond elementary education and it was eventually raised to 16 in 1973 . As a result , secondary education was the major area of growth in the inter @-@ war period , particularly for girls , who stayed on in full @-@ time education in increasing numbers throughout the century . New qualifications were developed to cope with changing aspirations and economics , with the Leaving Certificate being replaced by the Scottish Certificate of Education Ordinary Grade ( ' O @-@ Grade ' ) and Higher Grade ( ' Higher ' ) qualifications in 1962 , which became the basic entry qualification for university study . The centre of the education system also became more focused on Scotland , with the ministry of education partly moving north in 1918 and then finally having its headquarters relocated to Edinburgh in 1939 . After devolution , in 1999 the new Scottish Executive set up an Education Department and an Enterprise , Transport and Lifelong Learning Department , which together took over its functions . One of the major diversions from practice in England , possible because of devolution , was the abolition of student tuition fees in 1999 , instead retaining a system of means @-@ tested student grants .
= = = New literature = = =
Some writers that emerged after the Second World War followed MacDiarmid by writing in Scots , including Robert Garioch and Sydney Goodsir Smith . Others demonstrated a greater interest in English language poetry , among them Norman MacCaig , George Bruce and Maurice Lindsay . George Mackay Brown from Orkney , and Iain Crichton Smith from Lewis , wrote both poetry and prose fiction shaped by their distinctive island backgrounds . The Glaswegian poet Edwin Morgan became known for translations of works from a wide range of European languages . He was also the first Scots Makar ( the official national poet ) , appointed by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004 . Many major Scottish post @-@ war novelists , such as Muriel Spark , James Kennaway , Alexander Trocchi , Jessie Kesson and Robin Jenkins spent much or most of their lives outside Scotland , but often dealt with Scottish themes , as in Spark 's Edinburgh @-@ set The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie ( 1961 ) and Kennaway 's script for the film Tunes of Glory ( 1956 ) . Successful mass @-@ market works included the action novels of Alistair MacLean , and the historical fiction of Dorothy Dunnett . A younger generation of novelists that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s included Shena Mackay , Alan Spence , Allan Massie and the work of William McIlvanney .
From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival , particularly associated with a group of Glasgow writers focused around meetings in the house of critic , poet and teacher Philip Hobsbaum . Also important in the movement was Peter Kravitz , editor of Polygon Books . Members of the group that would come to prominence as writers included James Kelman , Alasdair Gray , Liz Lochhead , Tom Leonard and Aonghas MacNeacail . In the 1990s major , prize @-@ winning , Scottish novels that emerged from this movement included Irvine Welsh 's Trainspotting ( 1993 ) , Warner 's Morvern Callar ( 1995 ) , Gray 's Poor Things ( 1992 ) and Kelman 's How Late It Was , How Late ( 1994 ) . These works were linked by a sometimes overtly political reaction to Thatcherism that explored marginal areas of experience and used vivid vernacular language ( including expletives and Scots dialect ) . Scottish crime fiction has been a major area of growth with the success of novelists including Val McDermid , Frederic Lindsay , Christopher Brookmyre , Quintin Jardine , Denise Mina and particularly the success of Edinburgh 's Ian Rankin and his Inspector Rebus novels . This period also saw the emergence of a new generation of Scottish poets that became leading figures on the UK stage , including Don Paterson , Robert Crawford , Kathleen Jamie and Carol Ann Duffy . Glasgow @-@ born Carol Ann Duffy was named as Poet Laureate in May 2009 , the first woman , the first Scot and the first openly gay poet to take the post .
= = = Modern art = = =
Important post @-@ war artists included Anne Redpath ( 1895 – 1965 ) , most famous for her two dimensional depictions of everyday objects , Alan Davie ( 1920 – ) , influenced by jazz and Zen Buddhism , who moved further into abstract expressionism and sculptor and artist Eduardo Paolozzi ( 1924 – 2005 ) , who was a pioneer of pop art and in a varied career produced many works that examined juxtapositions between fantasy and the modern world . John Bellany ( 1942 – ) , mainly focusing on the coastal communities of his birth and Alexander Moffat ( 1943 – ) , who concentrated on portraiture , both grouped under the description of " Scottish realism " , were among the leading Scottish intellectuals from the 1960s . The artists associated with Moffat and the Glasgow School of Art are sometimes known as the " new Glasgow Boys " , or " Glasgow pups " and include Steven Campbell ( 1953 – 2007 ) , Peter Howson ( 1958 – ) , Ken Currie ( 1960 – ) and Adrian Wisniewski ( 1958 – ) . Their figurative work has a comic book like quality and puts an emphasis on social commentary . Since the 1990s , the most commercially successful artist has been Jack Vettriano , whose work usually consists of figure composition , with his most famous painting The Singing Butler ( 1992 ) , often cited as the best selling print in Britain . However , he has received little acclaim from critics . Contemporary artists emerging from the Glasgow include Douglas Gordon ( 1966 – ) , working in the medium of installation art , Susan Philipsz who works in sound installations , Richard Wright , noted for his intricate wall paintings and Lucy McKenzie ( 1977 – ) , whose painting is often sexually explicit .
= Utah State Route 161 =
State Route 161 ( SR @-@ 161 ) is a 3 @.@ 084 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 963 km ) long state highway , designated as a rural major connector , completely within Millard County in central Utah . The highway connects Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) to I @-@ 15 while providing service to historic Cove Fort . The route was once part of U.S. Route 91 ( US @-@ 91 ) , but was renumbered to SR @-@ 161 in the 1970s , in parallel with the construction of I @-@ 70 .
= = Route description = =
Located entirely in southeastern Millard County , SR @-@ 161 starts at a diamond interchange with the westernmost exit on I @-@ 70 before it terminates at I @-@ 15 . The road continues northward until it reaches the historic Cove Fort and the associated visitors center . On the eastern side of the highway is a Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) maintenance center . SR @-@ 161 starts to make a gentle turn to the northeast , passing a filling station , which also serves as a rest area as part of a public – private partnership between UDOT and the owners of the station . The highway intersects I @-@ 15 and comes to an end at a cattle guard on Black Rock Road northwest of the interchange with I @-@ 15 .
In 2007 , a daily average of 455 cars traveled along SR @-@ 161 , representing only a slight growth from previous years ; in 2006 , the average was 450 and in 2005 , 415 ) . Thirty five percent of this traffic was composed of trucks . The average traffic measurement is collected at a point on SR @-@ 161 between Cove Fort and the interchange with I @-@ 15 .
= = History = =
The SR @-@ 161 designation has been used two other times for other state routes . The first route , which was formed in 1933 , connected US @-@ 50 / US @-@ 89 / US @-@ 91 ( now US @-@ 89 ) to SR @-@ 68 in Bluffdale until the route was decommissioned in 1953 . From May 8 , 1961 to February 14 , 1964 , the route number was used for a road from US @-@ 91 to I @-@ 15 in the city of Beaver .
The parallel T @-@ beam bridges that carry I @-@ 15 over SR @-@ 161 at its northern terminus were constructed in 1966 along with the construction of I @-@ 15 though the area . The bridges carrying I @-@ 70 over SR @-@ 161 were constructed in 1973 .
The current route , codified into Utah law in 1965 and designated on signage following the decommissioning of US @-@ 91 in the 1970s , was partially a former alignment of US @-@ 91 . Once I @-@ 70 was completed the 1 @.@ 07 mi ( 1 @.@ 72 km ) long segment of US @-@ 91 as well as the roadway to the north was designated SR @-@ 161 by the Utah State Department of Highways . No significant changes have been made to the roadway except for its legal definition . SR @-@ 161 serves the important function of providing access to the contracted rest area as well as the historic Cove Fort . As of 2009 no new projects are scheduled for SR @-@ 161 , either through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act or the UDOT Statewide Transportation Improvement Program .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Millard County .
= Vs . ( Pearl Jam album ) =
Vs. is the second studio album by the American rock band Pearl Jam , released on October 19 , 1993 through Epic Records . After a relentless touring schedule in support of their 1991 debut album Ten , Pearl Jam headed into the studio in early 1993 facing the challenge of following up the commercial success of its debut . The resulting album , Vs . , featured a rawer and more aggressive sound compared with the band 's previous release . It was the band 's first collaboration with producer Brendan O 'Brien .
Pearl Jam decided to scale back its commercial efforts for Vs . , including declining to produce music videos for any of the album ’ s singles . Upon its release , Vs. set the record for most copies of an album sold in its first week , a record it held for five years . Vs. occupied the number one spot on the Billboard 200 chart for five weeks , the longest duration for a Pearl Jam album . The album has been certified seven times platinum by the RIAA in the United States .
= = Recording = =
For its second album , Pearl Jam felt the pressures of trying to match the success of its debut album , Ten . In a 2002 interview , guitarist Mike McCready said , " The band was blown up pretty big and everything was pretty crazy . " Vs. was the first Pearl Jam album to have production duties handled by producer Brendan O 'Brien . It was also the band 's first album with drummer Dave Abbruzzese , who had joined the band in August 1991 and toured for the album Ten . Rehearsals for Vs. began in February 1993 at Potatohead Studio in Seattle , Washington . The band then moved to The Site in Nicasio , California in March 1993 to begin recording . Abbruzzese called the tranquil recording site " paradise " while lead vocalist Eddie Vedder said , " I fucking hate it here ... I 've had a hard time ... How do you make a rock record here ? "
The band took the approach of recording one song at a time , and agreed with O 'Brien to mix the songs as each one was finished . O 'Brien had the band members set up much as they do live , and most of the songs were developed out of jam sessions . Guitarist Stone Gossard said , " I think we allowed things to develop in a more natural , band @-@ oriented sort of way , rather than me bringing in a bunch of stuff that was already arranged . " Gossard added that most of the songs were arranged once Vedder joined in and started singing , elaborating , " You could tell when the music wanted to change just by the way he was singing . " In a 2009 interview , Gossard stated , " [ Vs . ] was probably where it felt better recording wise . I saw how it could change and evolve which gave me a lot of inspiration to go we can do ballads , we can do fast stuff , we can do slow stuff , we can do punk stuff . That was where I realized there were gonna be a lot of places to go with Ed . "
The first week of recording produced " Go " , " Blood " , " Rats " , and " Leash " before the band hit a lull . In order to keep up his intensity , Vedder traveled into San Francisco and began sleeping in his truck , as well as the sauna at the recording studio . Bassist Jeff Ament said , " Recording Vs . , there was a lot more pressure on Ed . The whole follow @-@ up . I thought we were playing so well as a band that it would take care of itself ... He was having a hard time finishing up the songs ; the pressure , and not being comfortable being in such a nice place . " Ament added that " toward the end it got fairly intense " and that the band " tried to make it as uncomfortable for [ Vedder ] as we could . " Eventually the band was able to get " back on track " according to Ament as Vedder was allowed " to get in the space of his songs . " The album was finished in May 1993 . Vedder later said , " The second record , that was the one I enjoyed making the least ... I just didn 't feel comfortable in the place we were at because it was very comfortable . I didn 't like that at all . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The album featured a much looser and rawer sound compared to the band 's debut album , Ten . Ament said , " When we made Vs . , our second record , I remember thinking , ' Man , I wish our first record sounded like this . ' I thought it was more direct , more powerful . " Besides the heavier songs , the album features two acoustic ballads in " Daughter " and " Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town " . A few of the songs incorporate elements of funk , including " Animal " , " Blood " , and " Rats " . McCready stated that it wasn 't that the band " sat down and decided to be funky , " but rather it came from the band " exploring different directions and combining our influences . " Paul Evans of Rolling Stone said " ' Animal ' , ' Daughter ' and ' Blood ' ... are songs of a kind of ritual passion , tapping into something truly wild . " In a 2002 interview , Gossard said , " We got our heavyosity out on that record . "
The songs on the album tackle personal as well as social and political concerns . Vedder said that " you write what comes to you ... You try to reflect the mood of the songs . " Topics on the album include child abuse ( " Daughter " ) , gun culture ( " Glorified G " ) , police racism ( " W.M.A. " ) , and the media ( " Blood " ) . " Daughter " , " Dissident " , and " Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town " are three storytelling songs . " Daughter " tells the story of a child who is abused by her parents because they do not understand her learning disability ; " Dissident " tells the story of a woman who takes in a political fugitive ; and " Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town " tells the story of an old lady who has been stuck in a small town her whole life .
" Glorified G " , a song mocking gun enthusiasts , was inspired by an incident that involved Abbruzzese telling the band he had just bought two guns which sparked a conversation about guns within the band . " W.M.A. " was inspired by an incident that happened outside Pearl Jam 's rehearsal studio in which Vedder got into an altercation with a group of police officers who hassled a black friend of his but ignored him . Vedder said that " Rearviewmirror " is about being " in a car , leaving ... a bad situation . " Vedder stated that " Rats " is about the idea that " rats are probably a hell of a lot more admirable " than humans . " Leash " was written about the same girl that the Ten song " Why Go " is about . Regarding " Indifference " , Vedder said it is about " [ trying to ] do something to make some other peoples ' lives better than they are , even if it means going through hell . Three Faces of Me . "
= = Release and reception = =
Vs. debuted at the top of the Billboard 200 album chart and stayed there for five weeks . Vs. sold 950 @,@ 378 copies in its first five days of release , which set a record for the most copies of an album sold in its first week of release and outperformed all other entries in the Billboard top ten that week combined . Vs. held this record for five years before it was broken by Garth Brooks ' 1998 album , Double Live . While Double Live officially beat Vs. in first week sales , Vs. still holds an unbreakable record in that Soundscan only counted the first five days of an album 's release in its first week sales until 1998 . Vs. has been certified seven times platinum by the RIAA , and , as of July 2013 , has sold 6 @,@ 010 @,@ 000 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan .
Rolling Stone staff writer Paul Evans gave Vs. a favorable review , saying , " Few American bands have arrived more clearly talented than this one did with Ten ; and Vs. tops even that debut . " He added , " Like Jim Morrison and Pete Townshend , Vedder makes a forte of his psychological @-@ mythic explorations ... As guitarists Stone Gossard and Mike McCready paint dense and slashing backdrops , he invites us into a drama of experiment and strife . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times stated that " Pearl Jam uses its new album ... to broaden its music , " and added that " most of the album ... projects individual misery as public catharsis . " AllMusic staff writer Steve Huey gave the album four out of five stars , saying " Vs. may not reach the majestic heights of Ten , but at least half the record stands with Pearl Jam 's best work . "
David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B – . He said , " Vs. is not a carbon copy of Ten ; for that alone , [ Pearl Jam ] get points . " However , he countered by saying that " Vs. confirms once and for all that there 's nothing underground or alternative about [ Pearl Jam ] . " Critic Robert Christgau gave the album a " dud " rating .
Pearl Jam made a conscious decision beginning with the release of Vs. to scale back its commercial efforts . " We pulled back after the second record pretty hard , " Ament stated . " A lot of it had to do with being in the eye of the storm and not being able to think straight . " The band declined to produce music videos after the very successful " Jeremy " , and opted to give fewer interviews as well as make fewer television appearances . " Ten years from now , " Ament said , " I don 't want people to remember our songs as videos . "
Vs. included the hit singles " Go " , " Daughter " , " Animal " , and " Dissident " . All four singles placed on the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts . " Daughter " was the most successful song from Vs. on the rock charts , reaching the number one spot on both the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts , spending a total of eight weeks at number one on the former . Album tracks " Glorified G " and " Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town " also charted . At the 1995 Grammy Awards , " Daughter " received a nomination for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and " Go " received a nomination for Best Hard Rock Performance . Vs. received a nomination for Best Rock Album .
In 2011 , Pearl Jam released a remastered Vs . , along with Vitalogy , in three formats : an Expanded Version , a three @-@ CD Deluxe Edition and a Limited Edition Collector 's Boxed Set . The Expanded Version features three bonus tracks recorded by Brendan O 'Brien at The Site studio during the Vs. sessions : a previously unreleased acoustic version of " Hold On " , " Cready Stomp " - a previously unreleased studio outtake , and the band 's cover of Victoria Williams ' " Crazy Mary " featuring Williams on backing vocals and guitar , which had previously been issued on the 1993 tribute album , Sweet Relief : A Benefit for Victoria Williams . The three @-@ CD Deluxe Edition features both the Legacy Versions of Vs. and Vitalogy with their bonus tracks and a copy of Live at the Orpheum Theater , Boston , April 12 , 1994 .
= = Packaging = =
The album 's cover art , photographed by Ament , features a black @-@ and @-@ white picture of a sheep from a farm in Hamilton , Montana . According to Ament , the cover was a representation of how the band felt at the time , with Ament stating " we were slaves . " The album booklet contains additional drawings and writings by Vedder , including one page apparently doodled at a business meeting that says " I will never trust anybody again . " The lyric page for " W.M.A. " features a portion of a news story concerning Malice Green , allegedly a victim of police brutality .
Originally , the album was titled Five Against One ( The song " Animal " features the lyric " One , two , three , four , five against one ... " ) . Concerning the original album title , Gossard said , " For me , that title represented a lot of struggles that you go through trying to make a record ... Your own independence — your own soul — versus everybody else 's . " The album title was changed at the last minute , first to a self @-@ titled album and then to Vs . , a nod to the general theme of conflict present in most of the songs on the album . Regarding the title Vs . , Vedder said , " They were writing all these articles ... Our band against somebody else 's band . What the hell are they talking about ? You know , don 't try to separate the powers that be . We 're all in this together . "
The decision to change the album 's name at the last minute resulted in a few different versions of the album . There are also different versions of the album that are unrelated to the title . Regarding the different versions of the album , some of the first pressings of the cassette still contained Five Against One printed on the cassette itself , the first couple of pressings of the cassette do not contain the title printed on the artwork at all , and the lyrics to " Indifference " are included in the cassette version . The first couple of pressings of the CD do not contain the title printed on the artwork at all , and the initial versions of the CD came in an Ecopak , which was a variation on the traditional CD sized Digipak . While not rare , they went out of print quickly and are now hard to find . The song titles are not printed on the back cover of this version , but the artwork remains the same . The vinyl version has never had the title printed on it , and the cover art on the vinyl copies is different from the CD and cassette . For all versions , the picture of the " elderly woman " changed at some point after the first pressings . Allegedly , the original woman never gave permission for her picture to be used , so Pearl Jam changed the picture to another woman . The difference is easy to spot , as " the new and improved woman behind the counter " is printed below the picture .
= = Tour = =
Pearl Jam promoted the album with tours in the United States in the fall of 1993 and the spring of 1994 . The fall 1993 tour focused on the Western United States , while the spring 1994 tour focused on the Eastern United States . Industry insiders compared Pearl Jam 's tour to the touring habits of Led Zeppelin , in that the band " ignored the press and took its music directly to the fans . " During this tour the band set a cap on ticket prices in the attempt to thwart scalpers .
Several songs from the band 's third album , Vitalogy , were premiered during this tour . The band 's April 3 , 1994 concert in Atlanta , Georgia at the Fox Theatre was broadcast live on the radio in the United States . A few days later , the body of Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain was found in his home in Seattle due to an apparent suicide , which deeply affected Vedder . At the band 's April 8 , 1994 concert in Fairfax , Virginia at the Patriot Center , Vedder proclaimed , " I don 't think any of us would be in this room tonight if it weren 't for Kurt Cobain . " Vedder later said that " the day that we found out about Kurt ... I was just spinning . I was lost and didn 't know if we should play , or if we should just go home , or if we should attend the services . I still have some regrets about that , even though in the end it was probably better that we played the last two weeks of the tour . I decided I would play those next two weeks and then I 'd never have to play again . "
Pearl Jam was outraged when it discovered after a pair of shows in Chicago , Illinois in March 1994 that ticket vendor Ticketmaster had added a service charge to the tickets . Following the tour , the band brought a lawsuit against Ticketmaster that accused them of being a monopoly whose anticompetitive practices allowed markup prices of more than 30 % . The band 's intention was to get ticket prices lowered for its fans . Pearl Jam 's plans for a 1994 summer tour were cancelled as a result of a Ticketmaster boycott .
On April 16 , 2016 at the Bon Secours Wellness Arena in Greenville , South Carolina , during their 2016 tour , Pearl Jam played the entire album in order as part of their set .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Eddie Vedder . All music is credited to Pearl Jam , actual music composers listed below .
= = = Reissue bonus material = = =
= = = = Vs . Tour bonus live CD = = = =
Performed April 12 , 1994 at the Orpheum Theater , Boston , MA . The penultimate show of the Vs. tour , this concert featured some songs from the upcoming follow @-@ up album Vitalogy . The CD omits eight songs from the original performance : " State of Love and Trust " , " Hard to Imagine " , " Go " , " Animal " , " Alone " , " Better Man " , " Yellow Ledbetter " , " I 've Got a Feeling " ( The Beatles cover ) .
" Oceans "
" Even Flow "
" Sonic Reducer " ( Dead Boys cover ; guest performance : Mark Arm )
" Immortality "
" Glorified G "
" Daughter "
" Not for You "
" Rats "
" Blood "
" Release "
" Tremor Christ "
" Once "
" Fuckin ' Up " ( Neil Young cover )
" Dirty Frank "
" Rearviewmirror "
" Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town "
= = Outtakes = =
Two songs were rejected from the album that later appeared on the band 's follow @-@ up Vitalogy , " Whipping " and " Better Man " . Both songs made their live debuts at the band 's May 13 , 1993 concert in San Francisco at Slim 's Café where the band premiered most of the newly recorded songs for Vs . " Better Man " was said to have been rejected because Vedder was not comfortable with the song 's accessibility . Another song that was recorded during the album 's sessions is " Hard to Imagine " . " Hard to Imagine " later made its way on to the soundtrack for the 1998 film , Chicago Cab ; however , this version was recorded during the sessions for Vitalogy . The version recorded for Vs. appears on the 2003 rarities compilation , Lost Dogs . According to Gossard , " Hard to Imagine " was cut from Vs. because the band already had enough mellow songs for the album . Pearl Jam 's cover of the Victoria Williams song " Crazy Mary " ( to which Williams herself contributed background vocals and guitar ) was also recorded during these sessions . " Crazy Mary " appeared on the 1993 tribute album , Sweet Relief : A Benefit for Victoria Williams , and later on the 2011 Vs. reissue , as a bonus track . The Pearl Jam / Cypress Hill collaboration " Real Thing " was also recorded around this time . " Real Thing " appeared on the 1993 Judgment Night soundtrack .
= = Personnel = =
= Marge Simpson =
Marjorie Jacqueline " Marge " Simpson ( née Bouvier ) is a fictional character in the American animated sitcom The Simpsons and part of the eponymous family . She is voiced by Julie Kavner and first appeared on television in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " on April 19 , 1987 . Marge was created and designed by cartoonist Matt Groening while he was waiting in the lobby of James L. Brooks ' office . Groening had been called to pitch a series of shorts based on Life in Hell but instead decided to create a new set of characters . He named the character after his mother Margaret Groening . After appearing on The Tracey Ullman Show for three seasons , the Simpson family received their own series on Fox , which debuted December 17 , 1989 .
Marge is the matriarch of the Simpson family . With her husband Homer , she has three children : Bart , Lisa , and Maggie . Marge is the moralistic force in her family and often provides a grounding voice in the midst of her family 's antics by trying to maintain order in the Simpson household . She is often portrayed as a stereotypical television mother and is often included on lists of top " TV moms " . She has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons — including video games , The Simpsons Movie , The Simpsons Ride , commercials , and comic books — and inspired an entire line of merchandise .
Marge 's distinctive blue beehive hairstyle was inspired by a combination of the Bride 's in Bride of Frankenstein and the style that Margaret Groening wore in the 1960s . Julie Kavner , who was a member of the original cast of The Tracey Ullman Show , was asked to voice Marge so that more voice actors would not be needed . Kavner has won several awards for voicing Marge , including a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance in 1992 . She was also nominated for an Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature for her performance in The Simpsons Movie . In 2000 , Marge , along with the rest of her family , was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
The Simpsons uses a floating timeline in which the characters do not physically age , and as such the show is generally assumed to be set in the current year . In several episodes , events have been linked to specific time periods , although this timeline has been contradicted in subsequent episodes . Marge Simpson is the wife of Homer and mother of Bart , Lisa and Maggie Simpson . She was raised by her parents , Jacqueline and Clancy Bouvier . She has a pair of sisters , the joyless Patty and Selma , both of whom vocally disapprove of Homer . In " The Way We Was " ( season two , 1991 ) , it is revealed via flashback that Marge attended Springfield High School , and in her final year met Homer Simpson . She was at first wary of Homer , but agreed to go to the prom with him , although she ended up going with Artie Ziff . However , she regretted going with Artie and ended up with Homer . After the two had been dating for several years , Marge discovered she was pregnant with Bart , and she and Homer were married in a small wedding chapel across the state line . Bart was born soon after , and the couple bought their first house . The episode " That ' 90s Show " ( season 19 , 2008 ) contradicted much of the established back @-@ story ; for example , it was revealed that Marge and Homer were childless in the early 1990s although past episodes had suggested Bart and Lisa were born in the 1980s .
As with many Simpsons characters , Marge 's age and birthday changes to serve the story . In season one ( 1990 ) episodes " Life on the Fast Lane " and " Some Enchanted Evening " , Marge was said to be 34 . In " Homer 's Paternity Coot " ( season 17 , 2006 ) , Marge states that Emerald would have been her birthstone if she had been born three months later , placing her birthday sometime in February . In " Regarding Margie " ( season 17 , 2006 ) , Homer mentioned that Marge was his age , meaning she could have been anywhere between 36 and 40 . In the season eighteen episode " Marge Gamer " she states that she and actor Randy Quaid share the same birthdate ( October 1 ) .
Marge has been nonworking for most of the series , choosing to be a homemaker and take care of her family . However , she has held several one @-@ episode jobs in the course of the series . These include working as a nuclear technician alongside Homer at Springfield Nuclear Power Plant in " Marge Gets a Job " ( season four , 1992 ) ; selling houses in " Realty Bites " ( season nine , 1997 ) ; owning her own pretzel business in " The Twisted World of Marge Simpson " ( season eight , 1997 ) , and working at an erotic bakery in " Sex , Pies and Idiot Scrapes " ( season 20 , 2008 ) . While Marge has never expressed discontent with her role as a homemaker , she has become bored with it . In " The Springfield Connection " ( season six , 1995 ) , Marge decided that she needed more excitement in her life and became a police officer . However , by the end of the episode , she became upset with the corruption in the force and quit . Of course , her work as a house mother far outweighs any job she 's had over the course of the series and this earned her a spot on COX Cable 's TV Mom Hall of Fame in 2015 .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Matt Groening first conceived Marge and the rest of the Simpson family in 1986 in the lobby of producer James L. Brooks ' office . Groening had been called to pitch a series of animated shorts for The Tracey Ullman Show , and had intended to present an adaptation of his Life in Hell comic strip . When he realized that animating Life in Hell would require him to rescind publication rights , Groening decided to go in another direction and hurriedly sketched out his version of a dysfunctional family , naming the characters after members of his own family . Marge was named after Groening 's mother Margaret " Marge " Groening , who has said she bears little similarity to the character , stating , " It 's really weird to have people think you 're a cartoon . " Marge 's beehive hairstyle was inspired by the titular Bride in Bride of Frankenstein and the style that Margaret Groening wore during the 1960s , although her hair was never blue .
Marge debuted with the rest of the Simpson family on April 19 , 1987 , in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " . In 1989 , the shorts were adapted into The Simpsons , a half @-@ hour series airing on the Fox Network . Marge and the Simpson family remained the main characters on this new show .
Matt Groening believes that episodes featuring Marge are among the most difficult episodes to write . Bill Oakley believes that the " junior " writers are usually given Marge episodes because he and writing partner Josh Weinstein were given several to write during their first season . During the third season of the show , most of the writers focused on Bart and Homer , so David M. Stern decided to write a Marge episode , which became " Homer Alone " ( season three , 1992 ) . He felt that they could achieve a " deeper vein " of comedy in an episode where Marge has a nervous breakdown , and James L. Brooks quickly approved .
= = = Design = = =
The entire Simpson family was designed so that they would be recognizable in silhouette . The family was crudely drawn , because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators , assuming they would clean them up ; instead , they just traced over his drawings . To draw Marge , the animators generally start off with a sphere , similar to the way Lisa and Maggie are drawn . The eyes are then drawn , with one roughly in the middle of the sphere , and the other to the front side of the head . Then , the nose and lip are drawn . Her hair is then drawn on top as a long tube coming out of the sphere . An original idea the animators had for when Marge walked through doorways was that her hair would be forced down as she walked through , then once clear of the door , it would spring back and forth . This was never used . Groening 's original plan for Marge 's hair was that it would conceal large , Life in Hell @-@ esque rabbit ears . The gag was intended to be revealed in the final episode of the series , but was scrapped early on due to inconsistencies , and also to the fact that rabbit ears would be too fictitious even for The Simpsons .
= = = Voice = = =
Marge 's voice is performed by Julie Kavner , who also does the voices of Marge 's mother Jacqueline and her sisters Patty and Selma . Kavner had been part of the regular cast of The Tracey Ullman Show . Voices were needed for the shorts , so the producers decided to ask Kavner and fellow cast member Dan Castellaneta to voice Marge and Homer rather than hire more actors . Part of Kavner 's contract says that she will never have to promote The Simpsons on video and she rarely performs Marge 's voice in public because she believes it " destroys the illusion . People feel these are real people . " Kavner takes recording sessions seriously and feels that voice acting is " a little more limiting than live acting . And I have nothing to do with my character 's movement . "
Marge 's raspy voice is only slightly different from Kavner 's , who has a " honeyed gravel voice " which she says is due to " a bump on [ her ] vocal cords . " While Marge is her most famous character , Kavner 's favorite characters to voice are Patty and Selma because " they 're really funny and sad at the same time . " In The Simpsons Movie , some scenes , such as Marge 's video message to Homer , were recorded over one hundred times , leaving Kavner exhausted .
Until 1998 , Kavner was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . During a pay dispute in 1998 , Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors , going as far as preparing to cast new voices . However , the dispute was soon resolved and she received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode until 2004 when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $ 360 @,@ 000 an episode . The issue was resolved a month later , and Kavner earned $ 250 @,@ 000 per episode . After salary re @-@ negotiations in 2008 , the voice actors receive approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Kavner and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
= = = Personality = = =
Marge is generally a stereotypical sitcom mother , and she also plays the " long @-@ suffering wife " who puts up with the antics of her children and her oafish husband . While she usually takes her family 's problems with good humor , in " Homer Alone " ( season three , 1992 ) , her workload and resultant stress caused her to have a mental breakdown . After spending time at " Rancho Relaxo " , during which her family barely coped with her absence , she returned refreshed and everyone promised to help out more often . Marge often provides a grounding opinion for Homer and their marriage has often been shaky . Marge admits that she " put [ s ] up with a lot in [ their ] marriage , " and has left Homer or thrown him out of the house on several occasions . One of the first such episodes to depict this is " Secrets of a Successful Marriage " ( season five , 1994 ) , where Homer starts teaching an adult education class on how to build a successful marriage . He is at first unsuccessful , but gains the interest of the class when he starts giving away family secrets , many of which concern Marge . Upon finding this out , Marge is incensed and throws him out of the house . The next day , Homer is dirty and disheveled , and begs Marge to take him back , saying the one thing he can offer her that nobody else can is " complete and utter dependence . " At first , Marge does not see that as a benefit , but eventually admits that he " really [ does ] make a gal feel needed . " Episodes that depict marital problems have become more frequent in recent seasons of the show . Through it all , Marge has remained faithful to Homer , despite temptations to the contrary such as the one in " Life on the Fast Lane " ( season one , 1990 ) , where she resists the charming Frenchman Jacques and instead chooses to remain with Homer .
Marge is a caring , understanding , and nurturing parent to Bart , but she refers to him as " a handful " and is often embarrassed by his antics . In " Marge Be Not Proud " ( season seven , 1995 ) , she felt she was mothering Bart too much and started acting more distant towards him after he was caught shoplifting . In the beginning of the episode , Bart protested her " over @-@ mothering " , but as she started acting more distant towards him , he felt guilty about it and made up with her . Marge has expressed understanding for her " special little guy " and has defended him on many occasions . She once said " I know Bart can be a handful , but I also know what he 's like inside . He 's got a spark . It 's not a bad thing ... Of course , it makes him do bad things . " Marge has a good relationship with Lisa and the two are shown to get along quite well . Marge over @-@ mothers Maggie , which causes her to become too clingy and dependent on Marge . In " Midnight Towboy " ( season 19 , 2007 ) , Marge hires an expert to help make Maggie more independent . However , Maggie becomes so independent that she rarely needs Marge . Marge begins to miss Maggie , but at the end of the episode , Maggie starts to need her again .
Marge maintains a good relationship with her mother Jacqueline and her sisters Patty and Selma , though they disapprove of Homer and are vocal about it . Marge has tolerated their criticism , but has occasionally lost patience with them , once referring to them as " ghouls . " Marge 's late father Clancy is rarely referred to in the series and has had speaking parts in only two episodes . It was revealed in " Fear of Flying " ( season six , 1994 ) that Clancy told Marge that he was a pilot , but in reality , he was a flight attendant . Marge discovered this one day and developed aerophobia . In " Jazzy and the Pussycats " ( season 18 , 2006 ) , Homer casually mentions that they once attended his funeral .
Marge believes she has higher morals than most other characters , once leading a family values crusade against the violent The Itchy & Scratchy Show and being a prominent member of the " Citizens ' Committee on Moral Hygiene . " She often provides a voice of reason for the town itself , but many of the townspeople are frustrated or contemptuous of her frequent failure to recognize or react correctly to breaches of social norms . Marge is the only member of the family who encourages , and occasionally forces , church attendance . In " Homer the Heretic " ( season four , 1992 ) , Homer starts skipping church and Marge tells him " don 't make me choose between my man and my God , because you just can 't win . " . Yet , in some episodes , Marge 's stereotypical attitude seems to affect her relationship with her daughter , Lisa , who is a feminist . In " Lisa the Skeptic " ( season nine , 1997 ) , an " angel skeleton " is discovered , much to the skepticism of Lisa . As Lisa rants about the people who believe it is an angel , Marge informs her that she also believes it is an angel . She tells Lisa , " There has to be more life than just what we see , everyone needs something to believe in . " In spite of her highly debatable moral stances , Marge struggles with vices , such as a gambling addiction . While Marge has learned to cope with her addiction , it has never completely disappeared and remains an underlying problem that is referenced occasionally on the show .
Politically , Marge generally aligns with the Democratic Party , having supported the candidacy of her state 's progressive governor Mary Bailey , and voting for Jimmy Carter in both of his presidential elections .
= = Reception = =
At the 44th Primetime Emmy Awards , Kavner received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for voicing Marge in the season three episode " I Married Marge " . In 2004 , Kavner and Dan Castellaneta ( the voice of Homer ) won a Young Artist Award for " Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series " . For her performance in The Simpsons Movie , Kavner was nominated for " Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature " at the 2007 Annie Awards , but lost to Ian Holm from Ratatouille . Kavner 's emotional performance in the movie got positive reviews and one critic said she " gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever . " Various episodes in which Marge is prominently featured have been nominated for Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program , including " The Way We Weren 't " in 2004 and " Life on the Fast Lane " , which won the award in 1990 . In 2000 , Marge and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard .
Marge has been ranked highly in lists of the top television mothers of all time . She was ranked first on Entertainment Weekly 's list in 1994 ; first on Fox News ' list in 2005 ;
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eighth on CityNews ' list in 2008 ; and was included in Time 's list of the " 10 Best Moms Ever " . In a 2004 poll in the United Kingdom , Marge was named the " most respected mother " by respondents . Still in 2004 , Marge was ranked third in a poll conducted by the Opinion Research Company . In May 2012 , Marge was one of the 12 moms chosen by users of iVillage on their list of " Mommy Dearest : The TV Moms You Love " . AOL has named Marge the 24th " Most Memorable Female TV Character " . Her relationship with Homer was included in TV Guide 's list of " The Best TV Couples of All Time " .
Religious writer Kenneth Briggs has written that " Marge is my candidate for sainthood [ ... ] She lives in the real world , she lives with crises , with flawed people . She forgives and she makes her own mistakes . She is a forgiving , loving person [ ... ] absolutely saintly . "
= = Cultural influence = =
The October 1 , 1990 edition of People included an interview with then @-@ First Lady of the United States Barbara Bush . The article included the following passage : " She loves America 's Funniest Home Videos but remains baffled after sampling The Simpsons . " It was the dumbest thing I had ever seen , " she says , " but it 's a family thing , and I guess it 's clean . " The writers decided to respond by privately sending a polite letter on September 28 to Bush where they posed as Marge Simpson . On October 9 , Bush sent a reply : " Dear Marge , How kind of you to write . I 'm glad you spoke your mind ... I foolishly didn 't know you had one . I am looking at a picture of you ... depicted on a plastic cup ... with your blue hair filled with pink birds peeking out all over . Evidently , you and your charming family — Lisa , Homer , Bart and Maggie — are camping out . It 's a nice family scene . Clearly you are setting a good example for the rest of the country . Please forgive a loose tongue . "
In 2002 , opponents of the Seattle Monorail Project planned on showing the episode " Marge vs. the Monorail " at a protest event . Following complaints , 20th Century Fox sent a letter to the event organizers ordering that the episode not be shown due to copyright laws . In 2004 , Marge appeared on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom for the Alternative Christmas message , which is annually broadcast at the same time that Queen Elizabeth II gives her Christmas message .
On April 9 , 2009 , the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 cent stamps featuring Marge and the four other members of the Simpson family . They are the first characters from a television series to receive this recognition while the show is still in production . The stamps , designed by Matt Groening , were made available for purchase on May 7 , 2009 .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Marge is depicted in much The Simpsons @-@ related merchandise , including T @-@ shirts , baseball caps , bumper stickers , cardboard stand @-@ ups , refrigerator magnets , key rings , buttons , dolls , posters and figurines . She has appeared in each of The Simpsons video games , including The Simpsons Game , released in 2007 . Besides the television series , Marge regularly appears in issues of Simpsons Comics , which were first published on November 29 , 1993 , and are issued monthly . Marge also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride , launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood .
Marge appeared in a 2005 advertisement for Dove Styling , where her normal beehive hair was exchanged for a more stylish look for a series of ads featuring several popular cartoon women .
In October 2009 , it was announced that Marge would be featured on the front cover of the November issue of Playboy becoming the first cartoon character to appear on the cover of the magazine . The edition was first published on October 16 , 2009 . The cover and a three @-@ page picture spread , as well as a story inside entitled The Devil in Marge Simpson , is a celebration of the 20th anniversary of The Simpsons , but is also part of a plan to appeal to younger readers . Chief executive of Playboy Enterprises , Scott Flanders , has said that the cover and centerfold were " somewhat tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " . Darine Stern 's picture on the October 1971 cover served as the inspiration for Playboy 's November 2009 cover .
= Pool Party ( The Office ) =
" Pool Party " is the twelfth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 164th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 19 , 2012 . It was written by Owen Ellickson and was directed by Charles McDougall . The episode guest starred Lindsey Broad and Eleanor Seigler .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Robert California ( James Spader ) decides to sell his mansion following his divorce and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) suggests that he have an office pool party . There , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) tries to make Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) jealous by flirting with Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) . Meanwhile , Robert gives everyone a tour of his massive home .
" Pool Party " received mostly mixed reviews from critics , with many criticizing the episode 's lack of a finite plot . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Pool Party " drew 6 @.@ 02 million viewers and received a 3 rating / 7 % share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , marking a slight increase from the previous episode , " Trivia . " The episode ranked third in its timeslot , and was the highest rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
After Robert California ( James Spader ) is forced to sell his mansion at the behest of his ex @-@ wife following his divorce , Kevin suggests that he have an office pool party . Andy ( Ed Helms ) takes his girlfriend Jessica to the party and brings an engagement ring his Jessica @-@ approving mother gave him , hoping to propose . The ring goes missing from Andy 's pants and he is horrified that he cannot find it . Kelly and Phyllis later find the ring and decide , based on the superstition of finding a lost ring , that it must be destroyed . Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) , having been told by Meredith that Andy followed her home after the Christmas party , decides to make Andy jealous by flirting with Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) . Dwight initially refuses , but , after realizing that Erin 's choosing him as her co @-@ conspirator is flattering to his attractiveness , agrees to help . The two flirt outrageously whenever Andy is close by , but Andy doesn 't notice . To ensure Andy 's attention , Erin and Dwight challenge Andy and Jessica to a series of chicken fights in the pool . After several defeats , Erin is so determined to win a match that she pushes Dwight to the point where he passes out in the water , ending the game . In a final attempt to make Andy jealous , Dwight tells Andy he wants to pursue a romance with Erin but wants to avoid an " Angela @-@ type situation " between them . Andy assures Dwight that he and Erin are through but , at the mention of Dwight having sex with Erin that very night , suggests that Dwight take things slowly instead , leading Dwight to pointedly tell him " You 're an idiot . " Erin later swims up to Andy with the lost ring , which Kelly had earlier set in the pool atop a tiny pyre , and he admits that he has doubts about proposing to Jessica . This makes Erin very happy .
While most of the employees are congregated in the pool area , Robert gives some of the male employees a tour of his massive home , spending most of the time mournfully describing how it was intended to be the location for wild , uninhibited parties . He offers those present on the tour a free bottle of wine from his wine cellar and the staff proceed to get drunk . Jim ( John Krasinski ) had intended to make a token appearance at Robert 's party and quickly return home to his wife and kids ; however , Robert , sensing his reluctance to be there , insists that Jim stay for the duration of the tour in order to punish him for laughing at an inopportune moment earlier that day as Robert had complained about having to sell his house . Eventually , Robert realizes that he is hosting one of the parties he had always imagined , at which point he jumps into the pool completely naked , followed by Gabe and Ryan ( B.J. Novak ) , who had both been battling all night to impress him . Jim takes this as his cue to leave , sneaking away and driving home at top speed . At the end of the night , Gabe and Ryan , both drunk and unwilling to concede defeat in their brown @-@ nosing battle , remain at the party with Robert even as the CEO passes out .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by co @-@ producer Owen Ellickson , his first writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff in the eighth season . It was directed by Charles McDougall , his seventh directing credit for the series . The episode also marks the sixth appearance of Lindsey Broad , who plays Cathy , Pam 's replacement during her maternity leave . She appeared in a recurring role for the season and she initially appeared in " Pam 's Replacement " . Due to Jenna Fischer 's actual pregnancy , Pam did not appear in the episode . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Erin and Dwight taking turns suggestively massaging and stretching each other , Erin talking to the camera about her convoluted relationship with Andy , and Robert shows his guests his " shame " room .
= = Cultural references = =
The songs " Big White Elephant " and " Model Homes " by the band In @-@ Flight Safety were featured during scenes at the party . The song " Can 't Complain " by Bomb the Music Industry ! appeared around 14 minutes in . Many of the references were a result of Robert California bemoaning his position in life . He mentions early on in the episode that , " The 1 % are hurting too " , a reference to the slogan of the Occupy movement . During the tour of his home theater , California explained that he had it created to watch Caligula , Last Tango in Paris , and Emmanuelle 2 , but that the last two movies he watched in there were Marley & Me and On Golden Pond .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Pool Party " originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 19 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 6 @.@ 02 million viewers and received a 3 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode marked a slight increase in ratings compared to the previous episode , " Trivia . " The episode finished third in its time slot , being beaten by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 4 rating / 8 % share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 3 @.@ 3 rating / 8 % share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . The episode , however , did manage to beat the Fox drama series The Finder and The CW drama series The Secret Circle . In addition , " Pool Party " was the highest rated NBC television episode of the night . It was also the last episode of The Office to be viewed by more than 6 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Many reviews criticized the episode 's lack of a cohesive plot . Myles McNutt from The A.V. Club awarded the episode a C rating , saying , " ' Pool Party ' was so loosely structured that it relied heavily on the characters to carry the narrative , and the result was some languid storytelling which gave me way too much time to think about missed opportunities , failed experiments , and the increasing burden of a show without any momentum . " Dan Forcella from TVFanatic gave the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and wrote , " There were bits and pieces of each story that worked in ' Pool Party , ' but neither Robert 's stroll through parties never had , nor Erin 's endeavor to make Andy jealous , came together to make completely funny or interesting tales . " The Huffington Post wrote that , " Once [ at the titular pool part ] , the plot bits were so loose it might have been difficult for casual fans to follow it all . " Craig McQuinn from The Faster Times wrote , " ' Pool Party ' was one of those episodes where you can tell the writers didn 't know what else to do . ... This is filler , really , which unfortunately tends to be unavoidable when you do 22 @-@ episode seasons and you 're eight years in . " Many reviews were critical of the continued Erin @-@ Andy romance taking center @-@ stage . McNutt wrote , " I still really do not care about Andy and Erin as a relationship . The show 's approach to this storyline ... is to have Andy enjoying a fairly normal evening with his girlfriend Jessica while Erin acts like a crazy person in an effort to get his attention . " Forecella noted that , while the Erin and Dwight pairing was funny , their attempts to make Andy jealous were not successful , as Andy 's sub @-@ plots were deemed not funny and " boring . "
Not all reviews were critical . WhatCulture reviewer Joseph Kratzer awarded the episode four out of five stars and wrote , " Now that 's what I 'm talking about – few things are better in art than having your expectations overturned and " The Pool Party " pleasantly surprised me with the efficacy of its execution . " Jeffrey Hyatt from ScreenCrave gave the episode a 9 / 10 rating and wrote , " I think ' Pool Party ' is my favorite episode so far this season . The Robert California and Erin / Dwight / Andy story lines were rock solid . Previous excursions out of the office have been blah , but the pool party setting really complimented the ensemble – and the sharp writing . " Michael Tedder from New York Magazine called the episode the season 's second best , after " Trivia . " In addition , many critics wrote positively of the characters and their actions . Jill Mader from InsidePulse wrote that while , " [ the pool party ] storyline itself was just OK ... Ellie Kemper was hilarious . " Many reviewers , including McNutt and Forcella , found Kevin 's lines and actions to be particularly memorable , most notably , his declaration that Val was racist after she asked if Darryl could swim . A variety of reviewers found the cold @-@ opening , featuring Jim pranking Dwight by placing meatballs in his desk in an attempt to make Stanley laugh , funny .
= New Kid on the Block =
" New Kid on the Block " is the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 12 , 1992 . After meeting his new neighbor , Laura , Bart develops a crush on her , only to later discover that she has a boyfriend , Jimbo Jones , whom he attempts to scare off so that he can have a relationship with Laura . Meanwhile , Homer sues the Sea Captain Horatio McCallister after being kicked out of his all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat restaurant while still hungry . It was written by Conan O 'Brien and directed by Wes Archer .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons ' neighbors , the Winfields , decide to relocate because of Homer 's regular inappropriate behavior . Bart and Lisa explore the Winfield 's house while it is empty and up for sale , but Bart scares Lisa away from the basement with stories . Bart turns around to see his new neighbor , Laura Powers . Surprised , he falls down in shock and is helped back up by her and the pair become acquainted . Bart instantly develops a crush on her .
After Marge visits Ruth Powers to welcome her to the area , she tells Marge that she is divorced , and the two become friends . Meanwhile , after seeing a television advertisement about The Frying Dutchman 's all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat offer , Homer insists that Marge come dine with him , so he arranges for Laura to babysit Bart and Lisa . Homer quickly earns himself the ire of the Sea Captain , devouring nearly every morsel of food in the buffet , and is eventually forced to leave despite not being sated . Much to Marge 's embarrassment , Homer sues the restaurant for deceptive advertisement . Lionel Hutz is employed by him to represent him in court and the case is successful after Hutz convinces the mostly overweight jury that a similar buffet mishap could befall them . To avoid further legal trouble , the Sea Captain and Homer eventually agree that Homer shall be displayed in the restaurant as " Bottomless Pete : Nature 's Cruelest Mistake " to draw in more customers to the restaurant and offset the cost of his eating .
Meanwhile , Bart is delighted at having Laura babysitting him and attempts to impress her . She later asks him to come to his treehouse , as she has important news . She tells him she is dating Jimbo Jones , which upsets Bart. When Laura invites him over to the household , Bart , in an attempt to break the pair up , prank @-@ calls Moe 's Tavern , giving his name as Jimbo Jones , and telling Moe where he lives . Mistakenly believing Jimbo was the one who had been pranking Moe throughout the entire series , he races into the Simpson house with a kitchen knife looking for Jimbo , causing Jimbo to cry and plead for his life . Afterwards , Laura breaks up with him for not being the tough " outlaw " she thought he was . Laura tells Bart that she would date him if he were old enough to grow a mustache and the episode ends with the pair laughing after prank @-@ calling Moe again .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Conan O 'Brien and directed by Wes Archer . The episode 's original subplot was intended to include American actor and comedian Don Rickles as a guest star presenting a comedy show and Homer laughing excessively at his jokes , until Rickles ridicules him . The pair were intended to start fighting and end up having to go to court . Despite O 'Brien and other production staff being sure that Rickles would appear in the episode , he was reportedly upset by the concept of the storyline , as he did not wish to be portrayed as a " mean guy " .
When attending a Fox Broadcasting Company publicity event in New York with Rupert Murdoch , show producer Matt Groening was introduced by Murdoch to Rickles . Rickles began shouting at Groening , accusing him of spying on his Las Vegas act and using material from that for the episode . The cast actually had been receiving recordings from Rickles from the 1950s to use as ideas on how to get the style for his animatic portrayal . Another side story the writers produced was for Homer to become an outstanding barber and hair dresser , but this was never used .
" New Kid on the Block " features first time appearances from Laura Powers , Ruth Powers , and The Sea Captain . Hank Azaria based the Sea Captain 's voice on that of actor Robert Newton .
= = Cultural references = =
The courtroom scene in which numerous sacks of letters to Santa Claus are delivered to court is a parody of the 1947 film Miracle on 34th Street .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " New Kid on the Block " finished 23rd in ratings for the week of November 9 – 16 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 4 , equivalent to approximately 13 @.@ 4 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Beverly Hills , 90210 . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide commented that it was " a fun episode , introducing the Powers family [ and featuring ] the last appearance of the Winfields " . In a 2008 article , Entertainment Weekly named Sara Gilbert 's role as Laura Powers as one of the sixteen best guest appearances on The Simpsons .
= Chris Ryan 's Strike Back =
Chris Ryan 's Strike Back , also known as Strike Back : Origins on Cinemax , is a six @-@ part British television series based on the novel of the same name written by best @-@ selling author and former soldier of the Special Air Service , Chris Ryan , and is the first series of Strike Back . It was produced by Left Bank Pictures for Sky1 . The cast of Strike Back is led by Richard Armitage and Andrew Lincoln , also starring Orla Brady , Shelley Conn , Colin Salmon and Jodhi May , including a variety of guest appearances including Toby Stephens , Ewen Bremner , Dhaffer L 'Abidine , Shaun Parkes and Alexander Siddig . The series follows John Porter ( Armitage ) , a former British Special Forces soldier , who is drafted back into service by Section 20 , a fictional branch of the Defence Intelligence ( DI ) of the Ministry of Defence .
The series ran on a multi @-@ million pound budget , and was filmed on location in South Africa , particularly in Gauteng . Ryan became a series consultant . Strike Back commenced airing on 5 May 2010 with two episodes showing a week . The first episode received unofficial overnight ratings of almost 400 @,@ 000 viewers in the United Kingdom , which increased to just over one million according to the more official Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board . It was met with generally positive reviews ; comments of the series ranged from a positive " British action series that packs a Die Hard @-@ style thrill around every corner , " to a more negative " pathetic male fantasy " . It was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on 7 June 2010 .
A 10 @-@ part second series , known as Strike Back : Project Dawn , a co @-@ production between Sky and the American network Cinemax , was first broadcast in August 2011 . A third series of Strike Back , also consisting of 10 parts , was released in August 2012 .
Following success of the second through fourth series , Cinemax began airing the six @-@ part series starting 25 October 2013 in the United States . It is airing as a prequel in the U.S. since Cinemax aired Strike Back : Project Dawn , Strike Back : Vengeance , and Strike Back : Shadow Warfare prior to the first season .
= = Episodes = =
In this table , the number in the first column refers to the episode 's number within the entire series , " UK viewers in millions " refers to how many Britons watched the episode on Sky1 . The series plays out as three two @-@ part episodes .
= = Cast and characters = =
Richard Armitage plays series protagonist John Porter . Porter served with the SAS until he was discharged after he spared the life of a boy who was believed to have subsequently killed two soldiers in his unit following a rescue operation the night before the Iraq invasion . He is brought back into service by Section 20 seven years later . He is married to Diane , and has a daughter , Alexandra . Armitage described Porter as a " damaged hero " , and " sort of like Lucas North , only on some kind of go @-@ faster drug . " In order to fit into the role , Armitage had to " bulk up for the role , " and performed a lot of training for about ten weeks in the UK , and then flew to Johannesburg the day after filming the eighth series of Spooks wrapped up , where he proceeded with more training . He was trained from " how to hold a gun to how you can run through a door without getting your head blown off . " Armitage had not trained as hard as in the past ; the intensity of such training almost made him pass out after the first workout , stating " filming Spooks is demanding , but nowhere near as physical as this . " Armitage performed most of his own stunts .
Andrew Lincoln plays Hugh Collinson , former soldier in Porter 's unit and has since become the head of Section 20 . Lincoln was signed onto the role because he thought the series was a " great story " , and that his character was " completely re @-@ written from the book . " Out of the cast , the weapons instructor told Lincoln that he was the most instinctive he ever worked with .
Orla Brady plays Katie Dartmouth , a British war correspondent who was kidnapped in Basra by the " Sword of Islam " , an Iraqi terrorist group . To play Dartmouth , Brady used her inspiration from real life BBC war correspondent Orla Guerin . During the filming of Dartmouth 's holding , a male stand @-@ in with a wig was used as a stunt double . The crew also added oil and dirt on Brady 's hair every morning . Brady stated that she liked playing extremes , and thought Dartmouth is " grown up " compared to Siobhan Dhillion , the character Brady portrayed in Mistresses .
Shelley Conn plays Danni Prendiville , an officer with Section 20 . Porter started an affair with her after he was redrafted into service . She signed on for the role because she " thought the concept of the scripts was very clever and once I heard who was involved it didn 't take me long to sign up . " In researching for her role , Conn had somewhat of a military background since her father and uncle both served in the British Army , and had since had a base understanding of military life .
Colin Salmon plays James Middleton , a civil servant who sits between the British government and the Ministry of Defence . Salmon previously worked with Sky1 on Hex . He was attracted to the role in Strike Back due to the script being " a page @-@ turner , and they 're rare . It 's really lovely to sit down to start reading something and then not be able to stop because you have to know what 's going to happen next , " as well as hearing of who was involved in the project . A member of The Prince 's Trust charity , Salmon took the opportunity to visit some of their projects in Soweto while the series was filmed .
Jodhi May plays Layla Thompson , a lieutenant in military intelligence and works alongside Collinson in Section 20 . At first , she came to resent Porter , but starts opening up to him after she grows some distrust towards Collinson . May described Thompson as an " incredibly challenging , assertive and ambitious woman working in a male @-@ dominated field that she 's climbed to the top of . " She was drawn into appear in the series because of the respect she has with Andy Harries and Left Bank Productions . May knew people who work in the same world her character does , and talked with them to conduct some research into her role , as well as reading on the subject .
The first series was also given a variety of guest appearances . Among them include Nicola Stephenson ( Diane Porter ) , Laura Greenwood ( Alexandra Porter ) , Fenar Mohammed Ali ( As 'ad ) , Dhaffer L 'Abidine ( Hakim Al Nazeri ) , Shaun Parkes ( Felix Masuku ) , David Harewood ( Colonel Tshuma ) , Toby Stephens ( Frank Arlington ) and Alexander Siddig ( Zahar Sharq ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The inspiration for a television adaptation came when executive producer Andy Harries saw the novel while at an airport and took it on holiday with him . He did not manage to read it before returning to Britain , but pitched the idea to Sky 's Head of Drama Elaine Pyke , who commissioned it anyway . Pyke and Harries had enthusiasm for the novel , and were excited to take up the challenge to adapt it for television . It was planned to be shot in high @-@ definition because , according to Pyke ; " Sky1 HD drama is about trying to astound audiences , up the creative bar , and commission shows which make audiences love being Sky subscribers . " After seeing the success from previous dramas such as Terry Pratchett 's Hogfather and The Take , Sky made a multimillion @-@ pound commitment to Strike Back .
Harries commented that he " was interested in developing a quality action series out of the UK because it 's something we don 't do very often , but there 's no reason why we shouldn 't . " Richard Armitage called the series an " ambitious project for television . But the advantage of that is that these three feature films are linked together so you get a really interesting character arc through all episodes . American television is being brave and doing that at the moment , and this is stepping into that area . " Former SAS soldier and the original novel 's author , Chris Ryan , served as the series consultant and script advisor . Chris Ryan stated ; " When you produce a novel it 's like a child and to see it put onto screen opens it up to a greater audience . I class myself as a storyteller now , and to tell that story on paper is a great privilege , then to see it on screen is even better . "
= = = Preparation = = =
As Strike Back is a military drama , the production crew used a vast catalogue of firearms , including side arms , assault and sniper rifles , as well as rocket @-@ propelled grenades , hand grenades and other explosives . Cast members were first taught by carrying weights that mimicked the weight of the weapons so they could get used to carrying it during filming . Later , they were taught how to carry them professionally , including how to disassemble and re @-@ assemble them , as well as how to fire and reload . Though the majority were actually rubber , duplicates were sometimes used for some of the background characters . Three ex @-@ SAS soldiers gave the cast weapons and tactical training , and were also on hand to oversee how cast members carried the weapons during filming sessions .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming commenced on August 2009 , and concluded by the end of the same year . It was filmed on location primarily in the Johannesburg area in South Africa , as well as the same Province the city is located , Gauteng . Other filming locations in the series include Northern Cape , Augrabies Falls National Park , and the Kalahari Desert . Harries wanted to film the series in South Africa because he worked there several times in the past , and knew the country can replicate anywhere in the world .
One of the biggest problems for filming is the environmental impact they would cause , particularly with explosions . Location manager Jaco Espach often coordinated with a special effects team to use more environmentally friendly methods . In order to film sequences involving firearms and explosives in private property , the series crew often negotiated with property owners , as well as notifying all neighbouring properties , local police and the local hospital . In the city , leaflets were distributed to the filming location a week in advance . In airport scenes , the crew would inform the aviation authorities . The action sequences in the beginning of the first episode took five days to shoot , and was filmed in the Johannesburg suburb of Yeoville . On the scenes filmed on the Kalahari , filming temporarily halted due to the spotting of venomous snakes in the area . After they retreated from some rainfall , the crew swept the area to remove them and filming continued .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Release and ratings = = =
The series aired two episodes a week from 5 to 19 May 2010 in the United Kingdom . BBC Worldwide acquired distribution rights to broadcast the first series internationally . Episodes 1 and 2 received unofficial overnight ratings of 398 @,@ 000 and 370 @,@ 000 viewers , with an audience share of 1 @.@ 7 % and 2 @.@ 1 % respectively . Both episodes more than tripled Sky1 's average audience share in their slots from the previous three months , and were also the third most @-@ watched non @-@ terrestrial viewing behind BBC Four 's Timothy Spall : Somewhere at Sea and a live Sky Sports football game . The overnight figures for episodes 3 and 4 were down somewhat to 337 @,@ 000 and 294 @,@ 000 with an audience share of 1 @.@ 4 % and 1 @.@ 5 % respectively . The overnight ratings for the finale episodes were both 386 @,@ 000 viewers , and received an audience share of 1 @.@ 7 % and 2 @.@ 3 % respectively .
Strike Back was released on both DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc in the United Kingdom on 7 June 2010 . Released by 2entertain , they contain all six episodes , as well as cast interviews and a Behind the Scenes featurette .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Overall , the reviews of the series were generally positive . Michael Conroy of GQ named Strike Back an " Editor 's Pick " for its " excellent cinematography , stellar performances and a surprisingly balanced global perspective makes this story of two former British SAS soldiers a thoroughly enjoyable action romp . " Conroy compared the series to Green Zone , The Pacific and the Call of Duty video game series . Keith Watson of Metro called the series a " British action series that packs a Die Hard @-@ style thrill around every corner . " Watson praised Armitage 's performance , calling him perfect for the role , and that " for once in a British series , the action scenes kick some proper butt . " John Preston of The Daily Telegraph stated that Strike Back was " a slick affair , crisply directed by Daniel Percival , scripted with considerable sharpness by Jed Mercurio and full of belting action sequences . "
Jack Foley of IndieLondon rated the first episodes four stars out of five , stating that it " made for exciting viewing even if the politics and the script sometimes proved laughably gung @-@ ho and naive . " On review on the first two episodes , Jane Simon of The Mirror has said that between the cast , " there 's enough shock and awe to make you very glad they 're showing this in a double bill . " Gerard Gilbert of The Arts Desk dubbed Strike Back as " thin and lightweight next to [ Armitage 's other gig ] Spooks " , and although " not unexciting " , Gilbert did not find the series interesting . Andrea Mullaney of The Scotsman was positive about the casting , and the changes in storyline from the original novel , though the series was aimed " squarely at the blokey viewer who 'd rather watch paint dry than a costume drama . " Whilst also reviewing Luther and Lewis , John Lloyd of The Financial Times called it " fine for tension , " " good on sub @-@ Bond dialogue " and that the story lines make Spooks look true to life . Lloyd also called Richard Armitage " one of the best action men on television . "
The Guardian and The Independent have each released two separate reviews ; they were more mixed . Sam Wollaston enjoyed the first two episodes , but called it a " pathetic male fantasy . " Andrew Anthony has said that " no scene lasted more than about 25 seconds in the first two episodes and no element of plot information was left unspoken . The dialogue is close to pure exposition , with an occasional clunkily macho line thrown in as a concession to dramatic atmosphere . Show , don 't tell , say the screenwriting gurus . This was show and tell . " From The Independent , Tom Sutcliffe stated the series may be enjoyed by those who like explosions and Spooks @-@ like operations . Rhiannon Harries was almost negative in her review , believing Strike Back was " in almost every respect , a terrible piece of television drama , " although part of Harries enjoyed watching it . Harries noted that Luther was more recommended .
= Georgia State Route 40 =
State Route 40 ( SR 40 ) is a 30 @.@ 46 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 49 @.@ 02 km ) state highway in the southeast part of the U.S. state of Georgia . The highway travels from US 1 / US 23 / US 301 / SR 4 / SR 15 in Folkston east to Church Street in St. Marys . SR 40 is the primary east – west highway of eastern Charlton County and southern Camden County . The highway connects Folkston and St. Marys with Kingsland , where the route meets Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) and US 17 / SR 25 . SR 40 also serves as the majority of the route from I @-@ 95 to Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay and Cumberland Island National Seashore . SR 40 has a pair of auxiliary routes : a connector route in Folkston and a spur route in St. Marys that provides access to the submarine base and Crooked River State Park .
SR 40 was assigned to the Folkston – St. Marys highway in the early 1920s . The highway was first improved in the mid @-@ 1920s and paved in the mid @-@ 1930s from Kingsland to St. Marys . SR 40 was paved from Folkston east to the Charlton – Camden county line in the late 1930s and from the county line to Kingsland in the early 1940s . The highway was extensively relocated between Folkston and Kingsland in the mid @-@ 1960s . SR 40 was expanded to four lanes , much of it divided highway , east of Kingsland in the 1980s . The Georgia Department of Transportation ( GDOT ) has long @-@ term plans to expand the state highway to a four @-@ lane divided highway from Folkston to Kingsland . The first portion of this project was completed east of Folkston in the mid @-@ 2000s .
= = Route description = =
SR 40 has a pair of similarly named official designations west of Kingsland . The Georgia General Assembly designated part of the Okefenokee Parkway from Folkston to I @-@ 95 , which was then under construction , in 1968 . SR 40 from Folkston to Kingsland became one of ten stretches of highway designated part of the Okefenokee Trail by the state legislature in 2006 . The highway is a part of the National Highway System for its entire length .
= = = Folkston to Kingsland = = =
SR 40 begins at the intersection of Main Street and Second Street in the city of Folkston . Second Street carries US 1 / US 23 / US 301 / SR 4 / SR 15 . Main Street continues west as an unnumbered street through the center of town . Two blocks west of SR 40 's terminus , Main Street intersects CSX 's Nahunta Subdivision , a very busy dual track rail line that attracts railfans to the Folkston Railfan Platform one block south of Main Street . One block west of the rail line , Main Street meets SR 23 / SR 121 ( Okefenokee Parkway ) . SR 40 heads east for one block to Main Street 's eastern end at Third Street , an intersection that is adjacent to the Charlton County Courthouse . The state highway turns south onto Third Street for one block , then turns east onto Kingsland Road .
SR 40 meets the eastern end of SR 40 Connector ( Cross Street ) and leaves Folkston as a two @-@ lane road . The road expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway for about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before reverting to two lanes shortly before crossing the Charlton – Camden county line . SR 40 intersects SR 110 , which heads northeast to Woodbine , at the hamlet of Colerain . Between Folkston and Kingsland , the highway crosses several streams that feed into the parallel St. Marys River . SR 40 enters Kingsland on King Avenue , which has a grade crossing of the First Coast Railroad and intersects US 17 / SR 25 ( Lee Street ) . Here , the state highway expands to a four @-@ lane undivided street . SR 40 expands again to a six @-@ lane divided highway and begins to closely parallel the St. Marys Railroad through a commercial area just west of its partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 95 .
= = = Kingsland to St. Marys = = =
Near the east end of the commercial area on either side of I @-@ 95 , SR 40 becomes a five @-@ lane road with center turn lane . SR 40 gains a median again at its intersection with Kings Bay Road , one of several highways that lead to Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay . Another main highway to the naval base is St. Marys Road , which the highway meets at a partial cloverleaf interchange on the boundary between the cities of Kingsland and St. Marys . SR 40 intersects a branch of the railroad that heads into the naval base and crosses Dark Entry Creek before meeting the southern end of SR 40 Spur ( Charlie Smith , Sr. , Highway ) , which heads north along the western edge of the naval base on its way to Crooked River State Park .
SR 40 continues through St. Marys along Osborne Road , which is a five @-@ lane road with center turn lane until after it passes to the south of St. Marys Airport . SR 40 reduces to four lanes and then two as it curves south onto Osborne Street in the center of St. Marys . The highway intersects the St. Marys Railroad near its eastern terminus before reaching its eastern terminus at the intersection of Osborne Street and Church Street . Osborne Street continues south past the historic home Orange Hall and into the St. Marys Historic District , at the southern end of which is the passenger ferry to Cumberland Island and its national seashore .
= = History = =
SR 40 was assigned to the highway from Folkston to St. Marys via Kingsland by 1920 . However , the route from Folkston to what became US 17 / SR 25 in Kingsland was not marked on maps between 1921 and January 1932 . The highway that was to become SR 40 followed most of its present alignment from Folkston to the Charlton – Camden county line in 1919 but had a significantly different route in western Camden County , following what are now Colerain Road , Forestry Road , Marr Cemetery Road , Oakhill Church Road , Willies Loop , Old Folkston Road , Arizona Avenue , and several sections of abandoned highway . East of Kingsland , the highway followed most of its present alignment but crossed the parallel railroad several times .
By 1926 , the Kingsland – St. Marys highway was a sand or dirt road . When the Folkston – Kingsland stretch of SR 40 reappeared on maps in February 1932 , the highway was recorded as an unimproved but maintained road . SR 40 was under construction along its present alignment from US 17 in Kingsland to the south end of Osborne Street in St. Marys by October 1934 ; the highway was completed as a paved road by January 1936 . The highway from Folkston to the Charlton – Camden county line was under construction by October 1936 . The construction was extended east from the county line to the highway 's original SR 110 junction in July 1937 . When construction concluded in October 1937 , there was a paved highway from Folkston to the county line and a graded but otherwise unimproved highway from there to SR 110 . SR 40 between Colerain and the western edge of Kingsland was under construction by July 1939 and paving was completed in January 1941 . The gap in Kingsland was placed under construction by April 1941 but was not completed until the beginning of 1943 .
The first major rerouting of SR 40 occurred between 1963 and 1966 when the highway was moved to its present alignment between the Charlton – Camden county line and Kingsland . By 1982 , the highway had been expanded to a divided highway around its interchange with I @-@ 95 and to a four @-@ lane undivided highway from there to St. Marys . The divided highway section was extended west toward downtown Kingsland in 1984 . SR 40 's interchange with St. Marys Road was built and the highway was expanded to a divided highway from Kings Bay Road to SR 40 Spur by 1986 . The entire length of the highway was designated a Governor 's Road Improvement Program ( GRIP ) corridor in 1989 . GDOT plans to expand the entire highway west of I @-@ 95 to a four @-@ lane divided highway . The first new section of the highway to be expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway was the 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) stretch west of the Charlton – Camden county line , which was completed in 2004 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Bannered routes = =
= = = SR 40 Connector = = =
State Route 40 Connector ( SR 40 Connector ) is a 1 @.@ 33 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 14 km ) connector route of SR 40 in Folkston . The route follows Cross Street from US 1 / US 23 / US 301 / SR 4 / SR 15 / SR 23 / SR 121 ( Okefenokee Drive ) on the north side of town southeast to SR 40 east of Folkston . SR 40 Connector heads east from the U.S. highways as a two @-@ lane road that passes Charlton County High School . The highway continues southeast through a residential area and intersects SR 252 ( Burnt Fort Road ) , which heads southwest toward its western terminus in downtown Folkston and northeast toward White Oak in northern Camden County . SR 40 Connector enters a forested area for the remainder of its course to SR 40 ( Kingsland Road ) . SR 40 CONN was designated along Cross Street in 2005 .
= = = SR 40 Spur = = =
State Route 40 Spur ( SR 40 Spur ) is a 6 @.@ 58 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 59 km ) spur route of SR 40 in St. Marys . The route is officially named Charlie Smith , Sr. , Highway based on a 1994 Georgia Transportation Board resolution honoring a local politician from Camden County ; the highway is also known as Crooked River Road . SR 40 Spur begins at an intersection with SR 40 ( Osborne Road ) northwest of downtown St. Marys and heads north as a five @-@ lane road with center turn lane through a mixed commercial and residential area . North of its oblique intersection with Colerain Road and Douglas Drive , the spur route expands to a controlled @-@ access divided highway and serves as the western boundary of Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay . Access to the base is provided at intersections with USS Benjamin Franklin Drive opposite St. Marys Road and USS Henry L. Stimson Drive opposite Kings Bay Road . North of the latter junction , SR 40 Spur reduces to two lanes and has a grade crossing with the branch of the St. Marys Railroad that enters the naval base . Further north , the highway has a pair of intersections with USS Andrew Jackson Drive and USS Proteus Boulevard , which serve the northern part of the military reservation . SR 40 Spur leaves the edge of the base as it enters Crooked River State Park . The highway reaches its northern terminus at the park gate a short distance south of the Crooked River . SR 40 Spur was designated by the beginning of 1941 and was under construction later that year . The paved road was completed in 1942 . SR 40 Spur was expanded to four lanes from SR 40 to Kings Bay Road around 1986 .
= Bad Hair Day =
Bad Hair Day is the ninth studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released on March 12 , 1996 . It was the third studio album self @-@ produced by Yankovic . The album produced an array of hit comedy singles ; lead single " Amish Paradise " , which lampoons both Coolio 's " Gangsta 's Paradise " and the Amish lifestyle , charted at number 53 on the Billboard Hot 100 , while " Gump " , which parodies " Lump " by The Presidents of the United States of America and the movie Forrest Gump , charted at 102 .
The musical styles on the album are built around parodies and pastiches of pop and rock music of the mid @-@ 1990s , largely targeting alternative rock and hip @-@ hop alike . The album also includes style parodies , imitations of specific artists like They Might Be Giants and Elvis Costello . " Amish Paradise " caused a minor controversy after rapper Coolio expressed distaste at having his song parodied by Yankovic , although the two later made amends .
Bad Hair Day was met with mixed to positive reviews , with many critics praising " Amish Paradise " in particular ; " Amish Paradise " went on to become one of Yankovic 's best @-@ known singles . The album peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard 200 . Bad Hair Day sold 1 @,@ 317 @,@ 000 copies in the US in 1996 alone , the highest sales tally for any comedy album in a single calendar year since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991 . Bad Hair Day was Yankovic 's sixth Gold record in the United States , and went on to be certified Platinum for sales of over one million copies in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The album was also certified Platinum in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Recording = = =
In November 1994 , Yankovic entered Santa Monica Sound Recorders in Santa Monica , California to begin the first of the Bad Hair Day sessions , which he produced himself . Recording with Yankovic were Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz on drums , Steve Jay on bass , and Jim West on guitar . The album was recorded in five sessions . The first session started on November 30 and yielded two originals : " Callin ' In Sick " and " Everything You Know Is Wrong " . The second session started the next day and produced the original songs : " I Remember Larry " , " The Night Santa Went Crazy " , and " Since You 've Been Gone " . The third session took place on November 5 , 1995 , and resulted in the original " I 'm So Sick of You " and the parody " Cavity Search " . The fourth session yielded " The Alternative Polka " medley , and the two parodies " Gump " and " Phony Calls " . The fifth and final recording session produced " Amish Paradise " and " Syndicated Inc . " , both of which were parodies .
= = = Originals = = =
" Callin ' In Sick " is a style parody of music popular in Seattle , Washington , most notably grunge . " Everything You Know Is Wrong " is a stylistic pastiche of They Might Be Giants . Yankovic explained that he " tried to write a song sort of in their style , but perhaps even a little bit more twisted " . For fans of They Might Be Giants , he put " little references in here and there , little allusions to other songs of theirs " . Yankovic later admitted that it " is a little bit harder I think to decipher exactly where the inspiration is coming from . "
" I Remember Larry " is a style parody of Hilly Michaels , and it tells the tale of a neighborhood bully who , after myriad pranks , is brutally murdered by the narrator . At the 3 : 10 mark , the song contains a backmasked message , which when reversed reads , " Wow , you must have an awful lot of free time on your hands " . " The Night Santa Went Crazy " tells the story of Santa snapping and embarking on a killing spree . Originally , the song had a different third verse , differing in the fact that , at the end of the song , Santa is killed by the SWAT team . Although Yankovic 's record label made him re @-@ record the song for the album , the " Extra Gory " version was released on the single for " Amish Paradise " . Another version was written for the Touring with Scissors tour in 1999 , combining elements of the album version and the " Extra Gory " version . " Since You 've Been Gone " is a generic doo @-@ wop a cappella track that details a lover 's torment after the object of his affections breaks up with him . Yankovic performed most of the vocals himself , and to make sure that he stayed on key , a scratch guitar track was recorded ; when the song was mixed , the guitar track was removed . Bassist Steve Jay provides the low voices in the song . Finally , " I 'm So Sick of You , " a style parody of Elvis Costello in which the singer tells his girlfriend all the things he hates about her .
= = = Parodies and polka = = =
The first parody recorded for the album was " Cavity Search " , a parody of U2 's hit " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " . The song , which recounts the horror of having to go to the dentist , features the sound of an actual dental drill . To enhance the dental theme of the song , Yankovic called in his actual dentist , who brought a real drill and a human tooth , which the two took turns drilling while recording to create a genuine sound effect . The second parody was a pastiche of TLC 's hit " Waterfalls " called " Phony Calls " , about prank calls . During the bridge , a clip from The Simpsons second season episode " Blood Feud " is played on top of the music . Because the sound clip was from a preexisting episode , Yankovic noted that " it was a pretty sweet deal for the Simpsons ' voice actors – they each got a nice pile of money , and they didn 't even have to come to the studio ! " The next parody recorded for the album was " Gump " , a parody of " Lump " by The Presidents of the United States of America . The song recounts the basic plot to the 1994 film Forrest Gump about a naïve and slow @-@ witted yet athletically prodigious native of Alabama who witnesses , and in some cases influences , some of the defining events of the latter half of the 20th century in the United States . " Gump " was released as the second single from the album , and received a video .
On January 15 , 1996 , Yankovic began recording the lead single for the album , " Amish Paradise " . Yankovic felt that parodying Coolio would pay off , because Coolio had " such an identifiable image that a lot of things could be done [ with ] " . He noted , " I like to play around with people that have some- you know , a lot of style as opposed to somebody who 's kind of homogonized [ sic ] and bland and has no personality , and Coolio certainly kind of sticks out in a crowd . " Yankovic felt that juxtaposing the original song 's " gangsta " themes with the Amish lifestyle would produce a humorous end result . After Yankovic revealed to his label that he would be doing a Coolio parody , they requested that the album artwork for the release also parody Coolio . Yankovic had been toying with the name Bad Hair Day for a time and felt that he could adequately use the name and lampoon Coolio – who was known for his distinct hair style – at the same time . The final parody recorded for the album , " Syndicated Inc . " , is a parody of " Misery " by Soul Asylum , a loving ode to syndicated television .
Much like Yankovic 's previous album , Bad Hair Day features a polka medley of then @-@ current hit songs , " The Alternative Polka " . " The Alternative Polka " originally contained the chorus of Weezer 's song " Buddy Holly " performed by Yankovic , but Weezer front man Rivers Cuomo requested its removal just before release . Yankovic was forced to physically cut the bit out of the master tape , but Weezer was still given credit in the liner notes because the notes were already printed . On June 25 , 2010 , over fourteen years after the album 's release , Yankovic released the " Buddy Holly " clip on his official YouTube channel .
= = = Unused parodies = = =
In addition to the five parodies on the album , Yankovic had several parody ideas that were turned down . Originally , Yankovic wanted to turn The Offspring 's hit " Come Out and Play " into an ode about doing laundry called " Laundry Day " . There are conflicting stories as to why the song was never recorded ; either Yankovic never approached The Offspring about releasing the parody , or the band denied permission . Either way , Yankovic performed the song in concert from 1996 through 2000 . Despite not being able to parody " Come Out and Play " , Yankovic would later be granted permission to parody their 1998 hit " Pretty Fly ( For a White Guy ) " as " Pretty Fly for a Rabbi " on his 1999 album Running with Scissors . Yankovic also wanted to record a parody of The Beatles ' Anthology hit " Free as a Bird " entitled " Gee , I 'm a Nerd " . Yankovic asked Paul McCartney , a supporter of Yankovic 's work , if he could parody " Free as a Bird " . McCartney had no problem with the parody , but because " Free as a Bird " was written by John Lennon , McCartney turned the decision over to Yoko Ono , who denied permission because she was uncomfortable with the parody idea .
Yankovic had also intended to record a parody of the U2 song " Numb " and a parody of The Rembrandts 's hit song " I 'll Be There for You " . The " Numb " spoof would have been called " Green Eggs and Ham " , a song in which Yankovic recited various lines from the Dr. Seuss book of the same name . U2 approved the parody , but Yankovic was unable to get permission from the Seuss estate . Likewise , Yankovic had wanted to turn " I 'll Be There for You " into " I 'll Repair For You " , and write it about the popular 1990s sitcom Home Improvement . The Rembrandts had also given approval when Yankovic asked , but the producers of Friends did not want the theme song to get overexposed and refused permission . All of the rejected parodies were later performed in concert .
= = Controversy = =
The album 's lead single , " Amish Paradise " , caused a minor controversy after rapper Coolio said that Yankovic had never asked for permission to record the parody . Yankovic traditionally secures permission from the artists he parodies , even though this is not legally required , as parodies are covered under fair use guidelines , but when he inquired about " Gangsta 's Paradise " , Yankovic was told by Scotti Brothers Records that Coolio had given permission . Coolio later claimed that he had not given such permission , making a statement at the Grammys saying that he did not appreciate Yankovic " desecrating " his song .
Speculation surfaced that Coolio had actually given permission but later changed his mind , or that Yankovic 's record label had lied to Yankovic in the hopes that the song would become popular . Yankovic later stated on VH1 's Behind the Music that he had written a sincere letter of apology to Coolio which was never returned , and that Coolio never complained when he received his royalty check from proceeds of the song . A series of photos taken at the XM Satellite Radio booth at the 2006 Consumer Electronics Show , and a post on the " Ask Al " feature on Yankovic 's website suggested that Yankovic and Coolio made amends . According to Yankovic , he was very surprised when Coolio came over to chat . He later joked on his site 's Q & A feature that , " I doubt I 'll be invited to Coolio 's next birthday party but at least I can stop wearing that bulletproof vest to the mall . "
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
Scotti Brothers Records developed a promotion strategy for Bad Hair Day , which included Yankovic dressing up in exaggerated Coolio @-@ styled hair and presenting an award at the American Music Awards in January 1996 . According to Billboard , this was " a hint as to who would be the next victim of a Yankovic parody " . " Amish Paradise " was then released in the very beginning of March as a radio and commercial single , when " Gangsta 's Paradise " was still receiving radio airplay . Four days later , the video was released . The album 's success was also bolstered by the release of " Gump " as a single on April 25 , and a video four days later . In addition , WEA , who had taken over distributing Scotti Brothers ' albums from BMG , helped with the initial release of the album .
To promote the album , Yankovic undertook the " Bad Hair Tour " , which spanned from May 24 , 1996 to October 19 , 1997 . The tour was largely centered in the United States , although the first half saw Yankovic perform in Canada . Yankovic performed over 130 shows during the tour . Initially , there were preliminary plans to have Yankovic tour Europe , based on whether All American Music Group would secure the album 's international release , although this venture never came to fruition .
= = = Reviews = = =
Mike Joyce of The Washington Post wrote that " Amish Paradise " was " by far the cleverest and funniest track that Bad Hair Day has to offer [ and ] it ranks right up there with such Yankovic classics as ' Another One Rides the Bus , ' ' Smells Like Nirvana ' and ' Eat It . ' " He also enjoyed " Gump " , but felt that the remainder of the parodies were weak , particularly citing " Cavity Search " as " a sophomoric attempt to extract yuks " . However , Joyce noted that " some of the biggest laugh @-@ getters " on the album were Yankovic 's originals . A record review from the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette concluded that " ' Weird Al ' Yankovic 's ninth collection of original songs and parodies reinforces his reign as pop music 's King of Comedy " , and that the record " showcases Yankovic 's unparalleled ability to capture the styles of other bands and turn boring pop songs into fun tunes . " J.D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun noted that while Yankovic 's music can be " sophomoric and silly " , Yankovic himself " can also be pretty smart " . The review highlighted , among other songs , " The Alternative Polka " and " The Night Santa Went Crazy " , as some of the album 's best songs .
Not all reviews were positive . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic criticized the lack of humor on the album saying " the music on Bad Hair Day not only lacks the humor , it lacks the impish energy that made Weird Al 's first albums such fun . " The Rolling Stone Record Guide awarded the album two out of five stars . However , the book later referred to the album 's lead single , " Amish Paradise " , as " gut @-@ busting . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Bad Hair Day was released on March 12 , 1996 , and eventually became Yankovic 's best selling album . Domestically , the album debuted at number 28 on the Billboard 200 on March 30 , 1996 . It eventually peaked at number 14 . The album remained on the chart for a total of 56 weeks , making it Yankovic 's longest @-@ charting album . In 1996 alone , the album sold 1 @,@ 317 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , setting a record for the most copies a comedy album sold in a year during the Nielsen SoundScan era . On May 15 , 1996 , Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified Bad Hair Day gold , and then on June 11 of the same year , it certified the record platinum . As of May 2014 , the album had sold 2 @.@ 025 million copies in the US . The fourth best selling comedy album of the Nielsen Soundscan era . The album was also successful in Canada , where it peaked at number 9 on the Canadian Albums Chart , and was later certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) , for sales over 100 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Track listing = =
The following is adapted from the album liner notes .
= = = Outtakes = = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= Loser like Me =
" Loser Like Me " is a song performed by the cast of American television series Glee , taken from their sixth soundtrack album , Glee : The Music , Volume 5 . The song was written by the series ' music producer Adam Anders , Swedish pop music producer Max Martin , and Peer Åström , Savan Kotecha , and Johan Schuster ( Shellback ) . Anders , Martin , Åström and Shellback produced the track . The song , with another track " Get It Right " , were the first two original songs to be featured on the show . The song is their first official single , being sent to US radio on March 1 , 2011 . In order for the song to have radio appeal , Anders recruited Martin to produce " Loser Like Me " while he was in the United States working on Britney Spears ' Femme Fatale .
Lea Michele and Cory Monteith front the song , with Michele providing lead vocals in the chorus and a verse , and Monteith having a verse . Other cast members provide vocals in the chorus and in a rap breakdown . Naya Rivera and Heather Morris have some spoken words and some solo work during the chorus . Musically , the song is a dance @-@ pop song , and it features a " pop funk " guitar . The production drew comparisons to similar Max Martin productions released at the time , notably Pink 's " Raise Your Glass " ( 2010 ) . Lyrically , it follows in the footsteps of previous self @-@ empowerment anthems released around the same time , with the incorporation of lines about revenge fantasies .
Critics generally praised the song in Glee 's first step at original music , including its production , lyrics , and the vocals of Lea Michele . However , common criticisms were that the song sounded like a cover of another song , and that it would have been better suited for other artists Martin usually works with , such as Pink or Avril Lavigne . The song debuted at number six on the US Billboard Hot 100 and became the cast 's third top @-@ ten hit to date . It reached number thirty @-@ six on the US Adult Pop Songs chart , becoming their first song other than a Christmas song to appear on an airplay chart . Internationally , it reached the top thirty in at least five other markets . The song 's performance was featured in the Glee episode " Original Song " which first aired on March 15 , 2011 , and included choreography and the group throwing confetti from slushie cups at the audience . The song was redone by Jenna Ushkowitz , Kevin McHale , Darren Criss and Chord Overstreet in the second part of Glee 's two @-@ part 100th episode , " New Directions " , which aired on March 25 , 2014 .
= = Background = =
On February 23 , 2011 , it was announced that Glee , for the first time , would feature two original songs , entitled " Loser Like Me " and " Get It Right " on their March 15 , 2011 episode . The series ' music producer , Adam Anders , called the song a " Gleek anthem , " and it was " a very uptempo , kind @-@ of @-@ summery hit " . It was also revealed that pop music producer , Max Martin , known for his work with Britney Spears , among other singers , would produce " Loser Like Me " . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly called this a " major pop music coup " by Glee . Anders also went on to comment , " The thing about Max is that he ’ s a huge fan of pop culture and he just loved the idea of being part of something that ’ s such a cultural phenomenon . So it was actually not hard to convince him at all . He was all about it . "
According to Anders , the Swedish @-@ based Martin was in the United States at the time working on Spears ' then @-@ new record , and then was " exposed to exactly how enormous [ Glee ] is " . According to the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers database , co @-@ writers on the song include Anders , Peer Åström , Savan Kotecha , and Johan Schuster . " Loser Like Me " and " Get It Right " both premiered on On Air with Ryan Seacrest on February 25 , 2011 , and were performed in the episode " Original Song " , on March 15 , 2011 . The song was also released on iTunes in the United States on March 15 , 2011 .
= = = Radio impact = = =
" Loser Like Me " became the first radio single for Glee , and was sent to radio on March 1 , 2011 for mainstream and Hot AC stations . Pete Cosenza , senior vice president of promotion and adult formats for Columbia Records told Billboard ,
We 've promoted Glee music to radio for the past couple of years and week @-@ by @-@ week , programmers have embraced the show and its music more and more . ( Adult radio ) has created weekly , and , in some cases , daily , features , and played snippets of songs . Now , more have put " Loser Like Me " into regular rotation . Glee is one of the biggest shows on television and it 's a music show . What a win for us and radio .
Barb Richards , director of music for WAJI said that the cast 's introduction of new music prompted the station to finally add music from the cast . Richards referenced the 21 @.@ 9 million downloads and 5 @.@ 2 million albums sold since the series since its May 2009 premiere , but commented , " Still , I believe that people want to hear originals over remakes , so up until the ' Glee ' cast 's original music it didn 't make sense for us to play each latest cover , other than to spotlight it the day of the show . " However , Richards complimented the original " Loser Like Me " saying its lyrics would " resonate with kids and parents " and said that she liked it when she first heard it and when she saw it on the show .
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a confirmed victory in this list has depended on verification by the Squadron Record Book , and / or by RNAS / RAF Communique or other reliable secondary source verification . Victories not confirmed by these methods are marked " u / c " .
= Sogen Kato =
Sogen Kato ( 加藤 宗現 , Katō Sōgen , 22 July 1899 – c . November 1978 ) was thought to have been Tokyo 's oldest man until July 2010 , when his mummified corpse was found in his bedroom . It was concluded he had likely died in November 1978 , aged 79 , and his family had never announced his death in an attempt to preserve his record . Relatives had rebuffed attempts by ward officials to see Kato in preparations for Respect for the Aged Day later that year , citing various reasons from him being a " human vegetable " to becoming a Sokushinbutsu . The cause of death was not determined due to the state of Kato 's body .
The discovery of Kato 's remains sparked a search for other missing centenarians lost due to poor record keeping by officials . A study following the discovery of Kato 's remains found that police did not know if 234 @,@ 354 people over the age of one hundred were still alive . Poor record keeping was to blame for many of the cases , officials admitted . One of Kato 's relatives was found guilty of fraud ; his relatives claimed ¥ 9 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 ( US $ 117 @,@ 939 ; £ 72 @,@ 030 ) of pension meant for Kato .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery of the body = = =
After tracking down the residence in Adachi , Tokyo , where Kato was reportedly living , attempts by officials to meet him were rebuffed numerous times by the family . Many reasons were given by his relatives , including that he was a " human vegetable " and that he was becoming a Sokushinbutsu .
Eventually , Kato 's body was found by police and ward officials in July 2010 , when ward officials intending to honour his achievement of longevity on Respect for the Aged Day later that year were again rebuffed and police broke into the house . Found in a first floor room , Kato 's mummified remains were lying on a bed wearing underwear and pajamas and were covered with a blanket . Newspapers that were found in the room dated back three decades to the Shōwa period , suggesting that Kato 's death may have occurred around November 1978 . An official named Yutaka Muroi said , " His family must have known he has ( d ) been dead all these years and acted as if nothing happened . It 's so eerie . "
The day after the visit , Kato 's granddaughter told an acquaintance that " my grandfather shut himself in a room on the first floor of our home 32 years ago , and we couldn 't open the door from the outside . My mother said , ' Leave him in there , ' and he was left as he was . I think he 's dead . " One official had reported concerns about Kato 's safety earlier in the year to his ward office . An autopsy failed to determine the cause of Kato 's death .
= = = Fraud trial = = =
Following the discovery of Kato 's body , two of his relatives were arrested in August 2010 , and subsequently charged with fraud . Prosecutors alleged that Michiko Kato , 81 , Kato 's daughter , and Tokimi Kato , 53 , his granddaughter , fraudulently received about ¥ 9 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 117 @,@ 939 ; £ 72 @,@ 030 ) of pension money . In addition , after Kato 's wife died in 2004 at the age of 101 , ¥ 9 @,@ 450 @,@ 000 ( $ 117 @,@ 318 ; £ 71 @,@ 651 ) from a survivor 's mutual pension was deposited into Kato 's bank account between October 2004 and June 2010 . Approximately ¥ 6 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 ( $ 75 @,@ 108 ; £ 45 @,@ 872 ) was withdrawn before his body was discovered . Kato was likely paid a senior welfare benefit from the time he turned 70 , which the family may also have used to their advantage . Investigators said that the pair defrauded the Japan Mutual Aid Association of Public School Teachers , who transferred the money into Kato 's account .
In November 2010 , the Tokyo District Court sentenced Tokimi Kato to a 2 ½ year sentence for fraud , suspended for four years . Judge Hajime Shimada said , " The defendant committed a malicious crime with the selfish motive of securing revenue for her family . However , she has paid back the pension benefits and expressed remorse for the crime . "
= = Aftermath = =
After the discovery of Kato 's mummified corpse , other checks into elderly centenarians across Japan produced reports of missing centenarians and faulty record keeping . When Tokyo officials attempted to find the oldest woman in the city — 113 @-@ year @-@ old Fusa Furuya — they found her last known address was vacant . Furuya 's granddaughter said she had not seen her grandmother for several years . The revelations about the disappearance of Furuya and the death of Kato prompted a nationwide investigation , which concluded that police did not know if 234 @,@ 354 people older than 100 were still alive . More than 77 @,@ 000 of these people , officials said , would have been older than 120 years old if they were still alive . Poor record keeping was blamed for many of the cases , and officials said that many may have died during World War II . One register suggested a man was still alive at age 186 .
Following the revelations about Kato and Furuya , analysts investigated why record keeping by Japanese authorities was poor . Many seniors have , it has been reported , moved away from their family homes . Statistics show that divorce is becoming increasingly common among the elderly . Dementia , which afflicts more than two million Japanese , is also a contributing factor . " Many of those gone missing are men who left their hometowns to look for work in Japan ’ s big cities during the country ’ s pre @-@ 1990s boom years . Many of them worked obsessively long hours and never built a social network in their new homes . Others found less economic success than they ’ d hoped . Ashamed of that failure , they didn ’ t feel they could return home , " a Canadian newspaper reported several months after the discovery of Kato 's body .
Japan is the most elderly nation in the world ; as of October 2010 , 23 @.@ 1 percent of the population were found to be aged 65 and over , and 11 @.@ 1 percent were 75 and over . This has largely been caused by a very low birthrate ; as of 2005 , the rate was 1 @.@ 25 babies for every woman — to keep the population steady the number needed to be 2 @.@ 1 . However , the issue of aging in the country has been increased by the government 's unwillingness to let immigrants into the country — foreign nationals accounted for only 1 @.@ 2 percent of the total population as of 2005 . A 2006 report by the government indicates that by 2050 , 1 ⁄ 3 of the population may be elderly .
The inquiry also noted that many elderly Japanese citizens were dying in solitude . " Die alone and in two months all that is left is the stench , a rotting corpse and maggots , " The Japan Times said in an editorial , one of many comments from the country 's press on the news . An editorial in Asahi Shimbun said that the findings suggested " deeper problems " in the Japanese register system . " The families who are supposed to be closest to these elderly people don 't know where they are and , in many cases , have not even taken the trouble to ask the police to search for them , " read the editorial . " The situation shows the existence of lonely people who have no family to turn to and whose ties with those around them have been severed . "
One Japanese doctor , however , said he was not surprised at the news . Dr. Aiba Miyoji , of the Tokyo Koto Geriatric Medical Centre , said many Japanese seniors were dying alone , ignored by their families . “ Some patients come in with their families , but many are alone or come in just with their social workers , ” he said . “ It happens especially in Tokyo . There are more and more single @-@ person families . ” Dr. Aiba added that a key reason for the statistics was because people in Japan are living longer than ever before . " That achievement is placing new burdens on a society where a declining number of working @-@ age Japanese have to fund rising health @-@ care and pension costs , " The Globe and Mail reported . Dr. Aiba said that because Tokyo was so crowded , families cannot possibly live together any more . “ There ’ s not enough space for families to live together any more , ” he said .
A national census in 2005 found that 3 @.@ 86 million elderly Japanese citizens were living alone , compared with 2 @.@ 2 million a decade before . 24 @.@ 4 per cent of men and 9 @.@ 3 per cent of women over the age of 60 in Japan have no neighbours , friends or relatives on whom they could rely , a more recent study discovered . In 2008 , the Associated Press reported that the number of elderly people committing suicide had reached a record high because of health and economic worries . " In what appears to be a collective cry for help , more than 30 @,@ 000 Japanese seniors are arrested every year for shoplifting . Many of those arrested told police they stole out of feelings of boredom and isolation , rather than any economic necessity , " The Globe and Mail reported after the discovery of Kato 's corpse . Jeff Kingston , the Director of Asian Studies at the Japan Campus of Temple University , said , " It is a humanising phenomenon — the Japanese are traditionally seen as sober , law @-@ abiding people — when they are in fact scamsters like the rest of us . [ The story of the missing centenarians ] holds up a mirror to society and reflects realities that many in Japan do not want to accept . "
= California State Route 160 =
State Route 160 ( SR 160 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California consisting of two sections . The longer , southern , section is a scenic highway through the alluvial plain of the Sacramento River , linking SR 4 in Antioch with Sacramento via the Antioch Bridge . The northern section , separated by the southern by Sacramento city streets , is the North Sacramento Freeway , running from the 16th Street Bridge over the American River to Interstate 80 Business towards Roseville .
This northern section was deleted from the definition in the Streets and Highways Code in 2003 , when the relinquished portion through downtown Sacramento was also removed , but it is still maintained and signed by the California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) as SR 160 . This portion is also part of the California Freeway and Expressway System , as is the piece south of SR 12 near Rio Vista , though , of the latter , only the southernmost piece in Antioch is built to freeway standards . The entire southern portion , from SR 4 to Sacramento , is part of the State Scenic Highway System .
= = Route description = =
State Route 160 begins in eastern Antioch at SR 4 . After two interchanges , the highway rises onto the two lane Antioch Bridge over the San Joaquin River . It cuts north across the center of Sherman Island , reaching the Sacramento River on the opposite shore . From here to Sacramento , SR 160 never strays far from the river , first following the east levee over the 1949 Three Mile Slough Bridge ( a lift bridge ) , past Brannan Island State Recreation Area , and across SR 12 opposite the river from Rio Vista . After passing Isleton , the highway crosses the river on the Isleton Bridge , a bascule bridge built in 1923 , and runs along the west shore on Grand Island , where it meets the east end of SR 220 . The Walnut Grove Bridge carries County Route J11 east across the river to Walnut Grove , and , at the north end of the island , SR 160 crosses the 1924 Steamboat Slough Bridge onto Sutter Island and then the 1923 Paintersville Bridge across the Sacramento River to the mainland , both bascule bridges .
On the mainland , SR 160 once again runs atop the east levee , now 1 – 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 5 – 3 km ) west of Interstate 5 . The final bridge over the river is the Freeport Bridge , which carries County Route E9 to the west levee , where it turns south to return to SR 160 at the west end of the Paintersville Bridge . About a mile ( 1 @.@ 5 km ) beyond the Freeport Bridge , SR 160 leaves the levee , enters the city of Sacramento ( where state maintenance and control ends ) , passes under I @-@ 5 , and farms give way to suburbs . Here the former SR 160 is known as Freeport Boulevard , a major surface road that passes the Sacramento Executive Airport and Sacramento City College . Freeport Boulevard turns to the northwest at about 4th Avenue . It was formerly a one @-@ way pair with 21st Street with Freeport heading one @-@ way southbound and 21st heading one @-@ way northbound . The city converted these streets back to two @-@ way streets for traffic calming purposes in 2008 . After a short jog west on Broadway , former SR 160 turns north on the one @-@ way pair of 15th ( southbound ) and 16th ( northbound ) Streets , almost immediately crossing Business 80 and entering downtown Sacramento .
15th and 16th Streets lead traffic north past the east side of the State Capitol grounds , which lie between L and N Streets . At F Street , the path of southbound SR 160 jogged west for three blocks to 12th Street ; both 12th and 16th Streets pass under the Union Pacific Railroad 's Martinez Subdivision ( where B Street would be ) in four @-@ lane subways , but 15th Street dead @-@ ends . 12th Street remains a one @-@ way southbound roadway , but the two @-@ way RT Light Rail now occupies its east side . 12th Street turns northeast at North B Street , and the two directions of former SR 160 come together at Richards Boulevard , just south of the 16th Street Bridge over the American River and the south end of the state @-@ maintained North Sacramento Freeway . The light rail , which crosses the river between the two directions of SR 160 , soon leaves at the Del Paso Boulevard interchange as the freeway turns east . Two folded diamonds at local streets and a northbound @-@ only entrance ramp from Tribute Road are all that remains before SR 160 merges with Business 80 at the Arden Way interchange . Business 80 is also known as the Capital City Freeway here .
= = History = =
In the late 1910s , Sacramento County improved the county road along the levee of the Sacramento River between Sacramento and Rio Vista , which crossed the river twice on free ferries near Paintersville and Isleton . A toll ferry across the San Joaquin River connected Sherman Island , south of Rio Vista , with Antioch , where drivers could head west through the Broadway Tunnel to reach the San Francisco Bay , but the road between Rio Vista and the ferry was poor . In 1922 , the Victory Highway Association selected this " Netherlands Route " ( through what was locally promoted as the " Netherlands of America " ) for the Victory Highway west of Sacramento , as it was both shorter than the Lincoln Highway route via Stockton and more scenic . In particular , the river district would " impress [ the motorist ] with the enormous productive resources of this state as well as supply him with an unmatched scenic drive " , and the Broadway Tunnel approach to the bay would bring him " over the Victory Highway to the end of his journey in such a fashion that he will never forget the view spread before him as he first comes into sight of the San Francisco Bay region " .
Two bascule bridges — the Paintersville Bridge and Isleton Bridge — replaced the free ferries in 1923 , and are of a type patented by Joseph B. Strauss , who went on to design the Golden Gate Bridge . Local businessmen Aven Hanford and Oscar Klatt replaced the toll ferry with the tolled Antioch Bridge in mid @-@ 1926 , almost a year before they opened the larger Carquinez Bridge to the west . The counties of Contra Costa and Sacramento organized a joint highway district in November 1925 to fund an improvement of the northern approach from Rio Vista ; the concrete highway was completed in July 1927 , creating a fully paved continuous route between Sacramento and the bay .
The legislature added this road to the state highway system in 1933 , and it became part of Legislative Route 11 , which had stretched east from Sacramento along US 50 . This part of Route 11 was not assigned a sign route number in 1934 , but , by 1937 , when the new Broadway Low Level Tunnel opened , it was part of Sign Route 24 . That route had initially begun at Woodland and traveled northeast and east through the Feather River Canyon , and was extended southeast from Woodland along Sign Route 16 to Sacramento and then south and west via Antioch to the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge approach in Berkeley . The California Freeway and Expressway System was formed in 1959 , and included in the planned upgrades was the road between Antioch and Rio Vista . ( North of Rio Vista the present SR 84 was part of the system . ) The entire length was included in the State Scenic Highway System in 1963 . In the 1964 renumbering , the Antioch @-@ Sacramento roadway was split between two routes : Route 84 from Antioch to SR 12 near Rio Vista , and Route 160 from SR 12 to Sacramento . However , the entire route was marked as SR 160 , and in 1981 the legislative definition was changed to reflect this .
The part of SR 160 through and north of downtown Sacramento began as part of Legislative Route 3 , which was added to the state highway system under the first bond issue , passed in 1910 , and left the city on the 16th Street Bridge over the American River , following Del Paso Boulevard , El Camino Avenue , and Auburn Boulevard to Roseville . ( The short piece from the end of Route 3 near the State Capitol south to Broadway and Freeport Boulevard was Route 4 , which followed SR 99 towards Los Angeles . ) Route 3 between Sacramento and Roseville was also part of the Victory Highway , and was marked as part of US 40 in 1928 and US 99E in 1929 . The North Sacramento Freeway opened on October 6 , 1947 , bypassing this route from the bridge to Auburn Boulevard near Ben Ali . In 1955 , the Elvas Freeway opened from the midpoint of the North Sacramento Freeway to the east side of downtown , and US 99E was moved off the south half of the older North Sacramento Freeway and onto the Elvas Freeway . The North Sacramento Freeway was included in the California Freeway and Expressway System when it was created in 1959 , and the part of Route 3 southwest of the Elvas Freeway , which carried I @-@ 80 , became part of SR 160 in the 1964 renumbering .
By 2000 , the city of Sacramento maintained the non @-@ freeway portion of SR 160 within the city limits under a contract with Caltrans . However , since Caltrans 's main goal is to move traffic efficiently , the city was not able to carry out pedestrian @-@ friendly projects that they and local residents wanted . Under a law passed in July 1999 , Caltrans was authorized to relinquish any part of Route 160 within the city limits to Sacramento . The two agencies agreed , and on October 19 , 2000 the portion from the south city limits to the American River became the full responsibility of the city . A 2003 amendment to the Streets and Highways Code erroneously deleted not only this part , but the North Sacramento Freeway as well .
A project to convert the former southbound @-@ only Richards Boulevard access just south of the American River to a standard signalized intersection was completed in August 2007 ; this improves access to existing and future development in the area , including redevelopment of a former rail yard , while slowing northbound traffic heading for the bridge and freeway . Another project converting Freeport Boulevard and 21st Street south of Broadway into two @-@ way streets was also completed . 21st Street has carried northbound traffic since 1974 , when Caltrans took it over . This will calm traffic while improving the intersection at the south end of the former one @-@ way pair , which the RT Light Rail now crosses 21st Street just to the north of . In addition , the three blocks of F Street that carried southbound SR 160 from 12th Street to 15th Street have been calmed by the addition of a roundabout at 13th Street .
In 2012 , SR 4 was re @-@ routed to go further south to bypass Oakley and Brentwood . The southern end of SR 160 was then extended south to cover the part of the freeway that is no longer designated as SR 4 , from Main Street ( where State Route 4 originally exited the freeway ) to the fork of the new SR 4 ( formerly known as the State Route 4 Bypass , or Bypass Road ) .
In 2014 , construction began at the interchange with SR 4 to complete the two remaining ramps that would link southbound SR 160 to eastbound SR 4 and westbound SR 4 to northbound SR 160 . Construction was completed in March 2016 .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured in 1964 , based on the alignment as it ( and Route 84 south of Route 12 ) existed at that time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= U.S. Route 50 in California =
In the U.S. state of California , U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) runs east from I @-@ 80 in West Sacramento to the Nevada state line in South Lake Tahoe . Portions within Sacramento are known as the Capital City Freeway and El Dorado Freeway . The western half of the highway in California , from I @-@ 80 through Sacramento and Placerville to Exit 60 in Pollock Pines is a four @-@ or @-@ more @-@ lane divided highway , mostly built to freeway standards . US 50 continues as an undivided highway with one eastbound lane and two westbound lanes until it reaches the canyon of the South Fork American River at Riverton . The remainder of the highway , which climbs along and out of the canyon , then over the Sierra Nevada at Echo Summit and into the Lake Tahoe Basin , is a mainly two @-@ lane road .
The US 50 corridor is a historic one , used by many 49ers who came to California during the Gold Rush as well as the Pony Express . In 1895 , part of the present @-@ day route was designated as California 's first state highway , and it was later considered as a scenic alternate of the Lincoln Highway . Much of US 50 was constructed during the initial construction of the California state highway system . During the second half of the twentieth century , US 50 was gradually designated and converted into a modern highway .
= = Route description = =
US 50 has been added to the California Freeway and Expressway System by the state legislature . The highway east of SR 49 is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System , and has been recognized as such except within the South Lake Tahoe city limits .
US 50 begins in West Sacramento , where I @-@ 80 leaves the West Sacramento Freeway onto a bypass of Sacramento . The old route of I @-@ 80 through Sacramento is signed as Business 80 ( Capital City Freeway ) , which overlaps US 50 on the West Sacramento Freeway to the split with SR 275 , then over the Sacramento River on the Pioneer Memorial Bridge and across I @-@ 5 to SR 99 . US 50 is part Interstate Highway as well , carrying the unsigned designation of Interstate 305 through its interchange with SR 99 .
There Business 80 splits to the north , SR 99 heads south , and US 50 continues east as the El Dorado Freeway . This freeway parallels Folsom Boulevard and the American River east @-@ northeasterly through the suburb of Rancho Cordova to Folsom . Entering El Dorado , US 50 continues eastward through the foothills of the Sierra Nevada via El Dorado Hills , Cameron Park , and Shingle Springs to downtown Placerville . The freeway temporarily ends , and US 50 has several at @-@ grade intersections in Placerville , including SR 49 .
Leaving Placerville , the freeway restarts , only to end several miles later . The final section of freeway begins as a bypass of Camino , and ends at Exit 60 at the east end of Pollock Pines . Just east of Exit 60 , US 50 continues as an undivided conventional highway with one eastbound lane and two westbound lanes , entering the river canyon of the South Fork American River near Riverton and crossing to the north side of the river near Ice House Road . From Ice House Road to the crest of the Sierras , US 50 is a steadily rising mostly two @-@ lane road , staying just north of the river except for a 1995 cutoff that crosses the river twice in quick succession west of Kyburz , the boyhood home of ski racer Spider Sabich .
Several hairpin turns take the highway up a grade east of Strawberry , after which US 50 continues east alongside the river to its source at Echo Summit . Echo Summit is the highest elevation U.S. Route 50 reaches in California at 7 @,@ 382 feet ( 2 @,@ 250 m ) . In 1968 , it was the site of the U.S. Olympic trials for men 's track and field , held at a temporary facility in the parking lot of the Nebelhorn ski area .
From Echo Summit down to the Lake Tahoe Basin , the roadway slowly descends the side of a steep hill ; it then curves northeast to its south junction with SR 89 ( which heads south to Luther Pass ) beginning co @-@ signing of SR 89 , and then turns northward near the city of South Lake Tahoe . Where US 50 and SR 89 split , at an intersection known as " The Y " , the former turns east on the four @-@ lane Lake Tahoe Boulevard , which it follows to and along the south shore of Lake Tahoe , then it enters the state of Nevada .
= = History = =
= = = Emigrant trails and wagon roads = = =
The earliest roads used by Europeans to cross the Sierra Nevada into California were branches of the California Trail . The first route near the present US 50 was the Carson Route , laid out in 1848 by an eastward Mormon party that wanted to avoid the Truckee Route and its deep crossings of the Truckee River . The group left Pleasant Valley , southeast of Placerville , on July 3 , following Iron Mountain Ridge up to the crest of the Sierra at Carson Pass and then descending through Carson Canyon into the Carson Valley . Along the Humboldt River in Nevada , the Mormons met Joseph B. Chiles , who was leading a westward wagon train to California , and told him of their new trail . Although this new Carson Route crossed two summits — Carson Pass over the crest of the Sierra and West Pass over the Carson Spur just to the west , these crossings were easier than Donner Pass on the Truckee Route , and only three fords of the Carson River were required . The route became the primary westward route into California at the start of the Gold Rush . Through California , the general alignment of the Carson Route , in terms of today 's highways , was State Route 88 over Carson Pass and Mormon Emigrant Trail and Sly Park Road to Pleasant Valley .
John Calhoun Johnson of Placerville surveyed and cleared a shorter , lower ( and thus less snow @-@ covered ) trail east from that town in 1852 , completing the work by the summer . Rather than following the ridge to the Sierra 's crest as the Mormons had , Johnson headed eastward to the South Fork American River , crossing to its north side near the present Pacific Ranger Station in order to follow Peavine Ridge around a rocky stretch of the river . Returning to the river between Kyburz and Strawberry , he then continued alongside it to the crest at Johnson Pass , where a steep slope descended to Lake Tahoe . Within Nevada , his route generally followed the lake to Glenbrook , where it turned inland and crossed the Carson Range over Spooner Summit into the Carson Valley near Carson City . This trail , known as Johnson 's Cut @-@ off , generally followed the present US 50 , with notable deviations only just east of Placerville ( via Carson Road ) , over Peavine Ridge ( roughly following Peavine Ridge Road , some trails , and Wrights Lake Road ) , just east of Strawberry ( via Slippery Ford Road ) , over the crest of the Sierra ( via Johnson Pass Road and Meyers Road ) , south of Lake Tahoe ( via Pioneer Trail ) , east of Lake Tahoe ( via Genoa Peak Road ) , and from Spooner Summit into the Carson Valley ( via Kings Canyon Road ) . By 1854 , Bartlett 's Bridge had been built at the trail 's westernmost crossing of the American River , allowing wagons to follow the cutoff ; it was soon washed away by a freshet on March 7 , 1855 , and replaced by Brockliss Bridge , several miles to the east . Due to an improvement of the road through Carson Canyon on the old Carson Route , most travelers ended up turning southeast from Johnson Pass over Luther Pass ( present SR 89 ) to join the older route northeast of Carson Pass rather than following the cutoff along Lake Tahoe .
Johnson 's Cut @-@ off was the only trail that could be used year @-@ round , but it still had problems , as it had been built without use of earth @-@ moving equipment , and thus did not always take the optimal route . The state adopted a survey by Sherman Day in September 1855 , but failed to make use of it . Two years later , the counties of Yolo , Sacramento , and El Dorado , all of which would be benefited by further improvements , began planning and carrying out work . The state legislature created a " Board of Wagon Commissioners " on March 8 , 1858 , and it completed the improvements by the end of that year . This new route had better grades than the old cutoff , deviating from it in several places : it followed the present Smith Flat Road rather than Carson Road east of Placerville , traversed Peavine Ridge much further down the slope , returning to the river west of Kyburz ( roughly via the present White Meadows Road , Ice House Road , and Weber Mill Road to US 50 at Granite Springs Road ) , and crossed into Carson Valley via Luther Pass . By 1860 , the immense traffic over the road and lack of maintenance had worsened it to the point that it could no longer be used by stagecoaches .
To provide for better maintenance , improvements funded by tolls were authorized . The first of these was built and operated by Kingsbury and McDonald , who improved the old Johnson 's Cut @-@ off between Johnson Pass and Stateline , where they turned east over Daggett Pass ( now SR 207 ) in Nevada , connecting Lake Tahoe to the Carson Valley via a shorter route than that over Luther Pass . Two other competing toll roads soon opened across the Carson Range : one built by Rufus Walton from Spooner Summit down Clear Creek to the valley ( now part of US 50 ) , and an 1863 improvement of the original Johnson 's Cut @-@ Off along the lake , across Spooner Summit , and through Kings Canyon to Carson City . West of Johnson Pass , the Slippery Ford Grade down to Strawberry was rebuilt by George W. Swan . The first toll @-@ supported bypass of Peavine Ridge was built by Oglesby and opened in 1861 , leaving the old road from Placerville at Pollock Pines , following the ridgetops and slopes south of the South Fork American River , crossing the river east of White Hall , and then following US 50 along the north bank to the 1858 county road west of Kyburz . Johnson began work on a lower @-@ grade replacement on the north side of the river in 1864 , but stopped when Pearson and McDonald opened a road over the present alignment of US 50 , leaving the pre @-@ 1861 main road southwest of Brockliss Bridge and following US 50 , across the river at Riverton , to Oglesby 's road east of White Hall . Toll collection ended in California in 1886 , when El Dorado County bought the privately improved sections and made them public roads .
West of Placerville , the wagon road headed south to Diamond Springs , where it turned west along the original Carson Route over relatively gentle terrain to Sacramento , generally following the present US 50 on parallel surface roads , such as Pleasant Valley Road and White Rock Road . The Pony Express used this route from its beginning in April 1860 until July 1 , when its western terminus became Folsom on the Sacramento Valley Railroad . ( The route was further cut back to Placerville , where messages were passed to the telegraph , from July 1861 to its discontinuance in October . ) The Placerville and Sacramento Valley Railroad reached Latrobe in 1864 , Shingle Springs ( on the old Carson Route west of Placerville ) in 1865 , and was finally completed to Placerville in 1888 . As the railroad extended east , the western terminus of the stage lines followed ; the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 took most of the traffic off the Placerville wagon road .
= = = State maintenance and reconstruction = = =
At the dawn of the automobile era , the state legislature authorized California 's first state road on March 26 , 1895 , by creating the post of " Lake Tahoe Wagon Road Commissioner " to maintain the road from Newtown Road near Smith Flat ( just east of Placerville ) to Nevada . The county deeded the 58 @-@ mile ( 93 km ) road to the state on February 28 , 1896 . Funding was only enough for minimal improvements , including a new stone bridge over the South Fork American River at Riverton in 1901 . The Department of Engineering took over its maintenance in 1907 , immediately completed a survey and posted granite milestones that marked the distance from Placerville , and in 1910 started sprinkling the dirt road with water in summer to keep down dust ( as had been done in the 1860s ) . A 1915 law added the short distance from Smith Flat west to the east limits of Placerville to the state road .
With the passage of the first state highway bond issue in 1910 , the Department of Engineering was directed to lay out and construct a system connecting all county seats . Placerville , seat of El Dorado County , was connected to Sacramento by the 46 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 74 @.@ 8 km ) Route 11 , which followed Folsom Boulevard from Sacramento to Folsom , Bidwell Street and Placerville Road to White Rock , the old Carson Route to El Dorado , and Forni Road and Placerville Drive to Placerville . Between El Dorado and Placerville , the state had two routes to choose from , including one via Diamond Springs ( present SR 49 ) , where it decided improving a cut would be too expensive . Instead , it chose the " O 'Keefe grade " ( Forni Road ) , following the old road for about 4 miles ( 6 km ) and then building a cutoff ( now part of Placerville Drive ) to the Green Valley road . In 1917 the mileage that had been added by special laws , rather than as part of bond issues , was consolidated with the rest of the system , and Route 11 was extended east to the state line . ( The route was extended farther , from Sacramento southwest to Antioch via present SR 160 , in 1933 . ) The third bond issue , passed in 1919 , included funds for the improvement of 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Placerville east to Sportsman 's Hall , by which time paving was complete west of Placerville .
The Lincoln Highway , one of the earliest marked highways across the country , split in two over the Sierra Nevada . The main route followed the present I @-@ 80 alignment over Donner Pass , but an alternate " Pioneer Branch " , designated as part of the initial routing in 1913 , turned south at Reno , Nevada to Carson City and then crossed the Sierras via Johnson Pass and the Placerville route . Contrary to the Lincoln Highway Association 's policy of marking the most direct route , this deviation was explained simply as " for those tourists desiring to see Lake Tahoe " . However , it actually became shorter in 1921 , when the Fallon Cut @-@ off opened from Carson City directly east to the main route near Fallon , bypassing Reno . The U.S. Highway system was created in 1926 , and this route ( along with the main Lincoln Highway east of the cutoff ) became part of U.S. Route 50 . ( The Donner Pass route was U.S. Route 40 , crossing Nevada on the Victory Highway . ) US 50 initially ended in Sacramento , where motorists could follow US 40 ( Victory Highway ) southwest to the San Francisco Bay Area or turn south over US 99 to Stockton and take US 48 ( Lincoln Highway ) west over Altamont Pass . Originally , US 48 was a road connecting the San Francisco Bay area with the San Joaquin Valley , traveling from San Jose to near Modesto , largely following the future routing of US 50 , which replaced US 48 . Its western terminus was located near the present location of the Interstate 238 / Interstate 880 interchange . It generally followed the route of current Interstate 580 to the Interstate 205 junction . From here , US 48 continued east on Interstate 205 , then followed Old Highway 50 ( present I @-@ 205 Bus . ) through Tracy , thence to Interstate 5 . It then followed Interstate 5 to SR 120 , where US 48 followed SR 120 to the old location of the SR 99 / SR 120 interchange ( present day intersection of Main and Yosemite in Manteca ) , the location of its eastern terminus . At this time , US 50 was improved but unpaved east of Placerville . As part of the state project to pave this portion , the old road was bypassed in several areas , completing the final two @-@ lane alignment . These realignments included Broadway , bypassing Smith Flat Road , at Smith Flat ( 1932 ) , a new route around Slippery Ford Grade east of Strawberry ( 1931 ) , and a new route through South Lake Tahoe , leaving behind Pioneer Trail ( 1931 ) . The crossing of the Sierra crest at Johnson Pass was bypassed in 1940 by a better @-@ quality route over Echo Summit ; the lower part of the current road east of the summit opened in 1947 , bypassing Meyers Road . West of Placerville , several major two @-@ lane relocations were built . A bypass ( now Mother Lode Drive ) around El Dorado and the winding Forni Road was completed in 1938 , and the improvement was extended west to Shingle Springs in 1947 . A short relocation north of White Rock , between Bidwell Street and Bass Lake Road , opened in 1940 , and was extended west beyond Hazel Avenue , bypassing Folsom , in 1949 .
= = = = Extension to San Francisco = = = =
By the early 1930s , US 50 had been extended to San Francisco via the former US 48 by overlapping US 99 from Sacramento to Stockton and replacing US 48 over Altamont Pass to US 101E ( Foothill Boulevard at Castro Valley Boulevard ) near Hayward . It was extended over the new Bay Bridge at the time of its opening in 1936 , replacing US 101E on Foothill Boulevard and the present MacArthur Boulevard to the Bay Bridge Distribution Structure in Oakland . As the new MacArthur Freeway ( now I @-@ 580 ) was constructed , US 50 was moved to it . This extension was officially eliminated in the 1964 renumbering , but it remained on maps and signs for several more years before being replaced by I @-@ 80 over the Bay Bridge , I @-@ 580 over Altamont Pass , I @-@ 205 business route through Tracy , I @-@ 5 to Stockton , SR 4 ( Charter Way ) and SR 26 through Stockton , and SR 99 to Sacramento .
= = = Freeway and expressway upgrades = = =
When the California Freeway and Expressway System was created in 1959 , it included US 50 from Sacramento to Nevada . ( The Oakland @-@ Sacramento portion was also included , mostly as part of the Interstate Highway System . ) Two segments had already been upgraded to freeway or expressway standards — an expressway through Placerville , completed in 1955 , and a freeway bypass of Camino with an expressway continuing west to Five Mile Terrace , completed in 1957 . From Pollock Pines east to the bridge at Riverton , the road was widened to four lanes in about 1960 . The next decade saw the improvement of every remaining two @-@ lane section between Rancho Cordova ( near Sunrise Boulevard ) and Riverton , with the final section , connecting Bass Lake Road and Shingle Springs , opening in July 1970 . The freeway was completed west to I @-@ 80 ( now Business 80 ) and SR 99 in early 1973 , bypassing the mostly four @-@ lane Folsom Boulevard . US 50 was extended west along former I @-@ 80 to the new I @-@ 80 bypass in 1981 , when the old I @-@ 80 became Business 80 . ( Since Business 80 was not a valid legislative designation , the remainder became State Route 51 . )
For many years , the four lanes from Sacramento stopped at Riverton , where the original two @-@ lane road continued through the canyon and over Echo Summit . The state rejected a proposed $ 133 million total realignment between Riverton and Kyburz in 1985 , instead opting for a less expensive program of spot improvements including new bridges and passing lanes . Portions of the work were completed by 1987 , including a four @-@ lane bridge at Riverton ( though two lanes are used by traffic turning at Ice House Road at the east end of the bridge ) . Between White Hall and Kyburz , a pair of four @-@ lane bridges over the South Fork American River , carrying a realignment across a bend in the river , were dedicated on May 31 , 1995 , as the El Dorado County Veterans Bridges .
The route through the South Fork American River Canyon remains vulnerable to mudslides and other storm damage . One particularly bad slide closed the highway east of Riverton for 28 days from January 24 to February 21 , 1997 , only a week after a similar 17 @-@ day closure caused by flooding on January 1 . A project to make more permanent repairs and prevent future closures began on July 31 , and from September 2 to October 24 the highway was closed during the week to allow for more efficient reconstruction . The state signed the detour , which followed Sly Park Road , Mormon Emigrant Trail ( the old ridgetop Carson Route ) , SR 88 , and SR 89 ( over Luther Pass ) , as Alternate U.S. Route 50 , a designation not approved by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials , which generally assigns new bannered U.S. Highways . After the work was complete , signs were left along the route .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= Paparazzi ( Girls ' Generation song ) =
" Paparazzi " is a song recorded in the Japanese language by South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation for their second Japanese @-@ language studio album , Girls & Peace ( 2012 ) . It was released as the album 's lead single on June 27 , 2012 . Written by Fredrik Thomander , Johan Becker , and Junji Ishiwatari , and produced by Miles Walker , the track was described as an electropop and R & B song . To promote the single , Girls ' Generation appeared on Japanese music programs Music Station and Hey ! Hey ! Hey ! Music Champ , while a music video for the song directed by Toshiyuki Suzuki premiered on June 10 , 2012 in order to accompany the release of the song .
Upon its release , " Paparazzi " received mixed reviews from music critics , who compared the song to the group 's previous Japanese @-@ language single " Mr. Taxi " in 2011 . The track was ranked number 19 on Spin 's list of top 20 K @-@ pop songs of 2012 . The single was a commercial success in Japan , peaking atop the Japan Hot 100 and at number two on both the Oricon Singles Chart and RIAJ Digital Track Chart . " Paparazzi " was certified Gold in Japan for the sales of the single 's digital and physical release , respectively .
= = Recording and release = =
" Paparazzi " is a song recorded in the Japanese language , which was described as a hybrid of electropop and R & B. It was written by Swedish songwriters Fredrik Thomander and Johan Becker , while production was handled by American producer Miles Walker . Japanese songwriter Junji Ishiwatari provided additional writing credits . The track was released as the lead single from the group 's second Japanese @-@ language studio album , Girls & Peace ( 2012 ) , as part of the group 's foray into the Japanese music industry . It was released for CD and DVD sales in Japan by Nayutawave Records , which is affiliated with Universal Music Group , on June 27 , 2012 . The song was made available for digital purchase globally on the same day . " Paparazzi " was also released in Hong Kong , Taiwan , and South Korea in mid @-@ 2012 under license by Universal Music Hong Kong , Universal Music Taiwan , and S.M. Entertainment , respectively .
= = Promotion = =
To promote the single , Girls ' Generation performed " Paparazzi " on the Japanese music program Music Station on June 22 , 2012 , where the group wore tuxedos and pink gloves . On July 9 , 2012 , the group staged their second performance of the song on Fuji Television 's Hey ! Hey ! Hey ! Music Champ , where the members wore tuxedos with black gloves . The accompanying music video for " Paparazzi " was directed by Toshiyuki Suzuki and is almost seven minutes long . In the video , Girls ' Generation performs on stage in a theatre , with the set inspired by classic musicals . The video begins with the members wearing trench coats and " whimsically prancing " to Gene Kelly 's " Singin ' in the Rain " . During the main performance of " Paparazzi " , the video is intercut with scenes of the members being followed by photographers . They perform in two different outfits – showgirl @-@ inspired costumes and tuxedos with pink gloves . Jeff Benjamin from Billboard praised the dance routines for their " perfect nine @-@ piece synchronization " and opined that the pink gloves of the girls resembled those worn by Marilyn Monroe .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , " Paparazzi " received mixed reviews from music critics . Jeff Benjamin from Billboard named it a " high @-@ energy " track . James Hadfield , writing for the Tokyo edition of Time Out , compared the song 's R & B styles to those of the group 's previous 2011 Japanese @-@ language single " Mr. Taxi " and called it a " redux " of the latter single , writing that " you 'd struggle to spot many real improvements . "
" Paparazzi " was a commercial success in Japan , debuting at number two on the Oricon Singles Chart on the chart issue dated July 9 , 2012 ; the number one position belonged to KAT @-@ TUN 's single " To the Limit " . The following week , it dropped to number ten . " Paparazzi " became the 58th best @-@ selling physical single of 2012 on the Oricon chart , selling 136 @,@ 181 copies .
The single debuted at number 31 on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 on July 2 , 2012 . The following week , it rose up to the top position on the chart . On the chart issue dated July 16 , 2012 , the single dropped to number seven . " Paparazzi " ranked at number 50 on the year @-@ end chart of 2012 . The track as well charted at number two on the Billboard Japan Hot Singles Sales , number five on the Billboard Japan Adult Contemporary Airplay , and number two on the RIAJ Digital Track Chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Paparazzi " has sold 103 @,@ 000 digital copies in Japan as of July 2012 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the CD issue 's liner notes
= = Charts = =
= = Sales and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Max Weinberg =
Max Weinberg or Minister of the Big Beat ( born April 13 , 1951 ) is an American drummer and television personality , most widely known as the longtime drummer for Bruce Springsteen 's E Street Band and as the bandleader for Conan O 'Brien on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien and The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien .
Weinberg grew up in suburban New Jersey and began drumming at an early age . He attended college planning to be a lawyer but got his big break in music in 1974 when he won an audition to become the drummer for Springsteen . His powerful but controlled playing on albums such as Born to Run and Born in the U.S.A. stabilized the E Street Band sound and Weinberg became a mainstay of Springsteen 's long concert performances . Springsteen dissolved the band in 1989 , and Weinberg spent several years considering a law career and trying the business end of the music
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became a subject of conflicting news reports . Weinberg did and does have strong New Jersey and East Coast ties . He lives on the New Jersey shore with his wife and children . He and his family are fans of the New Jersey Devils , and played ice hockey on the 2 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) pond in front of their house . They were season ticket holders for the Devils until the children became too old and busy to attend games . Their son Jay had , without much instruction from his father but using Max 's old gear , become a drummer for local punk rock and metal bands . Their daughter Ali became an assistant to NBC News reporter Chuck Todd and began appearing on their MSNBC.com blog " First Read " . Weinberg played drums on the first album recorded by his sister Nancy Winston , a professional pianist and singer in New York City , known for her regular appearances at Cafe Pierre .
Nevertheless , O 'Brien confirmed on February 18 , 2009 , that Weinberg and the band were indeed coming with him . Weinberg had not missed an E Street Band show since joining the outfit in 1974 , and E Streeter Van Zandt said that no amount of rehearsal by another drummer could replace Weinberg 's intuitive understanding of Springsteen 's performance gambits .
The conflict was resolved when son Jay became a substitute drummer for his father during parts of the Working on a Dream Tour that Max could not make due to commitments to the O 'Brien show . Springsteen said , " Once again , I want to express my appreciation to Conan O 'Brien , and everyone on his team , for making it possible for Max to continue to do double duty for both us and for him . We promise to return him in one piece . " The younger Weinberg began playing during segments of the tour 's shows , and got a very positive response from audiences and reviewers as a spark plug for the band . Max Weinberg said Jay 's segments allowed him a " total out @-@ of @-@ body experience . For the first time in – I 've been with Bruce for 35 years – I 've been able to go out in the audience and enjoy a Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band concert . " In one case , Jay did one show of a two @-@ night stand on the East Coast and Max then took a red @-@ eye flight back from Los Angeles to do the second .
The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien premiered on June 1 , 2009 , with The Max Weinberg 7 now expanded to eight and referred to as Max Weinberg and the Tonight Show Band . Andy Richter was back as an announcer , making Weinberg 's role as a foil a little uncertain . Gradually Weinberg and the band 's roles in the comic aspects of the show began to assert themselves . On June 25 , Weinberg departed The Tonight Show temporarily for four weeks to join Springsteen and band part @-@ way through their European leg ; this was conveyed on the show via a comedy bit that had his drum riser turn into a float that took him outside the studio and purportedly to the airport . Weinberg returned to the show on August 3 , after flying back from a Springsteen show that had ended early into the same morning in Spain . Of being Tonight Show bandleader , he said , " I think one of the biggest thrills in my life was seeing my name in the same sentence as Doc Severinsen , who , in my view , is the gold standard for ' Tonight Show ' bandleaders . There 's never been anyone who did it quite near the class and the brilliance of Doc Severinsen in the original Tonight Show Band . I used to think when I was a kid what a great job that must be – you know , same place , every time , everyday . Lo and behold , here I am 40 years later , doing it . That sounds deep , deep , deep , deep , deeply satisfying to me . " On September 25 , Weinberg left The Tonight Show again for two months , to join Springsteen and band for the final , American portion of the Working on a Dream Tour . The same drum @-@ riser @-@ to @-@ float comedy bit was used , except this time the float was " hit " and demolished by a truck just outside the studio ( and airing of the segment was delayed a few days due to O 'Brien legitimately injuring himself during the same show ) . The tour wrapped on November 22 , 2009 , in Buffalo , New York ; Weinberg was back on The Tonight Show the next day . With no E Street Band projects in sight for at least the next year or two , Weinberg was left to concentrate on his bandleader role .
Even though Weinberg was living in Los Angeles for The Tonight Show , he retained his home in New Jersey and considered that his permanent residence : " I 'm not really moving . I 'm living out here , but it 's more like an extended road trip . " Regarding his decision to stay in music rather than pursue the legal profession , he has had no regrets : " The world needs more drummers and fewer lawyers . "
However , Weinberg 's stint as Tonight Show bandleader was not to last long . The 2010 Tonight Show host and timeslot conflict erupted , and after an intense period of public turmoil , the last Conan show took place on January 22 , 2010 , finishing with Weinberg propelling a guest @-@ filled seriocomic rendition of " Free Bird " . While O 'Brien negotiated a settlement deal with NBC for himself and his staff , Weinberg as well as sidekick Richter had to reach their own agreements with the network .
= = Departure from O 'Brien and start of Big Band = =
In February 2010 , Weinberg underwent a twelve @-@ hour open heart valve repair surgery to correct a condition he had known about and had been monitoring since the mid @-@ 1980s . His recovery took place over three to five months , and Weinberg kept news about the operation private until an interview eight months later .
In April 2010 , O 'Brien began his The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour . While the rest of the group was part of the tour under the moniker The Legally Prohibited Band , Weinberg was not ( except for a brief appearance at one show ) .
Instead , he assembled and staged appearances by the Max Weinberg Big Band , a fifteen @-@ piece ensemble with twelve horns that mostly plays the music of Frank Sinatra , Buddy Rich , Count Basie , and Maynard Ferguson . Weinberg 's interest in the genre dated back to his childhood and the artists he had seen on televised variety shows .
It was initially unknown whether Weinberg would be part of O 'Brien 's new late night show on TBS cable that began in November 2010 , as no specifics had been worked out for that show while O 'Brien focused on his tour . In June 2010 , the Max Weinberg Big Band Tour began with a show in Red Bank , New Jersey 's Count Basie Theater . Weinberg said that he was booking appearances by his big band through 2011 and that with regard to O 'Brien , " I literally have not thought about it . There have been no discussions . It 's kind of an open question . "
In September 2010 , it was announced Weinberg would not be part of the show , now named Conan ; Jimmy Vivino took over leadership of that band , with Wormworth replacing Weinberg full @-@ time on drums . The split was stated as being mutual , with O 'Brien saying , " Max has been a huge part of my life for the past 17 years and he is an incredible bandleader and musician , " and Weinberg thanking his band and saying , " 17 years – a lifetime on TV ... my association with Conan , his staff , and crew has been a deeply rewarding experience for me . " Weinberg subsequently acknowledged that " we both wanted to go in different directions , " but both looked forward to Weinberg occasionally stopping by to sit in on the new show . Weinberg said his health was better than ever but that the " life @-@ changing experience emotionally and spiritually " of the surgery , a desire to remain in New Jersey with his family , and an interest in exploring new musical directions had all played a role in his departure from O 'Brien .
In 2013 , Weinberg again found himself in a real estate dispute , threatening legal action against Monmouth County in connection with its attempt to repair damage to the Henry Hudson Trail in Atlantic Highlands following damage caused by Superstorm Sandy . Weinberg claimed that the work done in creating that portion of the trail , augmented by Sandy , had caused significant damage to two properties he and his wife owned there . The issue was still ongoing in 2014 .
Weinberg played on only a couple of tracks on Springsteen 's March 2012 album Wrecking Ball , but resumed his normal role with the E Street Band on the subsequent 2012 – 2013 Wrecking Ball Tour , this time augmented by percussionist Everett Bradley , as well as on its 2014 continuation , the High Hopes Tour . In 2014 , Weinberg was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the E Street Band . He said of the honor , " when you have that trophy in your hands , I 've never experienced anything like that . ... You 're walking around with this big heavy symbolic recognition of the work you 've done . " Meanwhile , he continued to play in a jazz idiom on his own , now with the Max Weinberg Quintet . In late October 2014 , Weinberg sat in for a surprise guest appearance on Conan . In early 2015 , Weinberg received the Humanitarian of the Year Award from Temple Rodeph Torah in Marlboro , New Jersey , in recognition of his volunteering in association with multiple local groups ; he said he was humbled to be accepting an award that focused on tikkun olam . Weinberg once again hit the road with Springsteen and the E Street Band for The River Tour 2016 in January 2016 .
= = Drum equipment = =
For many years , Weinberg 's gear included Ludwig and Pearl Drums and Zildjian cymbals ; he subsequently switched to DW Drums , but continues to use Zildjian cymbals . He also uses Remo heads and previously using Regal Tip drumsticks and brushes , he now uses Vater drumsticks , notably the 5A Nude wood tip model and Wire Tap brushes . His setup has always been simple , mostly consisting of a snare drum , mounted tom , bass drum and floor tom while his usual cymbal setup consists of two crash cymbals , a ride cymbal and a pair of hi @-@ hats , with an occasional third crash : " I 've got four drums . Anything more is redundant . Besides , I tend to trip over things . "
= Battle of Cooch 's Bridge =
The Battle of Cooch 's Bridge , also known as the Battle of Iron Hill , was a battle fought on September 3 , 1777 , between the Continental Army and American militia and primarily German soldiers serving alongside the British Army during the American Revolutionary War . It was the only significant military action during the war on the soil of Delaware ( though there were also naval engagements off the state 's coast ) , and it took place about a week before the major Battle of Brandywine . Reportedly , the battle saw the first flying of the American flag .
After landing in Maryland on August 25 as part of a campaign to capture Philadelphia , the seat of the Continental Congress , British and German forces under the overall command of General William Howe began to move north . Their advance was monitored by a light infantry corps of Continental Army and militia forces that had based itself at Cooch 's Bridge , near Newark , Delaware . On September 3 , German troops leading the British advance were met by musket fire from the American light infantry in the woods on either side of the road leading toward Cooch 's Bridge . Calling up reinforcements , they flushed the Americans out and drove them across the bridge .
= = Background = =
After having successfully captured New York City in 1776 , British military planners organized two expeditions to divide the Thirteen Colonies and , they hoped , decisively end the rebellion . One expedition was to take control of the Hudson River by a descent from Quebec , while the other was targeted at the colonial capital , Philadelphia . In pursuit of the latter objective , Lieutenant General William Howe embarked an army numbering about 18 @,@ 000 ( plus about 5 @,@ 000 camp followers ) onto transports in late July 1777 , and sailed from New York City to the Chesapeake Bay . The Continental Army of Major General George Washington remained near New York until Howe 's objective became clear . Howe 's plan was gauged to the south , intending to move against Philadelphia via the Chesapeake . Washington marched his army , numbering about 16 @,@ 000 , through Philadelphia , and established a camp at Wilmington , Delaware . Riding further south and west to perform reconnaissance on August 26 , Washington learned that the British had landed .
On August 25 , Howe 's army disembarked below a small town called Head of Elk ( now known as Elkton , and located at the head of navigation of the Elk River ) in Maryland , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) south of Philadelphia . Due to the relatively poor quality of the landing area , his troops moved immediately to the north , reaching Head of Elk itself on August 28 . Advance troops consisting of British light infantry and German jägers went east across Elk Creek and occupied Gray 's Hill , about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Iron Hill , near Cooch 's Bridge , which was a few miles south of Newark . The bridge was named for Thomas Cooch , a local landowner whose house was near the bridge .
Washington would normally have assigned the duties of advance guard to Daniel Morgan and his riflemen , but he had detached these to assist Horatio Gates in the defense of the Hudson River Valley against the advance of General John Burgoyne . Since they were unavailable , he organized a light infantry corps consisting of 700 picked men from Continental Army regiments ( including future Supreme Court Chief Justice John Marshall , who would go on to fight in the coming battle ) and about 1 @,@ 000 Pennsylvania and Delaware militia , and placed them under the command of Brigadier General William Maxwell . These troops occupied Iron Hill and Cooch 's Bridge . General Nathanael Greene advocating moving the entire Continental Army to this position , believing the Christina River to be a more defensible point , but Washington declined , instead ordering Maxwell to monitor British movements and slow its advance while the rest of the army fortified the Red Clay Creek and Wilmington . Maxwell 's men were encamped on either side of the road leading south from Cooch 's Bridge toward Aiken 's Tavern ( present @-@ day Glasgow , Delaware ) in a series of small camps designed to facilitate ambushes . On August 28 , Washington , atop Iron Hill , and Howe , on Gray 's Hill , observed each other as they took stock of the enemy 's position ; one of the Hessian generals wrote , " These gentlemen observed us with their glasses as carefully as we observed them . Those of our officers who know Washington well , maintained that the man in the plain coat was Washington . "
On September 2 , Howe 's right wing , under the command of the Hessian general , Wilhelm von Knyphausen , left Cecil County Court House and headed north , hampered by rain and bad roads . Early the next morning , Howe 's left wing , headed by troops under the command of Charles Cornwallis , left Head of Elk , expecting to join with Knyphausen 's division at Aiken 's Tavern , about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east . Cornwallis reached the tavern first , and Howe , traveling with Cornwallis , decided to press on to the north without waiting for Knyphausen .
= = Battle = =
A small company of Hessian dragoons led by Captain Johann Ewald headed up the road from the tavern toward Cooch 's Bridge as Cornwallis 's advance guard . These were struck by a volley of fire from an American ambush , and many of them fell , either killed or wounded . Ewald did not , and he quickly alerted the Hessian and Ansbach jägers , who rushed forward to meet the Americans . This began a running skirmish that Major John André described as follows : " Here the rebels began to attack us about 9 o 'clock with a continued irregular fire for nearly two miles . " Howe rode to the front lines , and seeing Iron Hill crawling with enemy soldiers , ordered his troops to clear it . At this time , much of Maxwell 's force was defending Iron Hill , while the rest were protecting Cooch 's Bridge . The jägers , numbering over 400 men led by Lieutenant Colonel Ludwig von Wurmb , formed a line and , with the support of some artillery , advanced on the Americans . Von Wurmb sent one detachment to Maxwell 's left , hoping to flank his position , and supported the move with a bayonet charge against the American center .
The battle lasted for much of the day ; at Cooch 's Bridge , Maxwell 's men made a stand until they " had shot themselves out of ammunition " and " the fight was carried on with the sword " and bayonet ( the latter being a weapon Maxwell 's militia lacked experience in using ) . After seven hours of fighting , the Americans were forced to retreat from Iron Hill across Cooch 's Bridge , taking up a position on the far side . Howe ordered the 1st and 2nd British Light Infantry Battalion to assist the jägers in taking the bridge . While the 1st Battalion under Robert Abercromby became mired in swampy terrain attempting to ford the Christina River , the 2nd Battalion reached the right of the jägers and the bridge was taken . Maxwell 's army then retreated back toward Wilmington .
Casualty reports for the British range from 3 killed and 20 wounded to about 30 each killed and wounded . One British deserter reported that nine wagonloads of wounded were sent toward the fleet . The Americans claimed 20 killed and another 20 wounded , and Washington in a letter to Congress said the losses were " not very considerable " ; however , the British reported burying 41 Americans , and Howe 's official report claimed " not less than fifty killed and many more wounded " . General Maxwell was criticized for his leadership by a number of Washington 's subordinates . One foreign officer with service in the Army of Prussia commented to Henry Laurens in reference to Maxwell , " Your soldiers are very good mans , so good as any brave mans in the world , but your officers my dear colonel , your officers ... "
= = Aftermath = =
General Cornwallis occupied the house of Thomas Cooch , and Howe 's forces remained at Iron Hill for five days . In a letter to Congress , Washington justified the defeat by saying , " This Morning the Enemy came out with considerable force and three pieces of Artillery , against our Light advanced Corps , and after some pretty smart skirmishing obliged them to retreat , being far inferior in number and without Cannon . " Certain that Howe would advance along the main road toward Wilmington in his bid to capture Philadelphia , Washington continued to fortify the city and the Red Clay Creek . He moved his headquarters from Wilmington to Newport , and the army formed defenses between Newport and Marshallton . While Howe 's army remained in place , the two forces engaged in small skirmishes over the next few days . One officer under Howe noted that the rebel patrols , which usually consist of 10 to 15 dragoons and 20 to 30 infantrymen , now appear more often , and they fire at our posts occasionally . "
Sensing an attack coming , Washington told his troops on September 5th , " Should they [ the British ] push their design against Philadelphia , on this route , their all is at stake — they will put the contest on the event of a single battle : If they are overthrown , they are utterly undone — the war is at an end . " Two days later , upon hearing that British ships had left the Chesapeake , Washington was sure Howe 's move was imminent . He rallied his troops , referencing Horatio Gates 's successes against the British in the north , saying " Who can forbear to emulate their [ Gates 's army ] noble spirit ? Who is there without ambition , to share with them , the applauses of their countrymen , and of all posterity , as the defenders of Liberty , and the procurers of peace and happiness to millions in the present and future generations ? Two years we have maintained the war and struggled with difficulties innumerable . But the prospect has since brightened , and our affairs put on a better face — Now is the time to reap the fruits of all our toils and dangers ! ... The eyes of all America , and of Europe are turned upon us . "
But the attack never came . Instead , on September 8 , Howe moved his force north , through Newark and Hockessin into Pennsylvania . Upon realizing what the British were doing late in the night , Washington rushed his forces north as well to find a new defensive position . He settled on Chadds Ford , just across the Delaware border , upon the Brandywine River — the last natural defense before the Schuylkill River and Philadelphia . It was there that the two armies clashed again in the major Battle of Brandywine on September 11 . The British victory in that battle paved the way for their eventual entry into and occupation of the city of Philadelphia .
This success was more than offset by the failure of the expedition to the Hudson , in which General Burgoyne surrendered his army after the Battles of Saratoga , in October 1777 . News of Burgoyne 's surrender greatly changed the war , because it ( and the Battle of Germantown , fought after the British occupied Philadelphia ) was a major factor in France 's decision to enter the war as an American ally in 1778 .
= = Legacy = =
The site of the battle has been preserved as the Cooch 's Bridge Historic District , and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . In 2003 , the Cooch family sold the state some land as well as development rights for an additional 200 acres ( 81 ha ) of land in the area of the battlefield . They also established a $ 1 @.@ 5 million fund to restore and maintain the property , and granted the state a right of first refusal to purchase the Thomas Cooch house , which remained with the family .
In 2007 , the 230th anniversary of the battle was commemorated by a re @-@ enactment event hosted by members of the recreated 2nd Virginia Regiment .
= Cantharellus lateritius =
Cantharellus lateritius , commonly known as the smooth chanterelle , is a species of edible fungus in the Cantharellaceae family of mushrooms . A ectomycorrhizal species , it is found in Asia , Africa , and North America . The species has a complex taxonomic history , and has undergone several name changes since its first description by American mycologist Lewis David de Schweinitz in 1822 . The fruit bodies of the fungus are brightly colored yellow to orange , and usually highly conspicuous against the soil in which they are found . At maturity , the mushroom resembles a filled funnel with the spore @-@ bearing surface along the sloping outer sides . The texture of the fertile undersurface ( hymenium ) of the caps is a distinguishing characteristic of the species : unlike the well @-@ known golden chanterelle , the hymenium of C. lateritius is much smoother . Chemical analysis has revealed the presence of several carotenoid compounds in the fruit bodies .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described in the scientific literature as Thelephora cantharella by the American Lewis David de Schweinitz in 1822 , based on specimens collected in Ohio . Elias Magnus Fries later transferred it to Craterellus in his 1838 Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici . In 1856 , Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis mentioned the fungus in their analysis of Schweinitz 's specimens , but changed the epithet , calling it Craterellus lateritius . The motivation for the name change is unclear ; Ronald H. Petersen , in a 1979 publication , suggests that Berkeley " was apparently reluctant to surrender his own name for the organism " . Petersen suggests that Berkeley may have foreseen the necessity to avoid giving the species a tautonym ( a situation where both the generic name and specific epithet are identical ) . However , as Petersen indicates , a future publication renders this explanation dubious : in 1873 Berkeley again referred to the species using his chosen name Craterellus lateritius , and indicated a type location ( Alabama ) different than the one mentioned by Schweinitz . Petersen considers Berkeley 's name to be a nomen novum ( new name ) , not a new species , as Berkeley clearly indicated that he thought Craterellus lateritius was synonymous with Schweinitz 's Thelephora cantharella . Normally in these circumstances , Schweinitz 's specimen would be considered the type , but Petersen was unable to locate Schweinitz 's original specimen , and thus according to the rules of botanical nomenclature , Berkeley 's epithet has precedence as it is the earliest published name that has an associated type specimen .
Another synonym is Trombetta lateritia , used by Otto Kuntze in his 1891 Revisio Generum Plantarum . American mycologist Rolf Singer transferred it to the genus Cantharellus in 1951 . The mushroom is commonly known as the " smooth chanterelle " . The specific name lateritius means " bricklike " , and refers to the smooth hymenium .
= = Description = =
The caps of the C. lateritius fruit bodies typically range between 2 to 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter , with a flattened to somewhat funnel @-@ shaped top surface and a wavy margin . The cap surface is dry , slightly tomentose ( covered with a layer of fine hairs ) , and a deep and bright orange @-@ yellow color , with older specimens fading to more yellow in age ; the extreme margins of the cap are a paler yellow , and typically curve downward in young specimens . Fruit bodies can reach a height of 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The hymenophore ( the spore @-@ bearing surface ) is initially smooth and without wrinkles , but gradually develops channels or ridges , and what appear to be very shallow gills that are vein @-@ like , and less than 1 mm wide . The color is pale yellow , and is continuous with the surface of the stem . The stem is rather plump and stout , 1 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 8 in ) long and 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 7 in ) thick , more or less cylindrical , tapering downwards towards the base . Internally , the stems are either stuffed ( filled with cotton @-@ like mycelia ) or solid . Rarely , fruit bodies may be clumped together with stems joined at the base ; in these cases there are usually no more than three fused stems . The flesh is solid to partly hollow ( sometimes due to insect larvae ) , with a pale yellow color ; it is 0 @.@ 5 to 0 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick .
The spores are smooth , with a roughly ellipsoid shape , and have typical dimensions of 7 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 µm . In deposit , such as in a spore print , the spores are light yellow orange , while under the microscope they are a very pale yellowish . The spore bearing cells — the basidia — are 75 – 80 by 7 – 9 µm , 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 @-@ spored , slightly club @-@ shaped , and with a distinctly thickened wall at the base . Clamp connections ( short branches connecting one cell to the previous cell to allow passage of the products of nuclear division ) are present in the hyphae of all parts of the fruit body .
= = = Similar species = = =
Cantharellus lateritius is pinker than the golden chanterelle ( C. cibarius ) , and has thicker flesh in addition to the smoother hymenial surface . C. odoratus is also similar in appearance , and is distinguished by a thinner flesh and a hollow stem . The poisonous " Jack O 'Lantern " mushroom , Omphalotus olearius , is roughly similar in stature and color , but can be differentiated from C. lateritius by its true gills with sharply defined edges , and growth on decaying wood ( although the wood may be buried in the soil ) , usually in large overlapping clusters .
One author considers Cantharellus lateritius to likely represent a species complex , including " all the chanterelles with a completely smooth hymenophore , sweet smell , and clamped hyphae . "
= = = Edibility = = =
Like all species in the genus Cantharellus , C. lateritius is edible , and considered choice by some . The odor resembles apricots , and the taste is mild , or " moderately to faintly acrid " . In the opinion of McFarland and Mueller , authors of a field guide to edible fungi of Illinois , compared to the well @-@ known C. cibarius , C. lateritius is " in general ... somewhat disappointing when compared with their delicious relatives " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Cantharellus lateritius is distributed in North America , Africa , Malaysia , and the Himalayas ( specifically , the Almora hills in Uttar Pradesh ) . In the United States , its range extends northward to Michigan and New England .
Typically found growing solitary , in groups or in clusters under hardwood trees , the fungus produces fruit bodies in the summer and autumn . In the New England area of the United States , mycologist Howard Bigelow has noted it to grow on road shoulders in grass near oaks ; it also has a predilection for growing on sloping creek banks . In Malaysia , it is found growing on the soil in forests , mostly under species of Shorea ( rainforest trees in the family Dipterocarpaceae ) . C. lateritius has been reported from the Western Ghats , Kerala , India , forming ectomycorrhizal association with endemic tree species like Vateria indica , Hopea parviflora , Diospyros malabarica , Myristica malabarica in semi @-@ evergreen to evergreen forests .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
In a 1998 study , the carotenoid composition of this species was compared to several other Cantharellus species , including C. cibarus , C. cibarius var. amythysteus , and C. tabernensis . The carotenoid content between species was " virtually identical " , comprising γ @-@ carotene , α @-@ carotene , and β @-@ carotene . The only significant difference was that C. lateritius contained a significant quantity of an unidentified carotene that was thought to be a breakdown product of β @-@ carotene .
= Beriah Magoffin =
Beriah Magoffin ( April 18 , 1815 – February 28 , 1885 ) was the 21st Governor of Kentucky , serving during the early part of the Civil War . Personally , Magoffin adhered to a states ' rights position , including the right of a state to secede from the Union , and he sympathized with the Confederate cause . Nevertheless , when the Kentucky General Assembly adopted a position of neutrality in the war , Magoffin ardently held to it , refusing calls for aid from both the Union and Confederate governments .
In special elections held in June 1861 , Unionists captured nine of Kentucky 's ten congressional seats and obtained two @-@ thirds majorities in both houses of the state legislature . Despite Magoffin 's strict adherence to the policy of neutrality , the Unionist legislature did not trust him and routinely overrode his vetoes . Unable to provide effective leadership due to a hostile legislature , Magoffin agreed to resign as governor in 1862 , provided he could choose his successor . Lieutenant governor Linn Boyd had died in office , and Magoffin refused to allow Speaker of the Senate John F. Fisk to succeed him as governor . Accordingly , Fisk resigned and the Kentucky Senate elected Magoffin 's choice , James F. Robinson , as speaker . Magoffin then resigned , Robinson ascended to the governorship , and Fisk was re @-@ elected as Speaker of the Senate .
After the war , he encouraged acceptance of the Union victory and passage of the Thirteenth Amendment . He died February 28 , 1885 . Magoffin County , Kentucky was named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Beriah Magoffin was born on April 18 , 1815 in Harrodsburg , Kentucky . He was the son of Beriah and Jane ( McAfee ) Magoffin . His father was an immigrant from County Down , Ireland , and his mother was the daughter of Samuel McAfee , a prominent pioneer in early Kentucky .
Magoffin 's early education was obtained in the common schools of Harrodsburg . In 1835 , he graduated from Centre College in Danville , Kentucky , and in 1838 , he earned a law degree from Transylvania University in Lexington , Kentucky . Afterward , he moved to Jackson , Mississippi where he began his legal career . From 1838 to 1839 , he served as Reading Clerk for the Mississippi state senate .
Magoffin returned to Kentucky in 1839 due to an illness . He continued his legal practice in Harrodsburg , and was appointed police judge of Harrodsburg by Governor Robert P. Letcher in 1840 . On April 21 , 1840 , he married Anna Nelson Shelby . Shelby was the granddaughter of Kentucky 's first and fifth governor , Isaac Shelby . Ten of the couple 's children survived infancy .
Magoffin became active in the Democratic Party , serving as a presidential elector in 1844 , 1848 , 1852 , and 1856 and as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1848 , 1856 , 1860 , and 1872 . He served one term in the Kentucky Senate in 1850 , but declined his party 's nomination for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1851 . In 1855 was the Democratic nominee for lieutenant governor , running on a ticket with Beverly L. Clarke , who was defeated by Know Nothing candidate Charles S. Morehead .
= = Governor of Kentucky = =
Magoffin was elected governor of Kentucky by a vote of 76 @,@ 187 to 67 @,@ 283 over Joshua Fry Bell , taking office on August 30 , 1859 . He supported states ' rights and the institution of slavery . Although he believed in the right of states to secede from the union , he hoped to avoid this outcome by reaching an agreement between the southern and northern states . To that end , he wrote a circular letter to the governors of the slave states on December 9 , 1860 detailing a plan to save the Union .
Magoffin 's plan was to unite the slave states around a set of minimum concessions to see if the North would accept them as an alternative to war . The concessions included a constitutional amendment repealing any state law that interfered with enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act , passage of amendments to the Fugitive Slave Act ensuring that any state that would not return a fugitive slave or obstructed a slave 's return would compensate the owner of the slave , passage of a law requiring extradition of anyone indicted by a grand jury for enticing the escape of a slave , passage of an amendment to the constitution guaranteeing slavery in all current and future territories south of 36 degrees north latitude , passage of an amendment to the constitution guaranteeing all states the right of using the Mississippi River , and provide protection for southern states in the U.S. Senate from oppressive slavery legislation . After the slave state governors refused Magoffin 's plan , he endorsed the Crittenden Compromise , authored by fellow Kentuckian John J. Crittenden .
In January 1861 , Magoffin called the state legislature into special session and asked them to call a convention to determine Kentucky 's course in the Civil War . The Unionist majority in the legislature feared that the vote of the convention would be to take Kentucky out of the Union ; consequently , they refused to call the convention . In response to President Abraham Lincoln 's call for troops on April 15 , 1861 , Magoffin defiantly declared by telegram , " I will send not a man nor a dollar for the wicked purpose of subduing my sister Southern States . " Encouraged by Magoffin 's rebuff of Lincoln , Confederate Secretary of War LeRoy Pope Walker requested Kentucky troops for the southern cause a week later , but Magoffin similarly refused him .
Magoffin called another special session of the legislature in May 1861 . Again , the legislators refused to call a convention to determine the state 's course in the war . Instead , they approved a resolution of neutrality , and Magoffin proclaimed this position on May 20 , 1861 . Later that month , Magoffin sent a letter to Confederate President Jefferson Davis asking that he recognize and honor Kentucky 's neutrality . In August , he sent an identical letter to President Lincoln .
Although Magoffin pledged " to abide by the will of the majority of the people in the state " and to uphold the state and federal constitutions , Unionists in the legislature did not trust Magoffin . In the state 's special elections in June 1861 , Unionist candidates swept nine of Kentucky 's ten congressional districts and obtained two @-@ thirds majorities in both houses of the General Assembly . From then on , they routinely overrode Magoffin 's vetoes .
In early September 1861 , both federal and Confederate troops entered Kentucky . Magoffin declared both sides equally guilty of violating Kentucky 's neutrality and demanded that both sides withdraw . A resolution calling for immediate withdrawal by both Union and Confederate forces was defeated in the legislature . Instead , the legislature passed a resolution ordering only the Confederate troops out of the state . Magoffin vetoed the resolution , but his veto was overridden , and he obediently issued the order for the Confederates to withdraw . In November 1861 , a self @-@ constituted convention of southern sympathizers met at Russellville , Kentucky in order to form a provisional Confederate government for the state . Despite his southern sympathies , Magoffin denounced the actions of this convention .
Magoffin and the legislature continued to clash throughout the remainder of 1861 and into 1862 . They found agreement only on the most menial of legislation , such as a bill to allow the common schools to continue the sessions that had been interrupted by the outbreak of hostilities in 1861 . He found particularly onerous a bill forfeiting the citizenship of anyone who fought for or aided the Confederacy , but in March 1862 , his veto of the bill was overridden . Magoffin also opposed the military rule of Brigadier General Jeremiah T. Boyle , who he believed was violating the civil rights of states ' rights advocates , even if they did not advocate secession .
Calls by the legislature for Magoffin 's resignation had begun as early as September 30 , 1861 . On August 16 , 1862 , Magoffin declared his willingness to resign on the condition that he be allowed to choose his successor . Because Lieutenant Governor Linn Boyd had died in office in 1859 , Speaker of the Senate John F. Fisk was next in line for the governorship . Magoffin refused to accept Fisk as his successor , so Fisk resigned as speaker and the senate elevated Magoffin 's choice , James F. Robinson , to speaker . Magoffin resigned as governor on August 18 , 1862 , and Robinson assumed the office of governor for the remainder of Magoffin 's term .
= = Later life and death = =
After the war , Magoffin returned to his legal practice and engaged in agricultural pursuits in Harrodsburg . A series of land speculation ventures near Chicago , Illinois made him very wealthy . He encouraged his fellow Kentuckians to accept the results of the war . He advocated for civil rights for blacks and urged passage of the Thirteenth Amendment .
In his last act of public service , Magoffin represented Mercer County in the Kentucky House of Representatives from 1867 to 1869 . He died at home on February 28 , 1885 and was buried in Spring Hill Cemetery in Harrodsburg . In 1900 , a monument was erected in the cemetery in Magoffin 's honor . Magoffin County , Kentucky was created in 1860 and also named in his honor .
= Cyclone Bobby =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Bobby set numerous monthly rainfall records in parts of the Goldfields @-@ Esperance regions of Western Australia , dropping up to 400 mm ( 16 in ) of rain in February 1995 . The fourth named storm of the 1994 – 95 Australian region cyclone season , Bobby developed as a tropical low embedded within a monsoon trough situated north of the Northern Territory coastline on 19 February . The storm gradually drifted southwestward and later southward under low wind shear , strengthening enough to be assigned the name Bobby by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) . The storm rapidly deepened as it approached the coast of Western Australia , and attained its peak intensity of 925 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 32 inHg ) at 0900 UTC on 24 February with 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . After making landfall as a somewhat weaker cyclone near Onslow , the remnants of Bobby drifted southeastward , gradually weakening , before dissipating over the southern reaches of Western Australia .
Bobby inflicted minor damage throughout Western Australia , dropping copious rainfall and forcing the closure of many facilities and roads . The storm 's destruction was most severe in Onslow , where 20 residences suffered damage . Elsewhere , Bobby knocked out power and water supplies , unroofed houses , tore off rain gutters , toppled fences , and smashed windows . The flooding of a 17 km ( 11 mi ) stretch of the Eyre Highway stranded approximately 1000 vehicles , although the backup was later cleared more than a week later . Flooding disrupted mining and drilling operations throughout southwestern Australia , costing the industry upwards of $ 50 million ( 1995 AUD ; $ 38 @.@ 7 million USD ) . Numerous Australian Army and State Emergency Service ( SES ) personnel were involved in cleanup and recovery efforts after the cyclone 's passage , while power and water service was restored to those cut off during the storm . Overall , the cyclone caused eight deaths and $ 11 million ( 1995 AUD ; $ 8 @.@ 5 million USD ) in damage along its course across Western Australia .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Cyclone Bobby can be traced to a tropical low that formed within a monsoon trough off of the Northern Territory 's shores on 19 February 1995 . Further organization was initially hindered by strong easterly wind shear as it drifted toward the west @-@ southwest along the northern fringes of a mid @-@ level zonal ridge . The latitudinal ridge was perturbed by a broad frontal system from 21 to 22 February , reducing wind shear around the low and producing favorable conditions for development . Swift tropical cyclogenesis followed as the convection – thunderstorms – strengthened around the system 's surface circulation , and the storm was assigned the name Bobby by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) during the early morning hours of 22 February while stationed approximately 500 km ( 310 mi ) north of Port Hedland , making it the fourth named storm of the Australian region cyclone season . Bobby continued to strengthen over the following days while meandering south @-@ southwestward toward the mid @-@ level ridge , and attained Category 1 @-@ equivalent intensity on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale at 0000 UTC on 23 February , with 1 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , according to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) .
Bobby slowed slightly and moved erratically as it neared the Western Australian coastline , turning southward while rapidly strengthening . It attained its peak intensity of 925 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 32 inHg ) at 0900 UTC on 24 February , producing 1 @-@ minute sustained winds upwards of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) and 10 @-@ minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson scale or a Category 4 cyclone on the Australian scale . Hurricane @-@ force winds ' radius around the cyclone 's center decreased from 80 km ( 50 mi ) to less than 30 km ( 19 mi ) ; however , gale @-@ force winds continued to reach as far as 150 km ( 93 mi ) outward from the center , consistent with satellite imagery . The cyclone continued to trek southward under the influence of a northeast @-@ moving frontal system , and made landfall near Onslow at 1800 UTC on 25 February with a minimum atmospheric pressure of 952 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 11 inHg ) . Bobby persisted for another two days , travelling southward for 24 hours before curving to the southeast and dissipating over southwestern Australia .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Prior to the storm 's arrival , approximately 1 @,@ 000 Aboriginals and individuals living on pastoral stations were evacuated from parts of Pilbara to safer regions ; another 7 people were evacuated to the local hospital in Onslow , the local designated evacuation center for the cyclone . The Onslow Airport was closed , as were Karratha 's airport , port , and the Griffin oil field managed by Woodside Petroleum . Many other airports , roads , and ports along the Western Australian shoreline were also shut down prior to Bobby 's landfall , including the North West Coastal Highway between Onslow and Karratha . In addition , three towns in Western Australia were placed under red alerts .
In Onslow , Bobby damaged or unroofed 20 homes and caused power outages after toppling power lines ; in addition , powerful winds tore off rain gutters , damaged radio antennas , toppled fences , and smashed windows . Over 400 mm ( 16 in ) of rain fell there , while numerous February rainfall records were broken in the Goldfields @-@ Esperance region ; Onslow received only 95 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) of rain in the six months before Bobby , and annual rainfall in the region averaged 225 to 285 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 to 11 @.@ 2 in ) ; most other parts of Western Australia received 100 to 175 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 6 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall from the cyclone . Although 11 fishermen were initially reported missing , all were later verified to be safe . The 61 @,@ 000 @-@ tonne ship Bulk Azores ran aground at Kendrew Island near Dampier while transporting iron ore , though no spillage was noted and the vessel resumed its journey shortly thereafter . Several other boats thought to be missing were driven ashore , although the Lady Pam and Harmony were not found ; despite an extensive search involving three helicopters , three airplanes , and numerous police divers , the seven on board were later presumed dead after the Harmony was found capsized and an empty lifeboat from the Lady Pam were located . In Karratha , the cyclone unroofed several homes , toppled trees and power lines , and caused localised flooding . The mining community of Pannawonica also experienced power outages , while elsewhere in Western Australia , the Fortescue , Ashburton , and Gascoyne river drainage basins were flooded . In southern portions of the state , Bobby 's remnants flooded the Eyre Highway at Balladonia and 26 km ( 16 mi ) east of Norseman , forcing the closure of a 17 km ( 11 mi ) stretch of road , and stranding 1000 vehicles . Among them included trucks carrying 45 tonnes of stage equipment for two Cliff Richard concerts in Perth , forcing postponement of both , and stage equipment for a performance of the play An Inspector Calls , which was cancelled as a result of the problems .
The cyclone also disrupted gold and mineral mining work in southern Western Australia , closing landing strips at Leinster and Wiluna . Nickel mining near Leinster , mostly from WMC Resources 's Mount Keith Mine , was impeded by rainfall which obstructed extraction of ore from the pit . The Super Pit gold mine at Kalgoorlie , meanwhile , was closed after 156 mm ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) of precipitation fell within a three @-@ day period ; all major mines within the vicinity were forced to halt operations . Meanwhile , the Kanowna Belle , New Celebration , Sons of Gwalia , and dozens of other open @-@ pit mines also suspended mining activities due to obstructed roads as well as wet pits and facilities . Several mines suffered fuel shortages , with many roads inaccessible to fuel @-@ transporting vehicles . While the North Rankin A and Goodwyn oil platforms were in the path of Bobby , both facilities escaped damage , and in fact drilled considerably higher amounts as a result of increased demand for gas from utilities on land . The adjacent Perseus platform , however , temporarily shut down operations . Australian gold industry officials estimated total economic disruptions amounted to upwards of $ 50 million ( 1995 AUD ; $ 38 @.@ 7 million USD ) .
Officials coordinated the delivery of food supplies by Australian Army trucks , aircraft , and helicopters , though a military vehicle delivering tarpaulins , radios , and food parcels was caught in mud at Blackheart Creek near Onslow ; Australian Army personnel and six State Emergency Service ( SES ) vehicles were deployed to Onslow for cleanup efforts . Food supplies were airlifted to mostly unpopulated regions of central and eastern Pilbara , where several pastoral stations and Aboriginal localities were cut off by the storm ; many of the stations received moderate damage as a result of Bobby . Despite the area 's relative isolation , electrical and water service was restored relatively rapidly without issue . The Eyre Highway reopened on 5 March after police , road crews , and SES workers cleared out a jam involving more than 1500 individuals affected by the roadway 's flooding . Meanwhile , the government of Australia nullified fuel excises for foreign vessels carrying Australian cargo between parts of Western Australia affected by Bobby due to the lack of usable road and rail routes . In all , the cyclone caused eight deaths , seven out at sea and one due to drowning at Carnarvon , and insured damages totalled $ 11 million ( 1995 AUD ; $ 8 @.@ 5 million USD ) . Due to the cyclone 's severity , the name Bobby was retired after the season ended .
= U.S. Route 60 in Oklahoma =
U.S. Route 60 ( US @-@ 60 ) is a transcontinental U.S. highway extending from near Brenda , Arizona to Virginia Beach , Virginia on the Atlantic Ocean . Along the way , 352 @.@ 39 miles ( 567 @.@ 12 km ) of the route lies within the state of Oklahoma . The highway crosses into the state from Texas west of Arnett and serves many towns and cities in the northern part of the state , including Arnett , Seiling , Fairview , Enid , Ponca City , Pawhuska , Bartlesville , and Vinita . US @-@ 60 exits Oklahoma near Seneca , Missouri . In Oklahoma , US @-@ 60 has three business routes , serving Tonkawa , Ponca City , and Seneca . The first 60 @.@ 2 miles ( 96 @.@ 9 km ) of the route , from the Texas line to Seiling , is also designated as State Highway 51 ( SH @-@ 51 ) .
US @-@ 60 , as originally designated , did not enter Oklahoma . Instead , it ended in Springfield , Missouri , continuing east from there . AASHO approved an extension of US @-@ 60 on May 29 , 1930 , which extended it west through Oklahoma to Amarillo , Texas . US @-@ 60 's extension displaced US @-@ 164 in its entirety ; that designation was then retired .
= = Route description = =
US @-@ 60 enters Oklahoma in Ellis County , just east of Higgins , Texas . SH @-@ 51 begins at the state line concurrent with US @-@ 60 , and will remain so for the next 60 @.@ 2 miles ( 96 @.@ 9 km ) . The
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Fight " originally appeared on Sia 's previous studio album We Are Born ( 2010 ) .
The remaining four tracks represent collaborative works , one soundtrack appearance and a remix . " Destiny " first appeared on the British duo Zero 7 's album Simple Things ( 2001 ) ; the track features vocal performances by Sia and Sophie Barker . " My Love " appeared on The Twilight Saga : Eclipse film soundtrack ( 2010 ) . " Titanium " , written by Sia , David Guetta , Giorgio Tuinfort , and Nick van de Wall , first appeared on Guetta 's 2011 album Nothing but the Beat .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of the compilation album was positive overall ; many reviewers appreciated the album in its entirety but criticized select tracks . The AU Review 's Robert Lyon awarded the album a score of 8 @.@ 2 on a 10 @-@ point scale . Lyon thought " Clap Your Hands " began the album " brilliantly " and complimented additional individual tracks , but noted the compilation offered no previously unreleased material and that the bonus DVD was only available through select retailers . Mikey Cahill of News Limited awarded the album four points on a five @-@ point scale . He wrote listeners have the ability to " visualise Sia 's animated exterior singing each note loud and proud " and summarized the album in one word : " respectable " . Freya Davies of ArtsHub suggested " Bring Night " would have been a better opening track . Davies criticized select tracks , such as " Destiny " and " Day Too Soon " due to Sia 's " inarticulate " singing , but also complimented faster tempo songs which highlighted her " vocal strength " ( " Titanium " and " Buttons " ) . Davies concluded : " Sia 's ability to combine cult and popular appeal is successfully demonstrated by the strength of this compilation album . Its weaknesses are momentary ; overall , it is a fun salute to the past 15 years and a respectable look to the future . "
Scott @-@ Patrick Mitchell of Out in Perth , an LGBT publication based in Perth , Western Australia , appreciated an album of Sia highlights and wrote that " Bring Night " , " Buttons " and " The Girl You Lost to Cocaine " " [ sparkle ] like supernovas " . Rabbit Hole Urban Music 's Steve Smart awarded the compilation four out of five stars . Smart thought the album was long but inclusive of many genres ; he called the production " super smooth ... classy but not edgeless " . Rave Magazine 's Alasdair Duncan also rated Best Of ... four out of five stars and complimented Sia 's body of work . Duncan thought the compilation had a " thrown @-@ together quality " but called the music " top @-@ notch " . Nina Bertok of Rip It Up , an Adelaide street press magazine , called the album a collection of " tear @-@ jerking ballads ... pop nuggets ... dance bangers " and " quirkier numbers " . Bertok recommended the CSS remix of " Buttons " and awarded the compilation three out of five stars . One reviewer from the Sydney Star Observer wrote that " Breathe Me " stands as Sia 's best song but thought her songs " Don 't Bring Me Down " and " I 'm in Here " should have been included on the album .
= = Track listing = =
Track listing adapted from AllMusic , including entries for Healing Is Difficult , Colour the Small One , Some People Have Real Problems and We Are Born .
= = Charts = =
Best Of ... debuted at number 30 on the ARIA Albums Chart the week of 15 April 2012 . The album reached a peak position of number 27 the following week before exiting the chart .
= Hurricane Diana ( 1984 ) =
Hurricane Diana was the fourth tropical storm , the first hurricane , the first major hurricane , and the strongest storm of the 1984 Atlantic hurricane season . Diana was the first major hurricane to hit the U.S. East Coast in nearly 20 years . Watches and warnings were issued for the storm along the East coast between eastern Florida and Virginia . It caused moderate damage in North Carolina while it looped offshore and after it made landfall as a Category 2 hurricane . Forming on September 8 , Diana moved northward and wandered across North Carolina for a couple of days during mid @-@ September , dropping heavy rainfall . Once it left the state and accelerated east @-@ northeast , Diana quickly evolved into an extratropical cyclone . Damages to the United States totaled $ 65 @.@ 5 million ( 1984 USD ) . Three indirect fatalities were caused by the cyclone .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Diana can be traced back to a stalled out area of low pressure just north of the Bahamas along the tail end of a cold front on September 6 . Shower and thunderstorm activity began to increase the next day but was generally disorganized . Around 1200 UTC on September 8 , a ship in the vicinity of the low reported a sustained wind speed of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . A few hours later , based on satellite observations , the low was designated Tropical Storm Diana . With weak steering currents , Diana gradually intensified as it slowly moved towards the west over the next day , coming within 50 miles ( 85 km ) of Cape Canaveral , Florida , before taking a sharp turn towards the north @-@ northwest . As Diana neared Saint Augustine , Florida , it turned towards the northeast and intensified into a hurricane .
Under weak steering currents while detached to the front , Diana drifted westward , and came within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of the Florida coast . Rather than continuing westward , where it would have hit near Cape Canaveral , Diana turned to the northwest where it paralleled the coastline . The storm , continually strengthening over the Gulf Stream , turned to the northeast and became a hurricane on September 10 . On September 11 and September 12 , Diana rapidly intensified to a peak of 130 miles per hour ( 210 km / h ) winds while remaining offshore .
An approaching frontal system caused Diana to execute a cyclonic loop , where cool , dry air caused it to weaken . The hurricane hit Wilmington , North Carolina as a weakening hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) on September 13 , and quickly weakened to a tropical storm over land . The high pressure system that built in after Diana looped weakened , allowing the storm to move to the north and east . After crossing the Outer Banks , Diana accelerated to the northeast , and after restrengthening to a 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) storm , became extratropical near Nova Scotia on September 16 .
= = Preparations = =
Soon after advisories were initiated , gale warnings were issued between Cape Canaveral , Florida and Virginia Beach , Virginia during the afternoon of September 8 . During the morning of September 9 , gale warnings were lowered south of St. Augustine , Florida . As Diana strengthened into a hurricane , hurricane watches and gale warnings were raised between St. Augustine and Oregon Inlet , North Carolina . By the morning of September 10 , gale warnings were upgraded to hurricane warnings between Brunswick , Georgia and Oregon Inlet . All warnings and watches south of Brunswick were dropped at that time . By the morning of September 11 , hurricane warnings were lowered south of Savannah , Georgia . That afternoon , all warnings were lowered south of Cape Romain , South Carolina .
On the morning of September 12 , all warnings were lowered south of Myrtle Beach , South Carolina . Early in the morning of September 13 , gale warnings were raised between Cape Romain and Myrtle Beach . Later that morning , hurricane warnings were lowered between Wilmington , North Carolina and Oregon Inlet , and all warnings were dropped between Cape Lookout and Virginia Beach . Gale warnings were then in effect between Wilmington and Cape Lookout . Once inland , all warnings were lowered on the afternoon of September 13 . As the tropical storm moved offshore , gale warnings went into effect between the mornings of September 14 and September 15 between Cape Lookout and Chincoteague , Virginia .
Along the North Carolina coastline , state troopers were deployed to assist residents in evacuating and preparing for the hurricane . South Carolina governor Mike Daniel declared a state of emergency and placed the national guard on standby . Schools throughout the Carolinas and Georgia were closed . Most beaches were closed due to strong rip currents and beach erosion . Residents on barrier islands were urged to evacuate as waves in excess of 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) were expected to inundate them . Approximately 94 families were relocated from their mobile homes near Beaufort , North Carolina by state officials . A 24 @-@ hour emergency operations center was also established . The Coast Guard moved all available boats in the area to a position where they could be deployed immediately if needed .
Along the Georgia coastline , The Golden Isles of Georgia were evacuated due to large swells produced by Diana . Two nursing homes in Tybee Island were evacuated and a voluntary evacuation was issued for all residents in the town . Several shelters were also opened at schools in a few counties ; however , relatively few families sought refuge in them . Local schools and beaches were also closed for the duration of the storm 's passage .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
With Category 4 winds of 135 mph ( 217 km / h ) , Diana threatened to become the most intense hurricane to strike North Carolina since Hurricane Hazel in 1954 . However , it looped and weakened just offshore and made landfall as a Category 2 hurricane . Because of this , Diana only caused $ 65 @.@ 5 million in damage ( 1984 USD ) due to heavy flooding from up to 19 inches ( 480 mm ) of rain , tree damage , and downed power lines . Most of the damage was experienced between Wilmington , North Carolina and Myrtle Beach , South Carolina . The Carolina Power and Light Brunswick Nuclear Power Plant recorded winds of over 75 mph , making Hurricane Diana the first hurricane to bring hurricane force winds to a nuclear power plant . Some yard damage was seen , but the plant was mostly unaffected .
Three indirect deaths were reported from Diana . One person died from a heart attack while making hurricane preparations , and the other two were from automobile accidents . Following the storm , President Ronald Reagan declared five North Carolina counties as a federal disaster area , allowing the affected regions to receive government funds and assistance . Funds were also allocated for the repairing of roads and sewers .
= Welcome to the Universe Tour =
The Welcome to the Universe Tour was a concert tour by American rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars , in support of their second studio album A Beautiful Lie ( 2005 ) . Presenting a series of inexpensive concerts for music fans , the concert tour was announced in August 2006 as a part of the MTV2 $ 2Bill tour . The Welcome to the Universe Tour began on October 17 , 2006 in Minneapolis , Minnesota and ended on November 25 , 2006 in Los Angeles , California . The setlist encompassed songs from their first two studio albums , 30 Seconds to Mars and A Beautiful Lie .
Labelled as a green tour , Thirty Seconds to Mars developed strategies that minimized fuel consumption of all touring vehicles . Head Automatica and Cobra Starship served as the opening acts , with other bands joining for select dates . The Welcome to the Universe Tour received positive reviews from critics , who praised Thirty Seconds to Mars ' energy onstage and the production of the show . The concert tour was recorded and broadcast on MTV2 .
= = Background = =
The tour was officially announced on August 31 , 2006 by MTV2 as a part of the $ 2Bill tour , which previously attracted a diverse mix of music artists , including Beastie Boys , Radiohead , Coldplay , and Kanye West . Set for October 2006 , the tour showcased Thirty Seconds to Mars ' second studio album A Beautiful Lie . It commenced on October 17 , 2006 in Minneapolis , Minnesota and ended on November 25 , 2006 in Los Angeles , California . The tour was announced shortly after the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards at which Thirty Seconds to Mars received the MTV2 Award for their single " The Kill " . A limited number of tickets per city were made available for $ 2 each in a special internet pre @-@ sale sponsored by MTV2 and Thirty Seconds to Mars beginning on September 16 . Sales for general tickets began the following week on September 23 . Determined to offset the impact that the tour would had on the environment , Thirty Seconds to Mars worked to develop strategies that would minimize fuel consumption and all touring vehicles were powered by low @-@ emissions renewable biodiesel , a fuel made partly from vegetable oil . In an interview with MTV News , Jared Leto described the tour as :
" This is an amazing time of celebration for us all and we are very excited to join forces with the unique and creative individuals at MTV2 to present what we hope will be one of the most exciting tours of the fall ... Welcome to the Universe . With a powerful line up of phenomenally talented opening bands and having an environmentally acceptable ' green ' tour , we are looking forward to yet another chance for us to share something unique with our family of fans that have supported us so passionately and also invite and introduce many others to the world of Thirty Seconds to Mars . Taking this approach gives us the opportunity to set an example and share with others the possibilities of real alternatives for a safer , cleaner world . We will see you all very soon for what will be an exciting , chaotic circus of insanity , and an unforgettable tour . "
Head Automatica and Cobra Starship were announced as the opening acts for Thirty Seconds to Mars . In addition , Rock Kills Kid , The Pink Spiders , The Receiving End of Sirens , Envy on the Coast , Men , Women & Children , and Street Drum Corps joined the tour for select dates . Leto stated , " We want to create a festival atmosphere . We plan on bringing an element of excitement and chaos and escape . We are going to do things that have never been done before , and we are making all kinds of plans and postulations about the possibilities . We have a lot of things happening , and it 's very exciting . "
= = Reception = =
The Welcome to the Universe Tour garnered generally positive reviews from critics . Jay Cridlin of the St. Petersburg Times praised the performance at the Jannus Landing , saying that Thirty Seconds to Mars proved to be " a legitimate musical force . " Karen Bondowski from Livewire gave a positive review of the concert at the Eagles Ballroom in Milwaukee and complimented songs like " A Beautiful Lie " , " Attack " , " From Yesterday " , " Buddha for Mary " and " R @-@ Evolve " . The reviewer also said that the band " delivered the giant choruses and electrified but deliciously spacey guitars with a genuine fervor . " Chad DuPriest from Pegasus News was impressed by the show at Ridglea Theatre in Fort Worth and said " That 's what really makes this band stand out . They don 't merely go to a concert to perform and get it over with , they aim to grow their cult and seek recognition – and they do this by putting on a badass concert . " He also commented , " Most impressive were the phenomenal lighting effects , able to present the stage as everything from a strobe @-@ lit nightmare to a peaceful realm of lucidity for the light guitar solos . " Karah Leigh from the Houstonist gave a positive review of concert at the Verizon Wireless Theater and wrote that the band " completely blew us away , " saying that they " did an amazing job . " The reviewer however criticized the lack of participation by the audience . Matthew J. Palm of the Orlando Sentinel gave a positive review of the concert and wrote that " [ Jared ] Leto doesn 't follow rules . [ ... ] He can rock your socks off — employing a throat @-@ shredding delivery on pulsating crowd @-@ pleasers such as " A Beautiful Lie " , " The Kill " and " Savior . "
= = Broadcast and recordings = =
In support of the Welcome to the Universe Tour , Thirty Seconds to Mars hosted an episode of MTV2 's T @-@ Minus Rock on October 25 , 2006 at the MTV Studios , Times Square in New York City . MTV Overdrive streamed a tour diary featuring the band 's experiences with footage recorded at various concerts . MTV2 filmed a special of the Welcome to the Universe Tour depicting Thirty Seconds to Mars , Head Automatica and Cobra Starship , which aired on November 4 , 2006 . It also recorded a television special featuring the bands touring alongside Thirty Seconds to Mars . Footage recorded during the Welcome to the Universe Tour was released on the deluxe edition of the band 's album A Beautiful Lie on December 5 , 2006 .
= = Opening acts = =
Head Automatica ( all dates )
Cobra Starship ( all dates )
Rock Kills Kid ( select dates )
The Pink Spiders ( select dates )
The Receiving End of Sirens ( select dates )
Envy on the Coast ( select dates )
Men , Women & Children ( select dates )
Street Drum Corps ( select dates )
= = Set list = =
This setlist is representative of the show in Fort Worth at the Ridglea Theatre . It does not represent all dates throughout the tour .
" A Beautiful Lie "
" Battle of One "
" R @-@ Evolve "
" The Story "
" Buddha for Mary "
" The Mission "
" Was It a Dream ? "
" Capricorn ( A Brand New Name ) "
" From Yesterday "
" Attack "
" The Kill "
" The Fantasy "
= = Tour dates = =
= U.S. Route 8 =
U.S. Highway 8 ( US 8 ) is a United States Numbered Highway that runs primarily east – west for 280 miles ( 451 km ) , mostly within the state of Wisconsin . It connects Interstate 35 ( I @-@ 35 ) in Forest Lake , Minnesota , to US 2 at Norway in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan near the border with Wisconsin . Except for the short freeway segment near Forest Lake , and sections near the St. Croix River bridge and Rhinelander , Wisconsin , it is mostly undivided surface road . As a state highway in the three states , US 8 is maintained by the Minnesota , Wisconsin and Michigan departments of transportation ( Mn / DOT , WisDOT , MDOT , respectively ) .
The highway was originally commissioned on November 11 , 1926 , with the rest of the original U.S. Highway System . At the time , it ran between Forest Lake , Minnesota , and Pembine , Wisconsin , with a planned continuation to Powers , Michigan . Several changes have been made to the routing of the highway since then . The western end was extended south to Minneapolis before it was truncated back to Forest Lake . Other changes on the east end have moved that terminus from the originally planned end location at Powers to the current location in Norway . Internal Wisconsin and Michigan DOT map files at various times have shown plans to reroute the highway to connect to the original 1926 terminus . US 8 's course through the three states has also been shifted to follow different alignments over the years .
WisDOT built a bypass around the city of Rhinelander in the 1990s and created a business loop along the old highway through the town . This loop was a locally maintained route through the central business district in Rhinelander . The signage for the loop was removed in 2005 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Forest Lake to St. Croix Falls = = =
US 8 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 35 in Forest Lake . This interchange is incomplete : traffic can only access US 8 directly from northbound I @-@ 35 , and westbound traffic on US 8 merges onto southbound I @-@ 35 . The first one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) segment of roadway to Forest Lake is a freeway , with an interchange at US 61 . East of this junction , the highway follows Lake Boulevard North around Forest Lake and continues northeasterly through the community to cross the Washington – Chisago county line . The highway continues to the northeast along farmland and the shore of Green Lake to Chisago City , where it meets up with County Road 22 ( CR 22 ) . US 8 follows Lake Boulevard through Chisago City along the isthmus between the larger Chisago Lake and the smaller Wallmark Lake on the eastern side of town . The highway turns along a more easterly path in Lindström between North and South Lindström lakes . East of those lakes , US 8 crosses into the town of Center City .
In Center City , US 8 runs between North and South Center lakes , curving around the north shore of South Center Lake . On the eastern edge of town , it turns due east for several miles and runs through Shafer . US 8 merges with State Highway 95 ( MN 95 ) about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southwest of Taylors Falls . The two highways concurrently turn northeast along the St. Croix River , entering town . At this point , MN 95 continues north along the river while US 8 turns east to cross the St. Croix River , exiting the state of Minnesota into Wisconsin .
Legally , the Minnesota section of US 8 is defined as Constitutional Route 46 and Legislative Route 98 in the Minnesota Statutes § § 161 @.@ 114 ( 2 ) and 161 @.@ 115 ( 29 ) ; the roadway is not marked with those numbers . The section of US 8 in Chisago County is officially designated the Moberg Trail .
= = = St. Croix Falls to Rhinelander = = =
US 8 enters Polk County at St. Croix Falls as a multilane roadway . It joins State Highway 35 ( WIS 35 ) at a diamond interchange located approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the state line . The two highways run concurrently for four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) before WIS 35 turns off to the north at a location in the Town of St. Croix Falls west of Deer Lake . US 8 continues eastward through forest lands , and WIS 46 joins from the north for a four @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) concurrency before splitting off to the south . Continuing eastward , US 8 passes through Range and crosses into Barron County at Turtle Lake . US 63 merges from the south near Turtle Lake and departs to the north in the downtown area . The roadway passes through Poskin and intersects WIS 25 in Barron . East of Barron , US 8 meets US 53 at a mixed diamond / cloverleaf interchange and turns north into Cameron , then turns east in downtown to leave the latter community . After a nine @-@ mile ( 14 km ) straightaway , the highway crosses into Rusk County , and then it continues due east for an additional five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) before turning northeast and passing through Weyerhaeuser . Continuing northeasterly , the roadway crosses WIS 40 in Bruce . East of town , the highway continues through rural Rusk County , and US 8 meets WIS 27 in downtown Ladysmith .
Upon leaving Ladysmith , US 8 passes through the communities of Tony , Glen Flora , Ingram ( where it meets the northern terminus of WIS 73 ) and Hawkins on its way out of Rusk County . In Price County , US 8 passes through Kennan and Catawba . WIS 111 terminates at its south end on US 8 just east of Catawba . US 8 meets WIS 13 at a diamond interchange northwest of Prentice and passes north of the city . The highway passes through Brantwood and enters Lincoln County at Clifford . Further east , US 8 crosses Tripoli and McCord and runs north of Tomahawk as it passes through the Lake Nokomis area . US 51 crosses US 8 northeast of Tomahawk . US 8 turns northeast into Oneida County and onto a twisting northeasterly alignment . The highway passes through Woodboro and expands to a divided highway into Rhinelander . It merges with WIS 47 on the southwest side of Rhinelander . WIS 17 north joins the highways one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) to the southeast , creating a wrong @-@ way concurrency with WIS 47 ; along this section of highway , eastbound US 8 is also southbound WIS 47 and northbound WIS 17 and vice versa . WIS 17 turns to the north two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southeast of there , and US 8 and WIS 47 head eastbound out of the Rhinelander area .
= = = Rhinelander to Norway = = =
US 8 intersects US 45 south in Monico , and WIS 47 splits from US 8 to follow US 45 south . Immediately east of the same intersection , US 45 north follows US 8 for one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before splitting to the north . US 8 enters Forest County five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of Monico . Seven miles ( 11 km ) into the county , the highway merges with WIS 32 from the north in Crandon and the two highways head east to Laona where US 8 turns north and WIS 32 turns south . US 8 turns east again at Cavour and passes through the community of Armstrong Creek one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the Marinette County line . The highway passes through Goodman and Dunbar as it meanders through the county and joins US 141 at Pembine . The two routes split 10 miles ( 16 km ) further north near Niagara ; after the split , US 8 heads east . The highway takes a northward turn and heads across the Menominee River into Michigan near Pier 's Gorge Park .
Entering Michigan south of Norway at the Menominee River crossing in Norway Township , US 8 proceeds north into the city where it ends at US 2 . US 8 in Michigan is 2 @.@ 322 miles ( 3 @.@ 737 km ) long ; in this segment , the road passes by the Dickinson County fairgrounds and Norway Speedway .
= = History = =
= = = 20th century = = =
Starting in 1918 , the Wisconsin Highway Commission erected highway numbers along state @-@ maintained roadways . The highway across the state from St. Croix Falls to Armstrong Creek was numbered WIS 14 at that time . The remainder of what is now US 8 was unnumbered secondary highways , and WIS 14 continued north of Armstrong Creek to Florence . When Michigan numbered its highway system the following year , the future US 8 was not included in the system . In Minnesota , US 8 would follow what was Constitutional Route 46 , which was designated in a state constitutional amendment adopted on November 2 , 1920 ; that roadway originally ran between Forest Lake and Chisago City through Wyoming .
The first changes to the routings of the predecessor highways were made by Wisconsin by 1920 . A series of curves were added between Turtle Lake and Barron adding " stair steps " to the routing while similar jogs were removed near Cameron , Weyerhauser , Hawkins and Prentice . WIS 14 was rerouted between Rhinelander and Pelican Lake to run via Monico , and WIS 38 ( the future US 141 ) was extended northward from Wausaukee to terminate at the state line near Niagara . The realignment between Rhinelander and Pelican Lake was shown as reversed by 1922 . By 1925 , the highway in that area was again rerouted to run directly from Rhinelander to Monico , but instead of turning south to Pelican Lake , it was run directly to Crandon . That same year , WIS 14 was extended eastward from Armstrong Creek to Pembine and northward to Niagara . The north – south section , previously numbered WIS 38 , was also redesignated as part of WIS 57 .
US 8 was created with the beginnings of the United States Numbered Highway System on November 26 , 1926 . The highway was originally shown on maps running between Forest Lake , Minnesota and Powers , Michigan . At the time , its planned routing was not previously designated as part of the State Trunkline Highway System in Michigan . The trunkline connection from Quinnesec south into Wisconsin was part of M @-@ 57 , which met WIS 57 at the state line . US 8 ended at WIS 57 in Pembine at the time , with no connection into Michigan shown on official maps . A map by the American Automobile Association does show the highway continuing east through Faithorn and Hermansville in Michigan to end at US 2 . The Wisconsin Highway Commission previously indicated an unnumbered state highway on their 1925 state map that connected Pembine with the Menominee River near Hermansville . A later extension in 1927 moved US 8 to run along US 141 , which had replaced WIS 57 and M @-@ 57 , ending in Quinnesec at US 2 . By the next year , the highway was shifted to end in Norway , utilizing a separate crossing of the Menominee River to enter Michigan .
In 1931 , US 8 was extended south from Forest Lake into downtown Minneapolis . West of the Rhinelander area , US 8 and US 51 overlapped for about eight miles ( 13 km ) as US 8 jogged northward along US 51 . This concurrency was altered in 1934 , and two years later the short east – west section of US 8 / US 51 was removed when changes to US 51 's routing were finished in the area . A jog in the routing near Almena was removed in 1937 when Wisconsin rerouted the highway to a more direct alignment in the area .
The last segment of US 8 in Wisconsin was paved in 1937 between Cavour and Armstrong Creek ; the highway in Minnesota was paved in its entirety by 1940 . Near Hawkins , a pair of sharp curves near the Rusk – Price county line were removed as the State Highway Commission realigned the highway to follow a straighter course . The US 8 / US 51 concurrency was altered the next year to a shorter overlap running southward near Heafford Junction . The former routing of US 8 was redesignated County Trunk Highway K ( CTH @-@ K ) after it was transferred back to county control .
Starting around the year 1955 , US 8 was moved to a more direct routing between Forest Lake and Chisago City ; US 8 replaced MN 98 along Legislative Route 98 . The former routing between Wyoming and Chisago City along Constitutional Route 46 was then redesignated MN 98 until it was decommissioned in the late 1990s .
As late as 1959 , the Michigan Department of Transportation still had plans to build the section of US 8 west of Hermansville to the Menominee River . The control section atlas published on January 1 , 1959 , showed this segment of highway on the Menominee County map , complete with a control section number . The section of highway is shown as " proposed " or " under construction " . However , a new bridge was built over the Menominee River to carry the highway across the Michigan – Wisconsin state line near Norway in 1966 . WisDOT still shows the section of highway needed in their state to extend US 8 to the original eastern terminus in Michigan on internal maps . The December 31 , 2004 , edition of their Official State Trunk Highway System Maps shows this section as a " mapped corridor " .
In the late 1970s , with ongoing construction and completion of the I @-@ 35W freeway in Minnesota , US 8 was routed along I @-@ 35W ; US 8 was truncated again by 1981 to its current terminus in Forest Lake . The section in New Brighton is currently known as Old Highway 8 .
WisDOT built a bypass of the city of Rhinelander during the early 1990s ; the new highway was constructed south of town as a new two @-@ lane highway that opened to traffic by 1993 . The former route through downtown Rhinelander and near Clear and George lakes was redesignated as Business US 8 ( Bus . US 8 ) .
= = = 21st century = = =
In 2002 , US 8 was widened from two lanes to four lanes with a grass median between North Rifle Road and WIS 47 near Rhinelander , Wisconsin . At the time , officials with WisDOT had plans to extend the four @-@ lane divided highway as far west as US 51 near Tomahawk . Problems related to wetlands in the construction area and bad weather pushed completion of the project back almost a year . Contractors had to install metal sheeting to stabilize the marshy ground . Originally scheduled to end in late 2002 , the project did not finish until August 2003 . The delays and additional work increased the price tag of the project from the original $ 4 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 6 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) to $ 6 @.@ 0 million ( equivalent to $ 8 @.@ 4 million in 2015 ) . A section of the project was only designed for 45 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 72 km / h ) speeds for safety reasons . The design also allowed planners to limit the amount of land needed for the expansion .
Bill and Jerri Osberg sued the state and seven other parties in April 2003 over runoff from the construction , claiming that it killed hundreds of trees and polluted ponds on their property . Later investigation uncovered damage to wildlife habitat in the Wisconsin River . Included in the original lawsuit were six individual WisDOT employees , the primary contractor and a local pet supply company . The court of appeals partially upheld a ruling by the district court dismissing the employees and the contractor from the lawsuit in March 2006 . The pet supply company was reinstated in the case by the appeals court . The couple settled their claims , and the state pursued the matter against Pagel Construction in a related lawsuit . WisDOT alleged that the contractor did not follow proper erosion controls and failed to remediate the erosion damage to the Osbergs ' property . The state wanted the construction company to forfeit their $ 70 @,@ 000 retainer ( equivalent to $ 99 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) and pay damages of $ 150 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 174 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . Pagel Construction faulted WisDOT 's erosion control plan and said that the state 's engineers controlled the project and was seeking the return of its retainer . In September 2007 , a jury ruled in favor of Pagel Construction and awarded them $ 70 @,@ 898 @.@ 13 in damages ( equivalent to $ 82 @,@ 402 @.@ 99 in 2015 ) .
= = Future = =
WisDOT has completed the environmental studies on bypasses of Barron and Cameron in Barron County . These bypasses would form a continuous expressway through the area . No funding has been identified to complete the projects . The entire length of US 8 in the state has been classified as a North Country Corridor in the Connections 2030 Plan by the department . This designation marks the highway as a priority in " continued safety , enhanced mobility and efficiency " as well as " modernization to correct outdated infrastructure design " .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Business route = =
Business U.S. Highway 8 ( Bus . US 8 ) in Rhinelander , Wisconsin , was a locally maintained business loop highway routing through the central business district of the city . The route was designated when US 8 was shifted to a bypass of downtown in the 1990s . The former routing of US 8 through the area was turned over to the city and county for maintenance . The local authorities erected signs along this route to designate it as a business loop of the main highway south of town . The signs along the road were scheduled to be removed on July 1 , 2005 , when the business loop was to be redesignated CTH @-@ P.
Before the signage was removed , Bus . US 8 started at the western junction of US 8 and WIS 47 . The business loop ran east from this intersection along Kemp Street , crossing the Wisconsin River north of the convergence with the Pelican River . The loop jogged north along Oneida Street for 3 blocks and turned east again on Lincoln Street . East of town , Bus . US 8 intersected WIS 17 and turned to the southeast . Outside of town , the business loop ran through wooded terrain and turned south near Clear Lake . Near the larger George Lake , the roadway curved back east along the lake 's southern shore , running parallel to the main highway before turning south to connect to the main highway . At this intersection with US 8 / WIS 47 , the business loop ended after a total run of 7 @.@ 1 miles ( 11 @.@ 4 km ) .
= Salil Ankola =
Salil Ashok Ankola ( born 1 March 1968 , Solapur , Maharashtra ) is a former Indian international cricketer who played one Test match and 20 One Day Internationals ( ODIs ) from 1989 to 1997 for India . A right @-@ arm fast @-@ medium bowler , he played first @-@ class cricket for Maharashtra , regularly opening the bowling . Ankola 's consistent performances for Maharashtra earned him a call for representing India during their tour of Pakistan in 1989 – 90 . After the first Test match at Karachi , he was dropped for the subsequent matches in the series owing to injuries . After a brief phase of playing first @-@ class cricket , Ankola was called for the Indian ODI team during 1993 , eventually led to being a part of the 1996 Cricket World Cup . At age 28 , Ankola retired due to a sudden development of bone tumor in his left shin bone ( osteoid osteoma ) because of which he could not run for 2 years . Since then he went on to appear in a number of Indian soap operas and a few Hindi films .
= = Early life and first @-@ class career = =
Ankola was born into a konkani @-@ speaking Maharashtrian Brahmin family in 1968 . He made his first @-@ class debut at the age of 20 for Maharashtra in 1988 – 89 . Playing against Gujarat he scored 43 runs and took a six @-@ wicket haul ( six wickets in an innings ) that included a hat @-@ trick . He followed with another six @-@ wicket haul ; six wickets for 51 runs in an innings against Baroda . Overall , he collected 27 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 18 including three five wicket hauls during the season . Owing to the consistent performances during the season , Ankola caught the attention of the selectors , as he was selected for the India 's tour of Pakistan in 1989 – 90 . In a warm up match against BCCP Patron 's XI he took six wickets for 77 runs in the first innings and collecting two more wickets in the second innings , thus taking his tally to eight wickets .
= = Pakistan tour and aftermath = =
Ankola made his Test debut during the first test of the tour at Karachi , alongside Sachin Tendulkar and Waqar Younis , both would go on to become successful cricketers later in their careers . In a match that was drawn , Ankola took two wickets for 128 runs . Injuries sustained thereafter and prevented him from appearing in the remaining Tests of the series .
Soon after the Test series , that was drawn , Ankola was called for the ODI series . He made his ODI debut in the second of the three @-@ match series ; the first ODI was abandoned due to bad lights . Ankola picked up two wickets conceding 26 runs . He arrived at number 10 in the second innings at a stage where India needed 15 runs of one over . Ankola hit a six of the first ball that he faced off Imran Khan but eventually ended on the losing side . In the next match , he bowled just 2 @.@ 3 overs ( 15 balls ) before the match was called off due to crowd disruption . Despite being selected in the Test squads on domestic series and overseas tours , he never got an opportunity to play for the team . Being dropped from the team without getting a game was known in cricket circles as being " Ankolad " . However , Ankola continued to play ODI cricket . In the early 1990s , he along with other bowlers such as Abey Kuruvilla , Paras Mhambrey , Nilesh Kulkarni and Sairaj Bahutule was trained under Frank Tyson . Ankola mainly worked on altering his style rather than pace . During this period , Ankola married Parineeta ; the couple has two children — a daughter and a son . After a period of three years , Ankola was selected for the Charms Cup against England and Zimbabwe at home . In a match against South Africa during the Hero Cup ( 1993 ) , he captured three wickets for 33 runs , which remained his career @-@ best bowling figures in ODIs .
In 1996 , Ankola was selected in the Indian team for the World Cup . In the tournament he played just one match against Sri Lanka . In a match that India lost , he conceded 28 runs off five overs without claiming any wicket . Shortly after the World Cup , the selectors with immediate effect dropped Ankola along with Vinod Kambli and all @-@ rounder Manoj Prabhakar — all were a part of the squad earlier — for the Singer cup and Pepsi Sharjah Cup . Ankola was replaced by medium @-@ fast bowler Prashant Vaidya . However , Ankola was subsequently selected for the Indian team that toured South Africa in 1996 — 97 . Despite being a part of the squad , he was never given a chance to represent the playing XI in any of the Test matches . Following the Test series , he was picked up for the Standard Bank International ODI tournament ; he played five games in the tournament against South Africa and Zimbabwe . In the finals against South Africa that India lost , Ankola conceded 50 runs in seven overs in what became his last match ; the spell included a catch being taken off a no ball and a dropped chance . The tour remained his last in international cricket as he was never selected for the team again . Following that , Ankola declared his retirement from international cricket the same year .
= = Later years = =
After retiring from cricket , Ankola shifted his focus towards entering films . He made his cinematic debut through the 2000 Hindi film Kurukshetra , where he played the role of a cop accompanying his senior officer played by Sanjay Dutt . He followed that with Pitaah ( 2002 ) , and his last major release Chura Liyaa Hai Tumne ( 2003 ) featured him alongside Esha Deol and Zayed Khan . The following year he acted in Silence Please ... The Dressing Room , where he played the character of a cricket captain . The film did not fare well at the box @-@ office , nonetheless Ankola 's performance was highly appreciated . He also participated in the first season of Bigg Boss , Indian version of the reality show Big Brother in 2006 . Prior to that , he acted in the Indian soap opera titled Karam Apna Apna , where he signed a contract with Balaji Telefilms that " [ Ankola ] would not act in any television show on any channel apart from those produced by Balaji Films " . Since he appeared in Bigg Boss before the contract would expire — one year from June 2006 — the Bombay High Court ordered him not to act in any TV shows on other channels that are considered rivals for Sony Television . Ssshhhh ... Koi Hai and Kora Kagaz are some of the other soap operas that he has acted . In 2008 , it was reported that Ankola has been suffering from depression and was enrolled in a rehabilitation centre in Pune . The reason behind the illness was believed to be his severe addiction to alcohol . As a result of this his wife decided to settle with her parent in Pune with their children , leaving Ankola isolated .
After his recovery in January 2010 , Ankola sent a legal notice to his wife demanding mutual consent for separation . His wife responded that , " there was [ no ] problem or a marital breakdown ... wanted to work on a reconciliation , not divorce . " Ankola , when asked about reconciliation , said he was not willing to do so . The couple finally got divorced in 2011 . On 22 December 2013 , Parineeta 's body was found hanging from the ceiling fan of her room at her residence in Geeta Society , Salisbury Park , in Pune .
In March 2010 , his former team @-@ mates in order to support Ankola , organised a Twenty20 benefit match between Sachin Tendulkar XI and Sourav Ganguly XI at the Andheri Sports Complex , Mumbai . The squad included Ankola himself along with Mahendra Singh Dhoni , captain of the Indian national cricket team then . A writer noted that , " Salil Ankola is indeed fortunate . Not many players get to witness an unexpected visitor in the form of the current India captain turning up for his benefit match " .
In February 2013 , Salil was seen as Savitri 's father in the daily show Savitri but was replaced by Shahbaz Khan in August , 2013 after a revamp of the show . Rumors are that he will be seen in an episode of the popular Zee TV show , Fear Files .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
Kurukshetra ( 2000 )
Pitaah ( 2002 )
Chura Liyaa Hai Tumne ( 2003 )
Silence Please ... The Dressing Room ( 2004 )
Riwayat ( 2012 )
= = = Television = = =
Karam Apna Apna
C.I.D. : Special Bureau
Ssshhhh ... Koi Hai
Vikraal Aur Gabraal
Zindagi Teri Meri Kahani
Bigg Boss 1
Kehta Hai Dil
Ak ... tion Unlimited Josh
Kora Kagaz
Noorjahan ( TV Series )
Pyar Ka Bandhan
Savitri ( TV series )
Chahat Aur Nafrat ( TV series )
" Power Couples ( Contestant ) ( with second wife Ria ) "
Box Cricket League
= El Viaje Misterioso de Nuestro Jomer ( The Mysterious Voyage of Homer ) =
" El Viaje Misterioso de Nuestro Jomer ( The Mysterious Voyage of Homer ) " , ( Spanish pronunciation : [ el ˈbja.xe misteɾˈjoso de ˈnwes.tɾo ˈxomeɾ ] ) also known as The Mysterious Voyage of Our Homer , is the ninth episode of the eighth season of The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 5 , 1997 . In the episode , Homer eats several Guatemalan insanity peppers and hallucinates , causing him to go on a mysterious voyage . Following this , he questions his relationship with Marge and goes on a journey to find his soulmate .
" El Viaje Misterioso de Nuestro Jomer ( The Mysterious Voyage of Homer ) " was written by Ken Keeler and directed by Jim Reardon . The episode explores themes of marriage , community and alcohol use . Homer 's voyage features surreal animation to depict the elaborate hallucination . The episode guest stars Johnny Cash as the " Space Coyote " .
This episode was loosely adapted as the plot of the Simpsons level pack for the video game Lego Dimensions .
= = Plot = =
After a series of distractions from Marge , Homer suddenly smells out the annual chili cook @-@ off . Marge admits that she was trying to keep Homer from attending because of his drunken antics at the previous year 's event , when he jumped into a cotton candy machine , claiming he was a " puffy pink cloud " , so she allows Homer to go , on the condition that he does not drink any beer . At the cook @-@ off , Homer demonstrates an extraordinary ability to withstand hot foods , until he fails against Chief Wiggum 's chili which burns his tongue . Sobbing about his humiliation , he drinks several cups of water .
After nearly accidentally drinking melted candle wax , Homer decides to coat his mouth with wax , enabling him to eat several of the peppers . The peppers bring on a hallucination in which Homer is trapped in a bizarre fantasy world . He encounters a snake , a butterfly and a tortoise , and he accidentally destroys the sun . He finally arrives at a large Mayan pyramid and meets his spirit guide in the form of a coyote . The coyote advises Homer to find his soulmate , and questions Homer 's assumption that he has already found her in Marge . Meanwhile , Marge hears of Homer 's strange behavior and , believing he has broken his promise , drives home .
The next day , Homer regains his senses while lying in a golf course sand trap . He rationalizes his dream , comparing the desert he wandered in to the sand trap , the Mayan pyramid with a pro shop , and the talking coyote with a passing talking dog . After returning home , he finds Marge angry with him for his embarrassing behavior at the cook @-@ off . This leads to Homer making note of their fundamental personality differences , causing him to question if Marge is truly his soulmate , and he leaves . Filled with doubt , he searches elsewhere for a soulmate , yet fails in each instance .
Eventually he becomes convinced that a lighthouse keeper might be his soulmate , since they would both be theoretically lonely individuals ; instead he finds the lighthouse is operated by a machine , EARL ( Electronic Automatic Robotic Lighthouse ) . Seeing an approaching ship , Homer destroys the lighthouse 's light in hopes that it will cause the boat to come closer and the people inside will befriend him . An apologetic Marge arrives , having known exactly where Homer would go , and the pair realize that they really are soulmates . Marge quickly fixes the lighthouse so that the ship will not run into them , but it runs aground nearby , spilling its precious cargo of hot pants . The citizens of Springfield happily retrieve the pants while Marge and Homer embrace .
= = Production = =
The episode was pitched as early as the third season by George Meyer , who was interested in an episode based on the books of Carlos Castaneda . Meyer had wanted to have an episode featuring a mystical voyage that was not induced by drugs , and so he decided to use " really hot " chili peppers instead . The staff , except for Matt Groening , felt it was too odd for the show at that point . Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein resurrected the story , and decided to use it for season eight .
Most of the hallucination sequence was animated completely by David Silverman . Silverman did not want the risk of sending it to South Korea , as he wanted it to look exactly as he had imagined it , including rendered backgrounds to give a soft mystical feel to the scene . The coyote was intentionally drawn in a boxier way so that it looked " other @-@ worldly " and unlike the other characters . During Homer 's voyage , the clouds in one shot are live @-@ action footage , and 3D computer animation was used for the giant butterfly . During the same hallucination , Ned Flanders ' line was treated on a Mac computer so that it increased and decreased pitch . The Fox censors sent a note to the writers , questioning Homer coating his mouth with hot wax . The note read : " To discourage imitation by young and foolish viewers , when Homer begins to pour hot wax into his mouth , please have him scream in pain so kids will understand that doing this would actually burn their mouths . " The scream was not added ; however , they did add dialog from Ralph Wiggum , questioning Homer on his action . The director also created a " wax @-@ chart " for Homer for the animators to follow during the sequence when Homer 's mouth is coated with candle @-@ wax .
Homer waking up on a golf course was a reference to something that happened to a friend of the producers , who blacked out , waking up on a golf course in a different town and state . He had to buy a map from 7 @-@ Eleven in order to find out where he was . He then had to walk several miles in order to get back to his friend 's house , which was the last place he remembered being the night before .
= = = Casting = = =
Johnny Cash and Bob Dylan were the writers ' top two choices to play the coyote ; the writers had wanted to use one of The Highwaymen as the voice of the spirit guide . Bob Dylan had turned the show down many times , having previously been offered a role in season seven 's " Homerpalooza " . Johnny Cash was offered the role , which he accepted . Matt Groening described Cash 's appearance as " one of the greatest coups the show has ever had . "
= = Cultural references = =
The main plot of the episode is based on the works of Carlos Castaneda , with some of the Native American imagery being similar to that used in the film Dances with Wolves . The lighthouse keeper actually being a computer is a reference to the episode of The Twilight Zone " The Old Man in the Cave " , in which a man in a cave turns out to be a computer . The main theme from The Good , the Bad and the Ugly is used during the scenes when Homer walks into the chili festival , and the song " At Seventeen " by Janis Ian plays in the background as Homer walks through the town of Springfield looking for his soul @-@ mate after he wakes up from his vision . The scene at the end of Homer 's hallucination , when the train is heading towards him , is a reference to the opening titles of Soul Train . Homer 's record collection features albums by Jim Nabors , Glen Campbell and The Doodletown Pipers .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " El Viaje Misterioso de Nuestro Jomer ( The Mysterious Voyage of Homer ) " finished 34th in ratings for the week of December 30 , 1996 - January 5 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 0 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 7 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Millennium .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said : " Homer 's chili @-@ induced trip is brilliant , complete with the surreal tortoise and Indian spirit guide . " The episode was placed eighth on AskMen.com 's " Top 10 : Simpsons Episodes " list , and in his book Planet Simpson , Chris Turner named the episode as being one of his five favorites , although he found the ending too sentimental . In 2011 , Keith Plocek of LA Weekly 's Squid Ink blog listed " El Viaje Misterioso de Nuestro Jomer " as the best episode of the show with a food theme . IGN ranked Johnny Cash 's performance as the 14th @-@ best guest appearance in the show 's history , while Cash also appeared on AOL 's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars , and on The Times ' Simon Crerar 's list of the 33 funniest cameos in the history of the show . Andrew Martin of Prefix Mag named Johnny Cash his third @-@ favorite musical guest on The Simpsons out of a list of ten . Fred Topel of Crave Online named it the best episode of the entire series .
= Italian cruiser Folgore =
Folgore was a torpedo cruiser built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) , the lead ship of the Folgore class . Armed with three 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes and six light guns , she was capable of a top speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . She was built in the mid @-@ 1880s , was launched in September 1886 , and was completed in February 1887 . The ship spent her first two years in service either conducting training maneuvers with the main Italian fleet or in reserve status . She was badly damaged in a collision with the cruiser Giovanni Bausan in 1889 , which reduced her effectiveness and cut her career short . Folgore spent the next eleven years primarily in the reserve , until she was sold for scrap in April 1901 and broken up .
= = Design = =
Folgore was 56 @.@ 7 meters ( 186 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 6 @.@ 31 m ( 20 @.@ 7 ft ) and an average draft of 2 @.@ 15 m ( 7 ft 1 in ) . She displaced 364 metric tons ( 358 long tons ; 401 short tons ) normally . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal double @-@ expansion steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . Folgore could steam at a speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) from 2 @,@ 150 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 600 kW ) . She had a crew of between 57 – 70 .
The primary armament for Folgore was three 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes . She was also equipped with two 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) / 43 guns and four 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 25 guns , all mounted singly . The ship carried no armor protection .
= = Service history = =
Folgore was built at the Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia ( Royal Dockyard in Castellammare di Stabia ) . She was launched on 29 September 1886 and was completed on 16 February 1887 . On 10 June , the annual fleet maneuvers began ; Folgore was assigned to the " defending squadron " , along with the ironclads Enrico Dandolo , Palestro , Castelfidardo , and Affondatore , the protected cruiser Dogali , and several smaller vessels . The first half of the maneuvers tested the ability to attack and defend the Strait of Messina , and concluded in time for a fleet review by King Umberto I on the 21st . The second phase consisted of joint maneuvers with the Italian Army ; Folgore and the torpedo cruiser Tripoli were tasked with blockading Livorno . The exercises lasted until 30 July .
The following year , she took part in the annual fleet maneuvers , along with five ironclads , a protected cruiser , the torpedo cruisers Tripoli , Goito , and Saetta , and numerous smaller vessels . The maneuvers consisted of close @-@ order drills and a simulated attack on and defense of La Spezia . Later that year , the ship was present during a naval review held for the German Kaiser Wilhelm II during a visit to Italy . The ship 's career was cut short on 5 July 1889 , when she collided with the protected cruiser Giovanni Bausan while the two ships were steaming off Capri . Folgore was badly damaged , and she could not be restored to her original capabilities . She was accordingly laid up .
Folgore was briefly recommissioned to take part in the annual fleet maneuvers in 1894 , along with her sister ship Saetta . After two months in service , both vessels returned to the reserve . As of 1895 , she was located in La Spezia , along with Saetta . That year , unrest in the Ottoman Empire that killed hundreds of foreign nationals prompted several of the European great powers to send an international fleet to pressure the Ottomans into compensating the victims . In November , a small Italian squadron was sent to Smyrna to join the fleet in there ; Folgore was mobilized as part of a larger force in Naples that consisted of the ironclads Francesco Morosini , Lepanto , and Ruggiero di Lauria , the protected cruiser Elba , the torpedo cruiser Calatafimi , and five torpedo boats . This second squadron was stocked with coal and ammunition in the event that it would need to reinforce the squadron at Smryna . She remained in reserve until 12 April 1900 , when the Regia Marina sold the ship for scrap . Folgore was thereafter broken up .
= Dreaming of You ( album ) =
Dreaming of You is the fifth and final studio album by American singer Selena . Released posthumously on July 18 , 1995 by EMI Latin and EMI Records , it was an immediate commercial and critical success , debuting atop the United States Billboard 200 — the first predominately Spanish @-@ language album to do so . It sold 175 @,@ 000 copies on its first day of release in the U.S. — a then @-@ record for a female vocalist . With first week sales of 331 @,@ 000 units , it became the second @-@ highest first @-@ week sales for a female musician since Nielsen Soundscan began monitoring album sales in 1991 . Billboard magazine declared it a " historic " event , while Time said the recording elevated Selena 's music to a wider audience . It won Album of the Year at the 1996 Tejano Music Awards and Female Pop Album of the Year at the 2nd annual Billboard Latin Music Awards .
After signing a recording contract with EMI Latin in 1989 , the label denied Selena a requested crossover after she made three demonstration recordings . After her Grammy Award nomination for Live ( 1993 ) was announced , Selena signed with SBK Records to begin recording her crossover album , which was front @-@ page news in Billboard magazine . In March 1994 , she released Amor Prohibido ; in interviews she said her English @-@ language album was still being developed . Recording sessions for Dreaming of You began in December 1994 ; Selena recorded four tracks slated for the album . On March 31 , 1995 , she was shot dead by Yolanda Saldívar , her friend and former manager of her Selena Etc. boutiques over a dispute about claims of embezzlement .
The album contains some previously released material , as well as some unreleased English and Spanish @-@ language tracks that were recorded between 1992 and 1995 . The tracks are a mixture of American pop and Latin music , with the first half of Dreaming of You containing R & B and pop ballads , while the latter half profiles Selena 's Latin @-@ themed repertoire . Six tracks from the album were released as singles . The first four singles , " I Could Fall in Love " , " Tú Sólo Tú " , " Techno Cumbia " , and " Dreaming of You " , charted within the top ten on the U.S. charts . The title track became Selena 's highest @-@ charting Billboard Hot 100 single of her career , peaking at number twenty @-@ two and was named the eighty @-@ eight Hot 100 single of all @-@ time .
Dreaming of You was among the top ten best @-@ selling debuts for a musician , best @-@ selling debut by a female act , and the fastest @-@ selling U.S. album of 1995 . It has since been ranked among the best and most important recordings produced during the rock and roll era . Media outlets have since ranked the recording among the best posthumous releases . When Dreaming of You peaked at number one , Tejano music entered the mainstream market . Music critics said the general population of the U.S. would not have known about Tejano or Latin music had it not been for Dreaming of You . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the album 35 × platinum ( Latin field ) , for shipping 3 @.@ 5 million units in the U.S. The album was eventually certified gold by Music Canada and by Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) . As of January 2015 , the album has sold five million copies worldwide , and remains the best @-@ selling Latin album of all @-@ time in the U.S.
= = Background = =
In the 1960s , Selena 's father Abraham Quintanilla , Jr. became the third vocalist of Los Dinos , a group composed of Mexican Americans . The band began their careers playing English @-@ language doo @-@ wop music . White Americans were offended that a Mexican American band was singing " their type of music " . After a crowd of Mexican @-@ Americans ran Los Dinos out of a nightclub for singing English @-@ language songs , the band decided to perform music of their heritage . Los Dinos found success recording and performing Spanish @-@ language songs and their popularity grew . Quintanilla , Jr. left the band in the 1970s after fathering his third child , Selena . After discovering Selena could sing , he quickly organized his children into a band called Selena y Los Dinos . Despite wanting to record English @-@ language songs , the band recorded Tejano music compositions ; a male @-@ dominated , Spanish @-@ language genre with German influences of polka , jazz , and country music that was popular with Mexicans living in the United States . The band was often turned down by Texas music venues because of the members ' ages and because Selena was the lead singer .
Rick Trevino , founder of the Tejano Music Awards , originally approached La Sombra as the opening act for the 1989 awards ceremony , following Selena y Los Dinos . The band 's lead vocalist Frank Sunie declined the offer , telling Trevino he " doesn 't open up for anybody " . Trevino then called Quintanilla , Jr. to ask him to open the ceremony . Quintanilla , Jr. immediately accepted the offer , saying it was " the best time , because everyone is sober . They 're sober they 're listening to the artist and the music . " Unbeknown to Quintanilla , Jr and Selena , the new head of Sony Music Latin and José Behar , who had recently launched EMI Latin Records , were attending the awards ceremony and were scouting for new Latin acts . Behar wanted to sign Selena to EMI 's label Capitol Records , while Sony Music Latin was offering Quintanilla , Jr. twice Capitol 's sum . Behar thought he had discovered the next Gloria Estefan , but his superior called Behar illogical since he had only been in Texas for a week . Quintanilla , Jr. chose EMI Latin 's offer because of the potential for a crossover , and he wanted his children to be the first musicians to sign with the company .
Before Selena signed her contract with EMI Latin in 1989 , Behar and Stephen Finfer requested Selena for an English @-@ language debut album . She was asked to make three demonstration recordings for Charles Koppelman , chairman of EMI Records . After reviewing them , Koppelman declined a crossover attempt , believing Selena should first strengthen her fan base . In a 2007 interview , Behar spoke about the difficulty of recording Selena 's English @-@ language debut . He said EMI " had let all of us to believe that she would record in English , and it just wasn 't materializing for whatever reason " . Behar said the record company " didn 't believe , they didn 't think it could happen " , and continuously told Selena and her father " it wasn 't the right time " for an English @-@ language debut .
Selena signed a record deal with EMI subsidiary SBK Records in November 1993 , following her Grammy Award nomination for Live ( 1993 ) . The news of the singer 's record deal was front @-@ page news in Billboard magazine . In a 1994 meeting , Selena expressed her guilt to Behar ; Selena had told interviewers of her upcoming crossover album and told them the recording was expected to be release soon . At the time , Selena had not recorded a single song for her planned English @-@ language debut . Behar subsequently told Koppelman that Selena and her band would leave EMI and find a record company willing to record an English @-@ language album for Selena . Behar had lied to the chairman to force the crossover album to begin ; EMI relented and the recording sessions began . Selena said she felt intimidated by the recording deal because the situation was new to her and only a few people had believed she would achieve success in the pop market .
= = Recording and production = =
According to Betty Cortina of People magazine , Dreaming of You marked a shift that abrogated the singer being marketed as part of her band and billed Selena as an American solo artist in " the most fundamental way for her " . From 1989 , Selena 's brother A.B. Quintanilla became Selena 's principal music producer and songwriter , and remained so throughout her career . Because Quintanilla III was working on the singer 's follow @-@ up recording to Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) , he could not produce the crossover album . He was asked to meet with several producers in New York and choose one who would best " fit with Selena 's style " . Dreaming of You was the first album Selena 's family did not produce . They had decided to step down before the recording sessions and allow professional pop producers to work with her . Quintanilla III and Selena flew to Nashville , Tennessee , and met with Keith Thomas , who had prepared the instrumental parts for the song called " I Could Fall in Love " but had not yet completed the vocal parts , so he sang it for them . Selena and Quintanilla III immediately liked it ; Quintanilla III said he wanted Selena to include it on her album . Recording sessions began in December 1994 at The Bennett House in Franklin , Tennessee ; Selena had to return later when Thomas could provide additional vocals . Selena and her husband Chris Pérez arrived at the studio on March 24 , 1995 to finish recording the song . In a 2002 interview , Pérez said Thomas provided Selena with a cassette of " I Could Fall in Love " and said she had the song " on loop " and she " must have heard it
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illa , Jr. decided to release the demo version of the song after fans began requesting for it to be heard .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Dreaming of You is a multigenre work of American pop and Latin music . It incorporates the diverse stylistic influences of techno , hip @-@ hop , pop rock , dance @-@ pop , regional Mexican music , Tejano , R & B , disco , and flamenco music . The first half of the album comprises R & B and pop ballads , while the remainder contains Latin @-@ themed influences that profile Selena 's music career . Music journalists said producers who worked with Selena tried to caricature her with Paula Abdul , Amy Grant , Celine Dion , Whitney Houston , Mariah Carey , and Madonna . Newsweek magazine called Selena 's English @-@ language recordings " a blend of urban pop and Latin warmth " . According to Allmusic 's Stephen Erlewine , the album 's mood is spicy , celebratory , and exuberant . " I Could Fall in Love " and " Dreaming of You " are lyrically identical ; called " confessional ballads " , both recordings speak of despair , heartbreak , and fear of rejection from a man the songs ' narrators are falling in love with . The lyrics of " Dreaming of You " also explore feelings of longing and hope . Larry Flick of Billboard magazine wrote that " Dreaming of You " ' s idealistic lyrics have an " affecting poignancy that will not be lost on AC [ radio ] . "
" God 's Child ( Baila Conmigo ) " employs an off @-@ beat rhythm that is energetic , dark , mysterious , and its lyrics suggest subterfuge and counter @-@ hegemony . The song has elements of rumba , flamenco , rock , R & B , and Middle Eastern music . " Captive Heart " has 1980s funk ; Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune said it was intended for contemporary hit radio . The disco house track " I 'm Getting Used to You " , which makes use of cha @-@ cha , explores a volatile relationship . Mario Tarradell of The New London Day said " Captive Heart " and " I 'm Getting Used to You " border on new jack swing — a popular R & B subgenre pioneered by Jade and Mary J. Blige . The producers of the soundtrack of the 1995 romantic comedy @-@ drama film Don Juan DeMarco — in which Selena played a mariachi singer — decided not to include her recordings of " Tú Sólo Tú " and " El Toro Relajo " . Christopher John Farley of Time magazine said the producers who excluded the songs regretted this move following the impact of Selena 's death . According to Denise Segura and Patricia Zavella in their book Women and Migration in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands : A Reader ( 2007 ) , " Tú Sólo Tú " — a Pedro Infante cover — and " El Toro Relajo " are about unrequited love and were recorded in a ranchera @-@ style . Selena recorded " Tú Sólo Tú " con ganas — a Spanish @-@ language aphorism that translates to a performer singing with " unapologetic emotionality " ; common among ranchera singers .
EMI Records , which wanted the 1992 track " Missing My Baby " and the 1994 single " Techno Cumbia " to be added to Dreaming of You , asked Quintanilla III to meet with R & B group Full Force in Manhattan . The group remixed both songs , added vocals to " Missing My Baby " , and remixed the latter in a reggae style . Quintanilla , Jr. decided to add " Como la Flor " ( 1992 ) , " Amor Prohibido " ( 1994 ) , and " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " ( 1994 ) to Dreaming of You . He pitched the idea of remixing the songs as though the band was singing them in concert , changing their beats a little . Quintanilla III said the new versions of the tracks gave fans " something fresh " and that he thought the idea was " neat " . " Como la Flor " , credited as a career @-@ launching single , expresses the sorrow of a woman whose lover has abandoned her for another partner while she wishes " nothing but the best " for him . " Amor Prohibido " is a Romeo & Juliet @-@ esque Spanish @-@ language dance @-@ pop track . " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , remixed into a reggae track , speaks of the narrator 's heart palpitating whenever her love interest walks past her . The Barrio Boyzz was asked to record a bilingual version of their Spanish @-@ language duet with Selena on " Donde Quiera Que Estés " ( 1994 ) called " Wherever You Are " .
= = Singles = =
Davitt Sigerson , the president and CEO of EMI records , feared " I Could Fall in Love " might sell more copies than Dreaming of You , so he did not issue the single as a commercial release . " I Could Fall in Love " was released promotionally to U.S. radio stations on June 26 , 1995 , at the same time as " Tú Sólo Tú " to demonstrate Selena 's change from recording in Spanish to English . Fred Bronson of Billboard magazine said if EMI Latin had released " I Could Fall in Love " as a single and it had debuted in the top 40 of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart , it would have been the first posthumous debut single to do so since " Pledging My Love " by Johnny Ace in 1955 . " I Could Fall in Love " peaked at number eight on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart , and at number one on the U.S. Latin Pop Songs chart . " Tú Sólo Tú " and " I Could Fall in Love " occupied the first and second positions respectively on U.S. Hot Latin Tracks for five consecutive weeks . Selena thus became the first artist to have both a Spanish @-@ language and an English @-@ language song in the top ten of that chart . " I Could Fall in Love " became the fifth @-@ highest @-@ charting song on that chart in 1995 and remained the highest @-@ charting English @-@ language song for two years , until Celine Dion 's 1998 single " My Heart Will Go On " exceeded it when it peaked at number one . " Tú Sólo Tú " spent ten consecutive weeks at number one on the Hot Latin Tracks , becoming the most longevous number @-@ one single of Selena 's musical career . With " Tú Sólo Tú " and her other chart @-@ topping singles from 1992 to her death in 1995 , Selena 's recordings spent 44 weeks at number one ; the most for any Hispanic artist as of 2011 .
On August 14 , 1995 , " Dreaming of You " was released as the album 's lead single , with the remix version and a radio edit of " Techno Cumbia " as the b @-@ side tracks . The single peaked at number twenty @-@ two on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart and sold 25 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of availability ; by 2010 it had sold 284 @,@ 000 digital units . " Dreaming of You " was the best @-@ selling single of Selena 's career ; in 2003 it was the eighty @-@ eighth best @-@ selling Hot 100 single of all @-@ time , according to Billboard and Nielsen SoundScan . The Los Angeles Times placed " Dreaming of You " at number five out of its top @-@ ten singles of 1995 . " Techno Cumbia " peaked at number four on the U.S. Hot Latin Tracks and the U.S. Regional Mexican Songs charts . On December 2 , 1995 , " El Toro Relajo " debuted and peaked at number twenty @-@ four on the U.S. Hot Latin Tracks . " I 'm Getting Used to You " , the second commercially released single and the sixth single overall , was released on March 2 , 1996 . It debuted and peaked at number seven on the U.S. Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and at number one on the U.S. Billboard Dance / Electronic Singles Sales chart . " I 'm Getting Used to You " later peaked at number twenty @-@ three on the U.S. Billboard Adult Contemporary Tracks chart on the week ending June 8 , 1996 . The Billboard critics poll ranked the remix version of " I 'm Getting Used to You " among their top ten singles of 1996 .
" I Could Fall in Love " , " Dreaming of You " , and " I 'm Getting Used to You " were less commercially successful outside the United States and Canada . " I Could Fall in Love " peaked at number one on the RPM Adult Contemporary Songs chart on the week ending November 6 , 1996 . " I Could Fall in Love " peaked at number five on the RPM Top 100 Singles chart . It was the only single by Selena to chart on the New Zealand Singles Chart , peaking at number ten . In 1996 , " Dreaming of You " performed better in Canada on the RPM Adult Contemporary and the Top 100 Singles chart , peaking at numbers seven and thirty , respectively . " I 'm Getting Used to You " debuted at number ninety @-@ six on the RPM Top 100 Singles chart on the week ending June 10 , 1996 , and became the third single by Selena to chart in Canada . After five weeks on the chart , " I 'm Getting Used to You " peaked at number sixty @-@ five . At number ninety @-@ three , " I 'm Getting Used to You " , exited the Top 100 Singles chart after spending nine weeks on it .
= = Critical reception = =
The majority of contemporary reviews were positive . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said Dreaming of You was the first recording by Selena to have been heard by the general population of the United States because her death attracted American listeners to her album . This was echoed by Alisa Valdes of the Boston Globe . Erlewine said Amor Prohibido is " a more consistent release " and that Dreaming of You was not the singer 's best work , and he called it an introductory effort . According to Erlewine , the English @-@ language tracks on the album " are no different than her Spanish songs " ; he also said the album " would have been stronger " if the singer had lived . He finished his review by calling the album a " powerful — and touching — testament to her talents " . John Lannert of Billboard magazine called the album 's commercial success " hardly a fluke " . Vibe magazine contributor Ed Morales , described the album as a summation of her cumbia @-@ influenced songs , her Tex @-@ Mex ( Texas @-@ Mexico ) " excellence " , and a " poignant glimpse " of the path the singer 's musical career may have taken had she lived . Writing for Time magazine , David Browne said Dreaming of You 's release was " one of the quickest posthumous albums ever cobbled together " . He said the producers who worked with Selena on the album had decisively paired her with recordings that reminded him of lighter versions of Paula Abdul and called them " greeting @-@ card sentiments " . He recognized the later half of Dreaming of You as " the true , unbridled Selena " , calling them " traditional ballads or tropical fantasies , Selena evokes lust and passion " ; illustrating that those qualities found on her English @-@ language songs are absent from the Spanish @-@ language ones .
Writing for the Chicago Tribune , Achy Obejas called the recording a fragmentary work and said it is " Selena 's past and about what might have been " . Obejas called the record " full of promise and flaws " , and said its intentional bilingual nature was done by " necessity rather than design " . She also said the album is a Latino crossover nix , citing Gloria Estefan 's earlier mainstream work as the primitive Latino crossover ; although Selena " didn 't get to take the next step " as did Estefan . Objeas also wrote that the album is the opposite of a " masterpiece , or definitive , or even a testament to Selena 's talents " , but is more of a " smorgasbord " . Objeas praised Selena 's " complete ease on the R & B tunes " and thought she was " getting funky and pretty soulful " . Enrique Lopetegui of The Los Angeles Times said Dreaming of You is Selena 's " most electric and satisfying album " , and said it was an applicable " epitaph " for her . Lopetegui called the songs on the album " radio @-@ friendly pop tunes " but said the album " lacks cohesion " and that he finds the bilingual album " even more interesting than the original idea " . According to Lopetegui , Selena " blossoms into a full @-@ fledged soul singer , with an aggressiveness seldom show before " on her English @-@ language tracks but finds the rancheras " Tú Sólo Tú " and " El Toro Relajo " the " most impressive " and saying Selena was inexperienced with that style . Christopher John Farley of Time magazine said Dreaming of You elevated Selena 's music " to a far wider audience than she ever had when she was alive " . He said the album incorporates her " finest , most enjoyable work " and called it " a commendable but sorrowful accomplishment " . Contrasting her Tejano and English @-@ language songs , Farley wrote that Selena 's Tejano recordings was sometimes clumsy , whereas her English pop songs were " sweet , pure and clear , and on the mariachi numbers , Selena shows off a voice that is sexy , strong and gracefully maturing " .
Writing for the New York Daily News , Mary Talbot said listening to Dreaming of You was " akin to sifting through a dead woman 's scrapbook " and called it " disparate jottings and snapshots some artful , some light , all weighted with nostalgia " . Talbot said the album showcases " Selena 's past and outlines what could have been her future " , and because of the singer 's death , the story is incomplete . She called the English offerings " sturdy , generic pop numbers " that would be favored among her Tejano following " but there aren 't enough of them to prove her strength or breadth as an English @-@ language artist " . Talbot said Selena was skillful in crisscrossing " traditional Mexican music with a contemporary American pop sensibility , and that skill doesn 't figure with these songs " . Towards the end of her review , Talbot said Dreaming of You is " the effervescent pop of her generation " . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News said the album " doesn 't deliver " , writing that Selena was " revamped to sound like one of pop radio 's many generic female vocalist " and that her English recordings lack " the bubbly , effervescent personality , the chica @-@ del @-@ barrio charm " found on her Tejano songs . Tarradell said the English songs were " tepid imitations of Amy Grant and Abdul " . Peter Watrous of The New York Times called Dreaming of You " a collection of leftovers " and said the Spanish @-@ language songs " sound better " than Selena 's English ones . Watrous said the producers did not ameliorate Selena 's English @-@ language tracks and gave their all . He further wrote that " the music is faceless commerce " but that Selena recorded them " so well on the album " that it suggested " she had a good chance of success , working lush ballads in an anonymous pop style that Disney has mastered " . Rock music contributor Roger Catlin of the Hartford Courant described Dreaming of You as " a package that hints at the overall talent and immense potential of the young star " . Catlin said her English @-@ language works were lacking " technical heroics that have defined [ Selena ] in the ' 90s . " but states the singer " is understandably assured " on her Spanish offerings . He said Selena was " low key " and that the material seemed that way because she had only recorded four English @-@ language tracks before her death .
= = = Accolades = = =
Dreaming of You was listed as the ninth " Top 10 Posthumous Albums " by Time magazine in 2010 . It was named as the third @-@ best posthumous album of all @-@ time by BET , which called the recording a " heartbreaking testament to a young talent on the verge of superstardom " . Vibe magazine ranked Dreaming of You the second @-@ best posthumous release and described it as an " overview " . Dreaming of You won Album of the Year at the 1996 Tejano Music Awards . At the 2nd Annual Billboard Latin Music Awards in 1996 , Dreaming of You won Female Pop Album of the Year .
= = Release and commercial performance = =
Dreaming of You 's U.S. release date was confirmed on June 10 , 1995 to be July 18 that year . The album 's release in European and Asian countries was delayed when EMI Records feared Selena 's murder — rather than her music — would become the focal point of the recording . Adam Sexton , Vice @-@ president of EMI Records , announced on August 5 , 1995 that the album would be released in Germany on August 14 and in the rest of Europe in September . The album 's release in Asia was set for October . Fans began lining up to purchase Dreaming of You hours before stores were due to open ; within twenty @-@ four hours 75 % of all available copies of the album were sold . Although initial predictions placed Dreaming of You ' first sales at 400 @,@ 000 copies , the album sold 331 @,@ 000 units its first week and debuted atop the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , becoming the first and only predominately Spanish @-@ language album to do so . This was the second @-@ biggest release sales for a 1995 album , behind Michael Jackson 's HIStory , and the second @-@ largest first @-@ week sales for a female musician , behind Janet Jackson 's janet . ( 1993 ) since Nielsen Soundscan began monitoring album sales in 1991 . Dreaming of You displaced Hootie & the Blowfish 's Cracked Rear View from the top spot on the Billboard 200 . The recording debuted atop the U.S. Billboard Top Latin Albums and the U.S. Billboard Latin Pop Albums charts , displacing Selena 's 1994 album Amor Prohibido and the Gipsy Kings ' Best of ' album , respectively .
In its second week , Dreaming of You fell to number three on the Billboard 200 chart , and remained there for two consecutive weeks . Sales of Dreaming of You continued to decrease , falling to number six in its fourth week . In its fifth week , Dreaming of You dropped to number eight . Starting in its sixth week , the album remained in the top twenty of the Billboard 200 chart . On the week ending October 28 , 1995 , sales of Dreaming of You rose 18 % after an eighteen @-@ week decline . This was followed by the highly publicized murder trial . The album remained on the Billboard 200 chart for forty @-@ four consecutive weeks , exiting the chart at number 181 on the week ending June 1 , 1996 . Lannert predicted Dreaming of You would remain atop the Latin music charts until Selena 's next posthumous release . It remained at number one for forty @-@ two consecutive weeks until Enrique Iglesias displaced it with his self @-@ titled debut album on the week ending May 25 , 1996 . Dreaming of You went on to become the best @-@ selling Latin and Latin pop album of 1995 and 1996 .
The recording finished as the forty @-@ fourth album of the Billboard 200 of 1995 and finished at number 123 on the Billboard 200 albums of 1996 . Two years after Selena 's murder , Dreaming of You and Siempre Selena ( 1996 ) occupied the third and fourth slots respectively on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart . Dreaming of You sold 420 @,@ 500 copies between 1997 and 1999 , and sold 190 @,@ 000 units in 1997 alone . The biopic Selena ( 1997 ) contributed to a 65 % increase of sales for Dreaming of You for that year . Dreaming of You sold half a million copies in Texas . Some Texas retailers criticized sale figures for the state because the album had sold poorly at their music stores . By December 1995 , Dreaming of You had sold two million copies in the U.S. and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying shipments of two million copies . Within ten months of its release , the album was nearing triple @-@ platinum status ; it was eventually certified 35 × platinum ( Latin field ) by the RIAA , denoting shipment of 3 @.@ 5 million units . It remains the best @-@ selling Latin album of all @-@ time in the U.S. with five million copies sold worldwide as of January 2015 . A percentage of the proceeds from the album 's sales was donated to the Selena Scholarship Fund .
= = = Outside the U.S. = = =
In Canada , Dreaming of You debuted at number 59 on the RPM Top 100 Albums chart for the week of September 4 , 1995 . In its second week , it rose to number 50 on the week of September 11 , 1995 . On its ninth week , Dreaming of You peaked at number seventeen on the week of October 30 , 1995 . After spending twenty @-@ nine weeks on the chart , Dreaming of You spent its final week at number 97 on the week of March 25 , 1996 . The album was certified gold by Music Canada , denoting shipments of 50 @,@ 000 units in that country alone . In Dreaming of You 's first week of release to music stores in Mexico , EMI shipped 140 @,@ 000 units there and received re @-@ orders from Monterrey , Guadalajara , and Tijuana .
= = Cultural impact = =
Dreaming of You sold 175 @,@ 000 copies on its first day of release in the U.S. — a then @-@ record for a female vocalist . The recording also had the highest release @-@ day sales of any Spanish @-@ language album to debut on Billboard 's Top Latin Albums chart . According to Behar , the sales figures Nielsen SoundScan provided did not include sales in small shops specializing in Latin music , where Dreaming of You scored well . The album 's sales helped Selena to become the third solo artist to debut a posthumous album at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , behind Janis Joplin and Jim Croce . It became the first and only Spanish @-@ language and Tejano recording to debut at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , and the first EMI Latin release to do so .
According to John Lannert of Billboard magazine , Dreaming of You was among the top ten best @-@ selling debuts for a musician , best @-@ selling debut by a female act , and according to Thom Duffy also from Billboard magazine , it was the fastest @-@ selling U.S. 1995 album . It helped Selena to become the fastest @-@ selling female act in recorded music history , and has since been ranked among the best and important recordings produced during the rock and roll era . Dreaming of You joined five of Selena 's studio albums on the Billboard 200 chart simultaneously , making Selena the first female act in Billboard history to accomplish this . The album was included on Michael Heatley 's list titled Where Were You When the Music Played ? : 120 Unforgettable Moments in Music History ( 2008 ) . Musicologist Howard J. Blumenthal said it " would have made [ Selena ] a major rock star " , and included it in his 1997 book The World Music CD Listener 's Guide .
Billboard magazine said Dreaming of You was predominantly purchased by Latinos in the U.S. ; demonstrating the purchasing power of Hispanic music consumers . The album was believed to have " open the eyes " of retailers who never stocked Latin music ; its sales were well above expectations of white , American music shop owners . Sales of Selena 's earlier albums and Dreaming of You prompted Best Buy and other retailers to hire Latin music specialists . Within weeks , the album was predicted to outsell Julio Iglesias ' 1100 Bel Air Place ( 1984 ) , as the largest @-@ selling English @-@ language Latin album . EMI Records announced in the December 2 , 1995 issue of Billboard magazine that as EMI 's best @-@ selling record in North America , the album gave them the highest sales for a music label during the first half of 1995 . With Dreaming of You peaking at number one , Tejano music entered the mainstream market . Music critics said the general population of the U.S. would not have known about Tejano or Latin music had it not been for Dreaming of You . Following the album 's release , and because of the singer 's death , Tejano music 's popularity waned as Latin pop began dominating U.S. radio play and commercial sales . In March 2015 , the Chicano Humanities & Arts Council in Denver , Colorado , showcased an exhibit called " Dreaming of You : The Selena Art Show " , which prominently featured artwork by Chicano artists who paid homage to the singer .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are taken from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= Vedaranyam March =
The Vedaranyam March or Vedaranyam Satyagraha was organised to protest the salt tax imposed by the British Raj in India . The march took place in April 1930 and was the second of its kind following the Dandi March organised by Mahatma Gandhi , both in the framework of the Civil Disobedience Movement .
The march was led by a group of 100 volunteers from the Indian National Congress ( INC ) under the leadership of C. Rajagopalachari — often referred to as " Rajaji " . It began at Trichinopoly ( now Tiruchirappalli ) and ended in Vedaranyam , a small coastal town in Tanjore District . By collecting salt directly from the sea , the marchers broke the salt law . Rajaji spoke to people along the march 's route about the importance of Khādī , issues of ' social disabilities ' ( cast discrimination ) and civil disobedience . The campaign ended on 28 April 1930 when the participants were arrested , following which Rajaji was imprisoned for six months .
= = Background = =
In response to a nationwide protest against the British salt tax , Gandhi initiated a salt march on 6 April 1930 to Dandi — then a small village in the Bombay Presidency on the western coast of India . Rajaji , a close associate of Gandhi who also participated in the Dandi march , organised a march to India 's east coast to make salt at Vedaranyam , Tanjore District in Madras Presidency . He chose Vedaranyam instead of Tuticorin , a larger salt @-@ making centre , because the former had convenient salt marshes and because Vedaratnam Pillai was a local resident , salt merchant , INC activist and philanthropist who would be able to supply moral and logistic support to the marchers . Rajaji started the march from Trichinopoly , 150 miles ( 240 km ) west of Vedaranyam .
Rajaji was unanimously elected president of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee ten days prior to the march , and insisted that only people willing to risk death or long prison terms should participate . Nearly 100 members of the INC , including T. S. S. Rajan , Sardar Vedaratnam , Rukmini Lakshmipathi , K. Kamaraj , M. Bhaktavatsalam , and C. R. Narasimhan , joined the rally . In addition , social activists such as A. Vaidyanatha Iyer and G. Ramachandran also joined the group .
= = The march = =
The march , coinciding with the Tamil New Year , commenced on 13 April 1930 from T. S. S. Rajan 's house in Trichinopoly Cantonment . As the march proceeded towards Tanjore district its " astute and energetic " District Collector J. A. Thorne ( ICS ) tried to stop it . Using newspapers , Tamil handbills and town @-@ criers , Thorne informed would @-@ be hosts that anyone offering food or shelter to the marchers was liable to six @-@ months ' imprisonment and a fine . When informed of the threat , Rajaji retorted that he could understand the mindset of his own people better than a British ICS officer could , and added , " Thorne and thistles cannot stem this tide of freedom . "
Ignoring Thorne 's order , Sri Pantulu Iyer , a resident of Kumbakonam , and Sri Krishnaswami Iyer , a resident of aranthangi provided accommodation for two days and arranged a grand dinner for the group at his house before being arrested . Iyer 's arrest inspired people to invent ways to help the marchers without getting caught . Food packets were found tied to branches of roadside trees , and when the group rested by the Cauvery riverbank , they found indicators where huge food containers were buried . By contrast , the British police suffered from starvation when local residents refused them food or even water . Indian staff who were employed by the British stopped carrying out their day @-@ to @-@ day activities , while barbers and washermen refused service to government employees .
Despite various obstacles , the group reached Vedaranyam on 28 April , 15 days after setting out . When Gandhi was informed he wrote back : " It is good that our hands and feet are tied so that we can sing with joy . God is the help of the helpless . " The speeches made by Rajaji during the march highlighted the importance of Khadi — issues of ' social disabilities ' ( caste discrimination ) — and the significance of the Civil Disobedience Movement . The police , in spite of previous failures , heightened security at Vedaranyam to prevent the marchers from making illegal salt . As soon as they reached Vedaranyam , Rajaji declared that the salt laws would be broken on 30 April 1930 and called for more participants.mr.Krishnaswami iyer after 2 days trial came to join the march and gave support of Rajaji Sardar Vedaratnam offered accommodation to the group by constructing a camp on the shore . On the same day , when Rajaji and 16 others moved to a place called Edanthevar salt swamp 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the camp , a police force led by the District Superintendent arrived there .
The group was asked to surrender . When they refused , Rajaji was arrested and produced before the district magistrate Ponnusamy Pillai . He was sentenced to six @-@ months ' imprisonment and was immediately sent to Trichinopoly . Other participants were also arrested and tortured by the policemen . Rukmini Lakshmipathy was imprisoned for one year ; she was the first woman to serve a jail term for participating in the Salt Satyagraha movement .
= = Aftermath = =
The following day , shops all over the state closed . People continued to make salt at Vedaranyam , despite repeated arrests and the use of brutal force by police . Apart from the marchers , 375 people in the Tanjore district were arrested for protests against the British . Collector Thorne , who at first had been confident of his ability to prevent the march , was forced to report to his superiors , " If there ever existed a fervid sense of devotion to the ( British ) Government , it is now the defunct " .
At midnight on 5 May 1930 , Gandhi was arrested at his ashram in Karadi and sent to Poona , Bombay State . On 21 May , Sarojini Naidu and Gandhi 's son Manilal Gandhi broke into the " Dharasana salt works " together with 2 @,@ 500 volunteers . They were attacked and arrested by police , resulting in the death of two people and some 320 injured . A fortnight later , Rajaji was transferred From the Trichinopoly prison to Madras , then to the Bellary Central Jail .
= Anurag Kashyap =
Anurag Singh Kashyap ( born 10 September 1972 ) is an Indian film director , screenwriter , producer and actor . He is often regarded as the face of an emerging new wave cinema for producing numerous independent films with newcomers . For his contributions to film , the Government of France awarded him the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres ( Knight of the Order of Arts and Letters ) in 2013 .
After writing a television serial , Kashyap got his major break as a co @-@ writer in Ram Gopal Varma 's crime drama Satya ( 1998 ) , and made his directorial debut with Paanch , which never had a theatrical release due to censorship issues . He then went on to direct Black Friday ( 2007 ) , a film based on the book by Hussain Zaidi about the 1993 Bombay bombings . Its release was held up for two years by the Central Board of Film Certification because of the pending verdict of the case at that time , but was released in 2007 to widespread critical appreciation . Kashyap 's followup , No Smoking ( 2007 ) met with negative reviews and performed poorly at the box @-@ office . His next venture Dev.D ( 2009 ) , a modern adaptation of Devdas was a critical and commercial success ; followed by the political drama Gulaal ( 2009 ) , and the thriller That Girl in Yellow Boots ( 2011 ) . His prominence increased with the two @-@ part crime drama , Gangs of Wasseypur ( 2012 ) . His next films were Bombay Talkies ( 2013 ) , Ugly ( 2014 ) and Bombay Velvet ( 2015 ) .
Apart from filmmaking , Kashyap serves as the Member of board of the Mumbai @-@ based NGO , Aangan , which helps protect vulnerable children around India . He is the founder of two film production companies : Anurag Kashyap Films , which is run by Guneet Monga , Phantom Films with partnership from directors Vikramaditya Motwane and Vikas Bahl and producer Madhu Mantena .
= = Early life = =
Anurag Kashyap was born on 10 September 1972 in Gorakhpur , Uttar Pradesh . His father Prakash Singh worked as a Deputy General Manager at Obra Thermal Power Station in Sonbhadra district near Varanasi . He did his early schooling in Green School Dehradun and , age eight onwards , at the Scindia School in Gwalior . Some of the locations used in Gangs of Wasseypur are also influenced from his own old house where he himself lived with his parents , sister Anubhuti Kashyap and brother , Abhinav Kashyap . Abhinav is also a filmmaker , while his sister Anubhuti has been his assistant in most of his films .
Due to Kashyap 's desire to become a scientist , he went to Delhi for his higher studies and enrolled himself into a zoology course at the Hans Raj College ( University of Delhi ) ; he graduated in 1993 . He then eventually joined a street theatre group , Jana Natya Manch ; and did many street plays . The same year , his couple of friends " urged [ him ] to catch a de Sica retrospective " at the International Film Festival of India . In ten days , he saw 55 films at the festival , and Vittorio De Sica 's Bicycle Thieves was the film that influenced him the most .
= = Career = =
After the de Sica experience , Kashyap arrived in Mumbai in 1993 with INR 5 @,@ 000 in his pocket . Soon the money ran out , and he spent months on the streets , staying in lofts , " sleeping on beaches , " " under a water tank and in the St Xavier 's [ college ] boys hostel . " He then managed to find work at Prithvi Theatre , but his first play remained incomplete because the director died .
= = = Writer and director = = =
= = = = 1990s = = = =
In 1995 , an acquaintance introduced Kashyap to Shivam Nair . The day they met , Kashyap watched Taxi Driver ( 1976 ) at Nair 's place , and the film inspired him to " write something " . The team of Sriram Raghavan , Sridhar Raghavan and Shiv Subramaniam were working on two projects , one of which was a short TV series , Auto Narayan , based on the life of serial killer Auto Shankar ; the second one was a film scripted by Kashyap . Auto Narayan got delayed because the script written by Subramaniam was not " working " . Kashyap rewrote the script , and got credit for the same , but it was scrapped . In 1997 , he wrote the screenplay of Hansal Mehta 's first film , Jayate which failed to find a theatrical release ; and episodes of the TV series Kabhie Kabhie ( 1997 ) .
In 1998 , the then struggling actor Manoj Bajpayee suggested his name to Ram Gopal Varma to write a film . Varma liked Kashyap 's Auto Narayan and hired him , alongside Saurabh Shukla to write the script for his crime film , Satya ( 1998 ) . Satya was a critical and commercial success , and is regarded as one of the best films of Indian cinema . He later collaborated with Varma in scripting Kaun ( 1999 ) and writing dialogues for Shool ( 1999 ) . In 1999 , he made a short film , titled Last Train to Mahakali for television .
= = = = 2000s = = = =
While working with Nair , Kashyap came across files related to the Joshi @-@ Abhyankar serial murders that took place in Pune in 1976 , which became the inspiration for his directorial debut Paanch . A crime thriller about a group of five friends of a rock band who turn into criminals . The film faced trouble with the Central Board of Film Certification because , according to Kashyap : " They felt it wasn 't healthy entertainment because it dealt unapologetically with sex , drugs and misguided , alienated youths " . It was cleared by the Board in 2001 , but remains unreleased due to some problems faced by the producer . In these years , he also wrote dialogues for many films including Paisa Vasool ( 2004 ) , Mani Ratnam 's Yuva ( 2004 ) , the Canadian film Water ( 2005 ) , Main Aisa Hi Hoon ( 2005 ) and Mixed Doubles ( 2006 ) .
After a failed attempt to make Allwyn Kalicharan in 2003 , Kashyap started working on Black Friday ( 2007 ) , a film based on the book by Hussain Zaidi about the 1993 Bombay bombings . The Bombay high court put a stay on the release of the film , until the judgement in the bomb blasts case was delivered . It was decided after a petition filed by a group of 1993 bomb blasts accused , challenging the release of the film based on their case . The film got censorship clearance in 2007 , and was released after two years meeting universal acclaim . Nikhat Kazmi gave the film a three star out of five rating and mentioned : " It was indeed a difficult film to make , yet the director has managed to grapple with all the loose threads and put them together in a composite whole . So much so , the film moves like a taut thriller , without ideology colouring the sepia frames . "
The same year , Kashyap adapted Stephen King 's short story " Quitters , Inc . " into No Smoking . A surrealistic thriller about a chain @-@ smoker who gets trapped in the maze of a person who guarantees will make him quit smoking . The film starring John Abraham , Ayesha Takia , Ranvir Shorey and Paresh Rawal in the leads with music by Vishal Bhardwaj , premiered at the Rome Film Festival . No Smoking received an overwhelming negative reception and failed at the box @-@ office . CNN @-@ IBN 's Rajeev Masand called it a " colossal disappointment " . His final release of the year was Return of Hanuman , an animation film about adventures of the Hindu god Hanuman .
In 2009 , Kashyap had two releases . Dev.D , a contemporary take on Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay 's novel Devdas . It was the twelfth film adaptation of the Bengali novel . Starring Abhay Deol who actually pitched the original idea of the film to Kashyap , with Mahie Gill and newcomer Kalki Koechlin portraying the characters of " Paro " and Chandramukhi respectively . The film met with generally positive reviews and strong box office results . Gulaal , a political drama , was his final release of that year . Kashyap started working on the film in 2005 , and had finished 70 @-@ 80 per cent of the film in 2006 , when its producer fell ill . Later on , Zee Motion Pictures took over the project and was finally finished in 2008 and released on 13 March 2009 . Anupama Chopra gave the film three stars and referred to Kashyap as " the Anti @-@ Yash Chopra " . Despite positive reviews , the film underperformed at the box office .
= = = = 2010s = = = =
Mumbai Cutting ( 2010 ) , an anthology film , was his next directorial venture . It consisted of eleven short films made by eleven directors . He directed one of the short film , It premiered at the 2008 Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles .
In 2011 , Kashyap directed That Girl in Yellow Boots , a thriller starring Kalki Koechlin who also co @-@ wrote the film with him . The film was screened at many festivals including 2010 Toronto International Film Festival , 67th Venice International Film Festival , Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles and the London Indian Film Festival . Shot in thirteen days , the film was released on September 2011 . Roger Ebert gave it 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , praising the character @-@ driven film and the portrayal of its lead alongside the city compared to most Hindi films : " a film like this provides a radically different view of India than you can find in the pleasures and excesses of Bollywood " .
In 2012 , Kashyap came up with his ambitious directorial venture Gangs of Wasseypur , which screened at the 2012 Cannes Directors ' Fortnight , London Indian Film Festival , Toronto film festival and the Sundance Film Festival in 2013 . The film with an ensemble cast , was a two @-@ part crime saga centered on the coal mafia of Dhanbad with the story spanning from the early 1940s to 2009 . The first part was released on 22 June , and the second on 8 August 2012 , both receiving appreciation from Indian and international critics alike . The combined budget of the two films allowed it to be a box @-@ office success .
In 2013 , Kashyap directed That Day After Everyday , a 20 @-@ minute short @-@ film that was released on YouTube ; starring Radhika Apte , Geetanjali Thapa and Sandhya Mridul . It showed the story of three working women facing troubles everyday , both inside and outside their houses and how they overcome them . Dealing with issues like eve teasing and public molestation , the video got four lakh hits in two days . Speaking about the purpose of the project , Kashyap showed his intension to make people feel angry : " .. the idea was not to offer a solution , just show something to create that feeling " .
The same year he teamed up with Dibakar Banerjee , Zoya Akhtar and Karan Johar to direct " Murabba " , one of the four segments of anthology film Bombay Talkies . It was made to celebrate the 100 years of Indian cinema , and was screened at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival . The film did not perform well at the box office , but was well received by critics .
His next film was Ugly ( 2014 ) , a thriller about the kidnapping of a struggling actor 's daughter , and the events followed by it . It was screened in the Directors ' Fortnight section at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival , receiving a standing ovation . The film 's theatrical release was halted for over a year regarding censorship issues over depiction of smoking in it . Though it was released on 26 December 2014 to generally positive reviews .
Kashyap 's next release was Bombay Velvet ( 2015 ) , a period film set in Bombay in the 1960s , based on Princeton University Historian Gyan Prakash 's book Mumbai Fables . It stars Ranbir Kapoor , Anushka Sharma and Karan Johar . The film was co @-@ edited by the Academy Award winner editor Thelma Schoonmaker , who is known for her collaboration with Martin Scorsese . Released on 15 May 2015 , the film opened to mixed to negative reception ; while critics appreciated its retro @-@ look , performances , styling and music , they criticised its faltered storytelling . It also emerged as a box @-@ office failure .
In 2016 , Kashyap co @-@ wrote and directed Raman Raghav 2 @.@ 0 , a thriller based on the notorious serial killer Raman Raghav . It starred Nawazuddin Siddiqui in the title character . The film premiered at the 2016 Sydney Film Festival and the 2016 Cannes Film Festival , in the Director 's Fortnight section to positive response .
= = = Producer = = =
Kashyap found his production company Anurag Kashyap Films in 2009 , which is managed by Guneet Monga . The companies ' first film was the critical hit Udaan ( 2010 ) , which was screened in the Un Certain Regard category at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival . Since then , he has produced a number of projects including Shaitan ( 2011 ) , Chittagong ( 2012 ) , Aiyyaa ( 2012 ) , Luv Shuv Tey Chicken Khurana ( 2012 ) and Shorts ( 2013 ) . He has also co @-@ produced a number of films that have gone on to film festivals , but are yet to release theatrically , including Michael , Peddlers and Monsoon Shootout . In 2012 , Kashyap produced The Last Act , India 's first collaborative feature film from twelve directors to make ten @-@ minute short films , with each film being a part of a larger story written by him .
In 2013 , his company co @-@ produced the critically acclaimed drama The Lunchbox , which was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language ; along with the biographical drama Shahid . The same year Kashyap , with Viacom 18 Motion Pictures co @-@ produced five short films with the theme of ‘ India is Visual Journey ’ . The short films were Moi Marjaani , Chai , Hidden Cricket , Geek Out and The Epiphany . He also served as the creative director in the Amitabh Bachchan starrer TV series Yudh ( 2014 ) , and subsequently presented two documentary film 's , The World Before Her ( 2012 ) and Katiyabaaz ( 2014 ) .
In 2011 Kashyap co @-@ founded his director driven production company Phantom Films with partnership from Vikas Bahl , Vikramaditya Motwane and Madhu Mantena . The companies first film was the period romance Lootera ( 2013 ) , starring Ranveer Singh and Sonakshi Sinha . Based O. Henry 's short story , The Last Leaf , the film was critically acclaimed .
He then went on to collaborate with Karan Johar 's Dharma Productions to produce the romantic comedy Hasee Toh Phasee ( 2014 ) . The film starring Parineeti Chopra and Sidharth Malhotra was directed by the debutant Vinil Mathew . Kashyap then co @-@ edited and co @-@ produced the comedy drama Queen , starring Kangana Ranaut . The film was a critical and commercial success , it also won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi .
In 2015 , Kashyap co @-@ produced Anushka Sharma 's production debut NH10 , and the sex comedy Hunterrr . Both films proved to be a success . Masaan , was Phantom 's fourth release of the year . The film won the FIPRESCI Award and the Promising Future award at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival . The final release of Phantom of 2015 was Shaandaar , which proved to be a box @-@ office flop .
In October 2015 , Kashyap teamed up with Ridley Scott and Richie Mehta for Google , as the executive producer for the documentary India in a Day . The project was for people across India to film a snapshot of their day and upload it on Google 's official website .
= = = Actor = = =
Kashyap has made cameo appearances in his films and those of others , including Black Friday , No Smoking , Tera Kya Hoga Johnny ( 2008 ) , Luck by Chance ( 2009 ) , Dev.D ,
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had to expand several times to include more suppliers . As of 2006 , Beecher 's was in the process of purchasing their own farms in Eastern Washington for additional milk production , which will also give them full control over their entire product 's creation . The principal milk supplier is Green Acres Farm in Duvall , Washington , using only hormone @-@ free and antibiotic @-@ free milk . When consistent milk production first became a problem , Beecher 's purchased a herd of 200 cows . The entire dairy herd at Green Acres Farm is owned by Beecher 's , who leases them back to the farm . For the New York production , all Holstein and Jersey milk come directly from Dutch Hollow Farms in upstate New York .
To ensure a standardized flavor for the finished cheeses , and due to there being insufficient space in their facilities for milk separating systems , Sinko said he " went and standardized the herd . " Their initial milk from Holstein cows was sweet , but lacked the fatty content and nuttiness of Jersey cow milk that was part of the product they wanted to create . They were able to eventually balance the two to their satisfaction . Dammeier has described the blend of Holstein and Jersey milk as a " 50 – 50 mix " . From each farm , all the milk supplied to Beecher 's is from the same herd , to ensure that the flavor of each batch of milk they receive is consistent ( based on the herd 's diet and environment ) .
At times , Beecher 's has encountered challenges in maintaining this uniform standard . For example , when flooding affected one farm , the cows there produced enzymes in their milk that helped their calves to fight off bacteria , but changed the flavor of the milk .
= = Cheese and food manufacturing = =
The cheese factory is housed in a small , glass @-@ walled facility in Seattle 's Pike Place Market , on Pike Place between Stewart Street and Pine Street . The location includes a retail shop and a café that features cheese @-@ based meals . Passers @-@ by in the heavily touristed market can watch the cheese making process . Beecher 's produces over 500 @,@ 000 pounds ( 230 @,@ 000 kg ) of cheese annually . Their manufacturing facility now operates twenty @-@ four hours a day to keep up with their demand . The New York facility is significantly larger than Seattle 's and can produce over three tons of cheese a day .
Sinko admits that the modern facility with large vats of cheese and milk processing would seem to contradict the word " Handmade " in the company name . According to him , all of the cheese is monitored , processed , and prepared by hand , but simply on a larger scale than most artisanal cheesemakers . Unlike most artisan cheeses , Beecher 's is made largely with pasteurized milk . Dammeier believes that many people feel raw milk cheeses taste better due to renowned French cheeses , which were historically made of raw milk because the farms were unable to afford pasteurization . " I 've probably tasted 150 different cheeses this year , and I 'm convinced that raw milk doesn 't create more flavor , " he said , adding that his cheeses have a more consistent taste from not using raw milk . Nevertheless , Beecher 's offers a raw milk version of their Flagship cheese . The cheeses they produce use no artificial ingredients or preservatives . Beecher 's typically manufactures up to nine different varieties of cheeses each year , including a combination of their staple brands and various seasonal varieties .
At the Beecher 's facility , their process for cheese manufacturing is multi @-@ staged . Thousands of gallons of milk are hose @-@ fed from delivery trucks into the manufacturing area , where it is heated to complete the pasteurization of the milk . The heated milk is processed into a stainless steel trough , and the temperature further increased , while the first live cheese cultures and rennet , a coagulant , are added to the developing mixture . According to Amir Rosenblatt , a cheesemaker at Beecher 's , the heating and cheese temperatures used in their cooking process are tightly controlled through the sustainable technology of steam power . " A variation of half a degree [ in the pasteurization process ] can change the flavor of the cheese , " he said . Cheesemakers use stainless steel " rakes " to then gather the milk mixture , before allowing it to settle briefly , at which point the cheese is cut repeatedly by hand until it achieves a yogurt @-@ like texture and substance . This process is repeated often , until a desired consistency is reached . The mixture is then drawn away to a new trough where most of the remaining water and whey is drained from the cheese . While the whey is continually pulled from the cheese , cheesemakers constantly separate the cheese by hand into smaller and small stacks of cheese curds , which form as the whey is removed . To complete the curding , a large amount of salt is added to cure the cheese and draw still more whey from it . The curds are finally cut into portions , filled into cheese molds , stacked on top of each other , and the remaining excess moisture is forced from the cheese with a constant 60 pounds ( 27 kg ) of pressure for at least 24 hours , before the finished cheese is stored to age . For every 10 pounds ( 10 kilograms ) of milk and whey , Beecher 's will typically create 1 pound ( 1 kilogram ) of finished cheese .
Beecher 's cheeses differ from similar cheeses in that they mix cheese growth cultures in unusual ways . For example , their signature " Flagship " cheese includes cultures typically used for non @-@ cheddar cheeses , such as Gruyère and Emmental , changing the nature , flavor , and texture of their cheddar . Flagship cheese is produced using a cheddaring process , but owing to a different taste , Beecher 's does not call this cheese cheddar . The cheese has been described as having a " sweet finish and creamy texture " unlike the tangier cheddars , owing to this being one of the cheeses they create with a mixture of different cheese cultures . After being prepared in 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) blocks and aged for approximately one year , the Flagship — unlike cheddars — lacks a rind , is moister , resembles butter visually , and carries a milky aroma due to being aged in plastic bags . A variant called " Flagship Reserve " is aged in cheese cloth in 18 pounds ( 8 @.@ 2 kg ) sizes on racks in open air , and is rubbed with butter while being turned daily . This preparation method causes the Reserve to lose up to 12 % of its initial weight by the time it is completed . The Reserve is aged for a shorter amount of time , leading to a sharper , nuttier taste and texture , according to Food & Wine Magazine . Of the 500 @,@ 000 pounds ( 230 @,@ 000 kg ) of cheese they produce annually , approximately 200 @,@ 000 pounds ( 91 @,@ 000 kg ) will be Flagship , and only 15 @,@ 000 pounds ( 6 @,@ 800 kg ) will be Flagship Reserve .
Additionally , Beecher 's is in the process of developing new types of crackers , designed to not overpower the taste of the cheese with which they are paired .
= = Retail sales and cheese shop = =
Beecher 's features a gourmet cheese shop and café in both their Pike Place Market and Flatiron facility . It is considered an anchor of the Pike Place Market , and has become a tourist attraction in its own right . During the day , crowds typically gather in the store , watching through windows as the cheesemakers prepare batches of cheese .
A portion of the cheese curds used in the manufacturing process is set aside to sell directly to visitors at the retail store . The principal cheeses created and sold by Beecher 's are their Flagship and Flagship Reserve varieties ; " Just Jack " , a form of Monterey Jack cheese ; " Blank Slate " , a type of cream cheese ; unpasteurized , raw @-@ milk versions of their Flagship cheeses , and different cheeses seasoned and flavored with spices and herbs . Some of their seasonal varieties have included cheeses similar to Brie .
The Pike Place Market store now sells roughly thirty @-@ five other local artisan cheese brands , in addition to the various Beecher 's products . The Pike Place Market location also offers classes to the public about cheese making , cheese history , and the pairing of wine with cheese . The collection of Pacific Northwest cheeses on sale at the retail store has been described as the best in the entire region by Will O 'Donnell in Northwest Magazine . In keeping with Dammeier 's idea that his cheese business should encourage the growth of the artisan cheese businesses in the area , the Beecher 's retail store makes special efforts to feature and sell cheeses from new and small Northwest cheesemakers . The Flatiron location incorporates the Northwest influence its cheesecase , but carries a significant number of Northeast artisanal cheeses .
Beecher 's products are sold in retail stores throughout the country at well @-@ known artisanal cheese vendors such as the shops of Murray Klein and the international Artisanal Cheese retail company . Beecher 's also uses the services of PeriShip to ensure their products arrive to customers across the United States .
= = Macaroni and cheese = =
Beecher 's retail shop in the Pike Place Market sells over 17 @,@ 000 orders of Dammeier 's macaroni and cheese dish annually . The recipe is featured in a 2007 cookbook , Pure Flavor : 125 Fresh All @-@ American Recipes From The Pacific Northwest , which Dammeier wrote with Laura Holmes Haddad . Both The New York Times and The Washington Post gave it reviews described as " rave " , according to MSNBC news . Dammeier says the key to the success of their macaroni and cheese is to undercook the pasta by half , so that it softens from cheese sauces in baking with a béchamel sauce . The recipe , named simply " World 's Best Mac & Cheese " , has been prepared by Dammeier during guest appearances on several television programs . On August 19 , 2008 , Beecher 's facility and cheese was featured on The Martha Stewart Show , and Dammeier prepared his macaroni and cheese dish with Stewart on the program . The " World 's Best Mac & Cheese " was also featured as one of Oprah 's " Favorite Things , " and a second time on " The Martha Stewart Show . "
= = Awards and recognition = =
In 2007 , Beecher 's was the winner of the American Cheese Society awards for their cheddar cheese . At the World Cheese Awards in 2007 , Beecher 's " Marco Polo " cheese won a gold medal , and at the American Cheesemaker Awards in Newport Beach , California , they took first place , also in 2007 . Beecher 's also came in as the runner up for Best In Show at the 2007 World Cheese Society competition , in a field of 1 @,@ 207 competitors . Beecher 's again won a top award from the American Cheese Society for their Marco Polo cheese in 2008 . According to Laura Werlin , author of The New American Cheese : Profiles of America 's Great Cheesemakers , their Flagship cheese is " everything a cheddar should be - and more . "
= = Pure Food Kids = =
Beecher 's and Dammeier also fund and develop " Pure Food Kids : A Recipe for Healthy Eating " , an outreach and educational program , run by the Pure Food Kids Foundation , for elementary and middle @-@ school children in the Seattle Public Schools , with the goal of teaching children about healthful foods and eating habits . The program was initially developed by Dammeier and his wife Leslie , after they learned about and were unhappy with the state of school cafeteria meals in Seattle , where their three children attended public school . Established in 2005 , 1 % of the total sales for Beecher 's and Dammeier 's other business , Bennet 's Pure Food , Maximus / Minimus , and Pasta & Co . , are used to fund the Pure Food Kids program . The Pure Food Kids program is staffed by trained volunteers , including Dammeier himself .
Fourth through sixth grade elementary school children are educated on the effects of food additives , eating healthful foods , reading food labels , and about marketing of food aimed at children . According to Chip Wood , co @-@ founder of the Northeast Foundation for Children , fourth through sixth grade children will typically be between the ages of 9 and 12 years old . The program is provided at no cost to the children and their families . To date , over 15 @,@ 000 children have participated in the educational program . Pure Food Kids is taught in classrooms , after @-@ school events , and at Parent @-@ Teacher Association events , with all supplies and materials provided by Beecher 's , although there is explicitly no promotion or use of any products from any of Dammeier 's businesses .
= Music of the Sun =
Music of the Sun is the debut studio album by Barbadian singer Rihanna . It was released by Def Jam Recordings on August 30 , 2005 . Prior to signing with Def Jam , Rihanna was discovered by record producer Evan Rogers in Barbados , who helped Rihanna record demo tapes to send out to several record labels . Jay @-@ Z , the former chief executive officer ( CEO ) and president of Def Jam , was given Rihanna 's demo by Jay Brown , his A & R at Def Jam , and invited her to audition for the label after hearing what turned out to be her first single , " Pon de Replay " . She auditioned for Jay @-@ Z and L.A. Reid , the former CEO and president of record label group The Island Def Jam Music Group , and was signed on the spot to prevent her from signing with another record label .
After Rihanna was signed by Jay @-@ Z , she continued to work with Rogers and his production partner Carl Sturken , as well as other music producers such as , Poke & Tone , D. " Supa Dups " Chin @-@ quee , and StarGate . Music of the Sun features vocals from Canadian rapper Kardinal Offishall , music group J @-@ Status , and Jamaican singer Vybz Kartel . Its music incorporates Caribbean music such as dancehall and reggae , as well as dance @-@ pop and R & B ballads .
Music of the Sun received generally mixed reviews from music critics , who complimented its dancehall and Caribbean @-@ inspired songs , while others criticized some of the production . The album debuted at number 10 on the United States Billboard 200 and number six on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . The album peaked in the top @-@ 40 of album charts in Germany , New Zealand , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . It produced two singles : " Pon de Replay " and " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " , the former of which peaked at number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and number one on the US Dance Club Songs chart . Music of the Sun was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Background = =
Before signing to Def Jam Recordings , Rihanna was discovered in her home country Barbados by American record producer Evan Rogers . The two met in December 2003 through mutual friends of Rihanna 's and Rogers ' wife , while the couple was on vacation in Barbados , because of how Rihanna 's friend had told Rogers ' wife how the aspiring singer was always singing and performing . After meeting for the first time , Rogers ' asked Rihanna to come to his hotel room , where she performed renditions of Destiny 's Child 's " Emotion " and Mariah Carey 's " Hero " . Rihanna 's renditions impressed Rogers , who then took her to New York , where she was accompanied by her mother to record some demo tapes which could be sent to record labels . She recorded the demo over the next year intermittently , due to Rihanna only being able to record during school holidays .
At the age of 16 , Rihanna was signed to Rogers ' and Carl Sturken 's production company , Syndicated Rhythm Productions , who assigned her a lawyer and manager , before the completed demo tape were distributed to various record labels around the world in late 2004 . The first to respond to the demo tape was Jay @-@ Z , who had recently been appointed as president and CEO of Def Jam Recordings . Rihanna auditioned for him and music mogul L.A. Reid , in his office . Looking back on the audition and meeting Jay @-@ Z , Rihanna explained in an interview how she felt before walking into the room , saying : " That 's when I really got nervous ..... I was like : ' Oh God , he 's right there , I can 't look , I can 't look , I can 't look ! ' I remember being extremely quiet . I was very shy . I was cold the entire time . I had butterflies . I 'm sitting across from Jay @-@ Z. Like , Jay @-@ Zee . I was star @-@ struck . " During the audition , Rihanna performed Whitney Houston 's cover of " For the Love of You " , as well as " Pon de Replay " and " The Last Time " , which were written and produced by Rogers and Sturken and would be included on her debut album Music of the Sun .
Jay @-@ Z was initially skeptical about signing Rihanna after he felt " Pon de Replay " was too big for her , saying " when a song is that big , it 's hard [ for a new artist ] to come back from . I don 't sign songs , I sign artists " . The audition resulted in Rihanna signing a six @-@ album record deal with Def Jam Recordings in February 2005 , on the same day of the audition , with Jay @-@ Z saying " There 's only two ways out . Out the door after you sign this deal . Or through this window ... " , meaning that he was not going to let her leave without signing a record deal . After signing to Def Jam Recordings , Rihanna cancelled other meetings with record labels and relocated from Barbados to New York to live with Rogers ' and his wife . Rihanna explained the concept behind the title of the album to Kidzworld , saying that the sun is representative of the her native Caribbean culture as well as herself and that the album consists of music from her heritage .
= = Recording and composition = =
Rihanna worked with various producers for Music of the Sun and continued to work with Rogers and Sturken , who had previously written and produced " Pon de Replay " and " The Last Time " for Rihanna 's demo tape . Although Rihanna stated that when she first heard " Pon de Replay " , she did not want to record it , expressing that she felt the song was " sing @-@ songy " , but grew to like the song at the end of the recording process . In an interview with Kidzworld , Rihanna explained how the pair helped her develop her song @-@ writing abilities , saying Rogers and Sturken , who had worked with recording artists including Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera and Kelly Clarkson .
Music of the Sun is a Caribbean @-@ influenced , urban dance @-@ pop album . Its dance @-@ pop songs are complemented by contentional R & B ballads . The lead single " Pon de Replay " was written by Rogers , Sturken and Vada Nobles , and was produced by the first two . " Pon de Replay " is a simple dance @-@ pop song with dancehall beats and reggae vocal cadence . Lyrically , the song is about asking the DJ to play the protagonist 's favorite song , as well as the fulfillment of dancing in a club . " The Last Time " , written and produced by Rogers and Sturken is an acoustic guitar driven ballad , while " Now That I Know " is a stripped down string driven song . In addition to working with Rogers and Sturken for the majority of the album , Rihanna worked with production teams Poke & Tone of Trackmasters and StarGate . The former wrote and produced the second single released from the album , " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " , which Rihanna described as a " fun song " . An R & B song , " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " is a song about a girl telling a boy that he should make her his girl , because she has what the boy wants . A remix of the song entitled " If It 's Lovin ' That You Want – Part 2 " , which features rap vocals by Cory Gunz , was included as a bonus track on Rihanna 's sophomore album , A Girl like Me ( 2006 ) . Alongside Rogers and Sturken , StarGate co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced " Let Me " , which appears as the ninth song on the album . Music of the Sun contains a remake of Jamaican singer Dawn Penn 's " You Don 't Love Me ( No , No , No ) " , and features dancehall recording artist Vybz Kartel .
= = Critical reception = =
Music of the Sun received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times viewed that the album 's combination of dancehall and pop resulted in " [ Pon de Replay being ] one [ of ] the summer 's biggest and most seductive club tracks " , but felt that Rihanna sounds " stranded " without a beat to sing along to . Barry Walters of Rolling Stone found it lacking in replay value , ingenuity , and rhythm of the single with " generic vocal hiccups and frills " of US R & B inflecting upon her " Caribbean charm " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine called the album a " glut of teen R & B chanteuses " and described the lead single " Pon de Replay " as " a dancehall @-@ pop mixture that owes plenty of its sweat and shimmy to Beyoncé Knowles ' " Baby Boy " . Evan Serpick of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Rihanna 's " vibrant vocals lift tracks like ' That La La La ' and ' Let Me , ' but this bland dancehall / R & B debut is filled with chintzy production and maudlin arrangements that block out the Music of the Sun . " Robert Christgau of The Village Voice rated the album a " dud " , indicating " a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought . "
In a positive review , Jason Birchmeier of AllMusic commented that the album presents Rihanna as " winsome rather than [ a ] wannabe , " as well as how she managed to set herself apart from other urban dance @-@ pop artists such as Ashanti , Beyoncé , and Ciara . Birchmeier further stated that " Music of the Sun descends into faceless slow jams after a while , overall consistency not being among its attributes , but thankfully it picks up the pace toward the end ..... the result is one of the more engaging urban dance @-@ pop albums of the year . " Chantal Jenoure of The Jamaica Observer complimented the dancehall and hip hop composition on several of the songs , including " Pon de Replay " , " Rush " , " Let Me " , " Music of the Sun " and " That La La La " , writing that they make the listener feel " happy " and " carefree " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Music of the Sun sold 69 @,@ 000 and debuted at number 10 on the Billboard 200 album chart in the chart issue dated September 17 , 2005 . The album spent a total of 35 weeks on the chart . Music of the Sun debuted on the US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart at number six in the same chart issue , and spent a total of 44 weeks on the chart . After five months of release , the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on January 1 , 2006 , denoting shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . As of November 2013 , the album had sold 609 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In Canada , Music of the Sun debuted and peaked at number seven on the Canadian Albums Chart in the chart issue September 17 , 2005 , but dropped out of the top ten the following week . After four months of release , the album was certified platinum by Music Canada for shipments of over 100 @,@ 000 copies .
Outside of the United States and Canada , Music of the Sun failed to achieve a comparable level of chart success . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted and peaked at number 35 on the UK Albums Chart in the chart issue October 10 , 2005 . In its second week charting , Music of the Sun fell by three positions to number 38 , and dropped out of the Official UK Top 40 the following week . On May 12 , 2006 , the album was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) denoting shipments of over 100 @,@ 000 copies . Elsewhere in Europe , the album debuted on the Swiss Albums Chart at number 46 in the chart issue September 11 , 2005 , and peaked at number 38 four weeks later . In Austria , Music of the Sun debuted on the Austrian Albums Chart at number 61 in the chart issue September 18 , 2005 , and peaked at number 45 the following week . The album debuted and peaked at number 93 on the French Albums Chart in the chart issue September 24 , 2005 . In The Netherlands , Music of the Sun debuted and peaked at number 98 on the Dutch Albums Chart in the chart issue April 29 , 2006 , and spent one week on the chart . In New Zealand , the album debuted on the New Zealand Albums Chart at number 40 in the chart issue September 26 , 2005 . Between September 29 and October 10 , 2005 , Music of the Sun dropped out of the top @-@ 40 albums chart , but made a re @-@ entry at number 40 on October 10 , 2005 . In its fourth week charting , the album peaked at number 26 .
= = Singles = =
" Pon de Replay " was released as the album 's lead single on May 24 , 2005 . The song peaked at number one on the New Zealand Singles Chart and number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and UK Singles Chart . An accompanying music video was directed by Little X and features Rihanna in a club environment . " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " was released as the second and final single from Music of the Sun on December 2 , 2005 . The song failed to replicate the chart success which " Pon de Replay " experienced , peaking at number 36 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and inside the top forty of multiple other charts . An accompanying music video was directed by Marcus Raboy and features Rihanna in a beach setting .
= = Track listings = =
Notes
^ a denotes a co @-@ producer
^ b denotes a vocal producer
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Music of the Sun are adapted from AllMusic .
= = = Musicians = = =
= = = Production = = =
Johnny Nice- Mixed by
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Italian cruiser Goito =
Goito was a torpedo cruiser built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . She was the lead ship of the Goito class , which included three other vessels . Goito was built by the Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia shipyard between September 1885 and February 1888 . She was armed with a variety of light guns and five 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , and was capable of a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . The ship served the duration of her career in the main Italian fleet . Her early service was primarily occupied with training exercises ; front @-@ line duties ended in 1897 when she was converted into a minelayer , though she continued to participate in fleet exercises . During World War I , Goito laid defensive minefields in the Adriatic Sea . She was eventually sold for scrap in 1920 and broken up .
= = Design = =
Goito was 73 @.@ 4 meters ( 241 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 7 @.@ 88 m ( 25 @.@ 9 ft ) and an average draft of 3 @.@ 6 m ( 12 ft ) . She displaced 829 metric tons ( 816 long tons ; 914 short tons ) normally . Her propulsion system consisted of three double @-@ expansion steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . Exact figures for the ship 's performance have not survived , but the members of the Goito class could steam at a speed of about 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) from 2 @,@ 500 to 3 @,@ 180 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 860 to 2 @,@ 370 kW ) . Goito had a cruising radius of 1 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 000 km ; 1 @,@ 300 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 105 and 121 .
The primary armament for Goito was five 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes . She was also equipped with five 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 40 @-@ caliber guns , two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 20 @-@ cal. guns , and three 37 mm revolving Hotchkiss guns , all mounted singly . The ship was protected with an armored deck that was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Goito was built by the Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia shipyard ; her keel was laid down in September 1885 and her completed hull was launched on 6 July 1887 . She was completed on 16 February 1888 and commissioned into the fleet , the first member of her class to enter service . That year , she took part in the annual fleet maneuvers , along with five ironclads , a protected cruiser , the torpedo cruisers Tripoli , Saetta , and Folgore , and numerous smaller vessels . The maneuvers consisted of close @-@ order drills and a simulated attack on and defense of La Spezia . Later that year , the ship was present during a naval review held for the German Kaiser Wilhelm II during a visit to Italy .
The ship served in the 3rd Division of the Active Squadron during the 1893 fleet maneuvers , along with the ironclads Affondatore and Enrico Dandolo and four torpedo boats . During the maneuvers , which lasted from 6 August to 5 September , the ships of the Active Squadron simulated a French attack on the Italian fleet . The following year , the ship took part in the annual fleet maneuvers in the 1st Division of the Active Squadron , along with the ironclad battleship Re Umberto and the protected cruiser Stromboli . That year , Goito had her coal @-@ fired boilers replaced with oil @-@ fired models , and her center engine and propeller shaft were removed . Her engines now produced 2 @,@ 521 ihp ( 1 @,@ 880 kW ) for a top speed of 17 @.@ 2 knots ( 31 @.@ 9 km / h ; 19 @.@ 8 mph ) .
In 1895 , Goito was stationed in the 2nd Maritime Department , split between Taranto and Naples , along with most of the torpedo cruisers in the Italian fleet . These included her sister ships Monzambano , Montebello , and Confienza , the eight Partenope @-@ class cruisers , and Tripoli . Goito was converted into a minelayer in 1897 . Her torpedo tubes were removed and equipment to handle sixty naval mines was installed . In 1898 , Goito was assigned to the Reserve Squadron , which included the ironclads Lepanto , Francesco Morosini , and Ruggiero di Lauria , and three protected cruisers . The following year , she returned to the Active Squadron , where she served with six ironclads , the armored cruiser Vettor Pisani , the protected cruiser Lombardia , and Calatafimi . During the 1907 fleet maneuvers , Goito was attached to the main fleet to lay mines at a simulated advance base that would be created during the exercises .
At the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Goito was stationed in Venice along with Tripoli and Montebello . None of the vessels saw action during the war . Italy had declared neutrality at the start of World War I , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that the threat from Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and naval mines in the narrow waters of the Adriatic was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the main fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Goito was initially used to lay a series of defensive minefields , along with the torpedo cruisers Partenope and Minerva , in support of this strategy . The ship remained in service until early 1920 ; she was stricken from the naval register on 15 March 1920 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= Reflections of signals on conducting lines =
A signal travelling along an electrical transmission line will be partly , or wholly , reflected back in the opposite direction when the travelling signal encounters a discontinuity in the characteristic impedance of the line , or if the far end of the line is not terminated in its characteristic impedance . This can happen , for instance , if two lengths of dissimilar transmission lines are joined together .
This article is about signal reflections on electrically conducting lines . Such lines are loosely referred to as copper lines , and indeed , in telecommunications are generally made from copper , but other metals are used , notably aluminium in power lines . Although this article is limited to describing reflections on conducting lines , this is essentially the same phenomenon as optical reflections in fibre @-@ optic lines and microwave reflections in waveguides .
Reflections cause several undesirable effects , including modifying frequency responses , causing overload power in transmitters and overvoltages on power lines . However , the reflection phenomenon can also be made use of in such devices as stubs and impedance transformers . The special cases of open circuit and short circuit lines are of particular relevance to stubs .
Reflections cause standing waves to be set up on the line . Conversely , standing waves are an indication that reflections are present . There is a relationship between the measures of reflection coefficient and standing wave ratio .
= = Specific cases = =
There are several approaches to understanding reflections , but the relationship of reflections to the conservation laws is particularly enlightening . A simple example is a step voltage , <formula> ( where <formula> is the height of the step and <formula> is the unit step function with time <formula> ) , applied to one end of a lossless line , and consider what happens when the line is terminated in various ways . The step will be propagated down the line according to the telegrapher 's equation at some velocity <formula> and the incident voltage , <formula> , at some point <formula> on the line is given by
<formula>
The incident current , <formula> , can be found by dividing the characteristic impedance , <formula>
<formula>
= = = Open circuit line = = =
The incident wave travelling down the line is not affected in any way by the open circuit at the end of the line . It cannot have any effect until the step actually reaches that point . The signal cannot have any foreknowledge of what is at the end of the line and is only affected by the local characteristics of the line . However , if the line is of length <formula> the step will arrive at the open circuit at time <formula> , at which point the current in the line is zero ( by the definition of an open circuit ) . Since charge continues to arrive at the end of the line through the incident current , but no current is leaving the line , then conservation of electric charge requires that there must be an equal and opposite current into the end of the line . Essentially , this is Kirchhoff 's current law in operation . This equal and opposite current is the reflected current , <formula> , and since
<formula>
there must also be a reflected voltage , <formula> , to drive the reflected current down the line . This reflected voltage must exist by reason of conservation of energy . The source is supplying energy to the line at a rate of <formula> . None of this energy is dissipated in the line or its termination and it must go somewhere . The only available direction is back up the line . Since the reflected current is equal in magnitude to the incident current , it must also be so that
<formula>
These two voltages will add to each other so that after the step has been reflected , twice the incident voltage appears across the output terminals of the line . As the reflection proceeds back up the line the reflected voltage continues to add to the incident voltage and the reflected current continues to subtract from the incident current . After a further interval of <formula> the reflected step arrives at the generator end and the condition of double voltage and zero current will pertain there also as well as all along the length of the line . If the generator is matched to the line with an impedance of <formula> the step transient will be absorbed in the generator internal impedance and there will be no further reflections .
This counter @-@ intuitive doubling of voltage may become clearer if the circuit voltages are considered when the line is so short that it can be ignored for the purposes of analysis . The equivalent circuit of a generator matched to a load <formula> to which it is delivering a voltage <formula> can be represented as in figure 2 . That is , the generator can be represented as an ideal voltage generator of twice the voltage it is to deliver and an internal impedance of <formula> .
However , if the generator is left open circuit , a voltage of <formula> appears at the generator output terminals as in figure 3 . The same situation pertains if a very short transmission line is inserted between the generator and the open circuit . If , however , a longer line with a characteristic impedance of <formula> and noticeable end @-@ to @-@ end delay is inserted , the generator – being initially matched to the impedance of the line – will have <formula> at the output . But after an interval , a reflected transient will return from the end of the line with the " information " on what the line is actually terminated with , and the voltage will become <formula> as before .
= = = Short circuit line = = =
The reflection from a short @-@ circuited line can be described in similar terms to that from an open @-@ circuited line . Just as in the open circuit case the current must be zero at the end of the line , in the short circuit case the voltage must be zero since there can be no volts across a short circuit . Again , all of the energy must be reflected back up the line and the reflected voltage must be equal and opposite to the incident voltage by Kirchhoff 's voltage law :
<formula> and ,
<formula>
As the reflection travels back up the line , the two voltages subtract and cancel , while the currents will add ( the reflection is double negative - a negative current travelling in the reverse direction ) , the dual situation to the open circuit case .
= = = Arbitrary impedance = = =
For the general case of a line terminated in some arbitrary impedance it is usual to describe the signal as a wave travelling down the line and analyse it in the frequency domain . The impedance is consequently represented as a frequency dependant complex function .
For a line terminated in its own characteristic impedance there is no reflection . By definition , terminating in the characteristic impedance has the same effect as an infinitely long line . Any other impedance will result in a reflection . The magnitude of the reflection will be smaller than the magnitude of the incident wave if the terminating impedance is wholly or partly resistive since some of the energy of the incident wave will be absorbed in the resistance . The voltage , <formula> , across the terminating impedance , <formula> , may be calculated by replacing the output of the line with an equivalent generator ( figure 4 ) and is given by
<formula>
The reflection , <formula> must be the exact amount required to make <formula> ,
<formula>
The reflection coefficient , <formula> , is defined as
<formula>
and substituting in the expression for <formula> ,
<formula>
In general <formula> is a complex function but the above expression shows that the magnitude is limited to
<formula> when <formula>
The physical interpretation of this is that the reflection cannot be greater than the incident wave when only passive elements are involved ( but see negative resistance amplifier for an example where this condition does not hold ) . For the special cases described above ,
When both <formula> and <formula> are purely resistive then <formula> must be purely real . In the general case when <formula> is complex , this is to be interpreted as a shift in phase of the reflected wave relative to the incident wave .
= = = Reactive termination = = =
Another special case occurs when <formula> is purely real ( <formula> ) and <formula> is purely imaginary ( <formula> ) , that is , it is a reactance . In this case ,
<formula>
Since
<formula>
then
<formula>
showing that all the incident wave is reflected , and none of it is absorbed in the termination , as is to be expected from a pure reactance . There is , however , a change of phase , <formula> , in the reflection given by
<formula>
= = = Discontinuity along line = = =
A discontinuity , or mismatch , somewhere along the length of the line results in part of the incident wave being reflected and part being transmitted onward in the second section of line as shown in figure 5 . The reflection coefficient in this case is given by
<formula>
In a similar manner , a transmission coefficient , <formula> , can be defined to describe the portion of the wave , <formula> , that it is transmitted in the forward direction :
<formula>
Another kind of discontinuity is caused when both sections of line have an identical characteristic impedance but there is a lumped element , <formula> , at the discontinuity . For the example shown ( figure 6 ) of a shunt lumped element ,
<formula>
<formula>
Similar expressions can be developed for a series element , or any electrical network for that matter .
= = = Networks = = =
Reflections in more complex scenarios , such as found on a network of cables , can result in very complicated and long lasting waveforms on the cable . Even a simple overvoltage pulse entering a cable system as uncomplicated as the power wiring found in a typical private home can result in an oscillatory disturbance as the pulse is reflected to and fro from multiple circuit ends . These ring waves as they are known persist for far longer than the original pulse and their waveforms bears little obvious resemblance to the original disturbance , containing high frequency components in the tens of MHz range .
= = Standing waves = =
For a transmission line carrying sinusoidal waves , the phase of the reflected wave is continually changing with distance , with respect to the incident wave , as it proceeds back down the line . Because of this continuous change there are certain points on the line that the reflection will be in phase with the incident wave and the amplitude of the two waves will add . There will be other points where the two waves are in anti @-@ phase and will consequently subtract . At these latter points the amplitude is at a minimum and they are known as nodes . If the incident wave has been totally reflected and the line is lossless , there will be complete cancellation at the nodes with zero signal present there despite the ongoing transmission of waves in both directions . The points where the waves are in phase are anti @-@ nodes and represent a peak in amplitude . Nodes and anti @-@ nodes alternate along the line and the combined wave amplitude varies continuously between them . The combined ( incident plus reflected ) wave appears to be standing still on the line and is called a standing wave .
The incident wave can be characterised in terms of the line 's propagation constant , <formula> , source voltage , <formula> and distance from the source , <formula> , by
<formula>
However , it is often more convenient to work in terms of distance from the load ( <formula> ) and the incident voltage that has arrived there ( <formula> ) .
<formula>
The exponent is positive because <formula> is measured in the reverse direction back up the line and the voltage is increasing closer to the source . Likewise the reflected voltage is given by
<formula>
The total voltage on the line is given by
<formula>
It is often convenient to express this in terms of hyperbolic functions
<formula>
Similarly , the total current on the line is
<formula>
The voltage nodes ( current nodes are not at the same locations ) and anti @-@ nodes occur when
<formula>
This does not have an easy analytical solution in the general case , but in the case of lossless lines ( or lines that are short enough to be considered so ) <formula> can be replaced by <formula> where <formula> is the phase change constant . The voltage equation then reduces to trigonometric functions
<formula>
and the partial differential of the magnitude of this yields the condition ,
<formula>
Expressing <formula> in terms of wavelength , <formula> , allows <formula> to be solved in terms of <formula> :
<formula>
<formula> is purely real when the termination is short circuit or open circuit , or when both <formula> and <formula> are purely resistive . In those cases the nodes and anti @-@ nodes are given by
<formula>
which solves for <formula> at
<formula>
For <formula> the first point is a node , for <formula> the first point is an anti @-@ node and thenceforth they will alternate . For terminations that are not purely resistive the spacing and alternation remain the same but the whole pattern is shifted along the line by a constant amount related to the phase of <formula> .
= = = Voltage standing wave ratio = = =
The ratio of <formula> at anti @-@ nodes and nodes is called the voltage standing wave ratio ( VSWR ) and is related to the reflection coefficient by
<formula>
for a lossless line . For a lossy line the expression is only valid adjacent to the termination ; VSWR asymptotically approaches unity with distance from the termination or discontinuity .
VSWR and the positions of the nodes are parameters that can be directly measured with an instrument called a slotted line . This instrument makes use of the reflection phenomenon to make many different measurements at microwave frequencies . One use is that VSWR and node position can be used to calculate the impedance of a test component terminating the slotted line . This is a useful method because measuring impedances by directly measuring voltages and currents is difficult at these frequencies .
VSWR is the conventional means of expressing the match of a radio transmitter to its antenna . It is an important parameter because power reflected back in to a high power transmitter can damage its output circuitry .
= = Input impedance = =
The input impedance looking into a transmission line which is not terminated with its characteristic impedance at the far end will be something other than <formula> and will be a function of the length of the line . The value of this impedance can be found by dividing the expression for total voltage by the expression for total current given above :
<formula>
Substituting <formula> , the length of the line and dividing through by <formula> reduces this to
<formula>
As before , when considering just short pieces of transmission line , <formula> can be replaced by <formula> and the expression reduces to trigonometric functions
<formula>
= = = Applications = = =
There are two structures that are of particular importance which use reflected waves to modify impedance . One is the stub which is a short length of line terminated in a short @-@ circuit ( or it can be an open @-@ circuit ) . This produces a purely imaginary impedance at its input , that is , a reactance
<formula>
By suitable choice of length , the stub can be used in place of a capacitor , an inductor or a resonant circuit .
The other structure is the quarter wave impedance transformer . As its name suggests , this is a line exactly <formula> in length . Since <formula> this will produce the inverse of its terminating impedance
<formula>
Both of these structures are widely used in distributed element filters and impedance matching networks .
= Love , Inc . ( TV series ) =
Love , Inc. is an American television sitcom , created by Andrew Secunda , which originally aired on United Paramount Network ( UPN ) from September 22 , 2005 to May 11 , 2006 , lasting one season . With an ensemble cast led by Busy Philipps , Vince Vieluf , Reagan Gomez @-@ Preston , Ion Overman , and Holly Robinson Peete , the show revolves around five matchmakers working in a dating agency . The series was produced by Chase TV , the Littlefield Company , Burg / Koules Television , and Paramount Television , and distributed by UPN in its original run and later by LivingTV and Nelonen in the United Kingdom and Sweden respectively . The executive producers were Adam Chase , Warren Littlefied , Mark Burg , and Oren Koules .
Originally developed under the working title Wingwoman , Love , Inc. was intended to be a vehicle for Shannen Doherty . It would have marked her first role in a sitcom . Though picked up by UPN , Doherty was removed from the project at the request of the network due to her poor reception by preview audiences ; Doherty was replaced by Philipps . It was set in New York , but the filming took place at Paramount Studios in Hollywood , Los Angeles and California . UPN heavily promoted the show to attract an " urban " audience , and to that end , paired it with Everybody Hates Chris and included contemporary hip hop music .
The series suffered low viewership despite its high ratings among young Hispanic women ; it was cancelled following UPN 's merger with the WB to launch the CW in 2006 . The cancellation of the series , along with that of other black sitcoms , was criticized by media outlets for reducing representation of African American characters and roles for African American actors on television . Critical response to Love , Inc. was mixed : some critics praised its multiethnic cast , while other cited the storylines and characters as unoriginal and Philipps ' portrayal of her character as unsympathetic . It was never made available on Blu @-@ ray or DVD .
= = Premise = =
Set in New York City , the dating agency Love , Inc. features a staff of single friends desperately looking for love . Newly divorced Clea Lavoy , the creator and owner of the company , seeks out the help of her friend and employee Denise Johnson to reignite her romantic life . She continually struggles to find love despite Denise 's best attempts . The future of the agency is put into jeopardy considering that its success and advertising relied on Clea 's " successful " , nearly decade @-@ long marriage . Love , Inc. also includes the receptionist Viviana , the style expert Francine , and the technician and photographer Barry .
Episodes typically depict the inner workings of the agency , such as their first experience with a lesbian client , a consultation with a former priest , and marketing strategies to appeal to geeks and agoraphobes . Hired as wingmen for their clients , the employees act as " guardian angels for the conversationally challenged " . Each of the five characters have various comedic and romantic adventures outside the agency , like Viviana 's search for an eligible United States citizen to marry in order to secure a green card and Denise 's inability to find true love despite her talent in matching her clients with their " seemingly unattainable soulmates " .
= = Characters = =
The series features five main characters throughout its run :
Busy Philipps as Denise Johnson , a dating consultant and self @-@ described expert at matchmaking , who provides her clients with " come @-@ on lines to use and avoid ; wardrobe and grooming hints , and conversation starters and stoppers " . Despite being characterized as " the Kung Fu master at setting up freaks , " she struggles with finding her own true love . After being contacted by her ex @-@ boyfriend to find the perfect match , she becomes cynical about dating and love , saying " I ’ ve been Wing Womaning my butt off " . Philipps described the character 's love life as a " complete disaster " .
Vince Vieluf as Barry , Denise 's roommate and co @-@ worker who serves as the agency 's technician and photographer . Described as an " idiot savant " , he is characterized as a conspiracy theorist who experiences paranoia about everything from dentists to toothpaste companies . He frequently communicates through " head @-@ scratching non sequiturs " , leading to the characters perceiving him as " operat [ ing ] on a whole other level ... and sometimes on a whole other planet " . Vieluf said the character was pitched as " the only guy on the show " and " the luckiest guy in the world " .
Reagan Gomez @-@ Preston as Francine , the agency style expert who encourages her clients to use and trust their fashion as a way to find a partner . She is introduced as criticizing Clea 's outfit as belonging to a coach for a women 's basketball team and is characterized as the hip worker at the agency . Francine 's storylines were not fully developed and " remain [ ed ] a bit of a mystery " by the end of the show . According to Vieluf , Francine communicates through a " whole different language " and has a special bond with Barry due to their different approaches to life .
Ion Overman as Viviana , an Argentinian receptionist who " solicits personal information in a rather startling way " . She is constantly searching for an eligible American citizen to marry in order to secure a green card . Her heavy accent is written as a source of humor on the show , which led to critics accusing the writers of reducing the character to an ethnic stereotype .
Holly Robinson Peete as Clea Lavoy , the founder and owner of the Love , Inc. dating agency . Clea is " thrust into the dating world " following the end of her nearly decade @-@ long marriage , in which her husband has an affair with a younger woman .
= = Production = =
Love , Inc. was developed under the working title Wing Woman and promoted as a " new ' Hitch ' -esque comedy " . The show 's concept was based on an article from The New York Times that discussed dating services . Production was handled by Chase TV , the Littlefield Company , Burg / Koules Television , and Paramount Television . The Littlefield Company suggested that the show 's creator Andrew Secunda collaborate with executive producer Adam Chase , who had previously worked on Friends . The series was Secunda 's first experience creating a television sitcom . Marta Kauffman , Liz Tuccillo , and Mark Burg and Oren Koules also contributed to the series as executive producers . On April 12 , 2005 , UPN announced that Doherty was in talks for the lead role while Reagan Gomez @-@ Preston was being considered for the role of the lead character 's " longtime friend , co @-@ worker and roommate " and Ion Overman for an unspecified part . Overman said she was attracted to part since she was searching for a job and viewed the series as a " very cool concept " . On April 18 , Holly Robinson Peete was confirmed to have joined the cast as the boss to Doherty 's character .
The series was originally designed as a star vehicle for Doherty , who portrayed Denise Johnson in the unaired pilot . Denise was Doherty 's first role in a television sitcom . Doherty said she immediately loved the script for the pilot , which she described as " hysterical , " but felt intimidated by the role given her inexperience with comedy . The series was initially marketed as featuring Doherty and Peete , before United Paramount Network ( UPN ) announced it would pick it up on the condition Doherty was removed and the character was recast . According to TV Guide , Doherty was poorly received by preview audiences . When queried by an interviewer about the removal of Doherty from the show , executive producer Warren Littlefield said the actress was " fabulous " in the role . According to Littlefield , Doherty actively wanted to change her negative reputation from leaving Beverly Hills , 90210 and Charmed through acting on the show . Peete praised Doherty 's performance on the show , saying " we had so much fun and such a great vibe " . UPN Entertainment president cited the rationale behind Doherty 's departure through the " standard going @-@ in @-@ a @-@ different @-@ direction reason " . Rachel Cericola of TV Fodder listed Love , Inc. as one the " four promising sitcoms for the upcoming TV season " due to the behind the scenes drama involving Doherty 's replacement .
UPN announced that Busy Philipps was cast as Denise on July 25 , and later billed as the show 's star . According to Vince Vieluf , the casting change from Doherty to Philipps led to the series being retooled as an ensemble show featuring all the members of the agency rather than focusing on Denise . Vieluf said the alterations in the series ' premise were due to concerns that " people would get tired of a show that was only about the mishaps of one person ’ s love life " . Page Kennedy reported that he was considered for a part on the show , but rejected it for the role of Caleb Applewhite on the second season of the ABC drama Desperate Housewives . Retired Los Angeles Lakers player Rick Fox guest starred in three episodes as David , one of Clea 's love interests . The casting of racially diverse actors was identified with UPN 's position as " the only network to actively program for an African American audience " . Tim Good of the San Francisco Chronicle pointed to the show 's casting as the only way in which it acts as a " positive reference " . Even though the show was set in New York City , filming took place in the Bluhdorn Building at Paramount Studios in Hollywood , Los Angeles , California , and used the multiple @-@ camera format . Transitions between scenes feature images of New York City set to contemporary music , such as The Black Eyed Peas ' single " Don 't Phunk with My Heart " and Kelis ' single " Milkshake " . Todd R. Ramlow of PopMatters described the music as a further attempt to appeal to " an ' urban , ' black @-@ white audience , " and praised the musical choices as a " nice try at crossover for a network whose shows usually target a black demographic " . Aaron Korsh wrote the nineteenth episode as freelance work .
= = Episodes = =
The title for each episode references a popular sitcom .
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcast history = = =
On August 6 , 2005 , UPN officially ordered the series for thirteen episodes . The network later ordered a full season of twenty @-@ two episodes of the show on November 7 , 2005 amid speculation that it would be cancelled . In 2006 , LivingTV broadcast the series in the United Kingdom , and it was broadcast by Nelonen in Sweden in 2008 . UPN paired the series with Everybody Hates Chris , Eve , and Cuts in order to attract an " urban " audience . The network moved WWE SmackDown to Fridays in favor of scheduling Thursdays as focused on sitcoms . This decision was made to establish a " night of scripted programming " and draw more attention from film studios to purchase advertising space for their upcoming releases . Critics questioned the network 's belief that Love , Inc. and Everybody Hates Chris would appeal to the same viewership , and noted the difference in quality between the two , with Love , Inc. frequently cited as the inferior show . While the series initially retained 59 % of the audience from Everybody Hates Chris , the marketing strategy proved unsuccessful when it lost a majority of the viewership in later episodes .
Cericola reported that Love , Inc. earned an average of 3 @.@ 6 million viewers per episode and an article in The Hollywood Reporter stated that the series garnered an average of 1 @.@ 0 / 3 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . It ranked 141st among broadcast television networks in the 2005 @-@ 2006 television season . According to the Nielsen Company , the show achieved high ratings among " Latina adolescents Ages 12 @-@ 17 " and earned 3 @.@ 4 million viewers in that demographic for 2005 . It ranked above two other UPN sitcoms : One on One and Half & Half for Latin women in the 12 @-@ 17 age demographic , and in " the top half of all UPN series " for total viewership . The series premiere saw a 6 % increase in the 18 – 49 age range , 53 % in women between 18 and 34 , and 118 % in women between 18 and 49 from the show that aired in the same time period during the last television season .
The show , as well as a majority of UPN 's programs , were officially cancelled due to the network 's merger with the WB Television Network ( the WB ) to form the CW in 2006 . Fern Gillespie of The Crisis was critical of UPN 's decision to cancel the series given how the network " in one swoop , wiped out five of its eight African American comedies " for the creation of the CW . Gillespie expressed disappointment at the lack of African American sitcoms on the three major networks by saying : " Without that opportunity for some of the younger artists to hone and develop their skills , it will potentially have a generational impact . " Critic Tim Goodman identified Love , Inc. as one of six shows " geared for an African American audience " and featuring " an African American lead actress " that were cancelled during the merger . He equated these cancellations as a sign of networks " eliminat [ ing ] niche programming " . The series was never made available on Blu @-@ ray or DVD .
= = = Critical response = = =
Love , Inc. received mixed critical feedback . Ebony 's Zondra Hughes praised the show as one of the shows " the networks promise will keep you spellbound " and identified Peete and Overman as its primary " star appeal " . While reviewing its broadcast on LivingTV , a reviewer from Daily Record listed the show as its " pick of the day " and suggested it for viewers who would " fancy a giggle " . Diane Werts of Newsday found the characters to be " vibrantly well @-@ defined " and the writing " smart , with a light touch " . Peete received a nomination for the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series in the 37th NAACP Image Awards , but lost to Tichina Arnold who starred in Everybody Hates Chris .
The Futon Critic 's Brian Ford Sullivan praised Vieluf as the standout despite his limited role , but felt the execution of the matchmaking premise was inferior to that done in the 2005 film Hitch . Variety 's Laura Fries wrote that the series had " a quirky vibe , personable cast and snappy writing , " but likened it to the " proverbial old maid " by determining that the storylines and characters required more original material . Jon Bonné and Gael Fashingbauer Cooper of Today commended the series for its multiethnic cast , but wrote that it " struggles to salvage some screechingly bad jokes " . Bonné and Cooper called the show one of the network 's " most vulnerable properties " following the reports of UPN 's closure .
Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 28 out of 100 based on 17 reviews , indicating " generally unfavorable reviews " . Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times criticized the writing for being " unsparkly and
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sometimes labored " and relying too much on sitcom conventions . Paul Brownfield of the Los Angeles Times criticized the series for being " unintentionally unfunny " , comparing it to the fictional sitcom " Rom and Bored " featured in the HBO comedy @-@ drama The Comeback . The Sun @-@ Sentinel 's Tom Jicha wrote that Love , Inc. was a " lethal combination of a stupid show and a suicidal time slot " . The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan called the series a " grating comedy " that is " destined to be a footnote in history as the show that premiered after ' Everybody Hates Chris , ' and most likely faded shortly thereafter " . Miami Herald 's Glenn Garvin summarized the show as " humdrum " , and Doug Elfman of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times dismissed it as " negligible " . Mike Duffy of the Detroit Free Press found the series to be a " trite little laugh @-@ track factory " . Common Sense Media 's Jill Murphy called the show an " unoriginal look at finding love " filled with " stereotypical clients " , and Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune criticized it for being " neither funny nor particularly youthful " .
Critics negatively responded to the character of Denise and Philipps ' performance , and cited both as annoying and unsympathetic . Heffernan described Denise as having a " smug fix @-@ it type " personality similar to Cher Horowitz from the 1995 film Clueless without the charm or charisma . USA Today 's Robert Bianco gave the series a half of a point out of four and called it on the " worst and laziest " comedies of 2005 . Bianco was critical of Philipps ' performance , which was described as " constant motion ; her face contorting , body twitching , voice braying " and transforming the show into something " truly unbearable " . Orlando Sentinel 's Hal Boedeker felt that Phillip 's character was an " overbearing know @-@ it @-@ all " . Matthew GIlbert of The Boston Globe called the show a " one @-@ joke affair " and wrote the premise behind Denise had the " same irony that failed to make Alicia Silverstone 's Miss Match very interesting " . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Rob Owen favored Doherty 's portrayal of the character , which he described as " brimming with self @-@ confidence , " and criticized Philipps ' Denise as a " dizzyingly neurotic nutcase " . Ramlow called the series " boringly un @-@ hip " and wrote that the women were " needy and desperate " and " one @-@ shtick ponies " in comparison to those from Sex and the City .
= 2009 Football League Two play @-@ off Final =
The 2009 Football League Two play @-@ off final was a football match played at Wembley Stadium on 23 May 2009 , at the end of the 2008 – 09 season . The match determined the fourth and final team to gain promotion from Football League Two , the fourth tier of the English football league system , and featured Gillingham , who finished fifth during the league season , and Shrewsbury Town , who finished seventh .
The match was Gillingham 's first appearance at the new Wembley Stadium and Shrewsbury 's second . The teams reached the final by defeating Rochdale and Bury respectively in the semi @-@ finals . The match remained scoreless until the last minute , when Simeon Jackson headed in Josh Wright 's corner kick to give Gillingham the lead with seconds remaining . The Kent @-@ based club thus won promotion back to Football League One one year after being relegated .
= = Route to the final = =
Gillingham had finished the 2008 – 09 season in fifth place in Football League Two with 75 points , two places and six points above Shrewsbury . In the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals , the " Gills " faced Rochdale , who had finished in sixth position . The first leg at Rochdale 's Spotland Stadium on 7 May 2009 finished in a 0 – 0 draw . In the second match at Priestfield Stadium three days later , Simeon Jackson scored from an Andy Barcham cross to give Gillingham the lead in the 13th minute , only for Chris Dagnall to equalise in the 36th minute . Jackson scored a second goal with a penalty kick in the 58th minute after John Nutter had been fouled by Rory McArdle . Gillingham thus won the match 2 – 1 and won their semi @-@ final on aggregate by the same score .
Shrewsbury , who had only qualified for the play @-@ offs by defeating Dagenham & Redbridge in the final match of the regular season , played fourth placed Bury in their semi @-@ final . The first match at Shrewsbury 's home ground , New Meadow , was decided by a late own goal from Shrewsbury 's Neil Ashton , who accidentally lobbed the ball over his own goalkeeper Luke Daniels to give Bury a 1 – 0 win . In the second leg at Gigg Lane , Daniels saved Phil Jevons ' penalty kick and Shrewsbury 's Kevin McIntyre scored a goal in the 88th minute to level the tie . With no further score , a penalty shoot @-@ out was required to decide which team would advance to the final . Daniels saved penalty kicks from Andy Bishop and Danny Racchi and Shrewsbury won the shoot @-@ out and thus reached the final .
= = Match summary = =
The two teams were competing for promotion to Football League One , the third tier of the English football league system . The match was Gillingham 's first appearance at the new Wembley Stadium , although the club had played at the original Wembley in 1999 and 2000 . Shrewsbury had previously played at the new Wembley in the 2007 League Two play @-@ off final and at the original in the final of the 1996 Football League Trophy . The attendance of 53 @,@ 706 was significantly higher than the 35 @,@ 715 registered at the previous year 's League Two play @-@ off final . A specific revenue figure for the match was not made public , but half of the gate receipts went to The Football League to distribute amongst its member clubs , with Gillingham and Shrewsbury each receiving twenty @-@ five per cent and no additional television broadcast fee . Gillingham manager Mark Stimson named the same eleven players who had started the second leg of the semi @-@ final against Rochdale , while his opposite number Paul Simpson made two changes from the team which contested the second leg of the semi @-@ final against Bury , replacing David Worrall and Ömer Rıza with Chris Humphrey and Nick Chadwick .
Shortly before kick @-@ off , sports betting organisation Sky Bet gave identical odds of 6 / 4 on both teams to win , with 9 / 4 on a draw . The match referee was Clive Oliver , whose son Michael took charge of the League One play @-@ off Final the following day . This was the first time that a father and son had refereed in Football League play @-@ off finals . Pre @-@ match entertainment included teams from Killamarsh Junior School and Thurlby Community Primary School contesting the final of the Football Association Community Cup , a parade by members of the British armed forces , and a performance of the National Anthem led by operatic vocalist Will Martin .
= = = First half = = =
The early part of the game was largely uneventful , with both teams ' defenses looking unsettled . In the first minute Gillingham 's captain Barry Fuller was forced to hack the ball clear of his goal area after confusion among his team @-@ mates . Gillingham began to take control of the game , but the first serious goalscoring opportunity did not come until the 31st minute when John Nutter shot for goal after a corner kick , only to be denied by Shrewsbury goalkeeper Luke Daniels . Josh Wright and Dennis Oli both had goalscoring chances blocked by Shrewsbury 's defenders and Daniels also saved a shot from Wright . Shrewsbury struggled to keep possession of the ball and had few attempts on goal before the half @-@ time break .
= = = Second half = = =
The second half began with Gillingham dominating play , and Andy Barcham had a goalbound shot tipped away by goalkeeper Daniels . Soon afterwards , Gillingham goalkeeper Simon Royce made his first significant save of the match , stopping a shot from Shrewsbury 's Ben Davies , which marked the start of a spell of pressure from the " Shrews " . Kelvin Langmead 's shot was saved by Royce and Kevin McIntyre headed wide of the target when presented with what Sky Sports ' Richard Bailey considered the best opportunity of the game .
In the final minute of the game , Barcham tussled with a Shrewsbury defender and the referee awarded a corner kick to Gillingham . Josh Wright took the corner and Simeon Jackson headed the ball into the goal to give Gillingham the lead . Defender Neil Ashton , standing on the goal line , attempted to keep the ball out but was unsuccessful . Shrewsbury launched a last @-@ ditch attack in a bid to equalise , but captain Graham Coughlan 's header went over the crossbar and Gillingham held on to claim victory and gain promotion back to League One one year after being relegated from that division .
= = = Post @-@ match = = =
Post @-@ match analysis showed that referee Oliver had erroneously awarded the corner kick from which Gillingham 's goal had been scored , as the ball had in fact come off Barcham and therefore a goal kick should instead have been awarded to Shrewsbury . Paul Simpson referred to this in his post @-@ match comments , but said that " if we look at things like that we will be clutching at straws " . Mark Stimson highlighted the financial benefits of his team 's promotion , noting that large crowds would be expected for matches in League One against Leeds United , Norwich City and Southampton .
After the match , Gillingham captain Barry Fuller received the winners ' trophy from the presentation party , which consisted of Lord Mawhinney , the chairman of The Football League , and Mark Osikoya , Head of Marketing Assets for the League 's sponsors , Coca @-@ Cola . Two days later , the club staged a celebratory open @-@ top bus parade from Rochester Castle to Priestfield Stadium .
= = Match details = =
= = Statistics = =
Source : Sky Sports
= Flu Season ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" Flu Season " ( sometimes referred to as " The Flu " ) is the second episode of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 32nd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 27 , 2011 . In the episode , a flu outbreak leaves Leslie ill , but she insists on making a public presentation about her proposed harvest festival . Meanwhile , Andy and Ron bond , and a hospital @-@ bound April torments the nurse Ann .
The episode was written by Norm Hiscock and directed by Wendey Stanzler . The episode included major development of the characters Ann , Ron and Ben , the latter of whom becomes extremely impressed with Leslie , starting a season @-@ long romance subplot between the two characters . Brent Briscoe made a guest appearance as J.J. , owner of J.J. ' s Diner , a restaurant that has appeared in previous Parks episodes .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Flu Season " was seen by 5 @.@ 83 million household viewers , a six percent decline from the previous episode , third season premiere " Go Big or Go Home " . The episode received positive reviews , with many commentators calling it one of the show 's best episodes . Critics also praised the performance of Rob Lowe during the scenes when Chris is stricken by the flu . Reviewers said the relationship between Chris and Ann made her character much more interesting and funny .
Amy Poehler submitted this episode for judging for her nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series in 2011 .
= = Plot = =
The flu season has hit Pawnee hard , leaving nurse Ann ( Rashida Jones ) caring for many sick citizens at the hospital . Among them are April ( Aubrey Plaza ) , who constantly mistreats Ann in retaliation for kissing Andy ( Chris Pratt ) . April asks Ron ( Nick Offerman ) not to tell Andy she is in the hospital , and Ron is anxious not to get involved in their personal affairs . Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) also has the flu , but will not admit it because she wants to give an important presentation to the Pawnee Chamber of Commerce about the planned Harvest Festival , which she hopes will restore the dwindling budget of the parks department . Ben ( Adam Scott ) finally takes a reluctant Leslie to the hospital , where she is admitted with a dangerously high fever and dehydration . Ben and Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) decide to do the presentation themselves , much to the chagrin of Leslie , who does not trust anyone but herself to do it . Tom immediately abandons Ben to hang out with a group of older men at the spa .
To Ann 's surprise , Chris ( Rob Lowe ) has also been admitted to the hospital with the flu . The two have been dating and , although Ann really likes Chris , she fears he is too perfect . However , because the extremely health @-@ conscious Chris has a poor immune system and nearly no body fat , he suffers a complete physical breakdown , which makes Ann feel less intimidated about dating him . Meanwhile , Leslie escapes the hospital and heads back to city hall to deliver the presentation herself . Tom returns from the spa , revealing his spa friends are the owners of several car dealerships , which have agreed to lend vehicles to the festival . Although delirious with fever and an excess of flu medication , Leslie delivers a flawless presentation , wildly impressing Ben . She is immediately brought back to the hospital , where Ben tells her 110 businesses have agreed to help with the festival , surpassing the minimum 80 needed .
At the department , with April absent from work , Ron asks Andy to fill in as an assistant because the anti @-@ government oriented Ron believes Andy will be ineffective . The two bond over the course of the day , and Andy begins to tell Ron about his problems with April , for whom he still harbors romantic feelings . Although initially not wishing to get involved , Ron reluctantly tells Andy she is at the hospital and he should visit her . Meanwhile , Ann remains pleasant throughout her nursing shift despite April 's constant abuse . The second her shift ends , however , Ann immediately loses her temper and curses at April . Ann apologizes for kissing Andy , but insists it was a mistake and that April should stop taking it out on Andy . Later , Andy visits April , who pretends to be asleep but smiles , revealing she is happy he came .
At the end of the episode , Chris tells Ben they have been called back to Indianapolis for a new assignment , but both agree to seek an extension to stay in Pawnee longer . Although both claim they want to help organize the Harvest Festival , it is hinted they really want to stay because of Leslie and Ann .
= = Production = =
" Flu Season " was written by Norm Hiscock and directed by Wendey Stanzler . Like all six of the first third season episodes , it was written and filmed almost immediately after the second season ended as part of an early shooting schedule needed to accommodate Amy Poehler 's pregnancy . However , although finished early in anticipation of a September 2010 release date , Parks was ultimately placed on hiatus until early 2011 , many months after production on " Flu Season " was already finished . Although initially titled " The Flu " in original press releases , and referred to as such by several news articles , the episode title was later formally changed to " Flu Season " . " Flu Season " continued the subplot of restoring the parks department budget through a harvest festival , which will continue to be a major story arc throughout the first six episodes of the season . Brent Briscoe makes an appearance in " Flu Season " as J.J. , the owner of J.J. ' s Diner . Although the restaurant appears in the previous episode " The Reporter " , " Summer Catalog " and " The Master Plan " , " Flu Season " marked the first appearance of J.J. himself .
Michael Schur , co @-@ creator of Parks and Recreation , said the episode included development of several of the protagonist characters , including Ben Wyatt , Ann Perkins and Ron Swanson . One of the major story arcs of the season entails Ben , who had never had a firm sense of home , gradually falling in love with the town of Pawnee due to the optimism and enthusiasm Leslie Knope shows for the town and her job . Commentators suggested this transition appeared to begin in " Flu Season " , when Ben is visibly , extremely impressed by Leslie 's perfect deliverance of a public presentation despite her illness . Steve Kandell of New York magazine wrote : " This is obviously the moment when Ben ’ s begrudging respect for her becomes something else " , and The Atlantic writer Scott Meslow wrote : " Parks and Recreation has allowed Ben to develop in the background so far , but his affection for Pawnee is clearly growing . "
" Flu Season " also demonstrated a departure in the way Ann 's romantic relationships were handled compared to past seasons . The character previously dated Andy Dwyer , and Mark Brendanawicz ( Paul Schneider ) who was written out of the show at the end of the second season . In both cases , Ann was primarily in control of the relationship due to Andy 's immaturity and Mark 's lack of experience in long @-@ term romances . Schur said of Ann 's relationship with Chris , " This is the first time that Ann just completely loses herself and really falls for a guy super hard . And the relationship goes in a lot of funny , unexpected directions . " Intimidated by her inability to find a flaw in the extremely positive and physically perfect Chris , Ann acts more awkwardly and nerdy around him than her character has been in the past . " Flu Season " also demonstrated deeper levels to Ron Swanson , who adamantly insists " I 'm not interested in caring about people " , yet reveals he cares about both Andy and April , and tries to help the two reconcile . Schur said Ron takes on a sort of father figure role , " and he ends up revealing in a tiny , tiny , tiny way that 's still true to the character that he has genuine feelings of caring for the people who work around him in the Parks office " .
= = Cultural references = =
In the episode , Ben compares Leslie 's delivery of a perfect presentation despite having the flu to basketball player Michael Jordan 's showing during the 1997 NBA Finals . During the fifth game of the series , Jordan lead the Chicago Bulls to victory despite suffering from a serious case of the flu . Ben also compares Leslie 's speech to the famous home run baseball player Kirk Gibson hit off of pitcher Dennis Eckersley during the 1988 World Series , despite Gibson suffering from injuries to both legs at the time . While bonding , Ron and Andy discuss the draft history of the Indianapolis Colts , the NFL football team of Indiana . When Andy suggests Ron eat a burrito called the " Meat Tornado " , Ron says , " You had me at Meat Tornado , " a reference to the line " You had me at hello " from the romantic drama film Jerry Maguire ( 1996 ) . While deluded by the flu , Leslie mistakenly refers to the chamber of commerce as the " Chamber of Secrets " , a reference to the fantasy novel Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets . At one point , while practicing her speech delirious with the flu , Leslie turns to a wall poster and says , " Good evening everyone , I 'm Leslie Monster and this is Nightline , " a reference to the NBC newsmagazine program . Later , while still delirious , Leslie introduces Ben to the presentation audience as " Scott Bakula from Quantum Leap " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Flu Season " was seen by an estimated 5 @.@ 83 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with an overall 3 @.@ 0 rating / 8 share , and 3 @.@ 2 rating / 5 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . It marked a six percent decline compared to the previous episode , " Go Big or Go Home " , which itself was the highest overall Parks rating for since the premiere episode . The night " Flu Season " was broadcast , almost all of the comedy shows in NBC 's Thursday lineup lost viewership compared to the prior week : while Community remained flat , Perfect Couples was down 19 percent , while The Office and 30 Rock were down 11 percent .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Flu Season " received generally positive reviews , with many commentators praising the performance of Rob Lowe , whose character is usually physically fit to almost superhuman proportions but becomes extremely ill and hallucinatory when infected with the flu . Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter said Lowe 's character now seemed well @-@ integrated into the cast , adding " If you 've never believed Lowe can make you laugh out loud , pay attention to that episode . " Steve Kandell of New York magazine said Lowe stole the show from the usual Parks powerhouses of Offerman and Pratt , and called one scene , when Lowe tries to will away his flu by yelling to himself in the mirror " Stop ... pooping ! " , the " single greatest self @-@ effacingly comic moment of his long , handsome career " . The Atlantic writer Scott Meslow , who said after two episodes , the pairing of Chris and Ann was already more interesting that Ann 's entire relationship with Mark Brendanawicz in the second season , and that the new romance subplot allowed the normally " straight ( wo ) man " Rashida Jones to display her comedic talents . Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis said Chris " really came into his own " in the episode , and also said that Ann 's relationship with Chris made her character more interesting and gave Jones greater comedic material to work with .
HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall declared " Flu Season " the one episode he would suggest to newcomers seeking to become familiar with Parks and Recreation because it spotlights so many different characters , includes both warm and comedic moments and includes commentary on small town government . He praised the performances of Lowe and Poehler , the latter of whom was especially effective because there were real stakes to Leslie making her presentation . Matt Fowler of IGN also said Lowe 's character , which he feared would get old fast , had proven to be a strong asset to the show , and Ann 's character was at her strongest opposite him . But Fowler also said " Flu Season " was a strong ensemble with great character moments for everyone , including Ron and Andy 's bonding and Ben 's admiration of Leslie . The A.V. Club writer Steve Heisler said " Flu Season " gave the entire cast the chance to be a bit sillier than usual and demonstrate their wide comedic ranges . Heisler said Ben and Chris felt like they belonged among the other characters , and he praised the performance of Aubrey Plaza , claiming April 's character seemed more fleshed out than in past episodes .
Zap2it writer Rick Porter called " Flu Season " one of the best episodes of Parks and Recreation , particularly praising the " outstanding teamup " of Ron and the " different shades of Ann " displayed in the show . Porter said he simultaneously loved both Lowe 's over @-@ the @-@ top performance while sick , and Poehler 's more subtle performance . Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic said the way Chris has become so well integrated into the show demonstrates how well the writers keep seemingly ridiculous characters grounded . Richenthal said Poehler made her sick scenes seem like strong character moments rather than just slapstick comedy , and praised the scenes with Ron and Andy , as well as Tom 's scenes at the spa . Joel Keller of TV Squad said the episode strongly developed the characters Ben and Chris , and served as a showcase for the comedic talents of Poehler , who he complimented for not going too over the top . Hollywood.com writer Eric Sundermann said the episode showcased Parks and Recreation at its finest , and said both Poehler and Lowe gave some of their best performance to date . Sundermann praised the pairing of Offerman and Pratt , and said although he had reservations about a Ben and Leslie romance , he believed it got off to a charming start in " Flu Season " .
= Aitraaz =
Aitraaz ( English : Objection ) is a 2004 Indian Hindi romantic thriller film produced by Subhash Ghai for Mukta Arts and directed by Abbas @-@ Mustan . It tells the story of a man accused of sexual harassment by his female superior . The film stars Akshay Kumar , Kareena Kapoor and Priyanka Chopra and was the third film collaboration between Kumar and Kapoor , and Kumar and Chopra . Aitraaz features Amrish Puri , Paresh Rawal and Annu Kapoor in supporting roles . Its score was composed by Himesh Reshammiya , with lyrics by Sameer .
The film was released worldwide on 12 November 2004 to positive reviews , and Chopra received critical acclaim for her role as Sonia Roy , an ambitious woman who accuses an employee of sexual harassment , a first in Hindi cinema . The film grossed about ₹ 240 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 6 million ) domestically , and was a commercial success .
Aitraaz received a number of nominations , winning several awards ( including an individual one for Chopra ) . At the 50th Filmfare Awards the film received two nominations , including Best Supporting Actress and Best Performance in a Negative Role , becoming the second ( and final ) actress to win the award after Kajol ; the category was discontinued in 2008 . Aitraaz was remade in Kannada as Shrimathi in 2011 . The film is based on the 1994 Hollywood film Disclosure .
= = Plot = =
Raj Malhotra ( Akshay Kumar ) is employed by a telecommunications company , Air Voice . Priya Saxena ( Kareena Kapoor ) , who is looking for a full @-@ time job , goes to Raj 's house for an interview , mistaking him for barrister Ram Chautrani ( Annu Kapoor ) , a neighbour and Raj 's friend . Raj and Priya fall in love , marry and are expecting their first child .
Raj expects to be promoted to CEO when the company 's chairman ( Amrish Puri ) arrives with his new wife , Sonia Roy ( Priyanka Chopra ) to announce the promotions . Sonia Roy is named the company 's new chairman ; after a discussion with her husband , she announces the promotions . The CEO position goes to Raj 's friend Rakesh ( Vivek Shauq ) , and Raj is named as one of the board of directors . At a party , Raj , accompanied by Priya , learns about his new boss , Sonia Roy . Priya is surprised that Sonia is the wife of the former chairman ( and half his age ) . Raj and his colleagues talk about Sonia Roy and the age difference between her and her husband , and Raj jokes that his magnetic personality was responsible for his promotion .
A flashback explores Raj 's previous relationship with Sonia . Five years earlier , Raj and Sonia ( then a model ) meet at a beach in Cape Town . They fall in love and move in together ; Sonia becomes pregnant with Raj 's child , which makes him happy . But Sonia refuses Raj 's marriage proposal and says she is going to terminate the pregnancy . She wants wealth , fame , power and status , and a child would be in the way ; their relationship ends .
On the next day , Rakesh tells Raj about a defect in the company 's new mobile handset : a call goes to two people simultaneously — the intended recipient and another person on the phone 's contact list . Raj needs Sonia 's permission to halt production , and she invites him to her house to discuss the matter .
Sonia aggressively tries to pursue Raj , who resists . Although he repeatedly rejects her advances , Sonia continues trying to seduce him . For a moment it seems that Raj has given in to Sonia 's advances but after looking at his locket which has Priya 's portrait in it , Raj realises what he is doing and tries to leave . As Raj leaves , she threatens to punish him for spurning her . The next day , he learns that Sonia has told her husband that Raj harassed her sexually . Since he has admitted finding Sonia attractive , his claim of innocence is not believed , and the company pressures him into a resignation .
Raj asks Ram Chauthrani to take his case ; Chauthrani tells him not to resign , and to keep going to work . The case goes to court ; Sonia and Roy engage a lawyer , Patel ( Paresh Rawal ) . Although the bulk of the evidence is at first against Raj , his bank manager friend returns from Bangkok and gives him a tape which recorded Raj 's encounter at Sonia 's house . After the tape is proven genuine , Chauthrani is struck by a car driven by someone hired by Sonia and the tape is substituted .
When Priya asks Raj why he called their bank manager from Sonia 's house , he replies that he had called Rakesh ; the call went through to the bank manager as well . Priya ( also a lawyer ) continues the case after Chauthrani 's injury . She uses Rakesh 's phone in evidence against Sonia , exposing her earlier relationship with Raj . It is revealed that Sonia married Roy for money , power and status ; when he could not satisfy her sexually , she tried to resume her relationship with Raj . Priya wins the case and Roy leaves Sonia . Guilt @-@ stricken and humiliated , Sonia commits suicide by jumping from a building .
= = Cast = =
Akshay Kumar as Raj Malhotra
Kareena Kapoor as Priya Saxena Malhotra
Priyanka Chopra as Mrs. Sonia Roy
Amrish Puri as Ranjit Roy
Anu Kapoor as Barrister Ram Chauthrani
Paresh Rawal as Advocate Patel
Vivek Shauq as Rakesh Sharma
Preeti Puri as Jenny ( Raj 's secretary )
Upasna Singh as Kanchan
Dinesh Lamba as Chauthrani 's assistant
Firoz Irani
Sudhir Mitoo
Anil Nagrath
Kamal Chopra
Suresh Bhagawat
= = Production = =
According to Abbas @-@ Mustan , Aitraaz was inspired by National Basketball Association player Kobe Bryant ( who was accused of rape by a fan ) ; the film 's development began when they read about his sexual @-@ assault case in the newspapers . According to the directors , they were fascinated by the possibility of the situation in reverse . About the film 's unusual title , they said the word " aitraaz " was colloquial and suited the subject .
In early 2004 the media reported that Akshay Kumar , Kareena Kapoor and Priyanka Chopra were cast in lead roles , making it the third film collaboration between Kumar and Chopra after highly successful films Andaaz ( 2003 ) and Mujhse Shaadi Karogi ( 2004 ) . Kumar was cast as a working man accused of rape at his workplace ; Kapoor is his supportive wife , who goes to extremes to defend him . According to the directors , Kumar was cast against type ; an action star , they wanted him to underplay his character . Abbas @-@ Mustan , known for stylish thrillers and intriguing antagonists , cast Chopra in her first negative role . She plays a woman , married to a business magnate more than twice her age ( played by Amrish Puri ) , who falsely accuses her ex @-@ lover ( Kumar ) of raping her to seek revenge . Chopra was initially apprehensive about such a bold character , due to the controversial nature of sexual harassment . Abbas @-@ Mastan and Subhash Ghai ( the film 's producer ) convinced her to accept the role , assuring her that the film would not damage her career .
According to Kumar , Raj ( accused of rape by his female boss ) is realistic and could be described as a " new @-@ age metrosexual " man . He enjoyed the strengths and weaknesses of his character , who is not afraid to show his feelings and does not feel emasculated by his situation . Kumar stated : " There 's a quiet dignity and heroism associated with my character . He doesn 't fight for applause . He fights for his convictions . " In an interview with Tribune India , Kapoor remarked that " every Indian woman could identify with her character " of Priya . She said her role ( a woman whose husband is accused of rape by his former girlfriend ) is supportive ; she stands by him , as any Indian woman would .
Chopra described her character ( Sonia , an ambitious woman who accuses her employee of sexual harassment ) as " charming and focused " , commenting that her " philosophy is that she has to achieve her goals at any cost . She knows one thing : that nothing can come in between her desires and herself . " Chopra did not identify with the character , considering it a " man @-@ eater role " because of her conservative real @-@ life upbringing . Chopra found it challenging to play such an " extremely negative character " , and had to mentally prepare herself for an hour before each scene to get inside her character . She improvised gestures and expressions ; beyond actions and dialogue , her attitude was aggressive and bold .
The film was shot in Cape Town , Goa , Pune and Mumbai . During filming of the sexual @-@ harassment scene , Chopra wept ; it took the directors several hours to remind her she was only playing a character , and additional filming was postponed .
= = Soundtrack = =
Aitraaz 's soundtrack was composed by Himesh Reshammiya , with lyrics by Sameer . The album contains fifteen songs : seven original , and eight remixes . Most were sung by Udit Narayan and Alka Yagnik . It was released on 24 September 2004 by Sony Music , topping charts on a number of platforms in India . The video of the title track with Kumar and Chopra was shot in one take with a steadycam .
The soundtrack was generally well received by music critics , who praised its lyrics and vocals . Planet Bollywood gave a rating of 7 out of 10 , calling it a " good album " . Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama rated the album 3 out of 5 , praising " I Want To Make Love To You " ( all three versions ) : " Sunidhi Chauhan is excellent in this wonderfully @-@ composed track that shocks everyone with the intensity of the lyrics and the music " . He concluded , " Except for two or three average songs here and there , the majority of songs in Aitraaz do keep you engaged " .
= = Marketing and release = =
The first @-@ look poster of the film , with the tagline " In the world of women , you either play by their rules or else ... " , was received positively by critics ; the film 's trailers were also well received . They and the film 's music aided its marketing .
Aitraaz was released worldwide on Diwali , 12 November 2004 , to positive reviews and moderate box @-@ office success . It became the eleventh @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of the year in India , and a commercial success . The film was released on DVD 6 December 2004 across all regions in a PAL @-@ format single disc . Distributed by Shemaroo Entertainment , it included a making @-@ of @-@ the @-@ film segment and a photo gallery . The VCD version was released at the same time , and Zee Network bought the exclusive broadcast rights . Aitraaz made its Indian television premiere 30 October 2005 on Zee Cinema . The film was remade in Kannada as Shrimathi , starring Upendra , Priyanka Trivedi and Celina Jaitley .
= = Critical reception = =
Aitraaz received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised its direction , cinematography , dialogue , music and performances , particularly Chopra 's . The BBC noted the film 's bold theme , good music and performances and remarked that " Abbas @-@ Mustaan have done a good job in ' Indianising ' the whole concept " . It also praised other aspects of the film , describing it as " a gripping edge of the seat drama that keeps viewers glued to their seats " . India Today film critic Anupama Chopra gave it a positive review , remarking that " Aitraaz has no pretensions . It 's good timepass . "
Rediff.com praised the film and its originality in Bollywood , noting " the incredible audience response to the film : the public was clapping and whistling throughout the film 's second half ! " However , they considered some of the dialogues to be " extremely cliched " , especially during the court scene . Film critic Subhash K. Jha , on the other hand , was particularly impressed with the court scene which he considered to be " splendid " , and rated the film 3 out of 5 . He considered Chopra 's performance to be a triumph , remarking : " A star is born ! As the predatory social @-@ climbing seductress who can go to any length to satiate her lust for life , Priyanka Chopra rocks the scene like never before . " However , Jha believed that Kareena was miscast and seemed a little awkward in a non @-@ glamorous role , but " comes into her own in the climactic courtroom sequence where she dons the lawyer 's coat to bail her husband out " . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama rated the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , describing it as " a well @-@ crafted thriller " and complimenting the directors ' opting for " a theme that has been untouched on the Indian screen so far " and the film 's " dramatic moments " . Like Jha , he believed that the film belonged entirely to Priyanka Chopra , and was impressed with her understanding of the character , and the way she drew the hatred of the audience . He also complimented the performances by Kapoor and Kumar .
Sudhish Kamath of The Hindu criticised the film 's second half , commenting that " though first half of the movie is well @-@ paced , the second half sags with the songs and twists forced into the plot to buy time " , but stated that it was " passable with its slick production , a few funny lines , glam quotient and star appeal . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
Aitraaz received a number of awards and nominations , particularly for Chopra 's performance . At the 50th Filmfare Awards , the actress received two nominations for this role : Best Supporting Actress and Best Performance in a Negative Role . She won the latter , the second ( and final ) actress to win the award after Kajol ; the category was discontinued in 2008 . Chopra also won the Best Actress Award at the Bengal Film Journalists ' Association Awards . The film received two nominations at the 10th Screen Awards : Jodi No. 1 ( Best Pair ) for Kumar and Chopra and Best Villain for Chopra , winning the latter . It received ten nominations at the 6th International Indian Film Academy Awards , winning three technical @-@ category awards : Best Editing , Best Sound Recording and Best Sound Re @-@ Recording .
= SMS Saida =
SMS Saida was a Novara @-@ class scout cruiser built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the early 1910s . The ship was armed with a main battery of nine 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns , and six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes were added in 1917 . She was built by the Cantiere Navale Triestino shipyard from 1911 to 1914 , entering service days after the outbreak of World War I. She spent the war as a flotilla leader , conducting raids and patrols in the narrow waters of the Adriatic Sea .
In May 1917 , Saida took part in the Battle of the Strait of Otranto , the largest naval action in the course of the war in the Adriatic . Saida was tasked with provoking a final fleet confrontation in June 1918 , but the attack was called off after the dreadnought battleship SMS Szent Istvan was sunk by an Italian motor torpedo boat . Saida was ceded to Italy after war and commissioned as Venezia . She served in the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) from 1921 to 1937 , ending her career as a barracks ship after 1930 . The ship was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1937 . The three Novara class cruisers were the largest vessels of the former Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to see service in foreign navies after the war .
= = Design = =
Saida was 130 @.@ 64 meters ( 428 ft 7 in ) long overall , with a beam of 12 @.@ 79 meters ( 42 ft 0 in ) and a mean draft of 4 @.@ 6 meters ( 15 ft 1 in ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 500 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 400 long tons ) at normal load , and up to 4 @,@ 017 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 954 long tons ) at deep load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Melms @-@ Pfenniger steam turbines driving two propeller shafts . They were designed to provide 25 @,@ 600 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 100 kW ) and were powered by 16 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . Saida carried about 710 metric tons ( 700 long tons ) of coal that gave her a range of approximately 1 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 000 km ; 1 @,@ 800 mi ) at 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . The ship had a crew of 340 officers and men .
Saida was armed with nine 50 @-@ caliber 10 @-@ centimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in single pedestal mounts . Three were placed forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were side by side on the quarterdeck . A 50 @-@ caliber 6 @.@ 6 @-@ centimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun and six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in twin mounts were added in 1917 . The navy planned to remove the guns on the forecastle and quarterdeck and replace them with a pair of 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns fore and aft , but nothing was done before the end of the war . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 60 mm thick sides , and the deck was 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Saida was laid down at the Cantiere Navale Triestino shipyard in Monfalcone on 9 September 1911 . Her completed hull was launched on 26 October 1912 , and construction , including fitting @-@ out , was completed by 1 August 1914 , four days after Austria @-@ Hungary declared war on Serbia . Following the outbreak of World War I , Saida was assigned as the flotilla leader for the First Torpedo Flotilla , which included the six Tátra @-@ class destroyers , six Huszár @-@ class destroyers , ten torpedo boats , and a depot ship . Following the Italian declaration of war against Austria @-@ Hungary in May 1915 , most of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet sortied in a surprise attack on various points on the Italian coast . During the operation , Saida , her sister Helgoland , the cruisers Admiral Spaun and Szigetvár , and nine destroyers provided a screen against a possible Italian counterattack , which did not materialize .
The ship 's first combat came on 17 August 1915 when she , Helgoland , and four destroyers bombarded Italian forces on the island of Pelagosa which had recently been occupied by the Italians . In late 1915 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy began a series of raids against the merchant ships supplying Allied forces in Serbia and Montenegro . On the night of 22 November 1915 , Saida , Helgoland , and the 1st Torpedo Division raided the Albanian coast and sank a pair of Italian transports carrying flour . Chronic problems with Saida 's turbines prevented her from being used for much of the war , leaving Helgoland and SMS Novara to shoulder most of the burden of the naval war in the Adriatic .
= = = Battle of the Strait of Otranto = = =
In May 1917 , Admiral Miklós Horthy planned a major raid on the drifters of the Otranto Barrage , using a force composed of the three Novara @-@ class cruisers . The three cruisers were modified to resemble destroyers , and where thoroughly overhauled in preparation for the attack . Their boilers and turbines were cleaned to ensure the highest efficiency , and an anti @-@ aircraft gun was installed on each ship . The ships were to attack separately while two destroyers made a diversionary attack on the drifters near the Albanian coast . On the night of 14 May , the ships departed port and managed to pass through the line of drifters in the darkness without being identified . As the sounds from the diversionary attack were heard , the drifters released their nets and began to head towards the Strait of Otranto . At 03 : 45 , Saida and the other cruisers began their attacks on the drifters , though Saida stopped her engines and drifted toward the patrol vessels for about 30 minutes to conceal her position . Saida opened fire at 4 : 20 , setting three drifters on fire , before stopping to pick up nineteen survivors .
The Austrian ships were first contacted during their retreat by a group of three French destroyers led by a small Italian scout cruiser , Carlo Mirabello , but the heavier guns of the Austrian ships dissuaded the Allied commander from pressing an attack . They were intercepted shortly afterward by a stronger group of two British protected cruisers , Bristol and Dartmouth , escorted by four Italian destroyers . Dartmouth opened fire with her 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns at a range of 10 @,@ 600 yards ( 9 @,@ 700 m ) and Horthy ordered his ships to lay a smoke screen several minutes later . Horthy called for reinforcements that came in the form of the armored cruiser Sankt Georg , which sortied with two destroyers and four torpedo boats . The heavy smoke nearly caused the three Austrian cruisers to collide , but it covered them from the fire from the British ships as they closed the range . When they emerged , the Austrian ships were only about 4 @,@ 900 yards ( 4 @,@ 500 m ) from the British , a range much more suitable for the smaller Austrian guns .
The three cruisers were gradually drawing away from their pursuers when Novara , leading the Austrian ships , was hit several times . Novara 's boilers were disabled , leaving her dead in the water . Saida was preparing to take Novara under tow when several Italian destroyers attacked in succession . The weight of fire from the three cruisers prevented them from closing to torpedo range and they scored no hits . Sankt Georg arrived and Saida took Novara under tow for the voyage back to port . The four cruisers assembled in line @-@ ahead formation , with Sankt Georg the last vessel in the line , to cover the other three ships . Later in the afternoon , the old coastal defense ship Budapest and three more torpedo boats joined the ships to strengthen the escort .
The ship was tasked to participate in a major attack on the Allied ships defending the Strait of Otranto on 11 June 1918 . Saida , Admiral Spaun , and four torpedo boats were to have attacked the seaplane base at Otranto to draw out the Allied fleet . The operation was called off after the dreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk by an Italian motor torpedo boat en route to the rendezvous for the operation . On 3 November 1918 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian government signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti with Italy , ending their participation in the conflict . Following the armistice , the entire Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet was transferred to the newly formed Yugoslavia .
= = = Italian service = = =
In 1920 , under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , Saida and the rest of the fleet was surrendered to the Allied powers as war prizes . The ship was ceded to Italy , where she was commissioned as Venezia on 5 July 1921 ; she and her sisters were the largest vessels of the former Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to see active service in the navies of their former enemies . Venezia 's 6 @.@ 6 cm anti @-@ aircraft gun was replaced with a 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun of Italian manufacture ; apart from that modification , the ship served in her original configuration . From 1930 , she served as a barracks ship , first at Genoa and then in La Spezia . In September 1935 , Venezia was drydocked at La Spezia in preparation of being laid up before being scrapped . The ship was sold for scrapping 11 March 1937 and was subsequently broken up .
= Apollo program =
The Apollo program , also known as Project Apollo , was the third United States human spaceflight program carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) , which accomplished landing the first humans on the Moon from 1969 to 1972 . First conceived during Dwight D. Eisenhower 's administration as a three @-@ man spacecraft to follow the one @-@ man Project Mercury which put the first Americans in space , Apollo was later dedicated to President John F. Kennedy 's national goal of " landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth " by the end of the 1960s , which he proposed in an address to Congress on May 25 , 1961 .
Kennedy 's goal was accomplished on the Apollo 11 mission when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Lunar Module ( LM ) on July 20 , 1969 , and walked on the lunar surface , while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the Command / Service Module ( CSM ) , and all three landed safely on Earth on July 24 . Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon , the last in December 1972 . In these six spaceflights , twelve men walked on the Moon .
Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972 , with the first manned flight in 1968 . It achieved its goal of manned lunar landing , despite the major setback of a 1967 Apollo 1 cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test . After the first landing , sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow @-@ on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration . Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these . Five of the remaining six missions achieved successful landings , but the Apollo 13 landing was prevented by an oxygen tank explosion in transit to the Moon , which damaged the CSM 's propulsion and life support . The crew returned to Earth safely by using the Lunar Module as a " lifeboat " for these functions . It used Saturn family rockets as launch vehicles , which were also used for an Apollo Applications Program , which consisted of Skylab , a space station that supported three manned missions in 1973 – 74 , and the Apollo – Soyuz Test Project , a joint Earth orbit mission with the Soviet Union in 1975 .
Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones . It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit . Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body , while the final Apollo 17 mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond low Earth orbit . The program returned 842 pounds ( 382 kg ) of lunar rocks and soil to Earth , greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moon 's composition and geological history . The program laid the foundation for NASA 's current human spaceflight capability , and funded construction of its Johnson Space Center and Kennedy Space Center . Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight , including avionics , telecommunications , and computers .
= = Background = =
The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960 , as a follow @-@ up to Project Mercury . While the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission , Apollo would carry three astronauts . Possible missions included ferrying crews to a space station , circumlunar flights , and eventual manned lunar landings . The program was named after the Greek god of light , music , and the sun by NASA manager Abe Silverstein , who later said that " I was naming the spacecraft like I 'd name my baby . " Silverstein chose the name at home one evening , early in 1960 , because he felt " Apollo riding his chariot across the Sun was appropriate to the grand scale of the proposed program . "
= = = Spacecraft feasibility studies = = =
In July 1960 , NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences . Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the command module ( piloting and re @-@ entry cabin ) , and a propulsion and equipment module . On August 30 , a feasibility study competition was announced , and on October 25 , three study contracts were awarded to General Dynamics / Convair , General Electric , and the Glenn L. Martin Company . Meanwhile , NASA performed its own in @-@ house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget , to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs .
= = = Political pressure builds = = =
In November 1960 , John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense . Up to the election of 1960 , Kennedy had been speaking out against the " missile gap " that he and many other senators felt had formed between the Soviets and themselves due to the inaction of President Eisenhower . Beyond military power , Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of national prestige , pledging to make the US not " first but , first and , first if , but first period . " Despite Kennedy 's rhetoric , he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president . He knew little about the technical details of the space program , and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing . When Kennedy 's newly appointed NASA Administrator James E. Webb requested a 30 percent budget increase for his agency , Kennedy supported an acceleration of NASA 's large booster program but deferred a decision on the broader issue .
On April 12 , 1961 , Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space , reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union . At a meeting of the US House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day after Gagarin 's flight , many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up . Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news , refusing to make a commitment on America 's response to the Soviets .
On April 20 , Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson , asking Johnson to look into the status of America 's space program , and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up . Johnson responded approximately one week later , concluding that " we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership . " His memo concluded that a manned Moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United States would achieve it first .
On May 25 , 1961 , twenty days after the first US manned spaceflight Freedom 7 , Kennedy proposed the manned Moon landing in a Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs :
" Now it is time to take longer strides - time for a great new American enterprise - time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement , which in many ways may hold the key to our future on Earth .
... I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal , before this decade is out , of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth . No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind , or more important in the long @-@ range exploration of space ; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish . " Full text
= = NASA expansion = =
At the time of Kennedy 's proposal , only one American had flown in space — less than a month earlier — and NASA had not yet sent an astronaut into orbit . Even some NASA employees doubted whether Kennedy 's ambitious goal could be met . By 1963 , Kennedy even came close to agreeing to a joint US @-@ USSR Moon mission , to eliminate duplication of effort .
With the clear goal of a manned landing replacing the more nebulous goals of space stations and cislunar flights , NASA had to hit the ground running , and decided to discard the feasibility study designs of Convair , GE , and Martin , and proceed with Faget 's command / service module design . The mission module was determined to be only useful as an extra room , and therefore deemed unnecessary . They used Faget 's design as the specification for another competition for spacecraft procurement bids in October 1961 . On November 28 , 1961 , it was announced that North American Aviation had won the contract , although its bid was not rated as good as Martin 's . Webb , Dryden and Robert Seamans chose it in preference due to North American 's longer association with NACA .
Landing men on the Moon by the end of 1969 required the most sudden burst of technological creativity , and the largest commitment of resources ( $ 24 billion ) ever made by any nation in peacetime . At its peak , the Apollo program employed 400 @,@ 000 people and required the support of over 20 @,@ 000 industrial firms and universities .
On July 1 , 1960 , NASA established of the Marshall Space Flight Center ( MSFC ) in Huntsville , Alabama . MSFC designed the heavy lift @-@ class Saturn launch vehicles , which would be required for Apollo .
= = = Manned Spacecraft Center = = =
It became clear that managing the Apollo program would exceed the capabilities of Robert R. Gilruth 's Space Task Group , which had been directing the nation 's manned space program from NASA 's Langley Research Center . So Gilruth was given authority to grow his organization into a new NASA center , the Manned Spacecraft Center ( MSC ) . A site was chosen in Houston , Texas , on land donated by Rice University , and Administrator Webb announced the conversion on September 19 , 1961 . It was also clear NASA would soon outgrow its practice of controlling missions from its Cape Canaveral Air Force Station launch facilities in Florida , so a new Mission Control Center would be included in the MSC .
In September 1962 , by which time two Project Mercury astronauts had orbited the Earth , Gilruth had moved his organization to rented space in Houston , and construction of the MSC facility was under way , Kennedy visited Rice to reiterate his challenge in a famous speech :
" But why , some say , the Moon ? Why choose this as our goal ? And they may well ask , why climb the highest mountain ? Why , 35 years ago , fly the Atlantic ? ...
We choose to go to the Moon . We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things , not because they are easy , but because they are hard ; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills ; because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept , one we are unwilling to postpone , and one we intend to win ... . Full text
The MSC was completed in September 1963 . It was renamed by the US Congress in honor of Lyndon Johnson soon after his death in 1973 .
= = = Launch Operations Center = = =
It also became clear that Apollo would outgrow the Canaveral launch facilities in Florida . The two newest launch complexes were already being built for the Saturn I and IB rockets at the northernmost end : LC @-@ 34 and LC @-@ 37 . But an even bigger facility would be needed for the mammoth rocket required for the manned lunar mission , so land acquisition was started in July 1961 for a Launch Operations Center ( LOC ) immediately north of Canaveral at Merritt Island . The design , development and construction of the center was conducted by Kurt H. Debus , a member of Dr. Wernher von Braun 's original V @-@ 2 rocket engineering team . Debus was named the LOC 's first Director . Construction began in November 1962 . Upon Kennedy 's death , President Johnson issued an executive order on November 29 , 1963 , to rename the LOC and Cape Canaveral in honor of Kennedy .
The LOC included Launch Complex 39 , a Launch Control Center , and a 130 million cubic foot ( 3 @.@ 7 million cubic meter ) Vertical Assembly Building ( VAB ) in which the space vehicle ( launch vehicle and spacecraft ) would be assembled on a Mobile Launcher Platform and then moved by a transporter to one of several launch pads . Although at least three pads were planned , only two , designated A and B , were completed in October 1965 . The LOC also included an Operations and Checkout Building ( OCB ) to which Gemini and Apollo spacecraft were initially received prior to being mated to their launch vehicles . The Apollo spacecraft could be tested in two vacuum chambers capable of simulating atmospheric pressure at altitudes up to 250 @,@ 000 feet ( 76 km ) , which is nearly a vacuum .
= = = Organization = = =
Administrator Webb realized that in order to keep Apollo costs under control , he had to develop greater project management skills in his organization , so he recruited Dr. George E. Mueller for a high management job . Mueller accepted , on the condition that he have a say in NASA reorganization necessary to effectively administer Apollo . Webb then worked with Associate Administrator ( later Deputy Administrator ) Seamans to reorganize the Office of Manned Space Flight ( OMSF ) . On July 23 , 1963 , Webb announced Mueller 's appointment as Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight , to replace then Associate Administrator D. Brainerd Holmes on his retirement effective September 1 . Under Webb 's reorganization , the directors of the Manned Spacecraft Center ( Gilruth ) Marshall Space Flight Center ( von Braun ) and the Launch Operations Center ( Debus ) effectively reported to Mueller .
Based on his industry experience on Air Force missile projects , Mueller realized some skilled managers could be found among high @-@ ranking officers in the United States Air Force , so he got Webb 's permission to recruit General Samuel C. Phillips , who gained a reputation for his effective management of the Minuteman program , as OMSF program controller . Phillips ' superior officer Bernard A. Schriever agreed to loan Phillips to NASA , along with a staff of officers under him , on the condition that Phillips be made Apollo Program Director . Mueller agreed , and Phillips managed Apollo from January 1964 , until it achieved the first manned landing in July 1969 , after which he returned to Air Force duty .
= = Choosing a mission mode = =
Once Kennedy had defined a goal , the Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a spacecraft that could meet it while minimizing risk to human life , cost , and demands on technology and astronaut skill . Four possible mission modes were considered :
Direct Ascent : The spacecraft would be launched as a unit and travel directly to the Moon and land . It would return , leaving its landing stage on the Moon . This design would have required development of the extremely powerful Nova launch vehicle .
Earth Orbit Rendezvous ( EOR ) : Multiple rocket launches ( up to 15 in some plans ) would carry parts of a Direct Ascent spacecraft and propulsion units for translunar injection ( TLI ) . These would be assembled into a single spacecraft in Earth orbit .
Lunar Orbit Rendezvous ( LOR ) : A single Saturn V could launch a spacecraft that was composed of a mother ship which would remain in orbit around the Moon , while a smaller , two @-@ stage lander would carry two astronauts to the surface , return to dock with the mother ship , and then be discarded . Landing only a small part of the spacecraft on the Moon and returning an even smaller part to lunar orbit minimized the total mass to be launched from the Earth .
Lunar Surface Rendezvous : Two spacecraft would be launched in succession . The first , an automated vehicle carrying propellant for the return to Earth , would land on the Moon , to be followed some time later by the manned vehicle . Propellant would have to be transferred from the automated vehicle to the manned vehicle .
In early 1961 , direct ascent was generally the mission mode in favor at NASA . Many engineers feared that a rendezvous — let alone a docking — neither of which had been attempted even in Earth orbit , would be extremely difficult in lunar orbit . Dissenters including John Houbolt at Langley Research Center emphasized the important weight reductions that were offered by the LOR approach . Throughout 1960 and 1961 , Houbolt campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a viable and practical option . Bypassing the NASA hierarchy , he sent a series of memos and reports on the issue to Associate Administrator Robert Seamans ; while acknowledging that he spoke " somewhat as a voice in the wilderness , " Houbolt pleaded that LOR should not be discounted in studies of the question .
Seamans ' establishment of an ad @-@ hoc committee headed by his special technical assistant Nicholas E. Golovin in July 1961 , to recommend a launch vehicle to be used in the Apollo program , represented a turning point in NASA 's mission mode decision . This committee recognized that the chosen mode was an important part of the launch vehicle choice , and recommended in favor of a hybrid EOR @-@ LOR mode . Its consideration of LOR — as well as Houbolt 's ceaseless work — played an important role in publicizing the workability of the approach . In late 1961 and early 1962 , members of the Manned Spacecraft Center began to come around to support LOR , including the newly hired deputy director of the Office of Manned Space Flight , Joseph Shea , who became a champion of LOR . The engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center ( MSFC ) , which had much to lose from the decision , took longer to become convinced of its merits , but their conversion was announced by Wernher von Braun at a briefing on June 7 , 1962 .
But even after NASA reached internal agreement , it was far from smooth sailing . Kennedy 's science advisor Jerome Wiesner , who had expressed his opposition to manned spaceflight to Kennedy before the President took office , and had opposed the decision to land men on the Moon , hired Golovin , who had left NASA , to chair his own " Space Vehicle Panel " , ostensibly to monitor , but actually to second @-@ guess NASA 's decisions on the Saturn V launch vehicle and LOR by forcing Shea , Seamans , and even Webb to defend themselves , delaying its formal announcement to the press on July 11 , 1962 , and forcing Webb to still hedge the decision as " tentative " .
Wiesner kept up the pressure , even making the disagreement public during a two @-@ day September visit by the President to Marshall Space Flight Center . Wiesner blurted out " No , that 's no good " in front of the press , during a presentation by von Braun . Webb jumped in and defended von Braun , until Kennedy ended the squabble by stating that the matter was " still subject to final review " . Webb held firm , and issued a request for proposal to candidate Lunar Excursion Module ( LEM ) contractors . Wiesner finally relented , unwilling to settle the dispute once and for all in Kennedy 's office , because of the President 's involvement with the October Cuban missile crisis , and fear of Kennedy 's support for Webb . NASA announced the selection of Grumman as the LEM contractor in November 1962 .
Space historian James Hansen concludes that :
Without NASA 's adoption of this stubbornly held minority opinion in 1962 , the United States may still have reached the Moon , but almost certainly it would not have been accomplished by the end of the 1960s , President Kennedy 's target date .
The LOR method had the advantage of allowing the lander spacecraft to be used as a " lifeboat " in the event of a failure of the command ship . Some documents prove this theory was discussed before and after the method was chosen . A 1964 MSC study concluded , " The LM [ as lifeboat ] ... was finally dropped , because no single reasonable CSM failure could be identified that would prohibit use of the SPS . " Ironically , just such a failure happened on Apollo 13 when an oxygen tank explosion left the CSM without electrical power . The Lunar Module provided propulsion , electrical power and life support to get the crew home safely .
= = Spacecraft = =
Faget 's preliminary Apollo design employed a cone @-@ shaped command module , supported by one of several service modules providing propulsion and electrical power , sized appropriately for the space station , cislunar , and lunar landing missions . Once Kennedy 's Moon landing goal became official , detailed design began of a Command / Service Module ( CSM ) in which the crew would spend the entire direct @-@ ascent mission and lift off from the lunar surface for the return trip , after being soft @-@ landed by a larger landing propulsion module . The final choice of lunar orbit rendezvous changed the CSM 's role to the translunar ferry used to transport the crew , along with a new spacecraft , the Lunar Excursion Module ( LEM , later shortened to Lunar Module , LM ) which would take two men to the lunar surface and return them to the CSM .
= = = Command / Service Module = = =
The Command Module ( CM ) was the conical crew cabin , designed to carry three astronauts from launch to lunar orbit and back to an Earth ocean landing . It was the only component of the Apollo spacecraft to survive without major configuration changes as the program evolved from the early Apollo study designs . Its exterior was covered with an ablative heat shield , and had its own reaction control system ( RCS ) engines to control its attitude and steer its atmospheric entry path . Parachutes were carried to slow its descent to splashdown . The module was 11 @.@ 42 feet ( 3 @.@ 48 m ) tall , 12 @.@ 83 feet ( 3 @.@ 91 m ) in diameter , and weighed approximately 12 @,@ 250 pounds ( 5 @,@ 560 kg ) .
A cylindrical Service Module ( SM ) supported the Command Module , with a service propulsion engine and an RCS with propellants , and a fuel cell power generation system with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen reactants . A high @-@ gain S @-@ band antenna was used for long @-@ distance communications on the lunar flights . On the extended lunar missions , an orbital scientific instrument package was carried . The Service Module was discarded just before re @-@ entry . The module was 24 @.@ 6 feet ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) long and 12 @.@ 83 feet ( 3 @.@ 91 m ) in diameter . The initial lunar flight version weighed approximately 51 @,@ 300 pounds ( 23 @,@ 300 kg ) fully fueled , while a later version designed to
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publication noted the irony that in order to achieve the goal , the program required the organization of tremendous public resources within a vast , centralized government bureaucracy .
There are those who , despite evidence to the contrary , deny that the moon landings took place . The Apollo moon landing hoax claims helped propel conspiracy theories into a quasi @-@ political narrative .
= = = Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project = = =
As part of Apollo 11 's 40th anniversary in 2009 , NASA spearheaded an effort to digitally restore the existing videotapes of the mission 's live televised moonwalk . After an exhaustive three @-@ year search for missing tapes of the original video of the Apollo 11 moonwalk , NASA concluded the data tapes had more than likely been accidentally erased .
We 're all saddened that they 're not there . We all wish we had 20 @-@ 20 hindsight . I don 't think anyone in the NASA organization did anything wrong , I think it slipped through the cracks , and nobody 's happy about it .
The Moon landing data was recorded by a special Apollo TV camera which recorded in a format incompatible with broadcast TV . This resulted in lunar footage that had to be converted for the live television broadcast and stored on magnetic telemetry tapes . During the following years , a magnetic tape shortage prompted NASA to remove massive numbers of magnetic tapes from the National Archives and Records Administration to be recorded over with newer satellite data . Stan Lebar , who led the team that designed and built the lunar television camera at Westinghouse Electric Corporation , also worked with Nafzger to try to locate the missing tapes .
So I don 't believe that the tapes exist today at all . It was a hard thing to accept . But there was just an overwhelming amount of evidence that led us to believe that they just don 't exist anymore . And you have to accept reality .
With a budget of $ 230 @,@ 000 , the surviving original lunar broadcast data from Apollo 11 was compiled by Nafzger and assigned to Lowry Digital for restoration . The video was processed to remove random noise and camera shake without destroying historical legitimacy . The images were from tapes in Australia , the CBS News archive , and kinescope recordings made at Johnson Space Center . The restored video , remaining in black and white , contains conservative digital enhancements and did not include sound quality improvements .
= = Depictions on film = =
= = = Documentaries = = =
Numerous documentary films cover the Apollo program and the Space Race , including :
= = = Docudramas = = =
The Apollo program , or certain missions , have been dramatized in Apollo 13 ( 1995 ) , Apollo 11 ( 1996 ) , From the Earth to the Moon ( 1998 ) , The Dish ( 2000 ) , Space Race ( 2005 ) , and Moonshot ( 2009 ) .
= Rudolf Duala Manga Bell =
Rudolf Duala Manga Bell ( 1873 - 8 August 1914 ) was a Duala king and resistance leader in the German colony of Kamerun ( Cameroon ) . After being educated in both Kamerun and Europe , he succeeded his father Manga Ndumbe Bell on 2 September 1908 , styling himself after European rulers , and generally supporting the colonial German authorities . He was quite wealthy and educated , although his father left him a substantial debt .
In 1910 the German Reichstag developed a plan by which the riverain Duala would be moved inland to allow for wholly European riverside settlements . Manga Bell became the leader of pan @-@ Duala resistance to the policy . He and the other chiefs at first pressured the administration through letters , petitions , and legal arguments , but these were ignored or rebutted . Manga Bell turned to other European governments for aid , and he sent representatives to the leaders of other Cameroonian peoples to suggest the overthrow of the German regime . Sultan Ibrahim Njoya of the Bamum people reported his actions to the authorities , and the Duala leader was arrested . After a summary trial , Manga Bell was hanged for high treason on 8 August 1914 . His actions made him a martyr in Cameroonian eyes . Writers such as Mark W. DeLancey , Mark Dike DeLancey , and Helmuth Stoecker view his actions as an early example of Cameroonian nationalism .
= = Early life and reign = =
Manga Bell was born in 1873 in Douala in the German colony of Kamerun . He was the eldest son of Manga Ndumbe Bell , king of the Bell lineage of the Duala people . Manga Bell was raised to appreciate both African and European ways of life . His Westernized uncle David Mandessi Bell had a great impact on him , and as a youth he attended school in both Douala and Germany . During the 1890s he attended the Gymnasium of Ulm , Germany , although no direct record of his time there survives . Manga Bell was made Ein @-@ Jähriger , indicating that he held a certificate for education beyond the primary level but below the Abitur earned for completion of secondary studies . When the prince returned to Kamerun , he was one of the most highly educated men in the colony by Western standards . He made other periodic visits to Europe , such as when he travelled to Berlin , Germany , and Manchester , England , with his father in 1902 . In Manchester , he met the mayor at town hall and was mentioned in the October edition of the African Times ( where the editor doubted that he and his father were actual royalty ) . Manga Bell married Emily Engome Dayas , the daughter of an English trader and a Duala woman .
When his father died on 2 September 1908 , Manga Bell succeeded as the king of the Duala Bell lineage . He was traditionally installed on 2 May 1910 by the paramount chief of Bonaberi . Manga Bell inherited an 8 @,@ 000 mark pension , cocoa and timber interests in the Mungo River valley , property and real estate in Douala , and a lucrative position as head of an appeals court with jurisdiction over the Cameroon littoral . His father and grandfather , Ndumbe Lobe Bell , left him in a strong political position with Bell dominant over the other Duala lineages . However , his father also left him a substantial debt of 7 @,@ 000 marks . Rudolf Duala Manga Bell was forced to rent buildings to European interests and move his own offices inland to the Douala neighbourhood of Bali . He owned 200 hectares of cocoa plantations in 1913 , a large amount by Duala standards ; his debt had been reduced to 3 @,@ 000 marks by 13 July 1912 .
Manga Bell 's reign was European in character . His relations with the Germans were largely positive , and he was viewed as a good citizen and collaborator . Nevertheless , at times he ran afoul of the colonial administrators . In 1910 , for example , the German authorities arrested him and accused him ( with no proof ) of collusion with a large bank robbery .
= = Duala land problem = =
Manga Bell 's real problems with the regime began later in 1910 . The Germans outlined a plan to relocate the Duala people inland from the Wouri River to allow European @-@ only settlement of the area . The expropriations affected all of the Duala lineages except Bonaberi , so Duala public opinion was strongly against it , and for the first time in their history , the Duala clans presented a united front . Manga Bell 's position as leader of the dominant Bell clan , coupled with his character , education , and finances , made him a natural leader for this opposition . Manga Bell and other Duala rulers sent a letter to the Reichstag in November 1911 to protest the land seizures . The Germans were surprised at Manga Bell 's involvement , but they ignored the complaint . The chiefs sent another letter in March 1912 . Still , the Germans moved forward with their plan on 15 January 1913 . The chiefs warned in writing on 20 February 1913 that this violation " may well prompt the natives to consider whether it might be wiser under the circumstances to revoke the [ German @-@ Duala Treaty of 1884 and enter into a treaty with another power . " Manga Bell argued that the expropriation plan ignored the treaty 's promise " that the land cultivated by us now and the places the towns are built on shall be the property of the present owners and their successors " and contradicted statements by Governor Theodor Seitz that he would leave Bell lands alone as he constructed a railroad in the colony . The Germans countered that the German @-@ Duala treaty gave them the authority to manage Duala lands as they saw fit . That August , they removed Manga Bell from office and from the civil service and stripped him of his annual pension of 3 @,@ 000 marks . In his place , they propped up his brother , Henri Lobe Bell .
The Reichstag debated the expropriation for the first half of 1914 . Manga Bell enlisted the aid of Hellmut von Gerlach , a German journalist . Gerlach managed to secure a suspension order from the Reichstag Budget Commission in March , but the order was overturned when Colonial Secretary Wilhelm Solf convinced elements of the press , businessmen in the colony , politicians , and other groups to finally rally behind the expropriation . Manga Bell and the Duala requested permission to send envoys to Germany to plead their case , but the authorities denied them . In secret , Manga Bell sent Adolf Ngoso Din to Germany to hire a lawyer for the Duala and pursue the matter in court .
The desperate Manga Bell turned to other European governments and to the leaders of other African ethnic groups for support . The contents of his correspondence with European powers are unknown ; he may have simply sought to spread word of his cause . His envoys to African leaders reached Bali , Balong , Dschang , Foumban , Ngaoundéré , Yabassi , and Yaoundé . Karl Atangana , leader of the Ewondo and Bane peoples , kept Manga Bell 's plan secret but urged the Duala leader to reconsider . In Bulu lands on the other hand , Martin @-@ Paul Samba agreed to contact the French for military support if Manga Bell petitioned the British . However , there is no evidence that Manga Bell ever did so . In Foumban , Ibrahim Njoya , sultan of the Bamum people , rejected the plan and informed the Basel Mission on 27 April 1914 that Manga Bell was planning a pan @-@ Kamerun rebellion . The missionaries alerted the Germans .
Historians are split on the nature of Manga Bell 's actions . Mark W. DeLancey and Mark Dike DeLancey name him " an early nationalist " , and Helmuth Stoecker says that his actions " had begun to organize a resistance movement embracing the whole of Cameroon and cutting across tribal differences " . However , Ralph A. Austen and Jonathan Derrick argue that " it is unlikely that any such radical action against the European regime was intended . "
On 6 May 1914 Bezirksamtmann Herrmann Röhm wrote to the Kuti Agricultural Station ( where Manga Bell 's envoy was being held ) ,
We are not confronted with any direct danger of some kind of violent action by the Duala . For now the main value of the statements from Ndane [ the envoy to Njoya ] lies in the fact that they contain material for proceeding against those chiefs who are guilty of actual deliberate agitation in refusal of the expropriation and of resistance that reaches all the way over to Germany .
On 1 June 1914 Röhm wrote to the administration in Buea that based on his calculations of Manga Bell 's annual income from cocoa and timber exports , and accounting for his debts to European interests , the Duala merchants would likely not see it in their interests to oppose the expropriation further . At the urging of Solf , the Germans arrested Manga Bell and Ngoso Din and charged them with high treason . Their trial was held on 7 August 1914 . World War I had just begun , and an attack by the Allied West Africa Campaign in Kamerun was imminent ; accordingly , the trial was rushed . No direct record of the proceedings survives . The dossier of evidence used against Manga Bell claimed that he had been raising funds from inland and that his outspoken opposition was causing unrest among the inland peoples . The regime claimed that Manga Bell had admitted to contacting foreign countries for aid against Germany , but a 1927 recollection by the official defense attorney — riddled as it is with inaccuracies and racist statements — claims that Manga Bell maintained his innocence throughout . Requests for the accused men 's lives to be spared came from Heinrich Vieter of the Catholic Pallottine Mission , the Basel Mission , and the Baptist Mission , but Governor Karl Ebermaier rejected their pleas . On 8 August 1914 , Rudolf Duala Manga Bell and Adolf Ngoso Din were hanged . The Allies captured Douala seven weeks later on 27 September 1914 .
= = Legacy = =
Manga Bell 's execution made him a martyr to the people of Cameroon and painted the Duala as an heroic people . His story became legend and came to represent " the myth of extreme colonial oppression , based upon the catastrophic climax of German rule in Douala " . Manga Bell was still popular well into the 1920s . " Tet 'Ekombo " , a hymn to him composed in 1929 , has remained popular . In 1935 his body was exhumed and reburied behind his house in Bonanjo , Douala . An obelisk was erected there on 8 August 1936 , the 20th anniversary of his execution .
The Germans and later colonial powers in Cameroon became wary of the Duala and never again allowed a powerful chieftaincy to take hold among them . After the French became the colonial power in French Cameroun after World War I , Rudolf Duala Manga Bell 's brother Richard Ndumbe Manga Bell continued to fight to regain the lost Duala lands . Manga Bell 's son Alexandre Douala Manga Bell took office under the French in 1951 . His father 's reputation as a Duala martyr lent Alexandre Douala Manga Bell great standing among the Duala .
Cameroon faced a long civil war when the outlawed nationalist Union des Populations du Cameroun political party in the 1950s and ' 60s waged its maquis against French and Cameroonian forces . As a result , overt nationalist sentiment was shunned and figures such as Manga Bell were largely forgotten or only briefly treated in history books . However , signs show that Cameroon is coming to grips with its nationalistic past ; for example , in March 1985 the École Militaire Inter @-@ Armes , part of the military of Cameroon named a graduating class of cadet officers after Manga Bell .
= German aircraft carrier II =
The aircraft carrier II was a proposed conversion project for the incomplete French cruiser De Grasse . The ship was laid down in November 1938 and lay incomplete in the Arsenal de Lorient shipyard when Germany invaded France in May 1940 . In 1942 , Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine decided to convert the cruiser into an auxiliary aircraft carrier with a capacity for twenty @-@ three fighters and dive bombers . Work ceased in February 1943 , however , due to concerns with the ship 's design , a severe shortage of material and labor , and the threat of Allied bombing raids . The ship was eventually completed as an anti @-@ aircraft cruiser in 1956 by the French Navy .
= = Design = =
The French cruiser De Grasse was laid down at the Arsenal de Lorient shipyard in Lorient in November 1938 . Work on the unfinished ship stopped following the German conquest of France in May 1940 . In 1942 , the Kriegsmarine considered several proposals to convert the cruiser into an auxiliary aircraft carrier . The final proposal was completed by August 1942 , but work on the conversion did not last long . By February 1943 , the project had been abandoned , for several reasons . The shipyard suffered from a shortage of labor and materials , and the design staff had significant concerns over the arrangement of the engine system . The Allies also posed a serious threat , as Lorient was well within the range of Allied bombers . The ship was eventually retaken by the French Navy after the end of the war , and launched in 1946 . She was ultimately completed in 1956 as an anti @-@ aircraft cruiser .
= = = Characteristics = = =
The converted ship would have been 180 @.@ 4 meters ( 592 ft ) long at the waterline and 192 @.@ 5 m ( 632 ft ) long overall . She would have had a beam of 24 @.@ 4 m ( 80 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 6 m ( 18 ft ) as designed . Her designed displacement would have been 11 @,@ 400 long tons ( 11 @,@ 600 t ) . The ship 's propulsion system consisted of two sets of Rateau @-@ Bretagne geared steam turbines , with steam supplied by four Indret ultra @-@ high pressure boilers . The engines were rated at 10 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) and would have provided a top speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . The carrier would have had a range of 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ; 8 @,@ 100 mi ) at a cruising speed of 19 kn ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
As converted , the ship was to be armed with several anti @-@ aircraft guns . The heavy anti @-@ aircraft battery consisted of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) SK C / 33 guns in twin mountings . The mounts were the Dopp LC / 31 type , originally designed for earlier 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK C / 31 guns . The LC / 31 mounting was triaxially @-@ stabilized and capable of elevating to 80 ° . This enabled the guns to engage targets up to a ceiling of 12 @,@ 500 m ( 41 @,@ 000 ft ) . Against surface targets , the guns had a maximum range of 17 @,@ 700 m ( 58 @,@ 100 ft ) . The guns fired fixed ammunition weighing 15 @.@ 1 kg ( 33 lb ) ; the guns could fire HE and HE incendiary rounds , as well as illumination shells . Close @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft weaponry consisted of twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) SK C / 30 guns and twenty @-@ four 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Flak 38 guns . The 3 @.@ 7 cm gun was a single @-@ shot gun , with a rate of fire of around 30 rounds per minute . At its maximum elevation of 85 ° , the gun had a ceiling of 6 @,@ 800 m ( 22 @,@ 300 ft ) . The 2 cm gun was a magazine @-@ fed automatic weapon , firing at up to 500 rounds per minute . Twenty and forty @-@ round magazines were supplied for the guns ;
The ship 's aircraft facilities consisted of a 177 @.@ 5 m ( 582 ft ) long , 24 m ( 79 ft ) wide flight deck and two elevators . Aircraft were handled in a single hangar , which was 142 m ( 466 ft ) long and 18 @.@ 6 m ( 61 ft ) wide . The ship 's air complement was to have consisted of eleven Bf 109 fighters and twelve Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers . The Bf 109 fighters were a navalized version of the " E " model , designated as Bf 109T . Their wings were longer than the land @-@ based model to allow for shorter take @-@ off . The Ju 87s were to have been the " E " variant , which was a navalized version of the Ju 87D , and were modified for catapult launches and were equipped with arresting gear .
= Polish minority in the Czech Republic =
The Polish minority in the Czech Republic ( Polish : Polska mniejszość narodowa w Republice Czeskiej , Czech : Polská národnostní menšina v České republice ) is a Polish national minority living mainly in the Zaolzie region of western Cieszyn Silesia . The Polish community is the only national ( or ethnic ) minority in the Czech Republic that is linked to a specific geographical area . Zaolzie is located in the north @-@ eastern part of the country . It comprises Karviná District and the eastern part of Frýdek @-@ Místek District . Many Poles living in other regions of the Czech Republic have roots in Zaolzie as well .
Poles formed the largest ethnic group in Cieszyn Silesia in the 19th century , but at the beginning of the 20th century the Czech population grew . The Czechs and Poles collaborated on resisting Germanization movements , but this collaboration ceased after World War I. In 1920 the region of Zaolzie was incorporated into Czechoslovakia after the Polish – Czechoslovak War . Since then the Polish population demographically decreased . In 1938 it was annexed by Poland in the context of the Munich Agreement and in 1939 by Nazi Germany . The region was then given back to Czechoslovakia after World War II . Polish organizations were re @-@ created , but were banned by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia . After the Velvet Revolution Polish organizations were re @-@ created again and Zaolzie had adopted bilingual signs .
= = History = =
Historically , the largest ethnic group inhabiting the Zaolzie area was the Poles . During the 19th century the number of Germans grew . At the beginning of the 20th century and later from 1920 to 1938 , the Czech population grew significantly ( mainly as a result of immigration and the assimilation of locals ) and the Poles became a minority , which they are to this day .
From 1848 , the national consciousness of the local people grew and from 1848 to the end of the 19th century local Poles and Czechs co @-@ operated , uniting against the Germanizing tendencies of the Austrian Empire , and later of Austria @-@ Hungary . Various Polish clubs were founded . Most schools were Polish , followed by German and Czech . At the end of the century , ethnic tensions appeared as the area 's economic significance grew . This growth caused a wave of immigration from Galicia , when about 60 @,@ 000 people arrived and settled between 1880 and 1910 . They settled mainly in the Ostrau region , but also in Zaolzie . The new immigrants were Polish and poor , about half of them being illiterate , and worked mostly in coal mining and metallurgy . For these people , the most important factor was material well @-@ being ; they cared little about the homeland from which they had fled , more readily assimilating into the Czech population which was demographically dominant in the Ostrava region in the heart of Czech Silesia . The social structure of the territory was generally divided along ethnic lines . Germans were economically strongest , mostly owners , Czechs were mostly clerks and other officials , and Poles were mostly manual workers , miners , and metallurgists . This structure had changed over time but in 1921 it was still very similar , with 61 @.@ 5 % of Poles working as labourers .
= = = Decision time ( 1918 – 20 ) = = =
There was a very tense climate in 1918 – 1920 , a time of decision . It was decided that a plebiscite would be held in Cieszyn Silesia asking people which country the territory should join . Plebiscite commissioners arrived at the end of January 1920 and after analyzing the situation declared a state of emergency in the territory on 19 May 1920 . The situation in the territory remained very tense . Mutual intimidation , acts of terror , beatings , and even killings affected the area . A plebiscite could not be held in this atmosphere . On 10 July both sides renounced the idea of a plebiscite and entrusted the Conference of Ambassadors with the decision . Eventually 58 @.@ 1 % of the area of Cieszyn Silesia and 67 @.@ 9 % of the population was incorporated into Czechoslovakia on 28 July 1920 by a decision of the Spa Conference . This division was in practice what gave birth to the concept of the Zaolzie — which literally means " the land beyond the Olza River " ( looking from Poland ) .
= = = In Czechoslovakia ( 1920 – 38 ) = = =
Local Czech militants forced about 5 @,@ 000 local Poles , mostly from the northern part of the region , to flee to Poland already before July 1920 . 4 @,@ 000 of these expellees were located in a transitional camps in Oświęcim . About 12 @,@ 000 Poles in total were forced to leave the region and flee to Poland in the aftermath of the division of Cieszyn Silesia . The local Polish population felt that Warsaw had betrayed them and they were not satisfied with the division . It is not quite clear how many Poles were in Zaolzie in Czechoslovakia . Estimates range from 110 @,@ 000 to 140 @,@ 000 people in 1921 . The 1921 and 1930 census numbers are not accurate since nationality depended on self @-@ declaration and many Poles declared Czech nationality mainly as a result of fear of the new authorities and as compensation for some benefits . Czechoslovak law guaranteed rights for national minorities , but the reality in Zaolzie was quite different . The local Czech authorities made it more difficult for local Poles to obtain citizenship , while the process was expedited when the applicant pledged to declare Czech nationality and send his children to a Czech school . Newly built Czech schools were often better supported and equipped , thus inducing some Poles to send their children there . This and other factors contributed to the assimilation of Poles and also to significant emigration to Poland . After a few years , the heightened nationalism typical of the period around 1920 receded and local Poles increasingly co @-@ operated with the Czechs . Still , Czechization was supported by Prague , which did not abide by certain laws related to language , legislative , and organizational issues . Polish deputies in Czechoslovak National Assembly frequently tried to put that issues on agenda . One way or the other , increasingly local Poles thus assimilated into the Czech population .
= = = In Poland ( 1938 – 39 ) = = =
On 1 October 1938 Zaolzie was annexed by Poland following the Munich Conference . The Polish Army , commanded by General Władysław Bortnowski , annexed an area of 801 @.@ 5 km ² ( 309 @.@ 5 mi ² ) with a population of 227 @,@ 399 . The Polish side argued that Poles in Zaolzie deserved the same rights as Germans in the Munich Agreement . The vast majority of the local Polish population enthusiastically welcomed the change , seeing it as a liberation and a form of historical justice . But they quickly changed their mood . The new Polish authorities appointed people from Poland to various positions from which Czechs had been dismissed . The Polish language became the sole official language . Rapid Polonization followed . Czech organizations were dismantled and their activity was prohibited . Czech education ceased to exist . About 35 @,@ 000 Czechs emigrated to Czechoslovakia by choice or forcibly . The behaviour of the new Polish authorities was different but similar in nature to that of the Czech authorities before 1938 . Two political factions appeared : socialists ( the opposition ) and rightists ( loyal to the new authorities ) . Leftist politicians and sympathizers were discriminated against and often dismissed from their jobs . The Polish political system was artificially implemented in Zaolzie . Local Polish people continued to feel like second @-@ class citizens and a majority of them were dissatisfied with the situation after October 1938 . Zaolzie remained a part of Poland for only eleven months .
= = = World War II = = =
During the war , strong Germanization was introduced by the Nazi authorities . The Jews were in the worst position , followed by the Poles . Poles received lower food rations , they were supposed to pay extra taxes , and were not allowed to enter theatres , cinemas , and other venues . Polish and Czech education ceased to exist , Polish organizations were dismantled and their activity was prohibited . The Nazis especially targeted the Polish intelligentsia and many functionaries died during the war . The German authorities introduced terror into Zaolzie . Mass killings , executions , arrests , taking locals to forced labour , and deportations to concentration camps all happened on a daily basis . The most notorious war crime was a murder of 36 villagers in and around Żywocice on 6 August 1944 . Most of the victims were Poles . This massacre is known as Tragedia Żywocicka ( the Żywocice tragedy ) . The resistance movement , mostly of Poles , was fairly strong in Zaolzie .
Volkslists , documents introduced by the Nazi authorities were soon introduced during the war . A non @-@ German citizen declared that he had some German ancestry by signing it and refusal to sign this document could lead to deportation to a concentration camp . Local people who signed the lists were later on enrolled in the Wehrmacht . Many local people with no German ancestry were also forced to sign them . The World War II death toll in Zaolzie is estimated at about 6 @,@ 000 people : about 2 @,@ 500 Jews , 2 @,@ 000 other citizens ( 80 % of them being Poles ) , and more than 1 @,@ 000 locals who died in the Wehrmacht ( those who signed the Volksliste ) . Also a few hundred Poles from Zaolzie were among those murdered by the Soviets in the Katyń massacre . Percentage @-@ wise , Zaolzie suffered the worst human loss out of the whole of Czechoslovakia – about 2 @.@ 6 % of the total population .
= = = Since 1945 and during the Communist Era ( 1948 – 89 ) = = =
Immediately after World War II , Zaolzie was returned to Czechoslovakia within its 1920 borders , although local Poles hoped it would again be given to Poland . The local Polish population again suffered discrimination , as many Czechs blamed them for the discrimination by the Polish authorities in 1938 – 1939 . Polish organizations were banned , and the Czech authorities made many arrests and dismissed many from their jobs . Polish property stolen by the Germans during the war was never returned . The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was the only political party defending the rights of the Polish minority . In the 1946 elections , the majority of Poles voted for the communists . In Zaolzie , 51 % of elected communist officials were ethnic Poles . The situation of Poles improved somewhat when the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia seized power in February 1948 . The Polish Cultural and Educational Union ( PZKO ) was created in 1947 . The creation of other Polish organizations was prohibited . This was the only Polish organization representing the Polish minority in the communist era , and was therefore under the strong influence of the Communist Party . It remains today the Polish organization with the largest membership .
During the communist era , rapid urbanization and growth of heavy industry occurred . Whole villages in the coal mining areas were destroyed by the mining activity . These conditions quickened the assimilation of the Poles . Another cause of assimilation was the high rate of intermarriage . Besides Poles belonging to the minority , many more commuted across the border from Polish People 's Republic to work in Czechoslovakia or to take advantage of the relative abundance of consumer goods in Czechoslovakia .
During the 1960s , cultural life flourished . Polish books were published and Polish sections in Czech libraries were set up . For example , the state Czech Postal and Newspaper Service was delivering 72 magazines from Poland . During the Prague Spring , the more liberal atmosphere also contributed to the growth of cultural life . After 1968 , purges were conducted throughout Czechoslovak society , including the Polish minority . Reformists were fired from their positions . The so @-@ called " normalization " also affected the PZKO . From 1976 the law recommended the introduction of bilingual signs in some municipalities . Being only a recommended measure , it was not implemented . The Czechoslovak communist authorities tried to limit the influence of Poles , resident or not , considering the influence of Poles ( given that Polish communist regime was considered more liberal ) in the workplace a threat to the regime .
= = Present times = =
After the Velvet Revolution of 1989 , under democratic conditions , Polish organizations were quickly created . The Rada Polaków ( Council of Poles ) was created in 1990 . The founders of the Council argued that the PZKO was not fulfilling its function of representing the Poles . The organization was renamed " Kongres Polaków " ( Congress of Poles ) in 1991 . It is the main body representing the Polish minority in negotiations with the Czech government , etc . Local border crossings with Poland were opened in mid @-@ 1991 , two years after the fall of communism .
= = Language and culture = =
The primary language of the Polish population in Zaolzie is the Cieszyn Silesian dialect , with the vast majority of Poles using it in everyday communication . The dialect is very prestigious and contributes to the pride of local people . It is also used by some local Czechs . Local Poles also feel a strong regional identity . In the Zaolzie region , a few church services are conducted in Polish . 90 % of worshippers among Polish secondary school students are reported to pray in Polish .
Concerning literature , there is a great variety of authors , genres , and editions produced in Polish . For traditional music , many groups are united in the association Ars Musica ; this association also includes many choirs , such as Collegium Iuvenum , Collegium Canticorum , and Canticum Novum . Many other choirs and traditional folk vocal and dance groups exist , including Olza , Bystrzyca , Oldrzychowice , Suszanie , and Błędowianie , among others . Pop and rock bands include Glayzy , Glider , P @-@ metoda , Apatheia , Poprostu and other groups . The Cieszyn Theatre in Czeski Cieszyn ( Český Těšín ) has a Polish Scene ( ensemble ) . It is the only professional Polish theatre outside Poland .
Many cultural , folk , and music festivals are organized each year . The largest folklore festival of the Polish community and also the largest folklore festival in the Zaolzie region is the annual Gorolski Święto ( lit . Highlander 's Festival ) organized in Jabłonków ( Jablunkov ) . Dożynki ( harvest festivals ) are organized each year in several villages . Music festivals include Zlot in Bystrzyca , Zlot in Wędrynia and Dni Kultury Studenckiej ( Days of Student Culture ) in Bystrzyca .
There is a 15 @-@ minute daily radio broadcast in Polish by Czech Radio Ostrava . Czech TV has been broadcasting in Polish for ten minutes a week since September 2003 ; television programmes from Poland can also be received . In 2003 , Czech Television 's studio in Ostrava launched a regular five @-@ minute news and current affairs weekly in Polish . The broadcast was shortened to four minutes in 2007 . The largest Polish newspaper in the country is Głos Ludu ; the largest magazine is Zwrot .
= = Education = =
The Polish national minority has a network of schools including kindergartens , primary schools , grammar schools , and secondary modern schools , with Polish as a language of instruction . A number of the teachers have been educated at Polish universities . There are currently 25 Polish primary schools and three Polish high schools in Zaolzie , attended by 2 @,@ 347 students . Including students attending Polish classes in several Czech high schools , the figure comes to 2 @,@ 430 students ( Data from 12 September 2006 ) . There are also many Polish kindergartens in Zaolzie . Polish education is the only ethnic minority education in the Czech Republic to cover the complete cycle from kindergarten through high school .
Polish primary schools function in the following towns and villages : Błędowice Dolne ( Dolní Bludovice ) , Bukowiec ( Bukovec ) , Bystrzyca ( Bystřice ) , Cierlicko ( Těrlicko ) , Czeski Cieszyn ( Český Těšín ) , Czeski Cieszyn @-@ Sibica ( Český Těšín @-@ Svibice ) , Gnojnik ( Hnojník ) , Gródek ( Hrádek ) , Jabłonków ( Jablunkov ) , Karwina @-@ Frysztat ( Karviná @-@ Fryštát ) , Koszarzyska ( Košařiska ) , Łomna Dolna ( Dolní Lomná ) , Lutynia Dolna ( Dolní Lutyně ) , Milików ( Milíkov ) , Mosty koło Jabłonkowa ( Mosty u Jablunkova ) , Nawsie ( Návsí ) , Olbrachcice ( Albrechtice ) , Oldrzychowice ( Oldřichovice ) , Orłowa ( Orlová ) , Ropica ( Ropice ) , Stonawa ( Stonava ) , Sucha Górna ( Horní Suchá ) , Trzyniec I ( Třinec I ) , Trzyniec VI ( Třinec VI ) , and Wędrynia ( Vendryně ) .
The main and most prestigious Polish high school is the Polish Gymnasium in Český Těšín . Polish classes are open in the Technical School in Karviná , the Economic School in Český Těšín , and the Medical School in Karviná . In the past there were more Polish schools in the area , but the number is historically declining along with the demographic decline in the Polish population as a whole .
= = Sport = =
First Polish sport organizations have been founded in the 1890s . In the interwar period there was a plethora of organizations of all types in all Central European countries , the Zaolzie region wasn ’ t exception . Sport clubs there were often multi @-@ sport , associating several sport branches , mostly football , athletics , volleyball , table tennis etc .
The Sokół movement was active in Cieszyn Silesia even before World War I. After 1920 division of the region , Sokół became active in Czechoslovakia . At the beginning of the 1930s it associated 11 local branches and about 1 @,@ 500 members . After World War II , it hasn ’ t renewed its activity .
Another large sport organization was Siła ( Power ) . It was created in 1908 but established again in 1921 as Polskie Stowarzyszenie Robotnicze Siła ( Polish Workers ' Association ‘ Power ’ ) . The organization was of socialist and workers ' character and in 1937 associated 25 local branches . After World War II Siła operated half @-@ legally in 17 local branches , and after the communist takeover of power in 1948 was liquidated by Czechoslovak communist authorities .
Another large organization was Polskie Towarzystwo Turystyczne ‘ Beskid Śląski ’ ( Polish Tourist Association ‘ Silesian Beskids ’ ) established in 1910 . Initially it focused on organizing the Polish tourist movement and building mountain huts in the Beskids but later widened its activities to skiing , football , athletics and volleyball . In the 1930s it associated 27 local branches . After World War II it operated half @-@ legally and as Siła , was liquidated by Czechoslovak communist authorities after the Victorious February 1948 . It resumed its activity again in 1991 , after the fall of communism .
The last notable multi @-@ sport club was Proletariacka Kultura Fizyczna ( PFK , Proletarian Physical Culture ) . It was created in the mid @-@ 1920s and was of communist character . In the 1930s it associated about 40 active local branches . After the Zaolzie region was annexed in 1938 by Poland it was banned together with the communist party .
The most popular sport was football . Volleyball , athletics , table tennis and other sports were also popular . The club with most members was PKS Polonia Karwina , associating some 1 @,@ 000 members . Its football branch was the best Polish football club of Zaolzie .
After World War II many Polish sport clubs resumed slowly their activity . After the communist takeover of power in Czechoslovakia in February 1948 communists began to curb number of organizations in the country and tried to achieve the state of only several active nationwide organizations . Therefore , many Polish clubs after 1948 stopped their activity . The ones who still operated were subjected to rising pressure since 1951 . Last independent Polish organizations were dissolved in 1952 .
After 1952 the Polish sport life was organized through the Polish Cultural and Educational Union . Through the communist era Polish minority declined demographically and this process continue to date , hence after the fall of communism in 1989 only a few sport organizations resumed their activity . Beskid Śląski , the only notable one , focuses on tourism . No exclusively Polish sport club exists today in Zaolzie .
= = Legal issues = =
The erection of bilingual signs has technically been permitted since 2001 , if a minority constitutes 10 % of the population of a municipality . The requirement for a petition by the members of a minority has been abolished , thus simplifying the whole process . However , only a couple of villages with large Polish minorities have bilingual signs yet ( Vendryně / Wędrynia for instance ) . For a list of all municipalities with a Polish population of at least 10 % , see Polish municipalities in the Czech Republic .
= = Demographics = =
The Polish population is historically declining . This is primarily caused by low natural birth rate , assimilation , high intermarriage rate ( the majority of Poles live in mixed relationships ) , and migration to other parts of the country as a result of job seeking .
= = People = =
= = = Politicians = = =
Jan Buzek , interwar MP
Jerzy Buzek , President of European Parliament , Former Prime Minister of Poland
Emanuel Chobot , interwar MP
Karol Junga , interwar MP
Tadeusz Michejda , Minister of Health of Poland
Karol Śliwka , interwar communist politician , MP
Leon Wolf , interwar Czechoslovak MP and later senator in Polish Senate
= = = Writers = = =
Henryk Jasiczek , poet
Jan Kubisz , poet , author of Płyniesz Olzo po dolinie , unofficial anthem of Poles of Zaolzie
Paweł Kubisz , poet
Gustaw Morcinek , one of the most important Polish writers from Silesia
Józef Ondrusz
Karol Piegza
Adam Wawrosz
= = = Other = = =
Józef Buzek , economist
Ewa Farna , pop singer
Tadeusz Kraus , best Polish footballer from Zaolzie , has twice played in the FIFA World Cup
Adam Makowicz , jazz musician
Tomasz Mendrek , badminton player representing Czechoslovakia at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Halina Młynkowa , pop singer
= = = Books = = =
Kaszper , Roman ; Małysz , Bohdan ( editors ) ( 2009 ) . Poláci na Těšínsku ( PDF ) . Český Těšín : Kongres Poláků v České republice . ISBN 978 @-@ 80 @-@ 87381 @-@ 00 @-@ 7 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2012 @-@ 03 @-@ 10 .
Siwek , Tadeusz ( 1996 ) . Česko @-@ polská etnická hranice . Ostrava : Filozofická fakulta Ostravské univerzity . ISBN 80 @-@ 7042 @-@ 457 @-@ 5 .
Zahradnik , Stanisław ; Marek Ryczkowski ( 1992 ) . Korzenie Zaolzia . Warszawa - Praga - Trzyniec : PAI @-@ press . OCLC 177389723 .
Zahradnik , Stanisław ( ed ) ( 2005 ) . Zorganizowany sport polski na Zaolziu 1920 @-@ 2000 . Czeski Cieszyn - Cieszyn : Sekcja Historii Regionu Zarządu Głównego PZKO , Ośrodek Dokumentacyjny Kongresu Polaków w Republice Czeskiej . OCLC 177328652 .
" Zaolzie " . Nowa Encyklopedia Powszechna PWN VI . Warszawa : PWN . 1997 . ISBN 83 @-@ 01 @-@ 11969 @-@ 1 .
= = = Websites = = =
European Commission ( 2006 ) . " Polish in the Czech Republic " . The Euromosaic study . European Commission . Archived from the original on 2011 @-@ 08 @-@ 28 . Retrieved 2010 @-@ 01 @-@ 16 .
Siwek , Tadeusz . " Statystyczni i niestatystyczni Polacy w Republice Czeskiej " . Wspólnota Polska .
Šamanová , Gabriela ( 2005 ) . " Národnost ve sčítání lidu v českých zemích " . Centrum pro výzkum veřejného mínění AV ČR . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2010 @-@ 06 @-@ 17 .
= National symbols of Belarus =
Upon the independence of Belarus from the Soviet Union , the country resurrected national symbols that were used before the Soviet era . These included a flag of red and white stripes and a coat of arms consisting of a charging knight on horseback . These national symbols were replaced by Soviet @-@ era symbols in a disputed 1995 vote . Those two symbols , along with the national anthem , are the constitutionally defined national symbols of Belarus .
= = Law = =
In the 1994 Constitution of Belarus , Article 19 lists the official symbols of the country . Article 19 reads :
Each national symbol is further defined by their respective laws . Uses of the national symbols are covered in the relevant law of each symbol .
= = National flag = =
The national flag has been in use since June 7 , 1995 , one of two symbols adopted in the 1995 referendum . The main elements of the flag is a red and green bicolor , then decorated with an ornament pattern at the hoist position . The current flag is a modification of the 1951 flag used while the country was a republic of the Soviet Union . In the Soviet version , a hammer and sickle was placed near the top @-@ hoist corner and the ornament colors were inverted . Several flags used by government officials and agencies were based on the national flag .
Despite being replaced , the former flag of Belarus is used by those who oppose current Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko . The former flag consisted of a white background with a red horizontal stripe in the middle . It was used by the Belarusian National Republic and immediately after independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 .
= = National emblem = =
The other national symbol that was chosen in the 1995 referendum was the national emblem . The elements of the emblem include a ribbon in the colors of the national flag , a map of Belarus , wheat ears and a red star . At the base of the ribbon , it says the country 's official name in the Belarusian language . The emblem is an allusion to the one used by the Byelorussian SSR , designed by Ivan Dubasov in 1950 . In the Soviet version , a hammer and sickle replaced the map of Belarus and the ribbon was all red . On the left and right ribbons , the Soviet motto Workers of the world , unite ! appeared in the Belarusian and Russian languages .
The national emblem that was used at the time of the BNR and post @-@ Soviet independence was called the Pahonia ( the chase ) . On the base of a red shield , an armored white knight is mounted on a silver horse , with a sword drawn and charging to the left . On the shield of the knight , a golden Patriarchal cross is displayed . A variant of the Pahonia is used as the coat of arms of Lithuania .
= = National anthem = =
The only symbol that hasn 't changed over during independence is the national anthem . Adopted during the Soviet era , " My Belarusy " was used provisionally until 2002 . The only change that occurred was dropping the Soviet @-@ era lyrics and choosing just to use the music , composed by Nyestar Sakalowski . On July 2 , 2002 , President Lukashenko issued a decree adopting new lyrics to the anthem , written by Uladzimir Karyzny . Klimkovich also wrote the lyrics to the Anthem of the Byelorussian SSR . Not only the lyrics were chosen , a protocol guide related to the national anthem was released by Lukashenko . The reason that was given for keeping Sakalowski 's music was to keep the historic traditions of the country . While references to Lenin , the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the idea of Soviet brotherhood were dropped , the general idea of a " friendship of peoples " still remains present . According to the Belarusian Government , once the national anthem was adopted , the long process to adopt the three national symbols of Belarus was completed .
= = Historic symbols = =
= = Unofficial symbols = =
Other than the national flag , anthem and emblem , Belarus has several unofficial symbols . The Cross of Saint Euphrosyne , a 12th @-@ century relic which disappeared during the Second World War is considered a spiritual symbol of Belarus . The European bison , commonly called the wisent , is seen as a symbol of Belarus and the Belavezha Forest . It is also featured on the symbols of Brest Oblast . An other widely known mascots of Belarus are stork and cornflower .
= Hugo Steinhaus =
Władysław Hugo Dionizy Steinhaus / ˈhjuːɡoʊ ˈstaɪnˌhaʊs / ( January 14 , 1887 – February 25 , 1972 ) was a Polish mathematician and educator . Steinhaus obtained his PhD under David Hilbert at Göttingen University in 1911 and later became a professor at the Jan Kazimierz University in Lwów ( now Lviv , Ukraine ) , where he helped establish what later became known as the Lwów School of Mathematics . He is credited with " discovering " mathematician Stefan Banach , with whom he gave a notable contribution to functional analysis through the Banach – Steinhaus theorem . After World War II Steinhaus played an important part in the establishment of the mathematics department at Wrocław University and in the revival of Polish mathematics from the destruction of the war .
Author of around 170 scientific articles and books , Steinhaus has left his legacy and contribution in many branches of mathematics , such as functional analysis , geometry , mathematical logic , and trigonometry . Notably he is regarded as one of the early founders of game theory and probability theory which led to later development of more comprehensive approaches by other scholars .
= = Early life and studies = =
Steinhaus was born on January 14 , 1887 in Jasło , Austria @-@ Hungary to a family with Jewish roots . His father , Bogusław , was a local industrialist , owner of a brick factory and a merchant . His mother was Ewelina , née Lipschitz . Hugo 's uncle , Ignacy Steinhaus , was an activist in the Koło Polskie ( Polish Circle ) , and a deputy to the Galician Diet , the regional assembly of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria .
Hugo finished his studies at the gymnasium in Jasło in 1905 . His family wanted him to become an engineer but he was drawn to abstract mathematics and began to study the works of famous contemporary mathematicians on his own . In the same year he began studying philosophy and mathematics at the University of Lemberg . In 1906 he transferred to Göttingen University . At that University he received his Ph.D. in 1911 , having written his doctoral dissertation under the supervision of David Hilbert . The title of his thesis was Neue Anwendungen des Dirichlet 'schen Prinzips ( " New applications to Dirichlet 's principle " ) .
At the start of World War I Steinhaus returned to Poland and served in Józef Piłsudski 's Polish Legion , after which he lived in Kraków .
He was an atheist .
= = Academic career = =
= = = Interwar Poland = = =
During the 1916 @-@ 1917 period and before Poland had regained its full independence , which occurred in 1918 , Steinhaus worked in Kraków for the Ministry of the Interior in the ephemeral puppet state of Kingdom of Poland .
In 1917 he started to work at the University of Lemberg ( later Jan Kazimierz University in Poland ) and acquired his habilitation qualification in 1920 . In 1921 he became a profesor nadzwyczajny ( associate professor ) and in 1925 profesor zwyczajny ( full professor ) at the same university . During this time he taught a course on the then cutting edge theory of Lebesgue integration , one of the first such courses offered outside France .
While in Lwów , Steinhaus co @-@ founded the Lwów School of Mathematics and was active in the circle of mathematicians associated with the Scottish cafe , although , according to Stanislaw Ulam , for the circle 's gatherings , Steinhaus would have generally preferred a more upscale tea shop down the street .
= = = World War II = = =
In September 1939 after Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union both invaded and occupied Poland , as a fulfillment of the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact they had signed earlier , Lwów initially came under Soviet occupation . Steinhaus considered escaping to Hungary but ultimately decided to remain in Lwów . The Soviets reorganized the university to give it a more Ukrainian character , but they did appoint Stefan Banach ( Steinhaus 's student ) as the dean of the mathematics department and Steinhaus resumed teaching there . The faculty of the department at the school were also strengthened by several Polish refugees from German occupied Poland . According to Steinhaus , during the experience of this period , he " acquired a insurmountable physical disgust in regard to all sorts of Soviet administrators , politicians and commissars "
During the interwar period and the time of the Soviet occupation , Steinhaus contributed ten problems to the famous Scottish Book , including the last one , recorded shortly before Lwów was captured by the Nazis in 1941 , during Operation Barbarossa .
Steinhaus , because of his Jewish background , spent the Nazi occupation in hiding , first among friends in Lwów , then in the small towns of Osiczyna , near Zamość and Berdechów , near Kraków . The Polish anti @-@ Nazi resistance provided him with false documents of a forest ranger who had died sometime earlier , by the name of Grzegorz Krochmalny . Under this name he taught clandestine classes ( higher education was forbidden for Poles under the German occupation ) . Worried about the possibility of imminent death if captured by Germans , Steinhaus , without access to any scholarly material , reconstructed from memory and recorded all the mathematics he knew , in addition to writing other voluminous memoirs , of which only a little part has been published .
Also while in hiding , and cut off from reliable news on the course of the war , Steinhaus devised a statistical means of estimating for himself the German casualties at the front based on sporadic obituaries published in the local press . The method relied on the relative frequency with which the obituaries stated that the soldier who died was someone 's son , someone 's " second son " , someone 's " third son " and so on .
According to his student and biographer , Mark Kac , Steinhaus told him that the happiest day of his life were the twenty four hours between the time that the Germans left occupied Poland and the Soviets had not yet arrived ( " They had left , and they had not yet come " ) .
= = = After World War II = = =
In the last days of World War II Steinhaus , still in hiding , heard a rumor that University of Lwów was to be transferred to the city of Breslau ( Wrocław ) , which Poland was to acquire as a result of the Potsdam agreement ( Lwów became part of Soviet Ukraine ) . Although initially he had doubts , he turned down offers for faculty positions in Łódź and Lublin and made his way to the city where he began teaching at University of Wrocław . While there , he revived the idea behind the Scottish Book from Lwów , where prominent and aspiring mathematicians would write down problems of interest along with prizes to be awarded for their solution , by starting the
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951 ) .
Sur la liaison et la division des points d 'un ensemble fini ( On uniting and separating the points of a finite set , with others , 1951 ) .
Sto zadań ( One Hundred Problems In Elementary Mathematics , 1964 ) .
Orzeł czy reszka ( Heads or Tails , 1961 ) .
Słownik racjonalny ( A Rational Dictionary , 1980 ) .
= Kitti 's hog @-@ nosed bat =
Kitti 's hog @-@ nosed bat ( Craseonycteris thonglongyai ) , also known as the bumblebee bat , is a vulnerable species of bat and the only extant member of the family Craseonycteridae . It occurs in western Thailand and southeast Burma , where it occupies limestone caves along rivers .
Kitti 's hog @-@ nosed bat is the smallest species of bat and arguably the world 's smallest mammal . It has a reddish @-@ brown or grey coat , with a distinctive pig @-@ like snout . Colonies range greatly in size , with an average of 100 individuals per cave . The bat feeds during short activity periods in the evening and dawn , foraging around nearby forest areas for insects . Females give birth annually to a single offspring .
Although the bat 's status in Burma is not well known , the Thai population is restricted to a single province and may be at risk for extinction . Its potential threats are primarily anthropogenic , and include habitat degradation and the disturbance of roosting sites .
= = Description = =
Kitti 's hog @-@ nosed bat is about 29 to 33 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) in length and 2 g ( 0 @.@ 071 oz ) in mass. hence the common name of " bumblebee bat " . It is the smallest species of bat and may be the world 's smallest mammal , depending on how size is defined . The main competitors for the title are small shrews ; in particular , the Etruscan shrew may be lighter at 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 7 g ( 0 @.@ 042 to 0 @.@ 095 oz ) but is longer , measuring 36 to 53 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 1 in ) from its head to the base of the tail .
The bat has a distinctive swollen , pig @-@ like snout with thin , vertical nostrils . Its ears are relatively large , while its eyes are small and mostly concealed by fur . Its teeth are typical of an insectivorous bat . The dental formula is 1 : 1 : 1 : 3 in the upper jaw and 2 : 1 : 2 : 3 in the lower jaw , with large upper incisors .
The bat 's upperparts are reddish @-@ brown or grey , while the underside is generally paler . The wings are relatively large and darker in colour , with long tips that allow the bat to hover . Despite having two caudal vertebrae , Kitti 's Hog @-@ nosed Bat has no visible tail . There is a large web of skin between the hind legs ( the uropatagium ) which may assist in flying and catching insects , although there are no tail bones or calcars to help control it in flight .
= = Range and distribution = =
Kitti 's hog @-@ nosed bat occupies the limestone caves along rivers , within dry evergreen or deciduous forests . In Thailand , Kitti 's hog @-@ nosed bat is restricted to a small region of the Tenasserim Hills in Sai Yok District , Kanchanaburi Province , within the drainage basin of the Khwae Noi River . While the Sai Yok National Park in the Dawna Hills contains much of the bat 's range , some Thai populations occur outside the park and are therefore unprotected .
Since the 2001 discovery of a single individual in Burma , at least nine separate sites have been identified in the limestone outcrops of the Dawna and Karen Hills outside the Thanlwin , Ataran , and Gyaing Rivers of Kayin and Mon States . The Thai and Burmese populations are morphologically identical , but their echolocation calls are distinct . It is not known whether the two populations are reproductively isolated .
= = Behaviour = =
Kitti 's hog @-@ nosed bat roosts in the caves of limestone hills , far from the entrance . While many caves contain only 10 to 15 individuals , the average group size is 100 , with a maximum of about 500 . Individuals roost high on walls or roof domes , far apart from each other . Bats also undertake seasonal migration between caves .
Kitti 's hog @-@ nosed bat has a brief activity period , leaving its roost for only 30 minutes in the evening and 20 minutes at dawn . These short flights are easily interrupted by heavy rain or cold temperatures . During this period , the bat forages within fields of cassava and kapok or around the tops of bamboo clumps and teak trees , within one kilometre of the roosting site . The wings seem to be shaped for hovering flight , and the gut contents of specimens include spiders and insects that are presumably gleaned off foliage . Nevertheless , most prey is probably caught in flight . Main staples of the bat 's diet include small flies ( Chloropidae , Agromyzidae , and Anthomyiidae ) , hymenopterans , and psocopterans .
Late in the dry season ( around April ) of each year , females give birth to a single offspring . During feeding periods , the young either stays in the roost or remains attached to the mother at one of her two vestigial pubic nipples .
= = Taxonomy = =
Kitti 's hog @-@ nosed bat is the only extant species in the family Craseonycteridae , which is grouped in the superfamily Rhinolophoidea as a result of molecular testing . Based on this determination , the bat 's closest relatives are members of the families Hipposideridae and Rhinopomatidae .
Kitti 's hog @-@ nosed bat was unknown to the world at large prior to 1974 . Its common name refers to its discoverer , Thai zoologist Kitti Thonglongya . Thonglongya worked with a British partner , John E. Hill , in classifying bats of Thailand ; after Thonglongya died suddenly in February 1974 , Hill formally described the species , giving it the binomial name Craseonycteris thonglongyai in honour of his colleague .
= = Conservation = =
As of the species ' most recent review in 2008 , Kitti 's hog @-@ nosed bat is listed by the IUCN as vulnerable , with a downward population trend .
Soon after the bat 's discovery in the 1970s , some roosting sites became disturbed as a result of tourism , scientific collection , and even the collection and sale of individuals as souvenirs . However , these pressures may not have had a significant effect on the species as a whole , since many small colonies exist in hard @-@ to @-@ access locations , and only a few major caves were disturbed . Another potential risk is the activity of local monks , who have occupied roost caves during periods of meditation .
Currently , the most significant and long @-@ term threat to the Thai population could be the annual burning of forest areas , which is most prevalent during the bat 's breeding season . In addition , the proposed construction of a pipeline from Burma to Thailand may have a negative impact . Threats to the Burmese population are not well known .
In 2007 , Kitti 's hog @-@ nosed bat was identified by the Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered project as one of its Top 10 " focal species " .
= Portland Center Stage =
Portland Center Stage ( PCS ) is a theater company based in Portland , Oregon , United States . Theater productions are presented at the Gerding Theater at the Armory in Portland 's Pearl District . PCS was founded in 1988 as the northern sibling of the Oregon Shakespeare Festival in Ashland , Oregon . It became an independent theater in 1993 and in 1994 Elizabeth Huddle became producing artistic director . Chris Coleman took over in 2000 as the company 's fourth artistic director . Coleman hired design firm Sandstrom Design to help refocus the marketing strategy of PCS and increased the variety of productions .
The company began a capital campaign in 2004 , and in 2006 moved into the Portland Armory , which includes two theaters , production facilities and office space . PCS puts on between seven and ten productions annually between September and June , and productions include classical , contemporary and premiere pieces . PCS has received positive commentary in regional guidebooks including Best Places Northwest , Best Places Portland and Moon Handbooks Oregon .
= = History = =
= = = 1988 – 2000 = = =
Portland Center Stage was founded in 1988 , and was the " northern sibling " of the Oregon Shakespeare Festival ( OSF ) in Ashland , Oregon , and continued as a branch of OSF until 1994 . The company was originally known as " Oregon Shakespeare Festival Portland " . Its first production was Heartbreak House . Dennis Bigelow was PCS 's first artistic director and was let go by the OSF in 1992 . A two @-@ year transitional process began in 1993 , during which the OSF maintained a supervisory role over PCS . The Oregonian reported that the OSF 's artistic director Henry Woronicz " couldn 't figure out how to integrate the two closely enough for his liking , and he was unwilling to have Portland go its own way without supervision " .
The advisory board for Oregon Shakespeare Festival Portland was reformulated as the board of directors of the PCS , and Elizabeth Huddle was hired in May 1994 as the producing artistic director . Huddle had previously served on the PCS 's search committee for a new artistic director , but decided to put her name in for consideration . In 1994 the PCS had a budget of US $ 2 @.@ 2 million , and over 11 @,@ 000 subscribers .
In May 1995 the company 's financial numbers for its transitional 1994 – 1995 period with its new artistic director were reported to be a deficit of $ 240 @,@ 000 . The company experienced what The Oregonian described as a " jarring divorce " from the OSF . Huddle had been on the 1991 search committee for the OSF 's artistic director Henry Woronicz , but he suddenly announced his resignation in June 1995 effective the following October citing " personal reasons " . Huddle and the rest of the theater community were surprised by Woronicz 's resignation . In 2000 PCS board president Julie Vigeland commented to The Seattle Times that after separating from OSF " it was a real challenge to form our own identity " , but that Huddle " did a wonderful job helping us do that for the last six years " .
= = = 2000 – present = = =
Its fourth artistic director Chris Coleman took over in May 2000 , and recruited experienced actors to the company . Coleman had previously co @-@ founded Actor 's Express in Atlanta , Georgia , and was the artistic director there . Coleman initially signed on for a three @-@ year contract . Before Coleman began as artistic director with PCS , the company was already the largest live theater production company in Portland . However , the organization was facing sporadic attendance at performances as well as financial difficulties , with a deficit at the end of 1999 of $ 700 @,@ 000 . In 2000 PCS had a deficit of $ 880 @,@ 000 and a base of 10 @,@ 000 subscribers . The financial position of the company later stabilized , and Coleman had a 2000 budget of $ 3 @.@ 2 million to work with when he came on . A 2003 consultant 's report , however , found that PCS relied more heavily on gifts and grants to fund its operations than its peers around the company .
Coleman hired the Portland company Sandstrom Design to help with marketing . Sandstrom helped to improve the promotional materials of the organization , while Portland Center Stage modified the nature and style of its performances . Sandstrom Design produced a 56 @-@ page flyer that showed the performance schedule for the 2003 – 2004 season which was mailed to subscribers , potential customers , handed out at performances and placed around town . The promotional campaign stressed the unique qualities of a live theater performance as entertainment over television and film . PCS 's productions were presented in the Winningstad and Newmark theatres in Portland through the 2005 – 2006 season . Portland Center Stage moved to the new Gerding Theater at the Armory beginning with the 2006 – 2007 season .
Portland Center Stage began a $ 32 @.@ 9 million capital campaign in 2004 , with the goal of building a new theater complex in the Portland Armory , a historic building in Portland . The company began usage of the Portland Armory space in September 2006 . PCS received $ 150 @,@ 000 from the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development in September 2006 for " renovations and upgrades to its facility " , and an additional $ 500 @,@ 000 as part of the " Portland Center Stage Armory Theater Energy Conservation Project " .
The theater facilities at the Portland Armory include " a 599 @-@ seat main stage theater , a smaller , 200 @-@ seat black box theater , administrative offices , a rehearsal hall and production facilities " . The main theater in the Portland Armory is called the Gerding Theater . Seven productions are performed annually , from September through May . The company 's productions include contemporary , classical pieces and modern premieres , in addition to a summer playwrights festival , JAW ( previously known as Just Add Water / West ) . PCS has approximately 8 @,@ 000 subscribers and an annual audience of over 90 @,@ 000 .
= = Productions = =
When Elizabeth Huddle became producing artistic director in 1994 , a production schedule had already been set by the OSF 's Pat Patton . Huddle made changes to her first season 's schedule and decided to direct the first play of the season Arms and the Man , instead of the previously scheduled play Jean Anouilh 's translation of Sophocles ' Antigone . Portland Center Stage was nominated for " Best Production " in the 1994 – 95 Drammy Awards which recognize excellence in Portland theater , for Arms and the Man .
Huddle was artistic director for the world premiere of the play Comfort and Joy : A Play in Two Acts , which premiered at PCS on December 2 , 1995 . Huddle had commissioned playwright Jack Heifner to write Comfort and Joy , which was the first time that Portland Center Stage had ever produced a new play . Huddle ended her time with the Portland Center Stage company in January 2000 . One of Huddle 's final productions with PCS was A Christmas Carol , and her final production with the company was Bus Stop .
Chris Coleman 's first production after signing on with PCS in 2000 was the play The Devils by Elizabeth Egloff , based on the novel of the same name by Fyodor Dostoevsky . Theater critic Misha Berson of The Seattle Times described Coleman 's choice as " an especially audacious departure for Portland Center Stage " , though reviews in Portland media were mixed , it received a positive review in The Oregonian and from audience feedback . Other productions in the 2000 – 2001 season included Martin McDonagh 's Irish comedy , The Cripple of Inishmaan , A Christmas Carol , Patrick Marber 's Closer , and adaptation of Antigone , and the Northwest premiere of A New Brain by William Finn .
Coleman opened the 2006 , 2007 and 2008 seasons at PCS with musicals . He opened the 2006 season with West Side Story , and the 2007 season with Cabaret . Other productions in the 2007 – 2008 season included Doubt , a Parable , Twelfth Night , and Sometimes a Great Notion . PCS received a total of 12 awards at the 29th annual Drammy Awards in June 2008 , including " Outstanding Production " for Twelfth Night . Coleman opened the 2008 – 2009 season with Guys and Dolls , which The Oregonian and Willamette Week described as a timely choice in light of the Economic crisis of 2008 .
= = Reception = =
In her 2004 guide Best Places Northwest Giselle Smith wrote that PCS " offers excellent production values , whatever the play " . In his 2004 book Best Places Portland , author John Gottberg wrote positively of Portland Center Stage , commenting : " Portland 's leading professional theater company is on a par with the country 's best regional theaters . " The 2007 guidebook Moon Handbooks Oregon notes that the company : " produces innovative and sometimes daring productions " .
= My Opposition =
My Opposition ( German : Mein Widerstand ) is a diary secretly written by the German social democrat Friedrich Kellner ( 1885 – 1970 ) during World War II to describe life under Nazi Germany and to expose the propaganda and the crimes of the Nazi dictatorship . It is considered one of the most comprehensive diaries of the period . The first entry in the 861 @-@ page diary is dated September 13 , 1939 , and the last entry is May 17 , 1945 . In 1968 Kellner gave the diary to his American grandson , Robert Scott Kellner , to translate into English and to bring it to the attention of the public .
The diary has been on exhibit in museums in America and Germany . The first exhibit was at the George Bush Presidential Library in April and May 2005 to commemorate the 60th anniversary of Victory in Europe Day , which took place on May 8 , 1945 . The Holocaust Literature Research Unit at the University of Giessen in Germany has created the Kellner Project . The complete diary was published in 2011 by Wallstein Verlag in Göttingen , Germany . It is in two volumes , approximately 1 @,@ 200 pages , with over 70 illustrations and photographs . The title is , " Friedrich Kellner , ' Vernebelt , verdunkelt sind alle Hirne , ' Tagebücher 1939 @-@ 1945 . " ( Literal translation : ' Clouded , darkened are all of the minds , ' Diaries 1939 @-@ 1945 . ) A Canadian documentary film , My Opposition : The Diaries of Friedrich Kellner , was produced in 2006 , for distribution in 2007 .
= = Author = =
Friedrich Kellner was a justice inspector in the courthouse in Mainz between 1903 and 1933 . From 1914 until 1918 , he served as a soldier in the German army . When the First World War ended and Germany became a republic , Kellner became a political activist for the Social Democratic Party of Germany . For ten years , Kellner openly campaigned against the Nazis until they came to power in 1933 .
Once in power , Adolf Hitler soon banned the Social Democratic Party and other political organizations . Concerned for his family 's safety , Kellner moved to the town of Laubach in Hesse , where he became the chief justice inspector : the judicial officer in charge of the administration of the courthouse . When Hitler ordered the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , Kellner began his secret diary to record the crimes of the Third Reich .
After the war , Friedrich Kellner was made deputy mayor of Laubach . He dedicated himself to reestablishing the Social Democratic Party , and he became chairman of the Laubach branch . He retired from politics in 1960 , at the age of seventy @-@ five . In 1968 he gave the diary to his American grandson .
Using his grandfather 's writings to combat the resurgence of fascism and anti @-@ Semitism in the twenty @-@ first century , and to counter historical revisionists who would deny the Holocaust and other Nazi atrocities , Robert Scott Kellner wrote to the Iranian president , Mahmoud Ahmadinejad , who according to some sources has referred to the Holocaust as " a myth " and has called for Israel to be " wiped off the map , " to offer him a copy of the diary . In his letter to Ahmadinejad , Kellner wrote : " We need to renounce ideologies that do not uphold , above all else , human life and personal liberty . "
= = The diary = =
The diary , which Kellner titled Mein Widerstand , meaning My Opposition , is divided into ten volumes , with a total of 861 pages . There are 676 dated entries . The handwriting is in the Sütterlin script , a style of German lettering no longer in use . Included among the pages of the diary are more than 500 newspaper clippings ; a " collage effect " that enhances the diary 's historical significance .
The diary seldom deals with the Kellners ’ personal lives , their daily tribulations and how they managed to survive during the war , although there are occasional entries to that effect , such as this one written on 20 March 1942 :
We were informed of the prospect of a shortening in food rations . 300 grams of meat or sausage per week . Once the Führer asserted he had the right to require sacrifices because he himself was ready to accept any personal sacrifice . If now the idea came into his head to starve to death , then I would not want to take away his right to ask all his fellow fighters to do the same .
= = = Call to arms = = =
In his diary Kellner focused on the broader sociological and political issues of Germany . On 21 January 1942 he reflected on the foolish choices the Germans had made following World War I ; electing Adolf Hitler and the National Socialists to power , and allowing Germany to become a totalitarian state :
Whoever looks in the past and thinks about the time of 1919 to 1932 will be overpowered by great pain in the face of the mistakes that have been made . When Hitler published his book Mein Kampf , it was time to begin the most stringent battle against the theories proposed in that book . Hitler proposed to do away with all present parties and institutions , even those brought about after centuries of sacrifices and great exertion . What would a man do if a thief announced a proposed break @-@ in ? Anybody would make security arrangements . And what did the government and the representatives of the people do ? As much as nothing . A tired , weak and sick population , as well as a weak government , let a charlatan of the worst sort promise them healing . For every problem this quack had the only right medicine . He alone possessed the magic wand that would uproot human weakness and produce angels .
Kellner 's diary takes to task not only the German people who elected Hitler , but the citizens and leaders of other nations who remained indifferent to evidence that dictators in Germany , Italy and Japan were plotting to take possession of the entire world . In a number of entries , Kellner accused politicians in the democracies of failing to stand up against the dictators . He pointed out that the world ’ s intelligentsia , university professors and professionals in medicine and law , were willing to accept the National Socialist propaganda . “ The whole world let themselves be fooled by this man , ” he wrote on May 3 , 1942 . "
He especially could not understand how those who had defeated Germany in the First World War watched without protest as Germany rearmed itself . In an entry dated 12 November 1940 , he wrote :
Chamberlain and the entire subsequent government carries the blame not to have taken equivalent steps when they discovered Germany 's preparations for war . A world power must always be prepared to successfully and energetically repulse any attack . Everyone is certain that England was not sufficiently prepared . Also the fleet did not appear capable of taking decisive action . It 's possible that it was merely constraining itself , but that strategy is a mistake . It should have been put into action immediately . Neither in Africa nor in the Mediterranean has the English fleet rigorously counter @-@ attacked .
Also troubling to Kellner , aside from the Allies ' failure to prepare for the war , was their hesitation to enter the war with their full forces once it had begun . When Poland was attacked in 1939 , followed by attacks on Denmark , Norway , Belgium and France , Kellner looked to the United States to come to Europe 's aid . He could not understand why the United States acted so late to enter the war . On 25 June 1941 , a few days after Operation Barbarossa and six months before Japan ’ s surprise attack on Pearl Harbor , he wrote :
When will this insanity be brought to an end ? Now is a unique chance for England and America to take the initiative , but not only with empty promises and insufficient measures . If America had the will to throw its entire might into the fray , it could tip the balance for a return of peace . Only a tremendous force and the commitment of all war material can bring the German wild steer to reason . Up until now the statesmen , through unbelievable shortsightedness , have neglected or failed their duty . Mankind awake ! Attack together with all your might against the destroyers of peace ! No reflections , no resolutions , no speeches , no ‘ neutrality . ’ Advance against the enemy of mankind !
In the same entry he angrily wrote :
Even today there are idiots in America who talk nonsense about some compromise with Germany under Adolf Hitler . Those are the most atrocious dummies .
= = = Record of atrocities = = =
In a number of entries , Kellner records atrocities being committed by the German soldiers . On 29 July 1941 he recorded what he learned of the deliberate execution of captured Russian soldiers in the prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps :
The wounded soldiers in the field hospital in Giessen tell the story that Russian prisoners @-@ of @-@ war were also being murdered . Gruesome bandits . Are the German people a people of culture ? No ! A cultural people must be able to think as individuals and behave themselves properly . But the German people have repeatedly allowed themselves to be dictated to by their " infallible " Führer without participating in the slightest degree in their own destiny . The Führer is always right , the Führer never errs . The German people have been taken in by this devil .
And he denounced the German military for their policies against the resistance forces in the occupied lands . On 26 October 1941 he wrote :
In France two German officers have been shot by unknown murderers , in Nantes and Bordeaux . In retribution fifty citizens in each of these towns were apprehended and executed . To let people who are completely innocent suffer for the deed of another reminds us of the terrific deeds of wild beasts in times long gone . It was General von Stulpnagel 's lot to revive one of the most gruesome deeds . The world will rightfully be upset over so much inhumanity , and a hate will burn that can never be extinguished . . . How long will this reign of terror continue ?
Perhaps the single most important entry in the diary is dated October 28 , 1941 . After the war many Germans would insist they knew nothing at all about the Holocaust . More recently , Holocaust deniers have questioned the extent , and even the existence of the Holocaust . Friedrich Kellner 's diary counters such suggestions :
A soldier on vacation here said he witnessed a terrible atrocity in the occupied parts of Poland . He watched as naked Jewish men and women were placed in front of a long deep ditch and upon the order of the SS were shot by Ukrainians in the back of their heads and they fell into the ditch . Then the ditch was filled with dirt even as he could still hear screams coming from people still alive in the ditch . These inhuman atrocities were so terrible that some of the Ukrainians , who were used as tools , suffered nervous breakdowns . All the soldiers who had knowledge of these bestial actions of these Nazi sub @-@ humans were of the opinion that the German people should be shaking in their shoes because of the coming retribution . There is no punishment that would be hard enough to be applied to these Nazi beasts . Of course , when the retribution comes , the innocent will have to suffer along with them . But because ninety @-@ nine percent of the German population is guilty , directly or indirectly , for the present situation , we can only say that those who travel together will hang together .
Kellner also recorded the miscarriages of justice within Germany itself , where the Nazi 's disregard for laws and human life took its toll upon the citizenry . On 5 July 1941 he wrote this :
In Giessen , Forester Ritter was arrested because he said the war would last another three years . Two years ago R. was assassinated because he maintained that the war would last two years .
The truth may not be said .
= = = Results of totalitarianism = = =
Kellner was particularly incensed by the internal censorship laws . Censorship in Nazi Germany was implemented by the Minister of Propaganda , Joseph Goebbels . All media — literature , music , newspapers , and radio broadcasts — were censored , in an effort to reinforce Nazi power and to suppress opposing viewpoints and information . On 14 April 1943 , upon reading that the People 's Court of Justice in Vienna had imposed the death sentence on a man accused of listening to a non @-@ censored overseas radio broadcast , Kellner cut the article from the newspaper and wrote next to it :
Ten years in the penitentiary for a ' radio crime . ' According to the newspaper that was too little for the chief justice . He sent back the verdict to the original court and demanded the death penalty . Just think : the death sentence for listening to a foreign broadcast on the radio . It cannot be imagined in the rest of the world that there would be given such a punishment for listening to a German broadcast on their radios . This horror regime has given itself a gruesome monument unto the distant time . Will there be retribution for this some day , Mr. Chief Justice ?
Two months before the war 's end , on 7 March 1945 , when the Allied armies crossed the Rhine and entered German territory , Friedrich Kellner tried to explain why the German people themselves had not rebelled against Nazi rule , why it was necessary for outside forces to rid the Germans of the tyrannical government they themselves had voted into power .
The way that leads to the abyss for the German people has now come . The party patriots continue ever to believe and hope . Also , there are still those who do not want to see , and they expect a miracle from the Führer . Those are the kind of people who do not give up hope even at the edge of the grave . In all other respects , the number of peace seekers grows from hour to hour . The coming generations , and the foreign countries , will want to understand why the German people themselves did not turn against the party tyranny and stop the Nazi Party leaders by force in order to terminate this horrible war . For this , something should be said to clear up the question .
To begin with , the number of the party members is extremely large . Millions of people believed in the National Socialist philosophy ; they were influenced by the broadcasts of the Führer and the detailed party propaganda . Individual thinking was switched off , and the party members allowed their leaders to set the guidelines in everything for them--and this spread throughout the entire population . In this way , more fanatics were created who were ready to use brute force , and other means of terror , to eliminate any internal resistance .
There is no important place in the government or private sector not occupied by proven party comrades . Adolf Hitler clearly announced before the seizure of power that the party would be running things . Thus , anywhere there might be a reaction against the party , a Hitler guard stands ready to quell that reaction .
Although today our opponents are at the Rhine and at the Oder , I do not believe yet that there will be a coup brought about by the German people . Without assistance from outside , such a coup is not even to be considered . Only the armed forces would be able to make a conclusive coup . But the prominent officers know , as well as the party officials , that a lost war will sweep them out of power . Therefore , the war continues until the possibility of it continuing any further is brought to an end . The Allies must continue to advance and fight until the German troops have no more ammunition and war material with which to offer resistance .
That is how I imagine it will end . The Allies must continue to use force in order to terminate the war .
= = Reception of the diary = =
Museum exhibits
April - May 2005 : George Bush Presidential Library and Museum in College Station , Texas to commemorate the 60th anniversary of Victory in Europe Day .
September 2005 : Laubach Heimat Museum , Laubach , Germany . In 2007 this was made a permanent exhibit of diary facsimiles and historical photographs .
May - August 2006 : Holocaust Museum Houston in Texas .
October 2007 : The Great Synagogue of Stockholm , in Stockholm , Sweden .
November 10 , 2008 : Dag Hammarskjöld Library , United Nations Headquarters in New York
December 2009 - January 2010 : Friedrich Ebert Foundation in Berlin , Germany
May - December 2010 : Dwight Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum in Abilene , Kansas , as part of the exhibit " Eisenhower and the Righteous Cause : The Liberation of Europe . "
Museum and library offers to house the diary
Yad Vashem Holocaust Museum in Jerusalem
The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington , D.C.
The Canadian Museum for Human Rights , to be built in 2012 .
Purdue University
Columbia University
Stanford University , Hoover Institute
University of Texas at Austin
Publishing the diary The complete diary was published by Wallstein Verlag ( on German Wikipedia ) in Göttingen , Germany , in 2011 . It consists of two volumes , approximately 1 @,@ 200 pages , with over 70 illustrations and photographs . The title is " Friedrich Kellner , ' Vernebelt , verdunkelt sind alle Hirne , ' Tagebücher 1939 @-@ 1945 . "
= = Documentary film = =
CCI Entertainment , a Canadian film company , produced a documentary film entitled , My Opposition : The Diaries of Friedrich Kellner , which interweaves the stories of Kellner and his American grandson , using reenactments , photographs , and archival footage . During parts of the documentary , an actor reads diary entries that relate to the historic narrative of the film , and the camera scans pages of the diary . The film was broadcast on prime @-@ time television in Canada in 2007 . It was screened in November 2008 at the Dag Hammarskjold Auditorium at United Nations Headquarters in New York in commemoration of the 70th anniversary of Kristallnacht . In October 2009 , it was screened in Israel at the Jewish Eye Film Festival .
= 2009 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl =
The 2009 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl was a postseason college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Tennessee Volunteers on December 31 , 2009 , in the Georgia Dome , Atlanta , Georgia . Virginia Tech defeated Tennessee 37 – 14 . The game was part of the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season and was the concluding game of the season for both teams . The game , the 42nd edition of the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl — called the Peach Bowl for much of its existence — was televised in the United States on ESPN and the broadcast was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 87 million viewers .
Each participating team was selected by the bowl game 's selection committee , which had paid contracts with the participating football conferences . The Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl had the second pick of bowl @-@ eligible teams from the Atlantic Coast Conference and the fifth pick from eligible teams in the Southeastern Conference . In picking Virginia Tech and Tennessee , the selection committee bypassed teams with better or similar records in order to create a matchup appealing to television audiences . Pregame media coverage focused on the close geographic rivalry between the two teams and the success of Tennessee head coach Lane Kiffin in reversing his team 's poor fortune from the previous season .
The game kicked off at 7 : 37 p.m. EST and Virginia Tech jumped to an early lead with a first @-@ quarter touchdown . Tennessee replied in the second quarter with two touchdowns of their own , but Virginia Tech kept the lead by scoring 10 points in the quarter . At halftime , Tech led 17 @-@ 14 . In the second half , Virginia Tech pulled away from Tennessee , scoring 20 unanswered points to win the game 37 @-@ 14 .
In recognition of his performance during the game , Virginia Tech running back Ryan Williams was named the game 's most valuable player . By the end of the game , he had set a school record for most rushing yards in a season and conference records for most rushing touchdowns and most total touchdowns . Following the game , Tennessee head coach Lane Kiffin resigned to become head coach of the University of Southern California Trojans football team . Several players from each team participated in postseason all @-@ star games and a handful were selected to play in the National Football League through the 2010 NFL Draft .
= = Team selection = =
Beginning with the 2006 game , the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl purchased the right to select the highest @-@ ranked Atlantic Coast Conference team after representatives from the Bowl Championship Series made their selection . The contract was renewed in 2009 , extending that right through 2013 . According to the official selection rules used in the 2009 @-@ 10 season , the team chosen to represent the ACC in the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl had to be within one conference victory of the remaining highest @-@ ranked conference team or ranked more than five spaces ahead of the ACC team with the best conference record available in the final BCS standings . Following the conclusion of the 2009 college football regular season , the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl selection committee bypassed the ACC Championship Game loser , Clemson , in order to pick Virginia Tech , which had the same conference record . The committee believed a game featuring Virginia Tech would draw more television viewers and in @-@ person attendance than Clemson , even though the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl was the third time that season Virginia Tech played a game in Atlanta .
In choosing the SEC opponent , the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl selection committee had the right to select the first SEC school after the Bowl Championship Series , Cotton Bowl Classic , Capital One Bowl , and Outback Bowl made their selections . Just as in the ACC , the selection committee could not select an SEC team with two fewer losses than the highest available team . After the 2009 regular season ended , SEC champion Alabama was selected for the national championship game , and SEC runner @-@ up Florida was picked by the Sugar Bowl to fill the SEC 's BCS tie @-@ in . The Cotton Bowl selected Ole Miss , the Capital One Bowl picked LSU , and the Outback Bowl took Auburn . For its pick , the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl bypassed local team Georgia ( No. 2 in the SEC 's eastern division ) for Tennessee ( No. 3 in the division ) in order to set up a game against two geographic rivals and because Tennessee had defeated Georgia in a head @-@ to @-@ head matchup .
The bowl earned the right to select these teams via its multimillion @-@ dollar payout system , which guarantees a certain amount of money to the participating conferences . Before 2006 , the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl ( then known as the Peach Bowl ) matched the No. 5 team in the SEC versus the No. 3 team in the ACC . After the bowl increased its payout to $ 2 @.@ 8 million per squad , it then was given the second pick from the ACC , with the Gator Bowl dropping to third . After 2006 , the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl has steadily increased its payouts in order to keep pace with the trend across college football . In the 2009 game , the ACC and SEC split a payout of $ 6 @.@ 02 million , with the ACC receiving more because it offered an earlier selection .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Hokies went 10 @-@ 4 in 2008 , concluding the season with a 20 @-@ 7 win in the 2009 Orange Bowl . Before the 2009 season started , Virginia Tech accepted an invitation to play Alabama in the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Kickoff Game , a game organized by the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl to pit two high @-@ profile teams against each other to create a bowl game @-@ like atmosphere in the Georgia Dome at the start of the season . Virginia Tech was ranked No. 7 in the preseason polls , while Alabama was No. 5 ; the game was forecast as a competition between two possible national championship contenders . Alabama defeated Virginia Tech 34 @-@ 24 and ultimately went on to win the national championship .
Tech recovered from the loss by winning its next five games , including a last @-@ second victory over 19th @-@ ranked Nebraska and a 31 @-@ 7 blowout victory over No. 9 Miami . The victories brought Tech to a 5 @-@ 1 record and a No. 4 national ranking . On October 17 , Virginia Tech traveled to Atlanta for the second time that season , this time to play 19th @-@ ranked Georgia Tech . For the first time since 1962 , Georgia Tech defeated a top @-@ five team , beating Virginia Tech 28 @-@ 23 . Georgia Tech 's win gave it a tiebreaker against Virginia Tech in the Atlantic Coast Conference standings , but Virginia Tech made the tiebreaker moot by losing its next game , an ACC contest against North Carolina . Georgia Tech lost only one ACC game all season , a record that won it the ACC 's Coastal Division and the accompanying spot in the ACC Championship Game ahead of Virginia Tech , which was No. 2 in the division .
Virginia Tech broke its two @-@ game losing streak by defeating non @-@ conference foe East Carolina on November 5 . The victory was the start of a four @-@ game win streak that brought Virginia Tech to the end of the regular season and restored its national ranking to No. 12 after falling to No. 23 following the North Carolina loss .
= = = Tennessee = = =
The Tennessee Volunteers entered the 2009 season following a 2008 campaign that ended with a bowl @-@ ineligible 5 @-@ 7 record . After the 2008 season ended , Tennessee fired head coach Phillip Fulmer and replaced him with Lane Kiffin , who promised to turn the program around . Kiffin made an offseason splash by breaking the social norms among SEC head football coaches and violating a handful of NCAA rules . In a season @-@ opening win over Western Kentucky , Kiffin appeared to have made a difference for Tennessee , as the Volunteers had their largest margin of victory in nine years .
That victory was followed by consecutive losses , however , against UCLA and No. 1 @-@ ranked Florida . Tennessee ended its losing streak with a win against Ohio , then began alternating wins and losses . The victory against Ohio was followed by a loss to Auburn . A win against Georgia preceded a loss to No. 2 Alabama on a last @-@ second blocked field goal and a win against No. 22 South Carolina . After South Carolina , Tennessee beat Memphis to create its first winning streak of the season . That streak abruptly ended the following week , when Tennessee lost to Mississippi .
The Volunteers won their last two games of the regular season — against Vanderbilt and Kentucky — bringing them to a record of 7 @-@ 5 . At no time during the season was Tennessee ranked in the national top @-@ 25 polls , and Tennessee was never in consideration to play in the SEC Championship Game because of its early loss to Florida .
= = Pregame buildup = =
In the weeks before the game , media coverage focused on the geographic rivalry between the two teams , the controversies surrounding Lane Kiffin , and the performances of the players on each team . Virginia Tech played in the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl in 2006 , losing to Georgia 31 @-@ 24 , and the 2009 game was its fourth appearance in the game . It was Tennessee 's fifth appearance in the game , and the Volunteers had most recently lost to Clemson in the 2004 contest , 27 @-@ 14 . Entering the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl , Virginia Tech was 0 @-@ 2 in games held in Atlanta during 2010 , it had lost four consecutive games to SEC foes , and it had never won back @-@ to @-@ back bowl games ( Tech won the 2009 Orange Bowl ) . Despite those factors , Virginia Tech was an early 4 @.@ 5 @-@ point favorite and was listed as a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ point favorite by spread bettors on the day before the game .
= = = Geographic rivalry = = =
The University of Tennessee and Virginia Tech are separated by only 233 miles ( 375 km ) by road , and no major university lies between the two , creating an intense geographical rivalry in that region of the Appalachian Mountains . As Virginia Tech linebacker Cody Grimm said before the game , " ( In ) Southwest Virginia , you are either a Tennessee fan or a Tech fan . Now we actually get a chance to play them . "
Despite the proximity of the two schools , the 2009 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl was only their eighth football meeting . Tennessee held a 5 @-@ 2 advantage in the series , but before 1994 , the last meeting between them was in 1937 . The 1994 meeting was in the 1994 Gator Bowl , which the Volunteers won 45 @-@ 23 . Each school rapidly sold its allotment of 17 @,@ 000 tickets , and publicly available tickets were sold out before the matchup was announced . This gave the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl its 13th consecutive sellout .
= = = Tennessee coaching turmoil = = =
In the weeks leading up to the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl , the number of controversies surrounding Tennessee head coach Lane Kiffin continued to grow . Throughout the regular season , he was linked to violations of NCAA rules and actions that appeared to fall outside the norm for SEC coaches . He was mentioned in a rap song by Lil Wayne , and his combative attitude toward opposing coaches caused friction within the SEC . In the second week of December , he was connected to an ongoing scandal in which Tennessee hostesses allegedly helped lure recruits to Tennessee , violating NCAA rules . Despite these problems , he was a successful recruiter , and gained commitments from sought @-@ after recruits in the leadup to the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl .
In addition to the off @-@ the @-@ field issues , Tennessee underwent a pair of coaching changes in the weeks before the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl . Wide receivers coach Frank Wilson and running backs coach Eddie Gran each decided in the first days of December to leave Tennessee for other SEC teams . In interviews , Kiffin said the coaching changes and stories surrounding him were not a distraction from his team 's bowl preparation .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
During the 2009 season , Virginia Tech was 28th nationally in scoring offense ( number of points scored ) and 55th in total offense . Most of the Hokies ' success came on the ground : Tech was 16th nationally in rushing offense but 98th in passing offense . A large reason for Virginia Tech 's offensive success was running back Ryan Williams , who broke Virginia Tech 's single @-@ season rushing record that year . Entering the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl , he had 1 @,@ 538 yards , only 110 short of the record . Tech running back Darren Evans , who tore his left anterior cruciate ligament before the season began , was held out of the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl , even though his recovery had progressed to the point that he could have participated .
Virginia Tech also was rated higher than Tennessee in every major special teams category . The Hokies were in the top 25 in both kickoff return yardage defense
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His presence was interpreted by many fans as provocation ; he was booed , and pelted with eggs and fruit ; an hour into the game , a fan lobbed a tear @-@ gas bomb in Campbell 's direction ; firefighters decided to clear the building . A riot ensued outside the Forum as disenchanted fans leaving the Forum were met by a growing mob of angry demonstrators ; the hostile crowd overwhelmed 250 police officers on the scene . Seventy people were arrested , another 37 people were injured ; fifty stores were looted , and $ 100 @,@ 000 in property damage was reported , in what became known as l 'affaire Richard , or the Richard Riot .
The following day , Richard went on Montreal radio to ask fans to cease rioting , and instead support the Canadiens in the playoffs ; he offered to take his punishment then come back the following year to win the Cup . While the Canadiens were eliminated in the 1955 Stanley Cup Finals , Richard led Montreal to the 1956 Stanley Cup . The incident highlighted the growing cultural gap between French Quebec and English Canada ; the riot is often characterized as an early manifestation of Quebec 's Quiet Revolution . Campbell 's decision to suspend Richard was widely supported by fans outside of Quebec . Some , including Detroit 's Ted Lindsay , said the suspension did not go far enough and argued Richard , a man who had paid more fines than any other player in league history , should have been banned for life .
On October 19 , 1957 , Richard became the first player to score 500 career goals . He retired in 1960 , as an eight @-@ time Stanley Cup champion , as well as the NHL 's all @-@ time leading scorer , with 544 goals . In 1961 , the league waived the customary three @-@ year waiting period ; Richard was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame .
= = = Hockey Night in Canada = = =
In the fall of 1951 , in an attempt to determine whether it a suitable medium for broadcasting hockey games , Conn Smythe watched special television feeds of Maple Leaf games . Television already had detractors within the NHL , especially Campbell who declared it " the greatest menace of the entertainment world " . In 1952 , even though only 10 % of Canadians owned a television set , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) began televising games . On November 1 , 1952 , Hockey Night in Canada was first broadcast on television , with Foster Hewitt calling the action between the Leafs and Bruins at Maple Leaf Gardens . The broadcasts quickly became the highest @-@ rated show on Canadian television . The broadcast came three weeks after Montreal radio host René Lecavalier presented a French @-@ language telecast of the Montreal Canadiens ' opener against Chicago , marking the beginning of La Soirée du hockey , which Radio @-@ Canada , the French arm of the CBC , broadcast until 2004 . On that same night , Danny Gallivan made his debut as the English language play @-@ by @-@ play announcer for the Canadiens .
While Campbell feared televised hockey would cause people to stop attending games in person , Smythe felt the opposite . " There 'll be thousands of people seeing hockey as played by the pros for the first time . They 'll be sold on it because it 's a great game , and they won 't be satisfied to stay [ at home ] but will turn out to the rinks . " As an experiment in the 1956 – 57 season , CBS first broadcast hockey games in the United States . Amazed with the initial popularity of the broadcasts , it inaugurated a 21 @-@ game package of games the following year . The NHL itself adapted to become viewer @-@ friendly . In 1949 , to make the puck easier to see , the league mandated the ice surface painted white . In 1951 , so each team was distinguishable on black and white television , the League required home teams wear colored jerseys , and the road teams wear white . For the same reason , teams painted the centre red line in a checkered pattern to set it apart from the solid blue lines .
= = Dynasties = =
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
In the 1951 Stanley Cup Finals , in the only final in NHL history when all games were decided in overtime , the Maple Leafs defeated the Canadiens four games to one . After dashing from his defensive position , despite an earlier warning from Smythe not to take unnecessary chances , Leafs ' defenceman Bill Barilko hammered the Cup @-@ winning goal past Montreal goaltender Gerry McNeil . The goal completed Toronto 's fourth Stanley Cup championship in five seasons , making Barilko a national hero . Four months later , Barilko and a friend disappeared in Northern Ontario , where they had flown on a fishing trip . Barilko 's disappearance became front page news across Canada ; a massive search failed to locate the missing plane . Barilko 's remains were not found until 1962 , the first year the Maple Leafs won the Cup since Barilko 's overtime winner eleven years previous . Barilko 's disappearance was immortalized 40 years later by Canadian rock band The Tragically Hip in their 1992 song " Fifty Mission Cap " .
By 1962 , the disappearance of Bill Barilko and the Maple Leafs ' subsequent failure to win the Stanley Cup led Toronto fans to believe a curse was upon the team . The Leafs won the 1962 championship shortly before Barilko 's remains were discovered . In 1963 , they repeated as champions . In 1964 , the Leafs again played for the Stanley Cup against the Red Wings . In the third period of game six , trailing the series 3 – 2 , Maple Leafs ' defenceman Bobby Baun suffered a broken ankle from a Gordie Howe slap shot . Despite the injury , Baun returned with his ankle taped up to score the winning goal in overtime . Baun also played the seventh game as the Maple Leafs defeated the Red Wings to win their third consecutive title .
= = = Detroit Red Wings = = =
Beginning in 1948 – 49 , the Red Wings went on to win seven consecutive regular season titles - a feat no other team has accomplished . During that time , the Wings won four Stanley Cups . During the 1952 Stanley Cup Finals the Legend of the Octopus was created . For the fourth game of the finals , brothers Pete and Jerry Cusimano brought a dead octopus to the Detroit Olympia . At the time , they reasoned the eight tentacles of an octopus represented the eight wins required to win the Stanley Cup . The Wings had won seven consecutive playoff games , and the brothers hoped the octopus would inspire Detroit to an eighth victory . The tradition was born , as Detroit handily defeated Montreal 3 – 0 .
During this time , the Wings were led by Gordie Howe . In 1943 , at the age of 15 , Howe was invited to the Rangers player camp in Winnipeg ; but quickly became homesick and failed to favorably impress the Rangers coaches . The next season the Red Wings invited him to their camp , where coach Jack Adams called him " the best prospect I 've seen in 20 years . " Two years later , at the age of 18 , Howe debuted in the NHL for Detroit . On March 28 , 1950 , during a playoff game against the Leafs , Howe was nearly killed as he mistimed an attempted check on Toronto 's Ted Kennedy , causing him to slam head first into the boards . Rushed to hospital , doctors drilled a hole into Howe 's skull to relieve pressure on his brain . Despite fears he would never play again , " Mr. Hockey " recovered to start the following season , then won his first of four consecutive scoring titles in 1950 – 51 . Howe was 52 years old when he retired from professional hockey .
= = = Montreal Canadiens = = =
In three consecutive seasons between 1954 and 1956 , the Red Wings faced the Canadiens in the Stanley Cup Finals . Detroit won the first two match @-@ ups , however , Montreal captured the 1956 Stanley Cup , ending one dynasty and starting another . Subsequently , the Canadiens won five consecutive championships between 1956 and 1960 , a feat no other team has duplicated .
In 1953 , the Canadiens signed Jean Beliveau ; a well @-@ anticipated prospect in the NHL for years . Because his Quebec Senior Hockey League team , the Quebec Aces , matched any contract offer the Canadiens made , Beliveau repeatedly refused to turn professional with Montreal . Ultimately , Montreal bought the entire league outright , along with the rights to all players , and turned it professional . Beliveau finally signed with Montreal for $ 105 @,@ 000 over five years and a $ 20 @,@ 000 bonus , an unprecedented contract for a rookie . Playing for Montreal , Beliveau went on to win ten Stanley Cups .
Led by Richard and Beliveau , the 1950s Canadiens had overwhelming offensive ability ; to slow their offence the NHL amended its rules . To illustrate , the 1955 – 56 Canadiens frequently scored multiple goals during the same two @-@ minute powerplay . In one game against Boston , during a penalty , Beliveau scored three goals in 44 seconds . For the following season , the league instituted a rule permitting a player serving a minor penalty to return to the ice when a goal was scored against his team .
= = Breaking the colour barrier = =
On January 18 , 1958 , by joining the Bruins as an ' injury call @-@ up ' for a game in Montreal , Willie O 'Ree became the first black player in the NHL . Playing only two games with the Bruins in the 1957 – 58 season , O 'Ree returned in 1960 – 61 , playing another 43 games with Boston . Although he only played 45 NHL games , scoring four goals , he earned the label the " Jackie Robinson of hockey " .
Throughout the season , O 'Ree faced blatant racism from opponents , remarking " people just wanted a piece of me , maybe because they thought I was different , so I had to defend myself . I wasn 't going to be run out of any rink . " He endured racial slurs from fans in each of Chicago , Detroit and New York , though the taunts were largely absent in Montreal and Toronto . O 'Ree was supported by his teammates and Boston fans . He stated " they were mean to me in places like Detroit and New York , too . But never in Boston . I 'll never forget how my teammates there took care of me — men like Johnny Bucyk , Doug Mohns , Charlie Burns and Don McKenney . They accepted me totally . All of them had class . " In 1961 , O 'Ree was traded to Montreal but was unable to crack the Canadiens ' line @-@ up . Playing over 20 minor league seasons , O 'Ree twice won the Western Hockey League 's scoring title : in 1964 , with the Los Angeles Blades , and in 1969 , with the San Diego Gulls .
O 'Ree 's breakthrough came several years after another black player , Herb Carnegie was denied the same opportunity . In 1938 – 39 , playing junior hockey with the Ontario Hockey Association 's Toronto Rangers , during a practice Carnegie was pulled aside by his coach and told " See that man sitting in the blues ? That 's Conn Smythe , owner of the Toronto Maple Leafs . He says he 'd take you tomorrow if he could turn you white . " Stung by the comments , Carnegie resolved to excel at the game . He was offered a tryout with the Rangers in 1950 , then a spot on their lowest minor league team . " They told me that if I signed with the Rangers and went to New Haven , I would make international headlines . I told them my family couldn 't eat headlines . That was probably when the Rangers decided to forget about me . "
= = " Norris House League " = =
During the 1960s , it was often joked " NHL " stood for " Norris House League " because the Norris family held interests in several league teams . James D. Norris was co @-@ owner of the Black Hawks along with Arthur Wirtz ; his brother Bruce inherited ownership of the Red Wings . James D. Norris was also the largest shareholder in Madison Square Garden , giving him control over the Rangers .
The Black Hawks qualified for the playoffs only once between 1949 and 1957 . The team 's fortunes turned in 1958 – 59 , following the acquisition of Ted Lindsay and Glenn Hall from Detroit . Making the playoffs , the Black Hawks lost to Montreal in the semi @-@ finals in 1959 and 1960 , before capturing their first championship in 23 years , in the 1961 Stanley Cup Finals . Chicago next won the Cup 49 years later in the 2009 @-@ 10 season .
The Hawks ' resurgence in the 1960s led Norris and Wirtz to take advantage of their customers . Dubbed the " Chicken Wings " by fans , the Hawks were famous for fleecing fans . Ticket sellers were arrested for scalping ; the team charged $ 9 for playoff tickets in 1965 , $ 3 more than Detroit , Toronto or Montreal . The Hawks also refused to broadcast road playoff games in Chicago , preferring to charge fans to watch the games via closed @-@ circuit television at Chicago Stadium . Fans responded by littering the ice and passing out leaflets urging a boycott of the team during Chicago 's last regular season game in 1964 – 65 .
= = Expansion = =
In 1963 , Rangers governor William Jennings introduced to his peers the idea of expanding the league to the American West Coast by adding two new teams for the 1964 – 65 season . His argument was based around concerns the Western Hockey League intended to operate in the near future as a major league . Jennings also hoped inclusion of teams on the west coast would make the league truly national , and thereby , improve the chances of returning to television in the United States as the NHL had lost its deal with CBS . While the governors did not agree to the proposal , the topic of expansion surfaced every time the owners met subsequently . In 1965 , there was agreement to expand by six teams , doubling the size of the NHL . San Francisco – Oakland and Vancouver were declared " acceptable cities " with Los Angeles and St. Louis as potential sites . Fourteen applications were received from across Canada and the United States , including four from Los Angeles .
In February 1966 , the governors met and awarded franchises to Los Angeles , Minnesota , Philadelphia , Pittsburgh , San Francisco and St. Louis . The league rejected bids from Baltimore , Buffalo and Vancouver . The six winning bids each paid $ 2 million for their franchises . St. Louis was awarded a franchise with no bid received . The league 's decision to grant a franchise was contingent on a potential owner stepping forward - a decision influenced by the Norris and Wirtz families , who owned the St. Louis Arena .
Canadians were outraged no expansion teams were awarded to Canada . Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson stated : " the NHL decision to expand only in the U.S. impinges on the sacred principles of all Canadians . " Maple Leafs coach Punch Imlach stated Vancouver was " sold out " and Toronto and Montreal did not want to share television revenue with another Canadian team .
Leafs co @-@ owner Stafford Smythe rejected accusations that he opposed expansion to Vancouver , pointing out that he had offered to build and operate an $ 8 million facility in the city 's downtown area , a proposal that he contended made little sense unless Vancouver had an NHL team . However , Smythe 's proposal was contingent on him acquiring the parcel of land required from the city , then valued at $ 2 @.@ 5 million , for $ 1 . The proposed transaction was defeated in a municipal referendum . Smythe therefore placed the blame for Vancouver 's failed bid on the city : " Vancouver lost its chance the day it turned down the referendum on our arena proposal " , Smythe said . " That proved to me that the people out there aren 't interested in going major league . "
The Original Six era ended with the 1967 Stanley Cup Finals between the two @-@ time defending champion Canadiens , and the Maple Leafs . The oldest team in the league , the third place Leafs were led in goal by 37 @-@ year @-@ old Terry Sawchuk and 42 @-@ year @-@ old Johnny Bower . Known as the " over the hill gang " , in six games , Toronto became the oldest team to win the Cup , defeating the favored Canadiens . The Maple Leafs have not appeared in the Stanley Cup finals since .
= = Rules and innovations = =
In 1942 , due to World War II related travel restrictions , league president Frank Calder abolished the 10 @-@ minute overtime for regular season games so teams could catch their trains without delay . With the war 's conclusion , regular season overtime did not return , although playoff games continued until a winner was decided . Overtime was re @-@ introduced in the regular 1983 – 84 season .
In 1943 , to make it more entertaining , the rules committee looked to increase the game 's speed . Rangers coach Frank Boucher proposed the neutral zone divided by a centre red line , so teams could pass the puck out of the defensive zone into their half of the neutral zone . Previously , the league required defensive players carry the puck from the defensive zone , not permitting a pass across the blue line . Introduced in 1943 – 44 , the new rule changed the game . Formerly , strong fore @-@ checking pinned opponents in their own zone for minutes at a time ; subsequently , teams rushed up the ice with defencemen passing to forwards beyond the blue line . Scoring increased 10 % league @-@ wide ; four of six teams topped 200 goals , the first time teams did so . In the early 1960s , Stan Mikita inadvertently introduced the curved blade to a hockey stick . Cracking his blade during a practice and not wanting to retrieve another , Mikita shot the puck in anger . He noticed the curve in the cracked blade caused the puck to behave differently . Both Mikita and Bobby Hull experimented with heating and bending their stick blade to create different curves . Using a curved blade , Mikita went on to win four Art Ross Trophies as the NHL 's leading scorer . He later said he regretted the idea : " It 's one of the worst inventions in hockey , because it eliminated the use of the backhand . "
The NHL Amateur Draft was first held on June 5 , 1963 at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal , Quebec . Created by Campbell , it was meant to more evenly distribute talent . To that point , teams directly sponsored junior clubs , buying a player 's rights . A 16 @-@ year @-@ old with the St. Michaels Juveniles , Garry Monahan , was the first player selected in the 1963 draft . Monahan remains the youngest player ever selected in an NHL draft . The Entry Draft system did not fully replace the sponsorship system until 1969 .
= = = Goaltending = = =
Goaltender Clint Benedict was the first to wear facial protection , donning it in 1930 to protect a broken nose . Because its design interfered with his vision , Benedict quickly abandoned the mask . Twenty @-@ nine years later , Jacques Plante made the goalie mask a permanent fixture in hockey . In 1956 , Plante began wearing a mask in practice after shots from teammates twice broke cheekbones . Montreal coach Toe Blake refused to allow Plante to wear his mask in games . On November 1 , 1959 , in a game at Madison Square Garden , that changed , when Plante was struck in the face . Teams did not dress backup goaltenders ; the game was delayed 20 minutes , while doctors frantically stitched up Plante . When Blake asked Plante if he was ' ready to return ' , Plante refused unless allowed to wear his mask . Livid , Blake agreed only if Plante removed the mask when his face was healed . Wearing the mask , Plante led the Canadiens on an 18 @-@ game unbeaten streak , to finally remove the mask at Blake 's urging ; promptly the team lost their first game . Defeated , Blake relented . Plante 's mask became a permanent fixture as he led the Canadiens to their fifth consecutive Stanley Cup . Soon after , other goalies followed Plante 's lead .
Remarkably , Terry Sawchuk played goal for most of his career not wearing a mask ; he crouched very low such that his shoulders nearly touched his knees . This stance became known as the " gorilla crouch " . During his career , Sawchuk relied on his ability to see the puck under the players ' bodies , his outstanding mobility , and reflexes , to win four Vezina Trophies . By 1955 , he was regarded as the greatest goaltender to ever play the game . Sawchuk 's career was cut short when he died in 1970 from injuries suffered in a drunken incident with teammate Ron Stewart . The Hall of Fame waived its waiting period , immediately inducting Sawchuk as the NHL 's all @-@ time record holder in wins ( 447 ) and shutouts ( 103 ) . Sawchuk 's style of play was a precursor to the modern goaltending butterfly style .
The butterfly style - used by most all modern goaltenders - was invented by Glenn Hall . Considered both unique and foolish , Hall 's style of dropping to his knees and kicking his pads out in a V formation forced shooters to aim for the top half of the net . Hall adopted the technique as a youth when he lacked the arm strength to stop shots with his stick . An eight @-@ time All @-@ Star , Hall became an NHL regular at the start of the 1955 – 1956 season to begin a sequence of 502 consecutive games as goaltender for Detroit and Chicago . This record is hailed as one of the NHL 's most unbreakable .
= = Unionization = =
The first players ' union was formed February 12 , 1957 by Red Wings player Ted Lindsay who had sat on the board of the NHL 's Pension Society since 1952 . Lindsay and his fellow players were upset by the league 's refusal to let them view the books related to the pension fund . The league claimed that it was barely breaking even financially , and so could not contribute more than it did . Players on the Pension Committee suspected otherwise , leading Lindsay and Doug Harvey of the Canadiens to discussions on forming a union in 1956 . The idea quickly gained popularity and when the union 's founding was announced publicly , every NHL player had signed up with the exception of Ted Kennedy , who was retiring .
The owners immediately worked to crush the union . Toronto owner Conn Smythe compared the players association to communism : " I feel that anything spawned in secrecy as this association was certainly has to have some odour to it . " Red Wings president Bruce Norris responded by trading Lindsay to his brother 's team , the Black Hawks . The move was widely seen as punitive , as the Hawks had finished last in the NHL every season , save one , from 1949 until 1957 . Lindsay was not the only player sent to Chicago as punishment ; Glenn Hall was included as he refused to distance himself from Lindsay . In Toronto , Smythe repeatedly benched Jim Thomson , who was the union 's secretary , before also dealing him to the Black Hawks . The Players ' Association responded by filing a $ 3 million anti @-@ trust lawsuit against the NHL . Persuaded by teammates Gordie Howe and Red Kelly , the Red Wings players voted to withdraw from the association in November 1957 . Other teams quickly followed , and the union capitulated . Union leadership ultimately agreed to drop the lawsuit in exchange for small concessions , which included a minimum annual salary of $ 7 @,@ 000 , increases to the pension contributions and moving expenses for traded players .
Led by Alan Eagleson , the National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) was formed in 1967 . Eagleson became the sport 's first player agent in 1966 when he negotiated a deal on behalf of Bobby Orr with the Bruins that saw the 18 @-@ year @-@ old rookie become the highest paid player in the NHL . At its peak , Eagleson 's practice represented 150 professional athletes . Eagleson had also helped settle an American Hockey League players strike sparked by mistreatment of players . In June 1967 , the NHLPA was announced , and quickly received acceptance from the owners .
= = Timeline = =
Notes
" SC " denotes won Stanley Cup
= Lead ( II ) nitrate =
Lead ( II ) nitrate is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Pb ( NO3 ) 2 . It commonly occurs as a colourless crystal or white powder and , unlike most other lead ( II ) salts , is soluble in water .
Known since the Middle Ages by the name plumb dulcis , the production of lead ( II ) nitrate from either metallic lead or lead oxide in nitric acid was small @-@ scale , for direct use in making other lead compounds . In the 19th century lead ( II ) nitrate began to be produced commercially in Europe and the United States . Historically , the main use was as a raw material in the production of pigments for lead paints , but such paints have been superseded by less toxic paints based on titanium dioxide . Other industrial uses included heat stabilization in nylon and polyesters , and in coatings of photothermographic paper . Since around the year 2000 , lead ( II ) nitrate has begun to be used in gold cyanidation .
Lead ( II ) nitrate is toxic , an oxidizing agent , and is categorised as probably carcinogenic to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer . Consequently , it must be handled and stored with the appropriate safety precautions to prevent inhalation , ingestion and skin contact . Due to its hazardous nature , the limited applications of lead ( II ) nitrate are under constant scrutiny .
= = History = =
Since the Middle Ages , lead ( II ) nitrate has been produced as a raw material for the production of coloured pigments in lead paints , such as chrome yellow ( lead ( II ) chromate ) , chrome orange ( lead ( II ) hydroxide chromate ) and similar lead compounds . These pigments were used for dyeing and printing calico and other textiles .
In 1597 , the German alchemist Andreas Libavius first described the compound , coining the medieval names of plumb dulcis and calx plumb dulcis , meaning " sweet lead " , because of its taste . Although originally not understood during the following centuries , the decrepitation property of lead ( II ) nitrate led to its use in matches and special explosives such as lead azide .
The production process was and still is chemically straightforward , effectively dissolving lead in aqua fortis ( nitric acid ) , and subsequently harvesting the precipitate . However , the production remained small @-@ scale for many centuries , and the commercial production of lead ( II ) nitrate as raw material for the manufacture of other lead compounds was not reported until 1835 . In 1974 , the U.S. consumption of lead compounds , excluding pigments and gasoline additives , was 642 tons .
= = Structure = =
The crystal structure of solid lead ( II ) nitrate has been determined by neutron diffraction . The compound crystallizes in the cubic system with the lead atoms in a face @-@ centred cubic system . Its space group is Pa3Z = 4 ( Bravais lattice notation ) , with each side of the cube with length 784 picometres .
The black dots represent the lead atoms , the white dots the nitrate groups 27 picometres above the plane of the lead atoms , and the blue dots the nitrate groups the same distance below this plane . In this configuration , every lead atom is bonded to twelve oxygen atoms ( bond length : 281 pm ) . All N – O bond lengths are identical , at 127 picometres .
Research interest in the crystal structure of lead ( II ) nitrate was partly based on the possibility of free internal rotation of the nitrate groups within the crystal lattice at elevated temperatures , but this did not materialise .
= = Preparation and production = =
Lead ( II ) nitrate can be obtained by dissolving metallic lead in aqueous nitric acid :
Pb + 4 HNO3 → Pb ( NO3 ) 2 + 2 NO2 + 2 H2O
More commonly , it is obtained by dissolving lead ( II ) oxide in nitric acid :
PbO + 2 HNO3 → Pb ( NO3 ) 2 + H2O
In either case , since the solvent is concentrated nitric acid ( in which lead ( II ) nitrate has very low solubility ) and the resulting solution contains nitrate ions , anhydrous crystals of lead ( II ) nitrate spontaneously form as a result of the common ion effect :
It is also possible to harvest nitrate from organic materials like fertilizer or urine . The nitrates harvested using this method are not nearly as strong as industrial grade nitrate , but would work in the production of Gunpowder .
Most commercially available lead ( II ) nitrate , as well as laboratory @-@ scale material , is produced accordingly . Supply is in 25 kilogram bags up to 1000 kilogram big bags , and in laboratory containers , both by general producers of laboratory chemicals and by producers of lead and lead compounds . No large @-@ scale production has been reported .
In nitric acid treatment of lead @-@ containing wastes , e.g. , in the processing of lead – bismuth wastes from lead refineries , impure solutions of lead ( II ) nitrate are formed as by @-@ product . These solutions are reported to be used in the gold cyanidation process .
= = Reactions = =
Apart from lead ( II ) acetate , lead ( II ) nitrate is the only common soluble lead compound . Lead ( II ) nitrate readily dissolves in water to give a clear , colourless solution . As an ionic substance , the dissolution of lead ( II ) nitrate involves dissociation into its constituent ions .
Pb ( NO3 ) 2 ( s ) → Pb2 + ( aq ) + 2 NO −
3 ( aq )
Lead ( II ) nitrate forms a slightly acidic solution , with a pH of 3 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 0 for a 20 % aqueous solution .
When concentrated sodium hydroxide solution is added to lead ( II ) nitrate solution , basic nitrates are formed , even well past the equivalence point . Up through the half equivalence point , Pb ( NO3 ) 2 · Pb ( OH ) 2 predominates , then after this point Pb ( NO3 ) 2 · 5Pb ( OH ) 2 is formed . No simple Pb ( OH ) 2 is formed up to at least pH 12 .
= = = Complexation = = =
Lead ( II ) nitrate is associated with interesting supramolecular chemistry because of its coordination to nitrogen and oxygen electron @-@ donating compounds . The interest is largely academic , but with several potential applications . For example , combining lead nitrate and pentaethylene glycol ( EO5 ) in a solution of acetonitrile and methanol followed by slow evaporation produces a new crystalline material [ Pb ( NO3 ) 2 ( EO5 ) ] . In the crystal structure for this compound , the EO5 chain is wrapped around the lead ion in an equatorial plane similar to that of a crown ether . The two bidentate nitrate ligands are in trans configuration . The total coordination number is 10 , with the lead ion in a bicapped square antiprism molecular geometry .
The complex formed by lead ( II ) nitrate , lead ( II ) perchlorate and a bithiazole bidentate N @-@ donor ligand is binuclear , with a nitrate group bridging the lead atoms with coordination number of 5 and 6 . One interesting aspect of this type of complexes is the presence of a physical gap in the coordination sphere ; i.e. , the ligands are not placed symmetrically around the metal ion . This is potentially due to a lead lone pair of electrons , also found in lead complexes with an imidazole ligand .
This type of chemistry is not unique to the nitrate salt ; other lead ( II ) compounds such as lead ( II ) bromide also form complexes , but the nitrate is frequently used because of its solubility properties and its bidentate nature .
= = = Oxidation and decomposition = = =
Lead ( II ) nitrate is an oxidizing agent . Depending on the reaction , this may be due to the Pb2 + ( aq ) ion , which has a standard reduction potential ( E0 ) of − 0 @.@ 125 V , or the nitrate ion , which under acidic conditions has an E0 of + 0 @.@ 956 V. The nitrate would function at high temperatures or in an acidic condition , while the lead ( II ) works best in a neutral aqueous solution .
When heated , lead ( II ) nitrate crystals decompose to lead ( II ) oxide , oxygen and nitrogen dioxide .
2 Pb ( NO3 ) 2 ( s ) → 2 PbO ( s ) + 4 NO2 ( g ) + O2 ( g )
Because of this property , lead nitrate is sometimes used in pyrotechnics such as fireworks .
= = Solubility = =
Lead ( II ) nitrate is soluble in water but is almost insoluble in nitric acid .
= = Applications = =
Due to the hazardous nature of lead ( II ) nitrate , there is a preference for using alternatives in industrial applications . In the formerly major application of lead paints , it has largely been replaced by titanium dioxide . Other historical applications of lead ( II ) nitrate , such as in matches and fireworks , have declined or ceased as well . Current applications of lead ( II ) nitrate include use as a heat stabiliser in nylon and polyesters , as a coating for photothermographic paper , and in rodenticides .
On a laboratory scale , lead ( II ) nitrate provides one of two convenient and reliable sources of dinitrogen tetroxide . By carefully drying lead ( II ) nitrate and then heating it in a steel vessel , nitrogen dioxide is produced , which dimerizes into the desired compound .
2 NO2 ⇌ N2O4
To improve the leaching process in the gold cyanidation , lead ( II ) nitrate solution is added . Although a bulk process , only limited amounts ( 10 to 100 milligrams lead ( II ) nitrate per kilogram gold ) are required . Both the cyanidation itself , as well as the use of lead compounds in the process , are deemed controversial due to the compounds ' toxic nature .
In organic chemistry , lead ( II ) nitrate has been used as an oxidant , for example as an alternative to the Sommelet reaction for oxidation of benzylic halides to aldehydes . It has also found use in the preparation of isothiocyanates from dithiocarbamates . Because of its toxicity it has largely fallen out of favour , but it still finds occasional use , for example as a bromide scavenger during SN1 substitution .
= = Safety = =
Lead ( II ) nitrate is toxic , and ingestion may lead to acute lead poisoning , as is applicable for all soluble lead compounds . All inorganic lead compounds are classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer ( IARC ) as probably carcinogenic to humans ( Category 2A ) . They have been linked to renal cancer and glioma in experimental animals and to renal cancer , brain cancer and lung cancer in humans , although studies of workers exposed to lead are often complicated by concurrent exposure to arsenic . Lead is known to substitute for zinc in a number of enzymes , including δ @-@ aminolevulinic acid dehydratase ( porphobilinogen synthase ) in the haem biosynthetic pathway and pyrimidine @-@ 5 ′ -nucleotidase , important for the correct metabolism of DNA and can therefore cause fetal damage .
= Carol Browner =
Carol Martha Browner ( born December 16 , 1955 ) is an American lawyer , environmentalist , and businesswoman , who served as director of the White House Office of Energy and Climate Change Policy in the Obama administration from 2009 to 2011 . Browner previously served as Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) during the Clinton administration from 1993 to 2001 .
Browner grew up in Florida and graduated from the University of Florida and the University of Florida College of Law . After working for the Florida House of Representatives , she was employed by Citizen Action in Washington , D.C. She became a legislative assistant for Senators Lawton Chiles and Al Gore . Browner then headed the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation from 1991 to 1993 , where she turned it into one of the most active departments in the state government .
She was the longest @-@ serving administrator in the history of the EPA , staying through both terms of the Clinton presidency . During her tenure , she reorganized the agency 's enforcement structure and oversaw two new programs designed to create flexible partnerships with industry as an alternative to traditional regulation . She started a successful program to deal with contaminated lands in urban areas . She took the lead within the administration in defending existing environmental laws and budgets , and was the driving force behind a stringent tightening of air quality standards that led to a prolonged political and legal battle .
Afterward , Browner became a founding member of the Albright Group and Albright Capital Management during the 2000s ( decade ) . She also served on a number of boards of directors and committees dealing with environmental issues . Her director role in the Obama administration was sometimes informally referred to as the " Energy Czar " or " Climate Czar " . Her efforts towards getting comprehensive climate and energy legislation passed in Congress came to no avail , but she assumed a prominent role in the federal government 's response to the BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill during 2010 . She left her position in 2011 and the job itself was abolished shortly thereafter . Following that she rejoined the Albright Stonebridge Group , continued being active in several boards of environmental organizations , and became an advocate for nuclear energy in response to the dangers of global warming .
= = Early life and education = =
Born in Miami , Florida , Browner is the daughter of Isabella Harty @-@ Hugues and Michael Browner , both of whom were professors at Miami Dade Community College , in social science and English respectively . She has two younger sisters . Browner grew up in South Miami , and her hikes in the nearby Everglades – only a bicycle ride away from her house – gave her a close connection to the natural world : " I was very shaped by growing up in that kind of environment where nature was right there . "
Browner received her B.A. degree from the University of Florida in 1977 , majoring in English . She then graduated from the University of Florida College of Law with a J.D. degree in 1979 .
= = Early career = =
During 1980 and 1981 , Browner worked as General Counsel for the Florida House of Representatives Committee on Government Operations . There she helped revise Florida 's Conservation and Recreational Lands Program . In 1983 , she moved to Washington , D.C. and worked as associate director for the national Citizen Action group , a grassroots lobbying organization that was active in environmental issues .
Browner met Michael Podhorzer , a specialist in health @-@ care issues at Citizen Action , in 1983 . They married in 1987 and lived in Takoma Park , Maryland . They have a son , Zachary , born in 1987 .
Between 1986 and 1988 , Browner served as chief legislative assistant to Democratic U.S. Senator Lawton Chiles from Florida . In that role , she worked on a complex negotiation to expand Florida 's Big Cypress National Preserve as well as on a ban on offshore drilling nearby the Florida Keys . During 1989 , she served as a legal counsel for the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources . She was not averse to in @-@ field investigation , and once dived in coastal waters to do research while pregnant .
From 1988 to 1991 , Browner worked as legislative director for Senator Al Gore , and became known as a Gore protégé . She helped prepare amendments to the Clean Air Act and managed Gore 's legislative staff .
= = Secretary of Environmental Regulation for Florida = =
As Secretary of Environmental Regulation , Browner headed the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation from 1991 to 1993 , while living in Tallahassee . It was the nation 's third @-@ largest such state agency , with 1 @,@ 500 employees and a budget of some $ 650 million . There she believed that economic development and environmental protection did not have to be in conflict with each other . She revitalized the demoralized department and turned it into one of the most active in the Florida state government . She shortened the amount of time it took the department to review development permits for wetlands @-@ affected areas and for manufacturing plants ; in doing so , she annoyed some environmentalists who thought that the streamlined procedures diminished public review .
Browner pushed for the halting of construction of new hazardous waste plants and municipal waste incinerators , on the grounds that health and environment consequences were insufficiently known . She brokered a deal with Walt Disney World that would allow it to build on wetlands it owned , in exchange for $ 40 million of work by Disney to restore endangered wetlands nearby . She pleased environmentalists by persuading Chiles , who had become governor , to negotiate a settlement to a federal lawsuit regarding damage to Everglades National Park and forcing the Florida sugar industry to bear much of the $ 1 billion cost . The head of Florida 's largest business trade association described dealing with Browner : " She kicks the door open , throws in a hand grenade , and then walks in to shoot who 's left . She really doesn 't like to compromise . [ But she ] has done a pretty good job down here . People have more complaints with the way she does it than what she does . "
= = EPA Administrator = =
= = = Nomination and confirmation = = =
After the 1992 presidential election , Browner served as transition director for Vice President @-@ elect Gore . President @-@ elect Bill Clinton announced her as his choice for Environmental Protection Agency head on December 11 , 1992 . While both Clinton and Gore had criticized the George H. W. Bush administration 's commitment to environmental protection during the campaign , the selection of Browner – who was described by The Washington Post as having " the mind and training of an attorney @-@ legislator but the soul of an activist " – was seen as an indication that Gore 's ardent environmentalism had won out over Clinton 's more pro @-@ business mindset . Clinton later wrote that he had not known her , but that Chiles had recommended her highly and Gore had requested she be named . The pick , along with several others of Gore protégés that Clinton made , helped solidify the vice president 's position within the administration . At her confirmation hearings before the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works , Browner came across as pragmatic and allayed fears that she would be excessively influenced by or tied to Gore . She was confirmed by the unanimous consent of the United States Senate on January 21 , 1993 .
She and Podhorzer returned to Takoma Park , Maryland , and he continued to work at Citizen Action . Her long @-@ term goal was " to leave the world a slightly better place , " and she practiced various environmentally beneficial practices at home . She avoided the Nannygate problems of some of Clinton 's other early female nominees by having never used a nanny . She continued to lead an active outdoor life via bicycling , skiing , and jogging .
= = = First four years = = =
At the EPA , Browner supervised some 17 @,@ 000 employees and a $ 7 billion budget . Early in her administration , she angered some EPA employees by publicly stating that the organization lacked management accountability and discipline and was wasting taxpayer money . Soon after taking office , Browner and her top aides , including assistant administrator for enforcement Steven Herman , reorganized several awkward and inefficient agency enforcement structures into a single Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance . The EPA 's regional offices were permitted flexibility in reworking their own enforcement structures , however , which led to some bureaucratic conflicts .
Browner found criticism from both sides of environmental issues and battled many environmentalists , who objected to her support for repeal of the 1958 Delaney clause regarding permissible levels of carcinogens in foods . Her announcement in May 1993 that the EPA would impose a moratorium on new incinerator and industrial furnace licensing drew support from environmentalists , however . A move by Clinton to elevate the EPA and Browner to Cabinet @-@ level status failed in late 1993 to gain sufficient Congressional support . Many of her legislative desires had to take a back seat to the higher @-@ priority 1993 Clinton health care plan .
When the Republican Party took control of Congress after the 1994 U.S. elections , Browner took the lead for the Clinton administration in successfully fighting efforts by the Republicans , especially in the House of Representatives , to amend the Clean Water Act and to roll back other environmental regulations . She was able to work in a bipartisan manner , though , with Republicans in helping craft amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act and passage of the Food Quality Protection Act . During the budget @-@ cutting negotiations surrounding the federal government shutdown in 1995 , Browner successfully protected the EPA 's review and enforcement powers and managed to gain over $ 750 million in increased spending for the agency . Her bureaucratic effectiveness illustrated what one of her top aides characterized as her talent : " an extreme focus on a single issue where she is completely certain that she is right . "
Two initiatives begun by the Clinton administration under Browner 's tenure were part of its " reinventing government " program and sought to realize the notion of environmental contracts as a way of expanding the EPA 's flexible public @-@ private partnerships , as an alternative to traditional regulation . Project XL in 1995 was designed to find common sense , cost effective solutions to environmental issues at individual facilities , while the Common Sense Initiative in 1994 was targeted at efforts involving entire industry sectors , rather than dealing with issues on a crisis @-@ by @-@ crisis , pollutant @-@ by @-@ pollutant basis . Project XL had mixed results , with some success stories but an uncertain legal basis regarding enforcement and less active participation than envisioned . The more ambitious Common Sense Initiative , which somewhat resembled the environmental covenants appearing in some European countries and also incorporated the viewpoints of environmental justice , showed limitations in some areas but successes in the printing and metal finishing and plating industries before being concluded in 1998 .
In March 1995 , Browner and the EPA were charged by the House Government Reform and Oversight Subcommittee on Regulatory Affairs with violating the federal Anti @-@ Lobbying Act ( 18 U.S. Code § 1913 ) by faxing unsolicited material opposing the Republican @-@ sponsored regulatory reform package to various corporations and public @-@ interest groups . Browner denied the accusation , saying the charge was an attempt to keep her from debating a possible rollback of health and environmental protections .
As EPA administrator , Browner started the agency 's successful Brownfields Program in 1995 . The program helped facilitate cleanups of brownfield lands and their contaminated facilities , especially in urban areas , by empowering states , communities , and assorted stakeholders in economic development . It leveraged more than $ 1 billion in public and private funds for cleanups and created thousands of new jobs , while enabling hundreds of communities to bring idle properties back into productive use .
= = = Second four years = = =
Perhaps Browner 's biggest triumph came in 1997 , when she convinced Clinton to support a stringent tightening of the Clean Air Act 's National Ambient Air Quality Standards regarding permissible levels of the ground @-@ level ozone that makes up smog and the fine airborne particulate matter that makes up soot . The decision came after months of public review of the proposed new standards that became the most divisive environmental debate of the decade . There was a long and fierce internal discussion within the administration , with opposition from the president 's economic advisers echoing strong objections from some industry groups who said the costs of the new standards would far outweigh any benefits and that Browner had exaggerated the degree of certainty behind the EPA 's scientific reviews on the matter . Over eighty environmental and health groups , who had grown quite frustrated with the administration 's preference for minimal @-@ cost incremental actions in the area , pressured Vice President Gore to take a stand on the matter , but he remained silent . Browner 's adamant defense in favor of the new standards was conducted almost single @-@ handedly , in private meetings , Congressional testimony , and public debate , and had come in the face of a silence from the White House that had put at risk her standing within the administration . Some within the administration objected to her unwillingness to modify her stance and even suggested she be fired for insubordination . Ultimately , Gore lent behind @-@ the @-@ scenes support in favor of the new regulations , which was a key factor in Clinton 's final decision in Browner 's favor . Overall , the New York Times termed Browner 's actions " a remarkable piece of bureaucratic bravura " and Time magazine labelled Browner the " Queen of Clean Air " . As the decision was announced , one which would affect hundreds of American cities and towns , Browner said : " These new standards will provide new health protections to 125 million Americans , including 35 million children . "
The change to the standards had to survive Congressional review , but the support of Republicans from the northeast , especially New York Senator Al D 'Amato , helped compensate for Democrats opposed to them . The new regulations were challenged in the courts by industry groups as a violation of the U.S. Constitution 's nondelegation principle and eventually landed in the U.S. Supreme Court , whose 2001 unanimous ruling in the case now titled Whitman v. American Trucking Associations , Inc. largely upheld Browner 's and the EPA 's actions . Browner and the EPA also took action against air pollution caused by motor vehicles , issuing standards in 1999 that for the first time included light trucks and sport utility vehicles to meet the same emission standards as cars , and that would require the sulfur content of gasoline to be reduced by 90 percent over five years .
During her tenure , Browner also began efforts to deal with global warming , giving the EPA authority to regulate carbon emissions causing climate change , although the EPA under the following George W. Bush administration chose not to use that authority . Several other policies of hers were reversed in the Bush administration as well .
During Browner 's tenure , there were many reports from African American employees of racism directed at them from a network of " good old boys " who dominated the agency 's middle management . The most known of these reports involved policy specialist Marsha Coleman @-@ Adebayo , who in 1997 filed suit against the agency ; in 2000 , the court found the EPA guilty of discrimination against Coleman @-@ Adebayo , and awarded her $ 300 @,@ 000 . Coleman @-@ Adebayo said that Browner allowed the problems to persist rather than trying to clean them up . In an October 2000 Congressional hearing on the matter , Browner emphasized that minorities had tripled in number in the agency 's senior rank during her time as administrator , but was unable to explain why the culprits in Coleman @-@ Adebayo 's case had not been dismissed and in some cases had been promoted . Congressional dissatisfaction with the situation and the EPA 's treatment of Coleman @-@ Adebayo led to passage of the No @-@ FEAR Act in 2002 , which prohibits federal managers and supervisors from engaging in unlawful discrimination and retaliation .
In the final days of the Clinton administration , D.C. District Judge Royce C. Lamberth ordered the EPA to preserve under the Freedom of Information Act all documents possibly relevant to last @-@ minute EPA regulation issuances . In 2003 , Lamberth found the EPA in contempt for not having preserved Browner 's files , but did not find Browner or other officials in contempt . Browner had said that she had not been aware of the court order and that the computer material she had removed was not work @-@ related .
During her EPA tenure , Browner became unpopular with a number of industry groups , especially utilities and heavy manufacturing , as well as with conservatives in Congress , who thought businesses were stifled by her policies .
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such as PARKnSHOP , Wellcome , Watsons , 7 @-@ Eleven , Circle K , and Café de Coral , and also at customer service centres and ticketing offices at other transport stations .
An Octopus card may store a maximum value of HK $ 1 @,@ 000 , with an On @-@ Loan card having an initial deposit value of HK $ 50 and a Sold card having no initial deposit value . Negative value is incurred on a card if it is used with insufficient funds — both types of cards may carry a maximum negative value of HK $ 35 before value needs to be added to them again for use . At the time , the maximum cost of a trip on any of the rail networks except the Airport Express and first class of the MTR East Rail line was HK $ 34 @.@ 8 , the cost of travelling between East Tsim Sha Tsui Station and Lo Wu Station ; the current maximum cost is HK $ 55 @.@ 3 , the cost of travelling between Disneyland Resort Station and either Lo Wu Station or Lok Ma Chau Station .
The Octopus " Automatic Add Value Service " ( AAVS ) is another method by which cardholders may reload their cards . This service allows for money to be automatically deducted from a credit card and credited to an Octopus card when the value of the Octopus card is less than zero dollars . The credit card used must be one offered by one of 22 financial institutions that participate in AAVS . Participating banks include HSBC , Bank of China , and Hang Seng Bank . HK $ 150 / 250 / 500 is added to the card each time value is automatically added .
An Octopus card may be returned to any MTR Customer Service Centre for a refund of the remaining credit stored on it . A handling fee may be charged for the refund — HK $ 7 for an anonymous On @-@ Loan card that had been in use for fewer than three months , and HK $ 10 for a Personalised On @-@ Loan card that was issued on or after 1 November 2004 . A refund is immediately provided at the time an anonymous On Loan card is returned , unless it has more than HK $ 500 stored on it . A Personalised On @-@ Loan card or an anonymous On @-@ Loan card with more than HK $ 500 stored on it needs to be sent back to Octopus Cards Limited for refund processing , in which case , the refund for a Personalised On @-@ Loan card would be available in eight days , and that of an anonymous On @-@ Loan card would be available in five days . If a damaged card is returned for refund , a HK $ 30 levy would be charged to the cardholder .
= = = Outside Hong Kong = = =
Usage of the Octopus card was extended to the Chinese city of Shenzhen and Macau in 2006 . In collaboration with China UnionPay , Octopus Cards Limited introduced Octopus card usage to two Fairwood restaurants in Shenzhen in August 2006 . In 2008 , five Café de Coral locations in Shenzhen also started accepting Octopus . Value cannot be reloaded to Octopus cards in Shenzhen , but the Automatic Add Value Service is available to automatically deduct money value from a customer 's credit card to reload an Octopus card . The two Fairwood restaurants in Shenzhen that were enabled for Octopus card payments are located at Luohu Commercial City and Shenzhen Railway Station . Shenzhen became the first city outside Hong Kong in which Octopus cards may be accepted as payment . In Macau , the Octopus card was introduced in December 2006 when two Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurants in the territory adopted its usage as payment . Similar to its usage in Shenzhen , an Octopus card may not be reloaded in Macau , and the currency exchange rate between the Macanese pataca and the Hong Kong dollar when using an Octopus card is MOP1 : HKD1 . The two Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurants in Macau that adopted the Octopus card for payment are located at the Rua Do Campo and the Sands Casino .
= = Types of cards = =
There are two main types of Octopus card ( On @-@ Loan and Sold ) , and two less common types ( the Airport Express Tourist and the MTR Airport Staff ) .
= = = Main types of cards = = =
= = = = On @-@ Loan cards = = = =
On @-@ Loan cards are issued for usage in day @-@ to @-@ day functions , primarily for fare payment in transport systems . They are further classified into Child , Adult , Elder , and Personalised categories , with the first three based on age and different amounts of fare concession . With the exception of the Personalised cards , On @-@ Loan cards are anonymous ; no personal information , bank account , or credit card details are stored on the card , and no identification is required for the purchase of these cards . If an owner loses a card , only the stored value and the deposit of the card are lost . On @-@ Loan Octopus cards may be purchased at all MTR stations , the KMB Customer Service Centre , New World First Ferry ( NWFF ) Octopus Service Centres , and the New World First Bus ( NWFB ) Customer Service Centre . A student on @-@ loan Octopus Card was initially issued , but was discontinued in 2005 .
= = = = Personalised cards = = = =
The multi @-@ coloured Personalised card is available on registration . The name and , if opted , a photo of the holder are imprinted on the cards . They can function automatically as a Child , Adult , or Elder card by recognising the cardholder 's age stored on the card , hence accounting for different concessionary fares . As of 2003 , there were 380 @,@ 000 holders of Personalised Octopus cards . In addition to all the functions of an ordinary card , this card can be used as a key card for access to residential and office buildings . If a Personalised card is lost , the holder may report the loss by phone to prevent unauthorised use of the card . A refund would then be issued to the holder of the card for the deposit and the value that remained on the card six hours after the loss is reported , minus a HK $ 30 card cost and a HK $ 20 handling fee .
A Personalised card with " student status " is available for students in Hong Kong . To be eligible for this card , the applicant must be a full @-@ time Hong Kong student aged between 12 and 25 . This type of Personalised card is automatically issued to a student who applies for student concessionary privileges . Additionally , they can be used for school administrative tasks such as the recording of student attendance and the management of library loans .
= = = = Sold cards = = = =
In contrast to On @-@ Loan cards , Sold cards are sponsored and branded cards . They are souvenir cards that are frequently released by Octopus Cards Limited . The designs for these cards usually come from fictional characters in popular culture , or they are inspired by Chinese cultural events such as Chinese New Year . These cards are sold at a premium , have limited or no initial stored value , and cannot be refunded , but they can otherwise be used as ordinary cards . An example of the Sold card is the Mcmug and Mcdull collection . It was launched at the end of January 2007 to coincide with the beginning of the Year of the Pig , it features two differently designed versions of the card and is sold for HK $ 138 per set . Each set comes with an Adult Octopus card , with a pouch for the card , a matching strap and a Mcmug or Mcdull ornament . Octopus Cards Limited has launched new collections of these cards for such occasions as the Mid @-@ Autumn Festival , the passing of the year 2004 , and the release of the movie DragonBlade . Sold Octopus cards may be purchased at selected MTR stations , and all 7 @-@ Eleven stores .
= = = Special @-@ purpose cards = = =
The special @-@ purpose card , Airport Express Tourist Octopus , was introduced by Octopus Cards Limited to target tourists in Hong Kong . Two versions of this card are offered , a HK $ 220 card with a free single ride on the Airport Express , the Mass Transit Railway ( MTR ) train line that runs between the Hong Kong International Airport and the urban areas of Hong Kong , and a HK $ 300 card with two free single rides included . The airport journeys are valid for 180 days from the date of purchase . Both versions allow three days of unlimited rides on the MTR and include a HK $ 50 refundable deposit . Usable value on these cards may be added if necessary . These tourist Octopus cards may be used only by tourists staying in Hong Kong for 14 or fewer days ; users may be required to produce a passport showing their arrival date in Hong Kong . Airport Express Tourist Octopus is available for purchase at all MTR stations .
The other special @-@ purpose card , the MTR Airport Staff Octopus , is available for the staff of Hong Kong International Airport and AsiaWorld @-@ Expo , a convention centre close to the airport , for commuting at a reduced fare between the airport and MTR stations via the Airport Express . Staff who apply for the card may use it for a discount of up to 64 percent for Airport Express single journey fares . The MTR Airport Staff Octopus is available upon application via the company for which that a staff member works .
= = = Alternative designs = = =
Other than the Octopus card itself , operator Octopus Cards Limited also sells watches and mobile phone covers that function as anonymous Octopus cards . The types of watches available include wrist watches , pocket watches , and watch key chains . The mobile phone covers were specifically designed for Nokia models 3310 and 3330 , and iPhone 4 and 4S . As with the card itself , these products are used by waving them over a card reader . They may be reloaded with money value the same way as the card itself , including automatic reloading via the Automatic Add Value Service , with the exception that they cannot be reloaded at Add Value Machines due to their shapes . An Octopus watch or mobile phone cover may be stored with a maximum of HK $ 1 @,@ 000 , but do not have any initial stored value at the time of its purchase . It may have a maximum negative value of HK $ 35 as with an Octopus card . These products are not refundable for their costs , but the remaining value stored on them may be refunded if they are damaged , with the damaged product itself also returned to the customer .
In June 2007 , a new set of limited edition products was announced , featuring Mini Octopus cards and Child Octopus Wristbands . The Mini Octopus cards , available in Adult and Elder editions , measure 4 @.@ 7 cm by 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 85 in by 1 @.@ 18 in ) and work as regular ( anonymous ) Adult and Elder , respectively , Octopus cards . The Child Octopus Wristbands are plastic wristbands with a watch @-@ like round face and work as regular Child Octopus cards . The same value @-@ adding abilities and limitations as the aforementioned watches and mobile phone apply .
They also would cooperate with different companies . Octopus can be tailored to promotional needs with companies logo or special design . In 2008 , Octopus has cooperated with Commercial Radio Hong Kong , launched a collection of " 903 20 Plus Octopus " .
= = Technology = =
The Octopus system was designed by Australia @-@ based company ERG Group ( now Vix Technology ) . The company was selected in 1994 to lead the development of the Octopus project and was responsible for the building and installation of the components of the Octopus system . Operations , maintenance and development was undertaken by Octopus Cards Limited , and in 2005 , it replaced the central transaction clearing house with its own system .
The Octopus card uses the Sony 13 @.@ 56 MHz FeliCa radio frequency identification ( RFID ) chip , with Hong Kong being the world 's first major public transport system using this technology . It is a " touch and go " system , so users need only hold the card in close proximity of the reader , and thus physical contact is not required . Data is transmitted at up to 212 kbit / s ( the maximum speed for Sony FeliCa chips ) , compared to 9 @.@ 6 kbit / s for other smart card systems like Mondex and Visa Cash . The card has a storage capacity of 1 KB to 64 KB compared to the 125 bytes provided by traditional magnetic stripe card .
Octopus uses a nonstandard system for RFID instead of the more popular ISO / IEC 14443 standards , since there were no standards in the nascent industry during its development in 1997 . The operating range of the reader / writer is between 30 and 100 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 and 3 @.@ 94 in ) depending on the type of model being used .
Octopus is specifically designed so that card transactions are relayed for clearing on a store and forward basis , without any requirement for reader units to have realtime round @-@ trip communications with a central database or computer . The stored data about the transaction may be transmitted by network after hours , or in the case of offline mobile readers may be retrieved by a hand held device , for example a Pocket PC .
In practice , different data collection mechanisms are used by different transport operators , depending on the nature of their business . The MTR equips its stations with local area networks that connect the components that deal with Octopus cards — turnstiles , Add Value Machines , value @-@ checking machines and customer service terminals . Transactions from these stations are relayed to the MTR 's Kowloon Bay headquarters through a frame relay wide area network , and hence onwards to the central clearing house system ( CCHS ) for clearing . Similar arrangements are in place for retailers such as 7 @-@ Eleven . Handheld devices are used to scan offline mobile readers , including those installed on minibuses . Buses either use handheld devices or a wireless system , depending on operator .
= = = Security = = =
The Octopus card uses encryption for all airborne communication and performs mutual authentication between the card and reader based on the ISO 9798 @-@ 2 three @-@ pass mutual authentication protocol . In other words , data communications are only established when the card and reader have mutually authenticated based on a shared secret access key . This means that the security of the Octopus card system would be jeopardized should the access key be exposed . A stolen Octopus card reader could be used with stolen Octopus software , for example , to add value ( up to HK $ 1 @,@ 000 ) to any Octopus card without authorization . Nevertheless , as of 2003 , the Octopus card and system have never been successfully hacked .
Octopus card reader includes a fail @-@ safe that prevents reader from initiating transaction when more than one card is being detected at the same time . On 11 February 2009 , Sing Tao Daily reported that the fail @-@ safe has been abused for fare evasion through the railway station turnstile . A large amount of dishonest passengers at Sheung Shui Station and Lo Wu Station were stacking up 4 or more cards before breaking through the turnstile , pretending their cards have been touched with the reader correctly but triggering the fail @-@ safe deliberately to avoid card value deduction . Because of this , if they get caught by the station staff , they can make an excuse of a hardware malfunction and offer the Octopus card with an unsuccessful transaction .
= = Operator = =
The Octopus card system is owned and operated by Octopus Cards Limited , a wholly owned subsidiary of Octopus Holdings Limited . The company was founded as Creative Star Limited in 1994 to oversee the development and implementation of the Octopus card system , and was renamed as its current name of Octopus Cards Limited in 2002 . Creative Star was formed as a joint @-@ venture company by five major transit companies in Hong Kong — MTR Corporation , Kowloon @-@ Canton Railway Corporation , Kowloon Motor Bus , Citybus , and Hongkong and Yaumati Ferry . In January 2001 , the shares of Hongkong and Yaumati Ferry in the company was transferred to New World First Bus and New World First Ferry . In the same year , together with MTR Corporation , the company was transformed from its previous non @-@ profit making status to a profit making enterprise .
Due to the expansion of the company 's businesses , Octopus Holdings Limited was established in 2005 and Octopus Cards Limited was restructured as its subsidiary . The business of Octopus Cards Limited , being a payment business , is regulated by the Hong Kong Monetary Authority , while Octopus ' non @-@ payment businesses are not subjected to such regulation and are operated by other subsidiaries of Octopus Holdings Limited that are independent of Octopus Cards Limited . As of 2007 , Octopus Holdings Limited was a joint @-@ venture business owned by five transport companies in Hong Kong ; 54 @.@ 4 % by the MTR Corporation , 22 @.@ 1 % by the Kowloon @-@ Canton Railway Corporation , 12 @.@ 4 % by Kowloon Motor Bus , 5 % by Citybus , and 3 @.@ 1 % by New World First Bus . Since the Government of Hong Kong owns 76 @.@ 54 % of the MTR Corporation ( as of 31 December 2005 ) and wholly owns the Kowloon @-@ Canton Railway Corporation , it is the biggest effective shareholder of Octopus Holdings Limited , and thus also the biggest effective shareholder of Octopus Cards Limited .
Initially , Octopus Cards Limited , then known as Creative Star Limited , was restricted to having at most 15 percent of Octopus card transactions for non @-@ transport transactions , as it operated under the Hong Kong government 's Banking Ordinance . On 20 April 2000 , the Hong Kong Monetary Authority authorised the company for deposit @-@ taking , which allowed for 50 percent of Octopus card transactions to be unrelated to transport . HK $ 416 million ( US $ 53 @.@ 3 million ) is deposited in the Octopus system at any given time as of 2000 .
= = In taxis = =
Although a popular form of transport , taxis in Hong Kong do not accept the Octopus card . On 27 June 2006 , after 10 years of negotiations between Octopus Cards Limited and the taxi industry , the first trial of taxis equipped with Octopus card readers was launched in the New Territories with taxis operated by the Yellow Taxi Group . But it was reported on 30 October that of the 20 taxis that participated in the trial , eight had dropped out . Part of the reason was technical — drivers must return to the office every day for accounting . The Octopus card company said it would be upgrading the system to allow automatic account updating in the future . Wong Yu @-@ ting , managing director of the Yellow Taxi Group , also noted that they had been " trying to convince restaurants and retailers " to offer discounts to Octopus taxi passengers , but the Transport Department had been a major obstacle . The Transport Department is against this approach for legal reasons .
= = Awards = =
The Octopus card is recognised internationally , winning the Chairman 's Award of the World Information Technology and Services Alliance 's 2006 Global IT Excellence Award for being the world 's leading complex automatic fare collection and contactless smartcard payment system , and for its innovative use of technologies .
= = Issues = =
= = = EPS add @-@ value glitch = = =
In February 2007 it was found that when customers added value to their cards at self @-@ service add @-@ value points located in MTR and Light rail stations , their bank accounts were debited even if the transactions had been cancelled . Octopus Cards Limited claimed that the fault was due to an upgrade of communication systems . Initially , two cases were reported . The company then announced that the use of the payment system , Electronic Payment Services ( EPS ) , at add @-@ value service points would be suspended until further notice , and that it had started an investigation into the reasons for the problem .
On 27 July 2007 it was announced that the faulty transactions could be traced back to 2000 , and that a total of 3 @.@ 7 million Hong Kong dollars had been wrongly deducted in 15 @,@ 270 cases . The company reported that there might be cases dating to before 2000 , but that only transactions from the past seven years were kept . The company stated that it would co @-@ operate with EPS Company Limited , operator of Electronic Payment Services , and banks , to contact customers involved and arrange a refund within ten weeks ' time .
On 21 December 2007 the company announced that it would permanently cease all transactions using EPS because it could not guarantee that such problems would not occur again .
= = = Privacy abuse = = =
On 15 July 2010 , despite Octopus ' claims to have never sold data , a former employee of the CIGNA insurance company claimed CIGNA purchased records for 2 @.@ 4 million Octopus users . On 20 July , Octopus acknowledged selling customers ' personal details to Cigna and CPP , and started an internal review of their data practices . Octopus Holdings made 44 million Hong Kong dollars ( $ 5.7M USD ) over 4 @.@ 5 years . Roderick Woo Bun , Hong Kong 's Privacy Commissioner for Personal Data , gave radio interviews and called for transparent investigation , but his term expired at the end of July 2010 . Allan Chiang Yam @-@ wang was announced as the incoming Privacy Commissioner . This news was met with protests and international outrage , due to his prior history of privacy invasions involving cameras used to spy on his employees at the Post Office , and disclosing hundreds of job applicants ' personal data to corporations . Outgoing Privacy Commissioner Woo pledged to finish a preliminary report on the Octopus privacy abuse before his term ends , and called for a new law making it a criminal offence for companies to sell personal data .
= Znám 's problem =
In number theory , Znám 's problem asks which sets of k integers have the property that each integer in the set is a proper divisor of the product of the other integers in the set , plus 1 . Znám 's problem is named after the Slovak mathematician Štefan Znám , who suggested it in 1972 , although other mathematicians had considered similar problems around the same time . One closely related problem drops the assumption of properness of the divisor , and will be called the improper Znám problem hereafter .
One solution to the improper Znám problem is easily provided for any k : the first k terms of Sylvester 's sequence have the required property . Sun ( 1983 ) showed that there is at least one solution to the ( proper ) Znám problem for each k ≥ 5 . Sun 's solution is based on a recurrence similar to that for Sylvester 's sequence , but with a different set of initial values .
The Znám problem is closely related to Egyptian fractions . It is known that there are only finitely many solutions for any fixed k . It is unknown whether there are any solutions to Znám 's problem using only odd numbers , and there remain several other open questions .
= = The problem = =
Znám 's problem asks which sets of integers have the property that each integer in the set is a proper divisor of the product of the other integers in the set , plus 1 . That is , given k , what sets of integers
<formula>
are there , such that , for each i , ni divides but is not equal to
<formula>
A closely related problem concerns sets of integers in which each integer in the set is a divisor , but not necessarily a proper divisor , of one plus the product of the other integers in the set . This problem does not seem to have been named in the literature , and will be referred to as the improper Znám problem . Any solution to Znám 's problem is also a solution to the improper Znám problem , but not necessarily vice versa .
= = History = =
Znám 's problem is named after the Slovak mathematician Štefan Znám , who suggested it in 1972 . Barbeau ( 1971 ) had posed the improper Znám problem for k
= 3 , and Mordell ( 1973 ) , independently of Znám , found all solutions to the improper problem for k ≤ 5 . Skula ( 1975 ) showed that Znám 's problem is unsolvable for k < 5 , and credited J. Janák with finding the solution { 2 , 3 , 11 , 23 , 31 } for k =
5 .
= = Examples = =
One solution to k
= 5 is { 2 , 3 , 7 , 47 , 395 } . A few calculations will show that
An interesting " near miss " for k =
4 is the set { 2 , 3 , 7 , 43 } , formed by taking the first four terms of Sylvester 's sequence . It has the property that each integer in the set divides the product of the other integers in the set , plus 1 , but the last member of this set is equal to the product of the first three members plus one , rather than being a proper divisor . Thus , it is a solution to the improper Znám problem , but not a solution to Znám 's problem as it is usually defined .
= = Connection to Egyptian fractions = =
Any solution to the improper Znám problem is equivalent ( via division by the product of the xi 's ) to a solution to the equation
<formula>
where y as well as each xi must be an integer , and conversely any such solution corresponds to a solution to the improper Znám problem . However , all known solutions have y = 1 , so they satisfy the equation
<formula>
That is , they lead to an Egyptian fraction representation of the number one as a sum of unit fractions . Several of the cited papers on Znám 's problem study also the solutions to this equation . Brenton & Hill ( 1988 ) describe an application of the equation in topology , to the classification of singularities on surfaces , and Domaratzki et al . ( 2005 ) describe an application to the theory of nondeterministic finite automata .
= = Number of solutions = =
As Janák & Skula ( 1978 ) showed , the number of solutions for any k is finite , so it makes sense to count the total number of solutions for each k .
Brenton and Vasiliu calculated that the number of solutions for small values of k , starting with k
= 5 , forms the sequence
2 , 5 , 18 , 96 ( sequence A075441 in the OEIS ) .
Presently , a few solutions are known for k =
9 and k = 10 , but it is unclear how many solutions remain undiscovered for those values of k . However , there are infinitely many solutions if k is not fixed : Cao & Jing ( 1998 ) showed that there are at least 39 solutions for each k ≥ 12 , improving earlier results proving the existence of fewer solutions ( Cao , Liu & Zhang 1987 , Sun & Cao 1988 ) . Sun & Cao ( 1988 ) conjecture that the number of solutions for each value of k grows monotonically with k .
It is unknown whether there are any solutions to Znám 's problem using only odd numbers . With one exception , all known solutions start with 2 . If all numbers in a solution to Znám 's problem or the improper Znám problem are prime , their product is a primary pseudoperfect number ( Butske , Jaje & Mayernik 2000 ) ; it is unknown whether infinitely many solutions of this type exist .
= Constitution of May 3 , 1791 ( painting ) =
The Constitution of May 3 , 1791 ( Polish : Konstytucja 3 Maja 1791 roku ) is an 1891 Romantic oil painting on canvas by the Polish artist Jan Matejko . It is a large piece , and one of Matejko 's best known . It memorializes the Polish Constitution of May 3 , 1791 , a milestone in the history of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth and the high point of the Polish Enlightenment .
Like many Matejko works , the picture presents a grand scene populated with numerous historic figures , including Poland 's last King , Stanisław August Poniatowski ; Marshals of the Great Sejm Stanisław Małachowski and Kazimierz Nestor Sapieha ; co @-@ authors of the Constitution such as Hugo Kołłątaj and Ignacy Potocki ; and other major contemporary figures such as Tadeusz Kościuszko . Some twenty individuals have been identified by modern historians ; another ten or so who had been reported in older sources as being present , await definitive identification .
The picture was painted between January and October 1891 to commemorate the Constitution 's centenary . It was one of the last works by Matejko , who died in November 1893 . The painting was displayed in Lwów ( now Lviv , Ukraine ) until 1920 , when it was moved to Kraków . It was hidden during World War II and later moved to Warsaw , where it now hangs in the Royal Castle .
= = Constitution of May 3 , 1791 = =
The Constitution of May 3 , 1791 was adopted as a " Government Act " ( Polish : Ustawa rządowa ) on that date by the Sejm ( parliament ) of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . It has been called " the first constitution of its type in Europe " and the world 's second oldest constitution .
It was designed to redress long @-@ standing political defects of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . The Commonwealth 's system of " Golden Liberty " , which conferred disproportionate rights on the nobility , had increasingly corrupted the Commonwealth 's politics . The Constitution sought to supplant the existing anarchy fostered by some of the country 's magnates with a more democratic constitutional monarchy . It introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility ( szlachta ) and placed the peasants under the protection of the government , thus mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom . The Constitution abolished pernicious parliamentary institutions such as the liberum veto , which at one time had put the Sejm at the mercy of any deputy who might choose , or be bribed by an interest or foreign power , to undo the legislation adopted by that Sejm .
The adoption of the May 3 Constitution met with hostile political and military responses from the Commonwealth 's neighbors . In the Polish – Russian War of 1792 ( sometimes called the " War in Defense of the Constitution " ) , the Commonwealth was attacked by Catherine the Great 's Imperial Russia allied with the Targowica Confederation , a coalition of Polish magnates and landless nobility who opposed reforms that might weaken their influence . The Commonwealth 's ally Prussia , under Frederick William II , broke its alliance , and the Commonwealth was defeated . In the end , the Constitution of May 3 remained in force for little more than one year . Despite the Commonwealth 's defeat in the Polish – Russian War and the ensuing partitions which eliminated the Commonwealth , the May 3 Constitution remained for more than 123 years a beacon in the struggle to restore Polish sovereignty . In the words of two of its co @-@ authors , Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj , it was " the last will and testament of the expiring Country . "
= = History = =
The sketch of the work was presented in the cycle History of Civilization in Poland .
Matejko began work on the painting in the middle of January 1891 , to coincide with the centenary of the Constitution . Although the painting was not finished until October , by May 3 it was sufficiently advanced to be shown at the anniversary exhibition in Sukiennice , Kraków . On April 7 , 1892 , Matejko transferred the painting to Prince Eustachy Stanisław Sanguszko , marshal of Galician Sejm in Lwów , and it was displayed in the Sejm building ( now the main building of the Lviv University ) . This painting was one of the last works by Matejko , who died in November 1893 .
In 1920 , two years after Poland regained independence , the painting was moved to Kraków , where from 1923 it was displayed in the building of the Polish Sejm . The painting was hidden by the Polish resistance during World War II , when Poland was occupied by the Germans . After the war the painting was transferred to the National Museum in Warsaw , and occasionally displayed in the Sejm building . Since 1984 the painting has been in the collection of the Royal Castle in Warsaw , where Matejko himself declared he would like the painting to be shown . The painting is displayed in the anteroom of the Chamber of Senators , where the Constitution was adopted . The painting was restored in 2007 .
= = Significance and historiography = =
The painting is one of Matejko 's best known works and today it is commonly seen as one of his masterpieces , an " education in national history . " However , it was less well received by his contemporaries , with turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century reviews criticizing it for being " too crowded " and with unclear composition ; supporters of Matejko 's previous works were much more guarded in their praise of this painting .
Matejko 's technique in this painting was subtly but noticeably different compared to his other paintings ; authors Wrede et al. attribute this to Matejko 's exploration of new techniques , but note that contemporary critiques saw this departure from his old style as the weakening form of the dying master , and did not applaud the changes . They also note that Matejko usually dedicated two years to paintings of that size ; this one was completed in less than a year , during a period in which Matejko was working on other projects and suffering from stress and depression . Matejko himself was not fond of the 18th century and the Polish Enlightenment , remarking that he " would rather prefer to paint any other century " . He felt compelled , however , by the anniversary of the Constitution to create an artwork commemorating the event , which he recognized as historically significant .
Matejko commonly identified the characters in his paintings with a written legend , but he did not create one for the Constitution . Consequently , some characters in the painting have not been identified . A partial legend was written by Matejko 's secretary , Marian Gorzkowski , and even though it provides a list of 39 characters , Wrede et al. write that his " chaotic description " is not very helpful . Modern analysis has been done by Polish historians Jarosław Krawczyk and Emanuel M. Rostworowski .
= = Content = =
The painting , set in the late afternoon of May 3 , 1791 , shows the procession of deputies from the Royal Castle ( background ) , where the Constitution has just been adopted by the Great Sejm , to St. John 's Collegiate Church ( left , now an archcathedral ) , where a Te Deum will be sung . The procession moves down St. John 's Street ( ulica Świętojańska ) , surrounded by enthusiastic Warsaw residents and visitors . The deputies are protected by soldiers .
While the procession was an actual historic event , Matejko took many artistic liberties , such as including persons who were not in fact present or had died earlier . He did so because he intended the painting to be a synthesis of the final years of the Commonwealth . He also felt that there was no real historic moment or location that fully captured the spirit of the Constitution , and so he , the artist , needed to create such a moment .
= = = Center = = =
The painting is centered on the Sejm marshal Stanisław Małachowski ( 1 ) , who is wearing a white , French @-@ inspired costume . Małachowski holds the marshal staff in his left hand and in his right hand , he triumphantly raises the text of the Constitution . Although the historical document was titled Ustawa rządowa ( Government Ordinance ) , Matejko chose to make the title page of the document as portrayed in his painting more explicit — and at the same time put the name of the painting right in its center . He is carried by deputies Aleksander Linowski of Kraków ( 2 ) ( on his right ) and Ignacy Zakrzewski of Poznań ( 3 ) ( on his left ) . Their significance is that Kraków and Poznań are principal cities of two major regions of Poland : Lesser Poland and Greater Poland , respectively . Under Małachowski 's right hand there is a figure with a bandaged head holding a flag ; this is Tadeusz Kościuszko ( 4 ) , and his head wound is a reference to the battle of Maciejowice , which took place during the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794 , three years after the event depicted in the painting . To the left of Kościuszko , is a figure identified by Wrona et al. as Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski , although this is disputed by other sources .
Another figure , to the right of Małachowski , is being carried ; he is Kazimierz Nestor Sapieha ( 5 ) , marshal of the Lithuanian confederation and the second Sejm marshal . He is dressed in more traditional Polish clothing . Between Małachowski and Sapieha , the head of Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz ( 6 ) , a well @-@ known writer , is visible . He appears to be carrying Sapieha . The other figure carrying Sapieha , to his right , is Michał Zabiełło ( 7 ) .
In the lower center of the painting , Matejko shows a scene that took place in the Royal Castle . Jan Suchorzewski ( 8 ) , deputy from Kalisz and an opponent of the Constitution , has fallen to the ground , holding his young son with one arm ; his other hand , holding a knife , is held by Stanisław Kublicki ( 9 ) , standing to his right . Kublicki was a deputy from Inflanty , a supporter of the townsfolk and peasant causes , and of the Constitution . The artist here alludes to Suchorzewski 's unsuccessful attempt to prevent the king from signing the Constitution , during which he threatening to kill his own son to save him from the " slavery of the Constitution " . A deck of cards has fallen out of Suchorzewski 's pocket , a reference to the manner in which he was bribed by the anti @-@ Constitution Russian ambassador Otto Magnus von Stackelberg and hetman Branicki ; Suchorzewski suddenly started winning large sums of money in games , despite his poor skills as a gambler . Branicki ( 10 ) can be seen standing between the king and Suchorzewski , dressed in a Russian uniform , foreshadowing the rank of general he received several years later in the Russian Army . In reality Suchorzewski , like most of those opposed to the Constitution , refused to participate in the procession .
Notable figures in the center of the painting , to the left of Małachowski , include other supporters of the Constitution . Priest Hugo Kołłątaj ( 11 ) is the most prominent , gesturing in disdain at Suchorzewski . Several other figures in the vicinity are described in sources , but their precise location is unclear , or the sources contradict one another . The priest holding the Bible ( 12 ) is probably Feliks Turski , although some identify him as Tymoteusz Gorzeński . The figures to the right of Kołłątaj represents the Grand Lithuanian Marshal , Ignacy Potocki ( 13 ) , and perhaps Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski ( 14 ) ( although some sources identify Czartoryski elsewhere in the painting , in the vicinity of Kościuszko ) . Surrounding Kołłątaj are likely the priest Scipione Piattoli ( 15 ) and Tadeusz Matuszewicz or Matusiewicz ( 16 ) .
= = = Left = = =
On the stairs of the church , King Stanisław August Poniatowski ( 17 ) is ascending . Matejko was not very fond of Poniatowski , and he portrayed him in a rather pompous posture , with his hand extended to be kissed , and in the company of numerous pretty ladies , supporting his reputation as a " lady 's man " . Poniatowski 's inclusion in the procession is one of Matejko 's artistic liberties , as he had arrived at the church before the procession . A woman hands him a laurel wreath ( 18 ) ; sources have identified her as the Courland princess Dorothea von Medem ( Dorothea Biron ) or Róża z Martynkowskich , wife of former Warsaw mayor Jan Dekert . Behind her ( leftmost in the group of two women , with only her face showing ) stands Elżbieta Grabowska ( 19 ) , the king 's mistress and mother of his children . Bowing at the church doors is the former mayor of Warsaw , Jan Dekert ( 20 ) . He is accompanied by his daughter Marianna ( in a yellow dress , facing away from the viewer ) taking a prominent position near the king ( 38 ) . Dekert 's inclusion in the painting is another example of Matejko taking liberties with history , as he died in October 1790 ; he was an important burghers figure associated with the Free Royal Cities Act , which was incorporated into the Constitution .
Behind the king , holding his hands to his head , is Prince Antoni Stanisław Czetwertyński @-@ Światopełk ( 21 ) , another opponent of the Constitution , known for being on a Russian payroll . Below him is another opponent of the Constitution , Antoni Złotnicki ( 22 ) . An anonymous black @-@ clad French royalist ( 23 ) is shown looking terrified at the scene , seeing another revolution in the making . He raises his hand over the king 's head .
In the group of people gathered below the king , in another acknowledgement of the burghers ' importance , is burgher Jan Kiliński ( 24 ) , one of the leaders of the Kościuszko Uprising . To his right , at the edge of the crowd , is the priest Clemens Maria Hofbauer ( 25 ) , who ran an orphanage and a school in Warsaw and is canonized as a saint in the Catholic church .
= = = Right = = =
To the right of Sapieha are reformer Stanisław Staszic ( 26 ) and , with his hand around Staszic , Andrzej Zamoyski ( 27 ) , author of the Zamoyski Codex , an earlier attempt to reform the state . To the left of Staszic , the head of bishop of Smoleńsk , Tymoteusz Gorzeński ( 28 ) , is visible in the crowd . Beneath Staszic and Zamoyski , with an outstretched hand , is Kazimierz Konopka ( 29 ) , Kołłątaj 's secretary and one of the Polish Jacobins ; Konopka has a French blue @-@ white @-@ red flower in his hat and a czekan , an ax- and hammer @-@ like weapon , in his hand . Above them is an unnamed Eastern Orthodox priest ( 30 ) ; the figure on his right ( 31 ) is either Paweł Ksawery Brzostowski , pioneer of agricultural reforms , or Józef Stępkowski , a less progressive figure . This line of figures ends with Antoni Tyzenhauz ( 32 ) , Lithuanian official and reformer . To the right of Zamoyski is an unnamed peasant ( 33 ) . His passive attitude is seen as a representation of the unconcerned attitude of Polish peasantry towards the reforms .
To their right is the king 's nephew , prince Józef Poniatowski ( 34 ) , in the uniform of the light cavalry of the Duchy of Warsaw and riding a grey horse . The uniform is another instance of foreshadowing ; Poniatowski became the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Duchy 's army and died during the Battle of Leipzig . At the time of the passing of the Constitution , he was the commander of the Warsaw garrison , and is shown keeping an eye on the procession , with his soldiers lined up and guarding the street . To his right , partially obscured by Poniatowski 's horse 's head , is Stanisław Mokronowski ( 35 ) , deputy , general , and future leader of the Kościuszko Uprising in Lithuania .
At the very bottom right corner , two Polish Jews are on the edge of the scene ; the younger ( 36 ) one is usually described as enthralled by the events , watching them with hope , but most analysis focuses on the older man ( 37 ) , whose hand is making a Sy , git ( " that 's good " ) gesture . Interpretation of this figure varies ; while some suggest that he express his interest and support for the Constitution , which he sees as a promise of further reforms that will improve the situation of the Jews — the Constitution had not addressed them in any significant way — others put him , or both of the Jews , among the opponents of the Constitution , describing them as frowning and disturbed , gleefully anticipating the end of the Commonwealth , or at least concerned with the liberal reforms . The latter interpretation can be also supported by the fact that Matejko tended to portray Jews in his paintings in negative roles .
= = = List of characters = = =
Historians have positively identified a number of characters . This is the list of characters portrayed on the painting and indicated with numbers on the associated guide picture :
Stanisław Małachowski ( 1736 @-@ 1809 ) , Crown Marshal of the Grand Sejm , holding the Constitution in his handl
Aleksander Linowski , deputy of Kraków , and supporter of the Constitution
Ignacy Zakrzewski ( 1745 @-@ 1802 ) , City President ( Mayor ) of Warsaw
Tadeusz Kościuszko ( 1746 @-@ 1817 ) , Crown Army General
Kazimierz Nestor Sapieha ( 1754 @-@ 1798 ) , Lithuanian Artillery General
Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz , deputy of Inflanty , supporter of the Constitution
Michał Zabiełło , deputy of Inflanty , general of the Lithuanian Army
Jan Suchorzewski ( d . 1809 ) , Wojski of Wschowa , opposed to the Constitution
Stanisław Kublicki ( or Jan Kublicki ) , deputy of Inflanty , an active supporter of the Constitution and of the causes of townsfolk and peasants ( sources vary with regards to his name )
Franciszek Branicki ( ca . 1730 @-@ 1819 ) , Grand Hetman of the Crown , opposed to the Constitution
Hugo Kołłątaj ( 1750 @-@ 1812 ) , Underchancellor of the Crown , co @-@ author of the Constitution
Feliks Turski , bishop of Kraków
Ignacy Potocki ( 1750 @-@ 1809 ) , Grand Marshal of Lithuania , co @-@ author of the Constitution ( location indicated on the picture could be incorrect )
Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski ( 1734 @-@ 1832 ) , Prefect General of Podolia , supporter of the Constitution ( the location of this figure is disputed by some sources )
Scipione Piattoli , priest , secretary of king Poniatowski , supporter of the Constitution
Tadeusz Matuszewicz ( Matusiewicz ) , deputy , supporter of the Constitution
Stanisław August Poniatowski ( 1732 @-@ 1798 ) , King of Poland 1764 @-@ 1795
Dorothea von Medem ( Dorothea Biron ) , Courland princess ( also identified as Róża z Martynkowskich , wife of Dekert )
Elżbieta Grabowska ( 1748 @-@ 1810 ) , king 's mistress
Jan Dekert ( 1738 @-@ 1790 ) , former City President ( Mayor ) of Warsaw
Antoni Stanisław Czetwertyński @-@ Światopełk ( 1748 @-@ 1794 ) , Castellan of Przemyśl , opposed to the Constitution
Antoni Złotnicki , deputy of Podolia , opponent of the Constitution
An unnamed French royalist
Jan Kiliński ( 1760 @-@ 1819 ) , shoemaker , member of the Warsaw City Council
Clemens Maria Hofbauer ( 1751 @-@ 1820 ) , Redemptorist ( priest )
Stanisław Staszic ( 1755 @-@ 1826 ) , scientist and political writer
Andrzej Zamoyski ( 1716 @-@ 1792 ) , Grand Chancellor of the Crown
Tymoteusz Gorzeński , bishop of Smoleńsk
Kazimierz Konopka ( 1769 @-@ 1805 ) , Hugo Kołłątaj 's secretary
An unnamed Orthodox priest
Paweł Ksawery Brzostowski , Catholic priest , pioneer of agricultural reforms
Antoni Tyzenhauz , Lithuanian official and reformer .
An unnamed peasant
Józef Poniatowski ( 1763 @-@ 1813 ) , General @-@ Major
Stanisław Mokronowski , deputy , general , leader of the Kościuszko Uprising in Lithuania
An unnamed young Jew
An unnamed old Jew
Several more figures have been identified by historians as likely present in the painting , but their exact location is unknown , and they are also not present on the guide picture :
Marianna Dekert , Dekert 's daughter
Antoni Barnaba Jabłonowski , castellan of Kraków , supporter of the Constitution and of the townsfolk cause - his location on the picture was described by Wrona et. all as unknown ; probably near Małachowski
Stanisław Badeni , king 's secretary - like Jabłonkowski , his exact location is unknown , likely near Małachowski
Pious Kiliński , king 's secretary , his exact location uncertain , likely near Gorzeński
Joachim Chreptowicz , Foreign Minister and Chancellor
Antoni Józef Lanckoroński , treasury official and member of the Commission of National Education
= Océan @-@ class ironclad =
The Océan class ironclads were a group of three wooden @-@ hulled armored frigates built for the French Navy in the mid to late 1860s . Océan attempted to blockade Prussian ports in the Baltic Sea in 1870 during the Franco @-@ Prussian War . Marengo participated in the French conquest of Tunisia in 1881 . Suffren was often used as the flagship for the squadron she was assigned to . She was flagship of the Cherbourg Division , the Channel Division , Mediterranean Squadron and the Northern Squadron during her career . The ships were discarded during the 1890s .
= = Design and description = =
The Océan @-@ class ironclads were designed by Henri Dupuy de Lôme as an improved version of the Provence @-@ class ironclads . The ships were central battery ironclads with the armament concentrated amidships . For the first time in a French ironclad three watertight iron bulkheads were fitted in the hull . Like most ironclads of their era they were equipped with a metal @-@ reinforced ram .
The ships measured 87 @.@ 73 meters ( 287 ft 10 in ) overall , with a beam of 17 @.@ 52 meters ( 57 ft 6 in ) . They had a maximum draft of 9 @.@ 09 meters ( 29 ft 10 in ) and displaced 7 @,@ 749 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 627 long tons ) . Their crew numbered between 750 and 778 officers and men . The metacentric height of the ships was very low , between 1 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 m ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Océan @-@ class ships had one horizontal return connecting rod compound steam engine driving a single propeller . Their engines were powered by eight oval boilers . On sea trials the engines produced between 3 @,@ 600 – 4 @,@ 100 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 700 – 3 @,@ 100 kW ) and the ships reached 13 @.@ 5 – 14 @.@ 3 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 – 26 @.@ 5 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 – 16 @.@ 5 mph ) . They carried 650 metric tons ( 640 long tons ) of coal which allowed them to steam for approximately 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The Océan @-@ class ships were barque or barquentine @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area around 2 @,@ 000 square meters ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
These ships had their main armament mounted in four barbettes on the upper deck , one gun at each corner of the battery , with the remaining guns on the battery deck below the barbettes . The original armament consisted of four 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in the barbettes , and on the battery deck , four 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) and four 164 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns . This was upgraded in Océan to four 274 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) guns in the barbettes and eight 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) on the battery deck before she was commissioned . The two later ships , Marengo and Suffren , were armed with 274 @-@ millimeter guns in the barbettes , and four 240 @-@ millimeter guns and seven 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) on the battery deck .
The 18 @-@ caliber 274 @-@ millimeter Modéle 1870 gun fired an armor @-@ piercing , 476 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 216 @.@ 0 kg ) shell while the gun itself weighed 22 @.@ 84 long tons ( 23 @.@ 21 t ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 424 ft / s ( 434 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 3 inches ( 360 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 19 @-@ caliber 240 @-@ millmeter Modele 1870 gun weighed 317 @.@ 5 pounds ( 144 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 15 @.@ 41 long tons ( 15 @.@ 66 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 624 ft / s ( 495 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 4 inches ( 366 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 138 @-@ millimeter gun was 21 calibers long and weighed 2 @.@ 63 long tons ( 2 @.@ 67 t ) . It fired a 61 @.@ 7 @-@ pound ( 28 @.@ 0 kg ) explosive shell that
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jan ( made of steel ) , which is related to stakhla ( standing firm ) .
The carbon content of steel is between 0 @.@ 002 % and 2 @.@ 1 % by weight for plain iron – carbon alloys . These values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese , chromium , nickel , iron , tungsten , carbon and so on . Basically , steel is an iron @-@ carbon alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction . In contrast , cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction . Too little carbon content leaves ( pure ) iron quite soft , ductile , and weak . Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy , commonly called pig iron , that is brittle ( not malleable ) . While iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel , alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel . Common alloying elements include : manganese , nickel , chromium , molybdenum , boron , titanium , vanadium , tungsten , cobalt , and niobium . Additional elements are also important in steel : phosphorus , sulfur , silicon , and traces of oxygen , nitrogen , and copper , that are most frequently considered undesirable .
Alloys with a higher than 2 @.@ 1 % carbon content , depending on other element content and possibly on processing , are known as cast iron . Cast iron is not malleable even when hot , but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties . Certain compositions of cast iron , while retaining the economies of melting and casting , can be heat treated after casting to make malleable iron or ductile iron objects . Steel is also distinguishable from wrought iron ( now largely obsolete ) , which may contain a small amount of carbon but large amounts of slag .
= = Material properties = =
Iron is commonly found in the Earth 's crust in the form of an ore , usually an iron oxide , such as magnetite , hematite etc . Iron is extracted from iron ore by removing the oxygen through combination with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon that is lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide . This process , known as smelting , was first applied to metals with lower melting points , such as tin , which melts at about 250 ° C ( 482 ° F ) and copper , which melts at about 1 @,@ 100 ° C ( 2 @,@ 010 ° F ) and the combination , bronze , which is liquid at less than 1 @,@ 083 ° C ( 1 @,@ 981 ° F ) . In comparison , cast iron melts at about 1 @,@ 375 ° C ( 2 @,@ 507 ° F ) . Small quantities of iron were smelted in ancient times , in the solid state , by heating the ore in a charcoal fire and welding the clumps together with a hammer , squeezing out the impurities . With care , the carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the fire .
All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the Bronze Age . Since the oxidation rate of iron increases rapidly beyond 800 ° C ( 1 @,@ 470 ° F ) , it is important that smelting take place in a low @-@ oxygen environment . Unlike copper and tin , liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily . Smelting , using carbon to reduce iron oxides , results in an alloy ( pig iron ) that retains too much carbon to be called steel . The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step .
Other materials are often added to the iron / carbon mixture to produce steel with desired properties . Nickel and manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make the austenite form of the iron @-@ carbon solution more stable , chromium increases hardness and melting temperature , and vanadium also increases hardness while making it less prone to metal fatigue .
To inhibit corrosion , at least 11 % chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface ; this is known as stainless steel . Tungsten interferes with the formation of cementite , allowing martensite to preferentially form at slower quench rates , resulting in high speed steel . On the other hand , sulfur , nitrogen , and phosphorus make steel more brittle , so these commonly found elements must be removed from the steel melt during processing .
The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents but usually ranges between 7 @,@ 750 and 8 @,@ 050 kg / m3 ( 484 and 503 lb / cu ft ) , or 7 @.@ 75 and 8 @.@ 05 g / cm3 ( 4 @.@ 48 and 4 @.@ 65 oz / cu in ) .
Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make a steel , a number of different metallurgical structures , with very different properties can form . Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel . At room temperature , the most stable form of pure iron is the body @-@ centered cubic ( BCC ) structure called alpha iron or α @-@ iron . It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon , no more than 0 @.@ 005 % at 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) and 0 @.@ 021 wt % at 723 ° C ( 1 @,@ 333 ° F ) . The inclusion of carbon in alpha iron is called ferrite . At 910 ° C pure iron transforms into a face @-@ centered cubic ( FCC ) structure , called gamma iron or γ @-@ iron . The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite . The FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon , as much as 2 @.@ 1 % ( 38 times that of ferrite ) carbon at 1 @,@ 148 ° C ( 2 @,@ 098 ° F ) , which reflects the upper carbon content of steel , beyond which is cast iron . When carbon moves out of solution with iron it forms a very hard , but brittle material called cementite ( Fe3C ) .
When steels with exactly 0 @.@ 8 % carbon ( known as a eutectoid steel ) , are cooled , the austenitic phase ( FCC ) of the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase ( BCC ) . The carbon no longer fits within the FCC austenite structure , resulting in an excess of carbon . One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for it to precipitate out of solution as cementite , leaving behind a surrounding phase of BCC iron called ferrite that is able to hold the carbon in solution . The two , ferrite and cementite , precipitate simultaneously producing a layered structure called pearlite , named for its resemblance to mother of pearl . In a hypereutectoid composition ( greater than 0 @.@ 8 % carbon ) , the carbon will first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite at the austenite grain boundaries and then when the composition left behind is eutectoid , the pearlite structure forms . For steels that have less than 0 @.@ 8 % carbon ( hypoeutectoid ) , ferrite will first form until the remaining composition is 0 @.@ 8 % at which point the pearlite structure will form . No large inclusions of cementite will form at the boundaries . The above assumes that the cooling process is very slow , allowing enough time for the carbon to migrate .
As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the grains ; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects within those grains , resulting in hardening of the steel . At the very high cooling rates produced by quenching , the carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face center austenite and forms martensite . Martensite is highly strained and stressed supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly hard but brittle . Depending on the carbon content , the martensitic phase takes different forms . Below 0 @.@ 2 % carbon , it takes on a ferrite BCC crystal form , but at higher carbon content it takes a body @-@ centered tetragonal ( BCT ) structure . There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite . Moreover , there is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors .
Martensite has a lower density ( it expands ) than does austenite , so that the transformation between them results in a change of volume . In this case , expansion occurs . Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of martensite and tension on the remaining ferrite , with a fair amount of shear on both constituents . If quenching is done improperly , the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools . At the very least , they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic imperfections . It is common for quench cracks to form when steel is water quenched , although they may not always be visible .
= = = Heat treatment = = =
There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel . The most common are annealing , quenching , and tempering . Heat treatment is effective on compositions above the eutectoid compositions ( hypereutectoid ) . Hypoeutectoid steel does not harden from heat treatment . Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to relieve local internal stresses . It does not create a general softening of the product but only locally relieves strains and stresses locked up within the material . This process goes through three phases : recovery , recrystallization , and grain growth . The temperature required to anneal a particular steel depends on the type of annealing to be achieved and the constituents of the alloy .
Quenching and tempering first involves heating the steel to the austenite phase then quenching it in water or oil . This rapid cooling results in a hard but brittle martensitic structure . The steel is then tempered , which is just a specialized type of annealing , to reduce brittleness . In this application the annealing ( tempering ) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite , or spheroidite and hence it reduces the internal stresses and defects . The result is a more ductile and fracture @-@ resistant steel .
= = Steel production = =
When iron is smelted from its ore , it contains more carbon than is desirable . To become steel , it must be reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount , at which point other elements can be added . In the past , steel facilities would cast the raw cast iron product into ingots which would be stored until use in further refinement processes that resulted in the finished product . In modern facilities , the initial product is close to the final composition and is continuously cast into long slabs , cut and shaped into bars and extrusions and heat treated to produce a final product . Today only a small fraction is cast into ingots . Approximately 96 % of steel is continuously cast , while only 4 % is produced as ingots .
The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs , billets , or blooms . Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates . Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars , rods , and wire . Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel , such as I @-@ beams and rails . In modern steel mills these processes often occur in one assembly line , with ore coming in and finished steel products coming out . Sometimes after a steel 's final rolling it is heat treated for strength , however this is relatively rare .
= = History of steelmaking = =
= = = Ancient steel = = =
Steel was known in antiquity , and possibly was produced in bloomeries and crucibles .
The earliest known production of steel are pieces of ironware excavated from an archaeological site in Anatolia ( Kaman @-@ Kalehoyuk ) and are nearly 4 @,@ 000 years old , dating from 1800 BC . Horace identifies steel weapons like the falcata in the Iberian Peninsula , while Noric steel was used by the Roman military .
The reputation of Seric iron of South India ( wootz steel ) amongst the rest of the world grew considerably . South Indian and Mediterranean sources including Alexander the Great ( 3rd c . BC ) recount the presentation and export to the Greeks of 100 talents worth of such steel . Metal production sites in Sri Lanka employed wind furnaces driven by the monsoon winds , capable of producing high @-@ carbon steel . Large @-@ scale Wootz steel production in Tamilakam using crucibles and carbon sources such as the plant Avāram occurred by the sixth century BC , the pioneering precursor to modern steel production and metallurgy .
The Chinese of the Warring States period ( 403 – 221 BC ) had quench @-@ hardened steel , while Chinese of the Han dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron , gaining an ultimate product of a carbon @-@ intermediate steel by the 1st century AD . The Haya people of East Africa invented a type of furnace they used to make carbon steel at 1 @,@ 802 ° C ( 3 @,@ 276 ° F ) nearly 2 @,@ 000 years ago . East African steel has been suggested by Richard Hooker to date back to 1400 BC .
= = = Wootz steel and Damascus steel = = =
Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in the Indian Subcontinent are found in Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu area , Golconda in Andhra Pradesh area and Karnataka , and in Samanalawewa areas of Sri Lanka . This came to be known as Wootz steel , produced in South India by about sixth century BC and exported globally . The steel technology existed prior to 326 BC in the region as they are mentioned in literature of Sangam Tamil , Arabic and Latin as the finest steel in the world exported to the Romans , Egyptian , Chinese and Arab worlds at that time – what they called Seric Iron . A 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama , in the South East of Sri Lanka , brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period . The Chinese and locals in Anuradhapura , Sri Lanka had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel from the Chera Dynasty Tamils of South India by the 5th century AD . In Sri Lanka , this early steel @-@ making method employed a unique wind furnace , driven by the monsoon winds , capable of producing high @-@ carbon steel . Since the technology was acquired from the Tamilians from South India , the origin of steel technology in India can be conservatively estimated at 400 – 500 BC .
Wootz , also known as Damascus steel , is famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge . It was originally created from a number of different materials including various trace elements , apparently ultimately from the writings of Zosimos of Panopolis . However , the steel was an old technology in India when King Porus presented a steel sword to the Emperor Alexander in 326 BC . It was essentially a complicated alloy with iron as its main component . Recent studies have suggested that carbon nanotubes were included in its structure , which might explain some of its legendary qualities , though given the technology of that time , such qualities were produced by chance rather than by design . Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated by the use of wood . The ancient Sinhalese managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil , a remarkable feat at the time . One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did .
Crucible steel , formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon ( typically in the form of charcoal ) in a crucible , was produced in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD . In the 11th century , there is evidence of the production of steel in Song China using two techniques : a " berganesque " method that produced inferior , inhomogeneous , steel , and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that used partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold blast .
= = = Modern steelmaking = = =
Since the 17th century the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of iron ore into pig iron in a blast furnace . Originally employing charcoal , modern methods use coke , which has proven more economical .
= = = = Processes starting from bar iron = = = =
In these processes pig iron was refined ( fined ) in a finery forge to produce bar iron , which was then used in steel @-@ making .
The production of steel by the cementation process was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in Nuremberg from 1601 . A similar process for case hardening armour and files was described in a book published in Naples in 1589 . The process was introduced to England in about 1614 and used to produce such steel by Sir Basil Brooke at Coalbrookdale during the 1610s .
The raw material for this process were bars of iron . During the 17th century it was realized that the best steel came from oregrounds iron of a region north of Stockholm , Sweden . This was still the usual raw material source in the 19th century , almost as long as the process was used .
Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a crucible rather than having been forged , with the result that it is more homogeneous . Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel . The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s . Blister steel ( made as above ) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace , and cast ( usually ) into ingots .
= = = = Processes starting from pig iron = = = =
The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry Bessemer 's Bessemer process in 1855 , the raw material for which was pig iron . His method let him produce steel in large quantities cheaply , thus mild steel came to be used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used . The Gilchrist @-@ Thomas process ( or basic Bessemer process ) was an improvement to the Bessemer process , made by lining the converter with a basic material to remove phosphorus .
Another 19th @-@ century steelmaking process was the Siemens @-@ Martin process , which complemented the Bessemer process . It consisted of co @-@ melting bar iron ( or steel scrap ) with pig iron .
These methods of steel production were rendered obsolete by the Linz @-@ Donawitz process of basic oxygen steelmaking ( BOS ) , developed in the 1950s , and other oxygen steel making methods . Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limited impurities , primarily nitrogen , that previously had entered from the air used . Today , electric arc furnaces ( EAF ) are a common method of reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel . They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel , but they use a lot of electrical energy ( about 440 kWh per metric ton ) , and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity .
= = Steel industry = =
It is common today to talk about " the iron and steel industry " as if it were a single entity , but historically they were separate products . The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress , because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall economic development .
In 1980 , there were more than 500 @,@ 000 U.S. steelworkers . By 2000 , the number of steelworkers fell to 224 @,@ 000 .
The economic boom in China and India has caused a massive increase in the demand for steel in recent years . Between 2000 and 2005 , world steel demand increased by 6 % . Since 2000 , several Indian and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence , such as Tata Steel ( which bought Corus Group in 2007 ) , Shanghai Baosteel Group Corporation and Shagang Group . ArcelorMittal is however the world 's largest steel producer .
In 2005 , the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel producer with about one @-@ third of the world share ; Japan , Russia , and the US followed respectively .
In 2008 , steel began trading as a commodity on the London Metal Exchange . At the end of 2008 , the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut @-@ backs .
The world steel industry peaked in 2007 . That year , ThyssenKrupp spent $ 12 billion to build the two most modern mills in the world , in Calvert , Alabama and Sepetiba , Rio de Janeiro , Brazil . The worldwide Great Recession starting in 2008 , however , sharply lowered demand and new construction , and so prices fell . ThyssenKrupp lost $ 11 billion on its two new plants , which sold steel below the cost of production .
= = Recycling = =
Steel is one of the world 's most @-@ recycled materials , with a recycling rate of over 60 % globally ; in the United States alone , over 82 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 81 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 long tons ) was recycled in the year 2008 , for an overall recycling rate of 83 % .
= = Contemporary steel = =
= = = Carbon steels = = =
Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes . Carbon steel , composed simply of iron and carbon , accounts for 90 % of steel production . Low alloy steel is alloyed with other elements , usually molybdenum , manganese , chromium , or nickel , in amounts of up to 10 % by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections . High strength low alloy steel has small additions ( usually < 2 % by weight ) of other elements , typically 1 @.@ 5 % manganese , to provide additional strength for a modest price increase .
Recent Corporate Average Fuel Economy ( CAFE ) regulations have given rise to a new variety of steel known as Advanced High Strength Steel ( AHSS ) . This material is both strong and ductile so that vehicle structures can maintain their current safety levels while using less material . There are several commercially available grades of AHSS , such as dual @-@ phase steel , which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure to produce a formable , high strength steel . Transformation Induced Plasticity ( TRIP ) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of austenite at room temperature in normally austenite @-@ free low @-@ alloy ferritic steels . By applying strain , the austenite undergoes a phase transition to martensite without the addition of heat . Twinning Induced Plasticity ( TWIP ) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy .
Carbon Steels are often galvanized , through hot @-@ dip or electroplating in zinc for protection against rust .
= = = Alloy steels = = =
Stainless steels contain a minimum of 11 % chromium , often combined with nickel , to resist corrosion . Some stainless steels , such as the ferritic stainless steels are magnetic , while others , such as the austenitic , are nonmagnetic . Corrosion @-@ resistant steels are abbreviated as CRES .
Some more modern steels include tool steels , which are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and cobalt or other elements to maximize solution hardening . This also allows the use of precipitation hardening and improves the alloy 's temperature resistance . Tool steel is generally used in axes , drills , and other devices that need a sharp , long @-@ lasting cutting edge . Other special @-@ purpose alloys include weathering steels such as Cor @-@ ten , which weather by acquiring a stable , rusted surface , and so can be used un @-@ painted . Maraging steel is alloyed with nickel and other elements , but unlike most steel contains little carbon ( 0 @.@ 01 % ) . This creates a very strong but still malleable steel .
Eglin steel uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low @-@ cost steel for use in bunker buster weapons . Hadfield steel ( after Sir Robert Hadfield ) or manganese steel contains 12 – 14 % manganese which when abraded strain hardens to form an incredibly hard skin which resists wearing . Examples include tank tracks , bulldozer blade edges and cutting blades on the jaws of life .
In 2016 a breakthrough in creating a strong light aluminium steel alloy which might be suitable in applications such as aircraft was announced by researchers at Pohang University of Science and Technology . Adding small amounts of nickel was found to result in precipitation as nano particles of brittle B2 intermetallic compounds which had previously resulted in weakness . The result was a cheap strong light steel alloy — nearly as strong as titanium at ten percent the cost — which is slated for trial production at industrial scale by POSCO , a Korean steelmaker .
= = = Standards = = =
Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations . For example , the Society of Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining many types of steel . The American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of standards , which define alloys such as A36 steel , the most commonly used structural steel in the United States .
= = Uses = =
Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads , railways , other infrastructure , appliances , and buildings . Most large modern structures , such as stadiums and skyscrapers , bridges , and airports , are supported by a steel skeleton . Even those with a concrete structure employ steel for reinforcing . In addition , it sees widespread use in major appliances and cars . Despite growth in usage of aluminium , it is still the main material for car bodies . Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials , such as bolts , nails , and screws and other household products and cooking utensils .
Other common applications include shipbuilding , pipelines , mining , offshore construction , aerospace , white goods ( e.g. washing machines ) , heavy equipment such as bulldozers , office furniture , steel wool , tools , and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour ( better known as rolled homogeneous armour in this role ) .
= = = Historical = = =
Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern production techniques , steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed , particularly for the cutting edge of knives , razors , swords , and other items where a hard , sharp edge was needed . It was also used for springs , including those used in clocks and watches .
With the advent of speedier and thriftier production methods , steel has become easier to obtain and much cheaper . It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes . However , the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel in some applications due to their lower fabrication cost and weight . Carbon fiber is replacing steel in some cost insensitive applications such as aircraft , sports equipment and high end automobiles .
= = = Long steel = = =
As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete
Railroad tracks
Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges
Wires
Input to reforging applications
= = = Flat carbon steel = = =
Major appliances
Magnetic cores
The inside and outside body of automobiles , trains , and ships .
= = = Weathering steel ( COR @-@ TEN ) = = =
Intermodal containers
Outdoor sculptures
Architecture
Highliner train cars
= = = Stainless steel = = =
Cutlery
Rulers
Surgical instruments
Watches
Guns
Rail passenger vehicles
Tablets
Trash Cans
= = = Low @-@ background steel = = =
Steel manufactured after World War II became contaminated with radionuclides due to nuclear weapons testing . Low @-@ background steel , steel manufactured prior to 1945 , is used for certain radiation @-@ sensitive applications such as Geiger counters and radiation shielding .
= Hamdi Qandil =
Hamdi Qandil ( Arabic : حمدى قنديل , surname also spelled Qandeel or Kandil ; born 1936 ) is a prominent Egyptian journalist , news anchor , talk show host and activist . Qandil started his journalism career in the 1950s when he wrote for the Akher Sa 'a ( " Last Hour " ) magazine at the invitation of veteran journalist Mustafa Amin . In 1961 he began broadcasting a news show called Aqwal al @-@ Suhf ( " In the Press " ) until 1969 when he was appointed director of the Arab Broadcasting Studios Union . In 1971 he left his post in protest at a government inspection of his technical staff . He later worked with UNESCO from 1974 to 1986 , specializing in the field of international media . In 1987 he co @-@ founded a satellite broadcasting company that later became known as MBC , where he worked for three months before leaving because of political differences with its management . Qandil briefly presented the show Ma 'a Hamdi Qandil ( " With Hamdi Qandil " ) for ART , but left amid disagreements between him and his managers regarding Qandil 's planned interviews with Muammar Gaddafi and Tariq Aziz .
He returned to Egyptian television in 1998 , hosting the current affairs and press review talk show Ra 'is el @-@ Tahrir ( " Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief " ) . The program became one of the most popular and respected in Egypt . After apparent trouble with the state censors , Qandil moved the show to Dubai TV in 2004 under the name Qalam Rosas ( " Pencil . " ) The new program was highly watched throughout the Arab world . He was forced to quit Dubai TV after criticizing Arab governments and subsequently hosted the show on the Libyan channel Al @-@ Libia for two months before the Libyan government cancelled it . He returned to Egypt and wrote for the Al @-@ Masry Al @-@ Youm newspaper and then Al @-@ Shorouk , but his association with the latter ended as a result of a libel suit brought on by then @-@ Egyptian foreign minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit in response to a column critical of Egyptian foreign policy written by Qandil in May 2010 . The case was later dropped following the 2011 Egyptian Revolution .
Qandil is well known for his pan @-@ Arabist discourse and fierce criticism of the Egyptian and other Arab governments . According to Al @-@ Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies political analyst Diaa Rashwan , Qandil " is a great Egyptian journalist and highly credible , he is bold and gives constructive criticism ... people listen to him and take what he says seriously , which is why he poses a threat " to the government . Prior to the Egyptian revolution , Qandil co @-@ founded the National Association for Change , a reformist group headed Mohamed ElBaradei . Since September 2012 , Qandil has lent his support to the Egyptian Popular Current opposition movement .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Qandil was born in Cairo in 1936 to a father from Menoufia . He was the eldest of five children . Qandil spent much of his childhood and had his primary schooling in the Nile Delta city of Tanta . His father had moved the middle @-@ income family to that city , where he owned a few feddans of land mostly planted with pears and grapes . Qandil 's father primarily distributed them to neighbors and others close to him .
During Qandil 's boyhood , he borrowed and read books from a medical practice and a culture and sporting association in Tanta on a near weekly basis . He also learned field hockey there . Qandil was at the top of his class throughout his later school years and initially sought to enter the medical profession , a typical career aspiration for students with high marks . His mother particularly encouraged him to become a doctor . Qandil simultaneously took an interest in writing , Arabic calligraphy and foreign languages .
= = = Journalism career and education = = =
Qandil was introduced to journalism when he began writing a secondary school research paper . During that time , he also wrote an article for the low @-@ budget Tanta newspaper Al Ikhlas , criticizing King Farouk for spending one million pounds from the treasury to purchase a yacht called the " Mahrousa . " He was fired soon after , but had since grown fond of journalism . Due to this new interest and his father 's increasingly poor health , Qandil did not complete the first stage of his medical studies , causing his 1952 application to medical school to be rejected . He instead enrolled in the department of geology at Alexandria University . In July of that year , King Farouk was overthrown by a group of dissenting officers led by Gamal Abdel Nasser , leading to the subsequent establishment of a republican system under the presidency of leading officer Muhammad Naguib .
Qandil spent two months studying geology and decided to retake his high school examinations in order to enter into medical school . He performed well and was admitted to Cairo University 's Qasr El @-@ Ainy Faculty of Medicine in 1953 . He continued in his studies until 1956 , by which time Nasser had become president . During this period he also joined the National Guard . Together with some of his fellow students he founded his college 's official magazine , which they printed through the Akhbar el @-@ Yom publishing house . The magazine 's first edition was confiscated due to an article Qandil wrote that was critical of university professors and regulations . Shortly after completing his final exams in 1956 , Qandil was offered a writing position with Akher Sa 'a ( " Last Hour " ) magazine by its owners , the prominent journalists and brothers Mustafa Amin and Ali Amin . Mustafa employed Qandil with a salary of 15 Egyptian pounds and initially tasked him with writing the horoscope and a column that responded to letters from readers . Qandil was asked by Amin to serve as an editor for Akher Sa 'a in 1961 .
That year Qandil also attended the International Union of Students in Prague , Czechoslovakia , where he met Yasser Arafat , then the head of the General Union of Palestinian Students . Later in 1956 Qandil was accepted into the department of journalism , obtaining a license ( bachelor 's degree ) in journalism in 1960 . Four years later he received a diploma in journalism from the Berlin Institute . Throughout this period he wrote for the magazine Al @-@ Tahrir , earning a salary of 25 Egyptian pounds , and also worked with Al @-@ Jamahir magazine in Damascus .
= = Career in television and the UN = =
In 1961 Qandil began to work in broadcast television as the presenter of the program Aqwal al @-@ Suhf ( " In the Press " ) . In 1966 he became a media adviser to a television studio in Jordan , a role which ended after six weeks ; the single broadcast of Aqwal al @-@ Suhf in Jordan was met with consternation from the Jordanian royal government and after Qandil was notified of this disapproval , he immediately returned to Egypt where he continued presenting the program . His position in Aqwal al @-@ Suhf ended in 1969 with his appointment as director of the Arab Broadcasting Stations Union ( ABSU ) .
In early May 1971 Qandil left the ABSU after refusing to launch a disciplinary investigation of the technical team that recorded the Labor Day speech given by Anwar Sadat , who became president following Nasser 's death in 1970 . He left at a time when numerous broadcasters and media personalities were removed from their positions during Sadat 's Corrective Revolution . However , he briefly returned to television in 1973 to announce Egypt 's claimed victory in the Yom Kippur War with Israel in October of that year .
Qandil was appointed manager of the Department of the Free Flow of Information and Communication Policies for UNESCO in 1974 . In an interview with Al @-@ Ahram Weekly , Qandil stated that while at UNESCO he " specialised in satellite communications and published several books and studies " dealing with global media and broadcasting . During this time he strongly pushed to include Palestine as a member and attempted to remove the United States , the United Kingdom and Singapore from the organization . According to his own account , he was also able to master the English and French languages , and gain experience in diplomacy . He left UNESCO in 1986 .
Together with partners from Egypt and the Arab world , Qandil co @-@ founded the Eastern Satellite Communications Company in 1987 . Its main purpose was to serve broadcasting station that would target Arabic @-@ speaking communities in the Western world and to counter what Qandil perceived as Western bias in global media . However , in 1992 , as a result of financial difficulties the company was sold and subsequently became the Middle East Broadcasting Center ( MBC ) . Qandil worked at MBC for roughly three months until he quit , citing political differences with the station 's managers , who considered him a Nasserist . That same year , he was offered to host his own show at Arab Radio and Television ( ART ) , but initially opted to work on a project setting up a private Egyptian station for Al @-@ Ahram . The station was not launched and Qandil took up a position at ART in 1996 where he hosted his own show called With Hamdi Qandil . Qandil 's arrangements to interview Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi on the anniversary of the 1969 coup that brought him to power , and also Tariq Aziz , the vice president of Iraq at the time , aroused controversy among ART 's managers . He quit thereafter .
= = = Ra 'is el @-@ Tahrir and Qalam Rosas = = =
In 1998 Qandil responded favorably to the invitation of Safwat El @-@ Sherif , the Information Minister in Hosni Mubarak 's government , to return to Egyptian television . In March his program Ra 'is el @-@ Tahrir ( " Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief " ) began airing . Qandil stated he returned to Egyptian television because he felt he owed " a debt of gratitude to the institution that built my fame when I was in my twenties . Also , working in Egypt is more immediately rewarding than anywhere else . " With the relaxation of media restrictions during this period , Ra 'is el @-@ Tahrir became one of the most popular and respected television programs in Egypt . Describing the relative freedom afforded to the media , Qandil stated in 2001 that the situation was an improvement from when he first began the program , but " as long as there remains a censor , we will continue to ask for more [ freedom of expression ] . "
Ra 'is el @-@ Tahrir was intended to serve as a weekly review of the pan @-@ Arab press , but in practice the program became a medium through which Qandil expressed his opinions on various issues confronting Egypt and the Arab world , views which he claimed were representative of the popular Egyptian sentiment . Al @-@ Ahram Weekly ′ s Amina Elbandary wrote that during the show , Qandil spoke " in histrionic style , his commentary replete with daring questions and remarks . Viewers are fascinated by his apparent lack of inhibition . "
In the wake of the Second Intifada , the Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation that began in 2000 , the show became dominated by the conflict , which Qandil generally regarded as a campaign of Israeli aggression . He frequently broadcast the Israeli military 's actions during the Intifada and called for viewers to support the uprising and boycott Israeli products . Qandil responded to a query regarding his extensive coverage of the Intifada by saying , " How are news shows expected to react to events such as the Intifada ? Are we supposed to keep silent ? "
Ra 'is el @-@ Tahrir later moved to Dream TV , an Egypt @-@ based television station . Qandil continued to express his frustrations regarding the Israel and the Intifada , the run @-@ up to the invasion of Iraq , and what he perceived as the United States ' maligned intentions for the Middle East . According to author and researcher Andrew Hammond , " The show 's combination of current affairs , press reviews and talk @-@ shows became the most talked @-@ about television in Egypt since Al @-@ Jazeera 's al @-@ Ittijah al @-@ Mu 'akis . " His show on Dream TV was cancelled abruptly in early 2003 amid rumors that he had been crossing political red lines during his broadcasts , including stinging criticism of the government of Hosni Mubarak . This reasoning was dismissed by Dream TV manager Sanaa Mansour , who stated that Qandil had not been let go , was free to express himself and left the show without offering an explanation to management .
In 2004 Qandil moved to the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) began hosting a program on Dubai TV called Qalam Rosas ( " Pencil " ) . The program was virtually a continuation of Ra 'is al @-@ Tahrir , a highly watched show dealing with the Arab world 's major political , economic and social affairs of the day . Qalam Rosas would normally open with Qandil interviewing an Arab intellectual and discussing a current event . The show would then continue to a round table discussion with other journalists analyzing various social and political events and movements concerning the citizens of the Arab world . At its closing , Qandil would summarize the show with a well @-@ known maxim or saying . The London @-@ based Arab Media Watch organization awarded Qandil the 2006 Media Accomplishment Award to commend him for his " creativity and participation in the media world " over the course of his five decade career . In 2008 Qandil was forced to leave Dubai TV for criticizing Arab leaders , while commending Hassan Nasrallah , the secretary @-@ general of the Lebanese political party and paramilitary group Hezbollah .
After his departure from Dubai TV he entered into a contract with Al @-@ Libia , although he only remained with the Libyan channel for two months . Qandil 's show was cancelled when the state @-@ owned Al Jamahiriya Radio 's General Authority took control of the channel . There was no official reason for the cancellation , but Qandil stated it was because of " instructions from high @-@ ranking Libyan officials due to pressures from Egypt . " He was reportedly offered to present Qalam Rosas on the Hezbollah @-@ linked Al @-@ Manar TV in early 2009 , but opted not to join citing an unclear situation regarding his contract with Al @-@ Libia .
= = Political activism and Aboul Gheit lawsuit = =
After his brief stint on Al @-@ Libia , Qandil returned to Egypt to write for the newspaper Al @-@ Masry Al @-@ Youm in 2008 and later began writing for Al @-@ Shorouk . He co @-@ founded and served as the media spokesman for National Association for Change ( NAC ) headed by Mohamed ElBaradei in early 2010 . The NAC 's stated purpose is push for democratic and other reforms in Egypt . In May Egyptian foreign minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit brought a lawsuit for libel against Qandil in response to a critical column about Aboul Gheit and Egyptian foreign policy that Qandil wrote for Al @-@ Shorouk , called " The Homeland ’ s Disgrace and that of the Citizen . " In the column Qandil lambasted the contradictory statements made by Aboul Gheit and Egypt 's ambassador to Israel , in which the latter said Israel was a friendly state , while Aboul Gheit had just previously stated that Israel was an enemy . Qandil wrote that the ambassador sought to cover up Aboul Gheit 's statement , and that Aboul Gheit 's words " usually ... fall from his mouth like droppings of a torn rubbish bag . " The matter was transferred to the criminal court . His relationship with Al @-@ Shorouk consequently ended as a result of the controversy .
In June 2010 Qandil quit his position as the NAC 's media spokesman . He did not give an official reason for resigning , but was reportedly upset that ElBaradei was frequently outside of Egypt . In mid @-@ December Qandil appeared in court and his defense team , which included his brother Assem and Gamal Eid requested that the " biased " court quit and that the case be transferred to a civil jurisdiction . On 24 January 2011 the court refused the referral and also refused to summon Aboul Gheit at the request of Qandil 's defense team . On 25 January mass demonstrations demanding President Hosni Mubarak 's downfall erupted across Egypt , eventually overthrowing the government , including Aboul Gheit , on 11 February . In April Aboul Gheit dropped the lawsuit . According to Hafez Abu Seada of the Egyptian Organization for Human Rights , the revolution was the clear reason Aboul Gheit withdrew the suit , and had it not occurred , " the court could have handed [ Qandil ] a prison sentence . "
= = Political views = =
Qandil describes himself as a supporter of Nasserism , which he defines not as a political affiliation , but rather an ideal of " social justice " and " national liberation " that " goes beyond generation and class . " He did not join any of Egypt 's Nasserist political parties or organizations , but viewed the era of late president Nasser as a period in which his " generation was taught self @-@ respect , national pride and the courage to stand up against the great powers . " Qandil was described by Hammond as a " secular @-@ nationalist ... embodying the ' conscience of the Arab nation ' " .
In a 1999 interview Qandil stated his view that the pan @-@ Arab media was not able to counter what he perceived as the influence of Zionism in American media and that the state of Arab media reflected the state of stagnation in the Arab world in general . Qandil is vociferously opposed to United States foreign policy in the Middle East . He referred to the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 as the " biggest modern disaster for the Arabs since 1948 , " the year in which the newly established state of Israel defeated a coalition of Arab armies , causing a mass exodus of Palestinians from their homes .
Qandil supported the 2011 Egyptian revolution and called for Mubarak to step down from the start of the protests . In a lecture to students from the American University of Cairo in early March 2011 , Qandil hailed the young protesters who started the revolution as " brave " and expressed hope that it would open an era of democracy and press freedom in Egypt . During the 2012 Egyptian presidential election , Qandil endorsed Nasserist candidate Hamdeen Sabahi after the Revolutionary Youth Coalition ( RYC ) announced their support for him . In late September 2012 , during the post @-@ revolution period in Egypt during Mohamed Morsi 's presidency , Qandil announced his support for the Egyptian Popular Current movement founded by Sabahi . At the inaugural conference , Qandil stated that " a major political battle " would soon be launched for the next parliamentary elections and that Egypt 's diverse make @-@ up could never be changed .
= = Personal life = =
Qandil met and married Egyptian actress Naglaa Fathi in 1992 . He was married twice before . Fathi said of Qandil " He is the first man who has fascinated me . It is not easy to bewitch me , but he did . I feel like a student when I 'm with him : I discover new qualities in him every day , " while Qandil said he felt an " immediate chemical bond " with Fathi .
= Kalamazoo @-@ class monitor =
The Kalamazoo @-@ class monitors were a class of ocean @-@ going ironclad monitors begun during the American Civil War . Unfinished by the end of the war , their construction was suspended in November 1865 and the unseasoned wood of their hulls rotted while they were still on the building stocks . If the four ships had been finished they would have been the most seaworthy monitors in the US Navy . One was scrapped in 1874 while the other three were disposed of a decade later .
= = Design and description = =
John Lenthall , Chief of the Bureau of Construction and Repair , ordered Benjamin F. Delano , naval constructor at New York City , to design a wooden @-@ hulled ironclad that would carry her armament in two gun turrets . The deck was to be 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) above the waterline and protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor . The ship 's side armor was to be 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick , backed by 12 – 15 inches ( 305 – 381 mm ) of wood ; it was to cover the entire ship 's side , down to a depth three feet below the waterline . It should carry enough coal to steam one week at full power with " sufficient speed to make good use of its ram " . Gideon Welles , Secretary of the Navy , called them enlarged versions of the Miantonomoh @-@ class monitors with greater speed and " adapted to coast service " , meaning more seaworthy .
The Kalamazoo @-@ class ships were 345 feet 5 inches ( 105 @.@ 3 m ) long overall and had a length between perpendiculars of 332 feet 6 inches ( 101 @.@ 3 m ) . They had a beam of 56 feet 8 inches ( 17 @.@ 27 m ) and a draft of 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 3 m ) . The ships were designed to displace 5 @,@ 660 long tons ( 5 @,@ 750 t ) and were 3 @,@ 200 tons burthen . They were the largest ships to be built in navy shipyards to date .
Their unseasoned wooden hulls were massively reinforced by iron straps as well as iron stanchions to bear the enormous weight of their armor and guns . They retained the typical monitor overhang introduced by John Ericsson , designer of the Monitor , where the upper part of the hull was 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) wider than the lower part of the hull . The Kalamazoo 's wrought iron side armor consisted of two layers of three @-@ inch plates , backed by 21 inches of wood , six feet in height . The outer layer of armor extended 18 inches ( 460 mm ) further below the waterline . The three @-@ inch deck armor rested on 6 inches ( 152 mm ) of wood and was covered in another three inches of wood .
They were powered by two 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving one 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) propellers , using steam generated by eight tubular boilers . The engines were rated at 2 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . They had a bore of 46 @.@ 5 inches ( 1 @,@ 181 mm ) and a stroke of 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 270 mm ) . Two large funnels were positioned between the turrets to handle the combustion gases from the boilers . The Kalamazoos were intended to carry 500 long tons ( 510 t ) of coal .
The ships ' main armament consisted of four smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading , 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets . Each gun weighed approximately 43 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) . They could fire a 350 @-@ pound ( 158 @.@ 8 kg ) shell up to a range of 2 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 7 ° . The turrets were protected by 15 inches of armor .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and fate = =
Construction of the ships began between late 1863 and early 1864 and they were still being built when the war ended in early 1865 . Construction was suspended on all four on 17 November 1865 ; they remained on the stocks . The ships were renamed , usually twice , in 1869 to conform to several new ship naming conventions . Vice Admiral David D. Porter ordered that Colossus be rebuilt to carry 10 large broadside guns and fitted with iron masts in a ship rig , but this never happened . The unseasoned wood in their hulls quickly began to rot after construction was suspended and they were broken up beginning in 1874 . Unusually , Passaconaway was condemned by an Act of Congress on 5 August 1882 before she was finally broken up in 1884 .
= Franklin half dollar =
The Franklin half dollar is a coin that was struck by the United States Mint from 1948 to 1963 . The fifty @-@ cent piece pictures Founding Father Benjamin Franklin on the obverse and the Liberty Bell on the reverse . A small eagle was placed to the right of the bell to fulfill the legal requirement that half dollars depict the figure of an eagle . Produced in 90 percent silver with a reeded edge , the coin was struck at the Philadelphia , Denver , and San Francisco mints . At the end of April 2016 the metal value of the $ 0 @.@ 50 coin was approximately $ 6 @.@ 48 , an increase of approximately 1300 % .
Mint director Nellie Tayloe Ross had long admired Franklin , and wanted him to be depicted on a coin . In 1947 , she instructed her chief engraver , John R. Sinnock , to prepare designs for a Franklin half dollar . Sinnock 's designs were based on his earlier work , but he died before their completion . The designs were completed by Sinnock
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the middle of the 1930s . The " lady " part of the nickname is how fans of the club affectionately referred to it before the 1930s . The club is also nicknamed la Fidanzata d 'Italia ( the Girlfriend of Italy ) , because over the years it has received a high level of support from Southern Italian immigrant workers ( particularly from Naples and Palermo ) , who arrived in Turin to work for FIAT since the 1930s . Other nicknames include ; [ La ] Madama ( Piedmontese for : Madam ) , i bianconeri ( the black @-@ and @-@ whites ) , le zebre ( the zebras ) in reference to Juventus ' colours . I gobbi ( the hunchbacks ) is the nickname that is used to define Juventus supporters , but is also used sometimes for team 's players . The most widely accepted origin of gobbi dates to the fifties , when the Bianconeri wore a large jersey . When players ran on the field , the jersey , which had a laced opening at the chest , generated a bulge over the back ( a sort of parachute effect ) , making the players look hunchbacked .
On 10 September 2015 , Juventus officially announced a new project called JKids for its junior supporters on its website . Along with this project , Juventus also introduced a new mascot to all its fans which is called " J " . " J " is a cartoon @-@ designed zebra , black and white stripes with golden edge piping on its body , golden shining eyes , and three golden stars on the front of its neck . " J " made its debut at Juventus Stadium on 12 September 2015 .
= = Stadiums = =
After the first two years ( 1897 and 1898 ) , during which Juventus played in the Parco del Valentino and Parco Cittadella , their matches were held in the Piazza d 'Armi Stadium until 1908 , except in 1905 , the first year of the scudetto , and in 1906 , years in which it played at the Corso Re Umberto .
From 1909 to 1922 , Juventus played their internal competitions at Corso Sebastopoli Camp , and before moving the following year to Corso Marsiglia Camp where they remained until 1933 , winning four league titles . At the end of 1933 they began to play at the new Stadio Mussolini stadium inaugurated for the 1934 World Championships . After the Second World War , the stadium was renamed as Stadio Comunale Vittorio Pozzo . Juventus played home matches at the ground for 57 years , a total of 890 league matches . The team continued to host training sessions at the stadium until July 2003 .
From 1990 until the 2005 – 06 season , the Torinese side contested their home matches at Stadio delle Alpi , built for the 1990 FIFA World Cup , although in very rare circumstances , the club played some home games in other stadia such as Renzo Barbera at Palermo , Dino Manuzzi at Cesena and the Stadio Giuseppe Meazza at Milan .
In August 2006 , Juventus returned to play in the Stadio Comunale , then known as Stadio Olimpico , after the restructuring of the stadium for the 2006 Winter Olympics onward . In November 2008 , Juventus announced that they would invest around € 120 million to build a new ground , the Juventus Stadium , on the site of delle Alpi . Unlike the old ground , there is not a running track ; instead the pitch is only 7 @.@ 5 metres away from the stands . The capacity is 41 @,@ 475 . Work began during spring 2009 and the stadium was opened on 8 September 2011 ahead of the start of the 2011 – 12 season .
= = Supporters = =
Juventus are the best @-@ supported football club in Italy , with over 12 million fans or tifosi , which represent approximately 29 % of the total Italian football fans according to a research published in September 2010 by Italian research agency Demos & Pi , and one of the most supported football clubs in the world , with 180 million supporters ( 43 million in Europe alone ) , particularly in the Mediterranean countries , to which a large number of Italian diaspora have emigrated . The Torinese side has fan clubs branches across the globe .
Demand for Juventus tickets in occasional home games held away from Turin is high ; suggesting that Juventus have stronger support in other parts of the country . Juve is widely and especially popular throughout mainland Southern Italy , Sicily and Malta , leading the team to have one of the largest followings in its away matches , more than in Turin itself .
= = Club rivalries = =
Juventus have significant rivalries with two clubs . Their traditional rivals are fellow Turin club Torino and matches between the two side are known as the Derby della Mole ( Turin Derby ) . The rivalry dates back to 1906 as Torino was founded by break @-@ away Juventus players and staff . Their most high @-@ profile rivalry is with Internazionale , another big Serie A club located in Milan , the capital of the neighbouring region of Lombardy . Matches between these two clubs are referred to as the Derby d 'Italia ( Derby of Italy ) and the two regularly challenge each other at the top of the league table , hence the intense rivalry . Until the Calciopoli scandal which saw Juventus forcibly relegated , the two were the only Italian clubs to have never played below Serie A. Notably the two sides are the first and the second most supported clubs in Italy and the rivalry has intensified since the later part of the 1990s ; reaching its highest levels ever post @-@ Calciopoli , with the return of Juventus to Serie A. They also have rivalries with Milan , Roma , Fiorentina , and Napoli .
= = Youth programme = =
The Juventus youth set @-@ up has been recognised as one of the best in Italy for producing young talents . While not all graduates made it to the first team , many have enjoyed successful careers in the Italian top flight . Under long @-@ time coach Vincenzo Chiarenza , the Primavera ( Under @-@ 20 ) squad enjoyed one of its successful periods , winning all age @-@ group competitions from 2004 to 2006 .
The youth system is also notable for its contribution to the Italian national senior and youth teams . 1934 World Cup winner Gianpiero Combi , 1936 Gold Medal and 1938 World Cup winner Pietro Rava , Giampiero Boniperti , Roberto Bettega , 1982 World Cup hero Paolo Rossi and more recently , Claudio Marchisio and Sebastian Giovinco are a number of former graduates who have gone on to make the first team and full Italy squad .
Like Dutch club Ajax and many Premier League clubs , Juventus operates several satellite clubs and football schools outside of the country ( i.e. United States , Canada , Greece , Saudi Arabia , Australia and Switzerland ) and numerous camps in the local region to expand talent scouting .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
As of 26 July 2016 .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Primavera = = =
= = = Management Staff = = =
See also List of Juventus F.C. managers
Source : Juventus.com ( archive link )
= = Presidential history = =
Juventus have had numerous presidents over the course of their history , some of which have been the owners of the club , others have been honorary presidents , here is a complete list of them :
= = Managerial history = =
Below is a list of Juventus managers from 1923 when the Agnelli family took over and the club became more structured and organised , until the present day .
= = Honours = =
Italy 's most successful club of the 20th century , and the most successful club in the history of Italian football , Juventus have won the Italian League Championship , the country 's premier football club competition and organised by Lega Nazionale Professionisti Serie A ( LNPA ) , a record 32 times and have the record of consecutive triumphs in that tournament ( five , between 1930 – 31 and 1934 – 35 as well as between 2011 – 12 and 2015 – 16 ) . They have also won the Coppa Italia , the country 's primary cup competition , a record eleven times , and becoming the first team to retain the trophy successfully with their triumph in the 1959 – 60 season . In addition , the club holds the record for Supercoppa Italiana wins with seven , the most recent coming in 2015 .
Overall , Juventus have won 61 official competitions , more than any other team in the country : 50 domestic trophies , which is also a record , and 11 official international competitions , making them , in the latter case , the second most successful Italian club in European competition . The club is fourth in Europe and eighth in the world with the most international titles won officially recognised by their respective association football confederation and Fédération Internationale de Football Association ( FIFA ) .
In 1977 , the Torinese side become the first in Southern Europe to have won the UEFA Cup and the first — and only to date — in Italian football history to achieve an international title with a squad composed by national footballers . In 1993 the club won its third competition 's trophy , an unprecedented feat in the continent until then and the most for an Italian club . Juventus was , also , the first Italian club to achieve the title in the European Super Cup , having won the competition in 1984 , and the first European club to win the Intercontinental Cup , in 1985 , since it was restructured by Union of European Football Associations ( UEFA ) and Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol ( CONMEBOL ) ' s organizing committee five years beforehand .
The club has earned the distinction of being allowed to wear three Golden Stars ( it . Stelle d 'oro ) on its shirts representing its league victories , the tenth of which was achieved during the 1957 – 58 season , the twentieth in the 1981 – 82 season and the thirtieth in the 2013 – 14 season . Juventus were the first Italian team to have achieved the national double thrice ( winning the Italian top tier division and the national cup competition in the same season ) , in the 1959 – 60 , 1994 – 95 and 2014 – 15 seasons . They achieved the double in the 2015 – 16 season as well .
The club is unique in the world in having won all official international competitions , and they have received , in recognition to winning the three major UEFA competitions — first case in the history of the European football — The UEFA Plaque by the Union of European Football Associations on 12 July 1988 .
The Torinese side was placed seventh — but the top Italian club — in the FIFA Club of the Century selection of 23 December 2000 .
Juventus have been proclaimed World 's Club Team of the Year twice ( 1993 and 1996 ) and was ranked in 3rd place — the highest ranking of any Italian club — in the All @-@ Time Club World Ranking ( 1991 – 2009 period ) by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics .
= = = Domestic = = =
= = = = League = = = =
Italian Football Championship / Serie A
Winners ( 32 ) – record : 1905 , 1925 – 26 , 1930 – 31 , 1931 – 32 , 1932 – 33 , 1933 – 34 , 1934 – 35 , 1949 – 50 , 1951 – 52 , 1957 – 58 , 1959 – 60 , 1960 – 61 , 1966 – 67 , 1971 – 72 , 1972 – 73 , 1974 – 75 , 1976 – 77 , 1977 – 78 , 1980 – 81 , 1981 – 82 , 1983 – 84 , 1985 – 86 , 1994 – 95 , 1996 – 97 , 1997 – 98 , 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03 , 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Serie B
Winners ( 1 ) : 2006 – 07
= = = = Cups = = = =
Coppa Italia
Winners ( 11 ) – record : 1937 – 38 , 1941 – 42 , 1958 – 59 , 1959 – 60 , 1964 – 65 , 1978 – 79 , 1982 – 83 , 1989 – 90 , 1994 – 95 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Supercoppa Italiana
Winners ( 7 ) – record : 1995 , 1997 , 2002 , 2003 , 2012 , 2013 , 2015
= = = European = = =
European Cup / UEFA Champions League
Winners ( 2 ) : 1984 – 85 , 1995 – 96
European Cup Winners ' Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1983 – 84
UEFA Cup
Winners ( 3 ) : 1976 – 77 , 1989 – 90 , 1992 – 93
UEFA Intertoto Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1999
European Super Cup / UEFA Super Cup
Winners ( 2 ) : 1984 , 1996
= = = Worldwide = = =
Intercontinental Cup
Winners ( 2 ) : 1985 , 1996
= = Club statistics and records = =
Alessandro Del Piero holds Juventus ' official appearance record of 705 appearances . He took over from Gaetano Scirea on 6 March 2008 against Palermo . He also holds the record for Serie A appearances with 478 .
Including all official competitions , Alessandro Del Piero is the all @-@ time leading goalscorer for Juventus , with 290 — since joining the club in 1993 . Giampiero Boniperti , who was the all @-@ time topscorer since 1961 comes in second in all competitions with 182 .
In the 1933 – 34 season , Felice Borel scored 31 goals in 34 appearances , setting the club record for Serie A goals in a single season . Ferenc Hirzer is the club 's highest scorer in a single season with 35 goals in 26 appearances in the 1925 – 26 season ( record of Italian football ) . The most goals scored by a player in a single match is 6 , which is also an Italian record . This was achieved by Omar Enrique Sivori in a game against Internazionale in the 1960 – 61 season .
The first ever official game participated in by Juventus was in the Third Federal Football Championship , the predecessor of Serie A , against Torinese ; Juve lost 0 – 1 . The biggest ever victory recorded by Juventus was 15 – 0 against Cento , in the second round of the Coppa Italia in the 1926 – 27 season . In terms of the league ; Fiorentina and Fiumana were famously on the end of the Juventus 's biggest championship wins , both were beaten 11 – 0 and were recorded in the 1928 – 29 season . Juventus ' heaviest championship defeats came during the 1911 – 12 and 1912 – 13 seasons ; they were against Milan in 1912 ( 1 – 8 ) and Torino in 1913 ( 0 – 8 ) .
The sale of Zinédine Zidane to Real Madrid of Spain from Juventus in 2001 , was the world football transfer record at the time , costing the Spanish club around € 75 million .
The intake of Gianluigi Buffon in 2001 from Parma cost Juventus € 45 million , making it the most expensive transfer for a goalkeeper of all @-@ time . On 20 March 2016 Gianluigi Buffon set a new Serie A record for the longest period without conceding a goal , 974 minutes , in the Derby della Mole during the 2015 – 16 season .
On 26 July 2016 , Juventus signing Gonzalo Higuaín became the third highest football transfer of all @-@ time and highest ever transfer for an Italian club , when he signed for € 90 million from Napoli .
= = Contribution to the Italian national team = =
Overall , Juventus are the club that has contributed the most players to the Italian national team in history , they are the only Italian club that has contributed players to every Italian national team since the 2nd FIFA World Cup . Juventus have contributed numerous players to Italy 's World Cup campaigns , these successful periods principally have coincided with two golden ages of the Turin club 's history , referred as Quinquennio d 'Oro ( The Golden Quinquennium ) , from 1931 until 1935 , and Ciclo Leggendario ( The Legendary Cycle ) , from 1972 to 1986 .
Below are a list of Juventus players who represented the Italian national team during World Cup winning tournaments ;
1934 FIFA World Cup ( 9 ) ; Gianpiero Combi , Virginio Rosetta , Luigi Bertolini , Felice Borel IIº , Umberto Caligaris , Giovanni Ferrari , Luis Monti , Raimundo Orsi , and Mario Varglien Iº
1938 FIFA World Cup ( 2 ) ; Alfredo Foni and Pietro Rava
1982 FIFA World Cup ( 6 ) ; Dino Zoff , Antonio Cabrini , Claudio Gentile , Paolo Rossi , Gaetano Scirea , and Marco Tardelli
2006 FIFA World Cup ( 5 ) ; Fabio Cannavaro , Gianluigi Buffon , Mauro Camoranesi , Alessandro Del Piero , and Gianluca Zambrotta
Two Juventus players have won the golden boot award at the World Cup with Italy ; Paolo Rossi in 1982 and Salvatore Schillaci in 1990 . As well as contributing to Italy 's World Cup winning sides , two Juventus players Alfredo Foni and Pietro Rava , represented Italy in the gold medal winning squad at the 1936 Summer Olympics . Three Juventus players represented their nation during the 1968 European Football Championship win for Italy ; Sandro Salvadore , Ernesto Càstano and Giancarlo Bercellino .
The Torinese club has also contributed to a lesser degree to the national sides of other nations . Zinédine Zidane and captain Didier Deschamps were Juventus players when they won the 1998 World Cup with France , making it as the association football club which supplied the most FIFA World Cup winners globally ( 24 ) ( three other players in the 1998 squad , Patrick Vieira , David Trezeguet and Lilian Thuram have all played for Juventus at one time or another ) . Three Juventus players have also won the European Football Championship with a nation other than Italy , Luis del Sol won it in 1964 with Spain , while the Frenchmen Michel Platini and Zidane won the competition in 1984 and 2000 respectively .
= = Financial information = =
Since 27 June 1967 , Juventus Football Club has been a joint @-@ stock company ( it. società per azioni ) and since 3 December 2001 the torinese side is listed on the Borsa Italiana . At 31 December 2015 , the Juventus ' shares are distributed between 63 @.@ 8 % to EXOR S.p.A , the Agnelli family 's holding ( a company of the Giovanni Agnelli & C.S.a.p.a Group ) , 5 @.@ 0 % to Lindsell Train Ltd. and 31 @.@ 2 % to other shareholders . ( < 2 @.@ 0 % ) As report at 5 July 2016 , Lindsell Train Ltd. increased its holding to 10 % and Exor S.P.A decreased to 60 @.@ 0 % . Since 2012 , Jeep became the new sponsor of Juventus , a car brand acquired by FIAT after the 2000s Global Financial Crisis .
Along with Lazio and Roma , Juventus is one of only three Italian clubs quoted on Borsa Italiana ( Italian stock exchange ) . Juventus was also the only association football club in the country member of STAR ( Segment of Stocks conforming to High Requirements , it . Segmento Titoli con Alti Requisiti ) , one of the main market segment in the world . However , due to 2011 financial results , Juventus had to move from the STAR segment to MTA market .
The club 's training ground was owned by Campi di Vinovo S.p.A , controlled by Juventus Football Club S.p.A. to 71 @.@ 3 % . In 2003 the club bought the lands from the subsidiary and later the company was dissolved . Since then , Juventus FC did not had any subsidiary .
From 1 July 2008 , the club has implemented a safety management system for employees and athletes in compliance with the requirements of international OHSAS 18001 : 2007 regulation and a Safety Management System in the medical sector according to the international ISO 9001 : 2000 resolution .
The club is one of the founders of the European Club Association ( ECA ) , which was formed after the dissolution of the G @-@ 14 , an international group of Europe 's most elite clubs of which Juventus were also a founding member .
According to the Deloitte Football Money League , a research published by consultants Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu on 17 January 2014 , Juventus are the ninth @-@ highest earning football club in the world with an estimated revenue of € 272 @.@ 4 million , the most for an Italian club . The club is also ranked ninth on Forbes ' list of the most valuable football clubs in the world with an estimate value of US $ 850 million ( € 654 million ) , making them the second richest association football club in Italy . The club was located in 2012 in top 50 sporting teams at worldwide level in terms of value .
Juventus re @-@ capitalized on 28 June 2007 , increased € 104 @,@ 807 @,@ 731 @.@ 60 shares capital . The team made an aggregate net loss in the following seasons ( 2006 to date ) : – € 927 @,@ 569 ( 2006 – 07 ) , – € 20 @,@ 787 @,@ 469 ( 2007 – 08 ) , net income € 6 @,@ 582 @,@ 489 ( 2008 – 09 ) and net loss € 10 @,@ 967 @,@ 944 ( 2009 – 10 ) . After an unaudited € 43 @,@ 411 @,@ 481 net loss was recorded in the first nine months of 2010 – 11 season , the BoD announced that a capital increase of € 120 million was planned , scheduled to submit to the extraordinary shareholder 's meeting in October . Eventually , the 2010 – 11 season net loss was € 95 @,@ 414 @,@ 019 . In the 2012 – 13 season Juventus continued to recover from recent seasons ' net losses thanks to the biggest payment in Uefa 's Champions League 2012 – 13 revenue distribution , earning € 65 @.@ 3 million . Despite being knocked out in the quarterfinal stage , Juventus took the lion 's share thanks to the largesse of the Italian national TV market and the division of revenues with the only other Italian team attended at the competition 's final phase , AC Milan . Confirming the trend of marked improvement in net result , the 2013 – 14 financial year closed with a loss of € 6 @.@ 7 million but with the first positive operating income since 2006 . In the 2014 – 15 season , by the excellent sports results achieved ( the fourth year in a row of Serie A titles , the tenth Coppa Italia title , and playing the Champions League Final ) , net income reached at € 2 @.@ 3 million . Compared to the loss of € 6 @.@ 7 million last year , 2014 – 15 shows a positive change of € 9 million and returns to a profit after six years since 2008 – 09 .
= = = Shirt sponsors and manufacturers = = =
= Apollo , Apollo =
" Apollo , Apollo " is the sixteenth episode of the third season of American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 52nd episode of the series overall . It was written by executive producer Robert Carlock and directed by Millicent Shelton . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on March 26 , 2009 . Guest stars in this episode include Adam West and Dean Winters .
The episode is set on the fiftieth birthday of Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , and much of the plot revolves around his concerns with his age and desire to reclaim the happiness of his childhood . At the same time , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is forced to deal with her ex @-@ boyfriend Dennis Duffy ( Winters ) and his self @-@ diagnosis as a sex addict as well as the fact that Dennis slept with her close friend Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) . A final plotline in the episode involves the desire of Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) to travel in space , and the efforts by Liz and Jack to deceive him into thinking he has done so .
" Apollo , Apollo " was generally well received by television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 7 @.@ 2 million households during its original broadcast . " Apollo , Apollo " was nominated for four Primetime Emmy Awards and won for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series . Robert Carlock won the Writers Guild of America Award for Episodic Comedy for his work on this episode .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with an announcement by Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) on television that he plans to travel to outer space , and is willing to pay up to thirty million dollars to do so . Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) agrees to help Tracy with his dream of traveling in space , promising to call his friends at NASA . Instead of doing this , however , he asks The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) to create a fake space experience for Tracy . Pete and the TGS crew construct a model space shuttle and place Tracy in it after disorienting him by flying him in a helicopter blindfolded . The deception is a success , and Tracy believes that he is , in fact , flying in space .
At the same time , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is visited by her ex @-@ boyfriend , Dennis Duffy ( Dean Winters ) , who informs her that he is a sex addict , now atoning for his past errors . Liz is unimpressed and asks Dennis to leave , before going to work . Later , after arriving at work , Liz answers Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) cellphone , and is surprised to find that Dennis is calling Jenna . Liz pretends to be Jenna and discovers that Jenna and Dennis slept together . Liz is determined not to let this revelation affect her friendship with Jenna , so the two go to confront Dennis about his behavior . During the confrontation , Liz discovers that Jenna and Dennis actually slept together in her bed , leading her to resent Jenna 's actions . As a result , she fails to tell Jenna about an improperly attached piece of equipment , leading Jenna to injure her leg .
Meanwhile , Jack 's fiftieth birthday is approaching and he has received home movies of some of his earlier birthdays from his mother , Collen Donaghy ( Elaine Stritch ) . While watching the tapes , Jack discovers just how happy he was when he was younger , and is determined to reclaim that happiness and innocence . After examining a list he made while he was younger , he discovers that he has done all of the things but one , befriending Batman . Thus , he arranges for actor Adam West , who played Batman , to come to his birthday party . At the party , however , West calls Jack by the wrong name , leading him to realize that he is in fact unhappy , despite his accomplishments . In an effort to reclaim his happiness , Jack attempts to find the same toy that made him so happy on his tenth birthday , a model of an Apollo Lunar Module . He buys one from a vintage toy store , but still remains unhappy .
Later , Liz apologizes to Jenna for allowing her to be injured , and agrees to let Jenna tell the TGS writing staff about her role in an advertisement for a phone sex line . The writers find the ad online , and greatly enjoy watching it . Jack comes in while the writers are watching and laughs so hard that he vomits . The laughter lifts Jack out of his bad mood , and he tells Liz what an important friend she is .
= = Production = =
" Apollo , Apollo " was written by executive producer Robert Carlock , making it his eleventh writing credit after " Jack the Writer " , " Jack @-@ Tor " , " The Source Awards " , " Cleveland " , " Jack Gets in the Game " , Episode 210 , " Subway Hero " , " Sandwich Day " , " Believe in the Stars " , and " Generalissimo " . This was Millicent Shelton 's first 30 Rock directed episode , and would later return to helm the fourth season episode " Floyd " . Shelton had spent two years in negotiations with the show 's producers before she was hired to direct this episode . " Apollo , Apollo " originally aired in the United States on March 26 , 2009 , on NBC as the sixteenth episode of the show 's third season and the 52nd overall episode of the series .
In this episode of 30 Rock , actor Dean Winters reprised his role as Dennis Duffy , a former boyfriend of Liz Lemon , for the sixth time , having appeared in " Jack Meets Dennis " , " Tracy Does Conan " , " The Break @-@ Up " , " Subway Hero " , and " Cooter " . Actor Adam West played himself on the show , in which he introduces Jack Donaghy by the wrong name at Jack 's fiftieth birthday party . Liz 's phone sex line commercial , the full @-@ length version , is featured on 30 Rock 's season three DVD as part of the Bonus features .
In a scene in " Apollo , Apollo " , Jack wonders what it would be like to see the world through NBC page Kenneth Parcell 's ( Jack McBrayer ) eyes , revealing that Kenneth sees everyone as Muppets . To accommodate this , Sesame Street puppeteers Joey Mazzarino , Carmen Osbahr , and Matt Vogel were brought in to do the muppet versions of Jack , Liz , and Tracy Jordan . This angle would later be used again in the show 's fourth season episode " Dealbreakers Talk Show " in which Kenneth appears as a muppet while walking by a high @-@ definition camera . In addition , the program was parodied by Sesame Street , in the show 's 39th season , entitled " 30 Rocks " .
Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode in 2006 where Tracy is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger , and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four recent Halloweens , and while trying to get out of jury duty in Chicago . Star Wars is also referenced when Tracy takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca . In " Apollo , Apollo " , Tracy reveals to Liz and Jack that going into space has been a childhood dream of his , and that when he is there , he would like to kill the Ewok . Tina Fey , the series creator of 30 Rock , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to Carlock , whom she described as " the resident expert " .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , an average of 7 @.@ 2 million viewers watched " Apollo , Apollo " during its original United States broadcast , placing it in third place for its timeslot . The show also claimed a 3 @.@ 4 rating / 8 share among viewers aged 18 to 49 , meaning that 3 @.@ 4 percent of all people in that group , and 8 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was an increase from the previous episode , " The Bubble " , which was watched by 7 million American viewers .
" Apollo , Apollo " was generally , though not universally , well received among critics . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that the episode was " easily the best 30 Rock of the season , and one of the series ' best episodes to date " . He complimented Robert Carlock for " [ zooming ] in on the narcissistic worldview " of the Dennis character as it " cranked those qualities up to appropriately absurd 30 Rock proportions . " In addition , Sepinwall wrote that all of the elements featured in the episode " all came together " . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad was similarly laudatory , writing that it was " one of the most explosively hysterical and imaginative half hours of TV this season , and one of this show 's best episodes ever " . Time contributor James Poniewozik was favorable to the episode , observing that it was " [ e ] asily the funniest 30 Rock in months , and probably the whole season . " Poniewozik said it " nailed it , from the too @-@ many @-@ good @-@ jokes ... to the sweet heart at the center of each character . " The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin enjoyed Adam West 's cameo , but noted that Tracy 's plot " felt awfully shticky and sitcommy to me . " He opined that " Apollo , Apollo " was " pretty great " for Jane Krakowski 's Jenna , and in conclusion , Rabin said " I had initially pegged this episode as good but not great and essentially minor in the grand scheme of things but while writing this post I came to realize just how much of it I loved . 30 Rock is pretty great even when it 's not that great . " Rick Porter , a contributor for Zap2it , said he " loved " the episode , writing that it made " perfect sense " for Kenneth to see everyone around him as muppets , and noted that Liz 's commercial was a " strong ending " to the episode .
Margaret Lyons of Entertainment Weekly agreed that the episode was " another solid 30 Rock " , but was somewhat less positive , writing that it " didn 't quite slay me like the last few episodes have . " In addition , Lyons was not thrilled with the Jenna character , reporting " It 's been a long time since we 've seen Jenna do something redemptive – and I 'd settle for anything not strenuously vacant and narcissistic . I get that that 's her bit , but ... that note is starting to drive me crazy . " IGN contributor Robert Canning also delivered a mixed review of the episode , writing that he laughed " quite a bit " but said it ultimately " felt like it could have been so much more . " Canning also concluded his review by stating that it " fell shy of being an absolute classic . " Writing for The Palm Beach Post Kevin D. Thompson said " While last night 's episode was far from unwatchable , it wasn 't one of the show 's best , either . But as I 've written before , a so @-@ so 30 Rock is still better than 99 percent of TV 's other so @-@ called comedies . " Thompson noted that he was not thrilled with the return of Dean Winters as Dennis , and called his plot with Liz and Jenna " the show 's least interesting plot " .
= = = Accolades = = =
" Apollo , Apollo " received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations , winning one ; Millicent Shelton received a nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series , Robert Carlock received a nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , Matthew Clark received a nomination for Outstanding Cinematography for a Half @-@ Hour Series nomination , and Ken Eluto won for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards .
At the February 2010 ceremony for the Writers Guild of America Awards , Carlock won for Episodic Comedy , tieing with Modern Family 's Steven Levitan and Christopher Lloyd for their work on the pilot episode . Eluto garnered the American Cinema Editors " Eddie " Award for Best Edited Half @-@ Hour Series for Television . In addition , " Apollo , Apollo " was nominated for the ADG Excellence in Production Design Award for Half Hour Single @-@ Camera Television Series .
= Edward Coke =
Sir Edward Coke SL PC ( / ˈkʊk / ( " cook " ) , formerly / ˈkuːk / ; 1 February 1552 – 3 September 1634 ) was an English barrister , judge and , later , opposition politician , who is considered to be the greatest jurist of the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras . Born into a middle @-@ class family , Coke was educated at Trinity College , Cambridge , before leaving to study at the Inner Temple , where he was called to the Bar on 20 April 1578 . As a barrister he took part in several notable cases , including Slade 's Case , before earning enough political favour to be elected to Parliament , where he served first as Solicitor General and then as Speaker of the House of Commons . Following a promotion to Attorney General he led the prosecution in several notable cases , including those against Robert Devereux , Sir Walter Raleigh , and the Gunpowder Plot conspirators . As a reward for his services he was first knighted and then made Chief Justice of the Common Pleas .
As Chief Justice , Coke restricted the use of the ex officio ( Star Chamber ) oath and , in the Case of Proclamations and Dr. Bonham 's Case , declared the King to be subject to the law , and the laws of Parliament to be void if in violation of " common right and reason " . These actions eventually led to his transfer to the Chief Justiceship of the King 's Bench , where it was felt he could do less damage . Coke then successively restricted the definition of treason and declared a royal letter illegal , leading to his dismissal from the bench on 14 November 1616 . With no chance of regaining his judicial posts , he instead returned to Parliament , where he swiftly became a leading member of the opposition . During his time as a Member of Parliament he wrote and campaigned for the Statute of Monopolies , which substantially restricted the ability of the monarch to grant patents , and authored and was instrumental in the passage of the Petition of Right , a document considered one of the three crucial constitutional documents of England , along with the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689 .
Coke is best known in modern times for his Institutes , described by John Rutledge as " almost the foundations of our law " , and his Reports , which have been called " perhaps the single most influential series of named reports " . Historically , he was a highly influential judge ; within England and Wales , his statements and works were used to justify the right to silence , while the Statute of Monopolies is considered to be one of the first actions in the conflict between Parliament and monarch that led to the English Civil War . In America , Coke 's decision in Dr. Bonham 's Case was used to justify the voiding of both the Stamp Act 1765 and writs of assistance , which led to the American War of Independence ; after the establishment of the United States his decisions and writings profoundly influenced the Third and Fourth amendments to the United States Constitution while necessitating the Sixteenth .
= = Family background and early life = =
The surname " Coke " , or " Cocke " , can be traced back to a William Coke in the hundred of South Greenhoe , now the Norfolk town of Swaffham , in around 1150 . The family was relatively prosperous and influential – members from the 14th century onwards included an Under @-@ Sheriff , a Knight Banneret , a barrister and a merchant . The name " Coke " was pronounced / ˈkuːk / during the Elizabethan age , although it is now pronounced / ˈkʊk / . The origins of the name are uncertain ; theories are that it was a word for " river " among early Britons , or was descended from the word " Coc " , or leader . Another hypothesis is that it was an attempt to disguise the word " cook " .
Coke 's father , Robert Coke , was a barrister and Bencher of Lincoln 's Inn who built up a strong practice representing clients from his home area of Norfolk . Over time , he bought several manors at Congham , Westacre and Happisburgh and was granted a coat of arms , becoming a minor member of the gentry . Coke 's mother , Winifred Knightley , came from a family even more intimately linked with the law than her husband . Her father and grandfather had practised law in the Norfolk area , and her sister Audrey was married to Thomas Gawdy , a lawyer and Justice of the Court of King 's Bench with links to the Earl of Arundel . This connection later served Edward well . Winifred 's father later married Agnes , the sister of Nicholas Hare .
Edward Coke was born on 1 February 1552 in Mileham , one of eight children . The other seven were daughters – Winifred , Dorothy , Elizabeth , Ursula , Anna , Margaret and Ethelreda – although it is not known in which order the children were born . Two years after Robert Coke died on 15 November 1561 , his widow married Robert Bozoun , a property trader noted for his piety and strong business acumen ( once forcing Nicholas Bacon to pay an exorbitant amount of money for a piece of property ) . He had a tremendous influence on the Coke children : from Bozoun Coke learnt to " loathe concealers , prefer godly men and briskly do business with any willing client " , something that shaped his future conduct as a lawyer , politician , and judge .
= = Education and call to the Bar = =
At the age of eight in 1560 , Coke began studying at the Norwich Free Grammar School . The education there was based on erudition , the eventual goal being that by the age of 18 the students would have learned " to vary one sentence diversely , to make a verse exactly , to endight an epistle eloquently and learnedly , to declaim of a theme simple , and last of all to attain some competent knowledge of the Greek tongue " . The students were taught rhetoric based on the Rhetorica ad Herennium , and Greek centred on the works of Homer and Virgil . Coke was taught at Norwich to value the " forcefulness of freedom of speech " , something he later applied as a judge . Some accounts relate that he was a diligent student who applied himself well .
After leaving Norwich in 1567 he matriculated to Trinity College , Cambridge , where he studied for three years until the end of 1570 , when he left without gaining a degree . Little is known of his time at Trinity , though he certainly studied rhetoric and dialectics under a program instituted in 1559 . His biographers felt he had all the intelligence to be a good student , though a record of his academic achievements has not been found . Coke was proud of Cambridge and the time he spent there , later saying in Dr. Bonham 's Case that Cambridge and Oxford were " the eyes and soul of the realm , from whence religion , the humanities , and learning were richly diffused into all parts of the realm . "
After leaving Trinity College he travelled to London , where he became a member of Clifford 's Inn in 1571 . This was to learn the basics of the law – the Inns of Chancery , including Clifford 's Inn , provided initial legal education before transfer to the Inns of Court , where one could be called to the Bar and practise as a barrister . Students were educated through arguments and debates — they would be given precedents and writs each day , discuss them at the dinner table and then argue a moot court based on those precedents and their discussions . Coke also studied various writs " till they turned honey sweet on his tongue " , and after completing this stage of his legal education transferred to the Inner Temple on 24 April 1572 .
At the Inner Temple he began the second stage of his education , reading legal texts such as Glanville 's Treatises and taking part in moots . He took little interest in the theatrical performances or other cultural events at the Inns , preferring to spend his time at the law courts in Westminster Hall , listening to the Serjeants argue . After six years at the Inner Temple he was called to the Bar on 20 April 1578 , a remarkably fast rate of progress given the process of legal education at the time , which normally required eight years of study . Polson , a biographer of Coke , suggests that this was due to his knowledge of the law , which " excited the Benchers " .
= = Practice as a barrister = =
After being called to the Bar on 20 April 1578 Coke immediately began practising as a barrister . His first case was in the Court of King 's Bench in 1581 , and was known as Lord Cromwell 's Case after the claimant , Lord Henry Cromwell , a landlord in Coke 's home county of Norfolk . The case was a charge of slander against a Mr Denny , the Vicar of Northlinham and Coke 's client . In a dispute with Denny , Cromwell had hired two unlicensed preachers to harass him , denounce the Book of Common Prayer and preach the gospel in his area . Denny retorted by telling Cromwell " you like not of me , since you like those that maintain sedition " . Cromwell argued that Denny was guilty of scandalum magnatum , slander against a peer of the realm , because his statement implied that Cromwell himself was seditious or had seditious tendencies .
The case was actually two actions , with the first judgement being given in Denny 's favour after Coke 's research found a flaw in the pleadings that invalidated Cromwell 's case . His counsel had worked from an inaccurate English copy of the Latin statute of scandalum magnatum which had mistranslated several passages , forcing them to start the case anew . After the case was restarted , Coke argued that Denny had commented on Cromwell 's support of people attacking the Book of Common Prayer , and was not implying any deeper disloyalty . The judge ruled that Denny 's statement had indeed meant this , and from this position of strength Coke forced a settlement . Coke was very proud of his actions in this case and later described it in his Reports as " an excellent point of learning in actions of slander " . The next year he was elected Reader of Lyon 's Inn for three years , something surprising considering his young age and likely related to his conduct in Lord Cromwell 's Case . As Reader he was tasked with reading to the students at the Inn , a group that numbered about thirty at any one time , and the quality of his readings increased his reputation even further . His lectures were on the Statute of Uses , and his reputation was such that when he retired to his house after an outbreak of the plague , " nine Benchers , forty barristers , and others of the Inn accompanied him a considerable distance on his journey " in order to talk to him .
During the 1580s , Coke became intimately linked with the Howard family , the Dukes of Norfolk and Earls of Arundel . His uncle Thomas Gawdy had close links to Earl Arundel himself . In Norfolk Arundel held a liberty – he was essentially a local prince who appointed all officials , maintained his own prison , executed justice and bribed any royal clerks . His power base was his household , particularly the network of lawyers and stewards who held his estates together . Coke 's uncle Thomas Gawdy had served as Steward to the Third Duke of Norfolk , and during the 1580s Coke was employed by the Howards to counter lawyers employed by the Crown , who argued that the Howards ' lands were forfeit owing to the treason of the 4th Duke . As well as defeating these direct attacks Coke traveled to Cardiff to answer a challenge by Francis Dacre , son of William Dacre , 3rd Baron Dacre and uncle @-@ in @-@ law to the 4th Duke 's three sons , Philip Howard and his two half @-@ brothers , Thomas Howard , 1st Earl of Suffolk and Lord William Howard – he proved that Dacre 's evidence was false and had the case dismissed .
Coke became involved in the now classic Shelley 's Case in 1581 , which created a rule in real property that is still used in some common law jurisdictions today ; the case also established Coke 's reputation as an attorney and case reporter . His next famous case was Chudleigh 's Case , a dispute over the interpretation of the Statute of Uses , followed by Slade 's Case , a dispute between the Common Pleas and King 's Bench over assumpsit now regarded as a classic example of the friction between the two courts and the forward movement of contract law ; Coke 's argument in Slade 's Case formed the first definition of consideration .
= = Politics = =
Thanks to his work in their behalf , Coke had earned the favour of the Dukes of Norfolk . When he secured the Lordship of Aldeburgh for them in 1588 he also obtained the Aldeburgh Parliamentary Constituency , which elected two Members of Parliament ( MPs ) . With their support , Coke was returned for Aldeburgh as an MP in February 1589 .
= = = Elizabeth I = = =
= = = = Solicitor General and Speaker = = = =
The political " old guard " began to change around the time Coke became a Member of Parliament . The Earl of Leicester died in 1588 , followed by Sir Walter Mildmay , the Chancellor of the Exchequer , a year later , and Sir Francis Walshingham a year after that . In 1592 the Lord Chief Justice died and , according to custom the Attorney General , John Popham , succeeded him , with the Solicitor General , Thomas Egerton , succeeding Popham . This created a vacancy among the Law Officers of the Crown , and thanks to the influence of the Cecil family , Coke became Solicitor General on 16 June 1592 . This was likely a narrow victory owing to Coke 's defence of unpopular clients ; he was summoned before Elizabeth I , who berated him until he cried before confirming him as Solicitor General .
Coke held the position only briefly ; by the time he returned from a tour of Norfolk to discuss election strategy , he had been confirmed as Speaker of the House of Commons by the Privy Council , having been proposed by Francis Knollys and Thomas Heneage following his return to Parliament as MP for Norfolk . Coke held the positions of Speaker and Solicitor @-@ General at the same time , although he did not take up his post as Speaker until the state opening of Parliament on 19 February 1593 ( despite being confirmed on 28 January 1593 ) . After " disabling " himself in the House of Lords ( a ceremony in which the incoming Speaker apologised for his failings ) Parliament was suspended until 24 February ; Coke returned two days later , having suffered from a stomach problem . The Parliament was intended to be a brief and simple one ; with the Black Death resurgent throughout England and the threat of Spain on the horizon , the only matter was to impose certain taxes to fund the Queen 's campaign against the Spanish , with no bills to be introduced . The taxes were paramount ; subsidies collected in 1589 had been spent , and the war continued .
The idea of a calm , swift Parliament foundered on the rocks of religious conflict . On 27 February James Morice , a Puritan Member of Parliament , proposed two new bills : one against the bishops of the Church of England , and the other against the Court of High Commission . Morice was placed under house arrest , and seven Members of Parliament were later arrested , but the bills remained in Parliament . They were defended by Francis Knollys , one of the few remaining Puritan Members of Parliament , while other Puritans spat and coughed to drown out speeches by opponents . Coke and Cecil , the government 's two strongest defenders in Parliament , made several efforts to put off or end the debate over the bills . Cecil first pointed out that the Queen had forbidden bills on religion ; Parliament ignored him , and the bill went ahead . Coke , as Speaker of the House of Commons ( whose job was to schedule any bills ) , conducted a delaying campaign , first suggesting that the bill was too long to be read in the morning and then that it be delegated to a committee ; both suggestions were voted down by the Commons . Coke continued talking until the end of the Parliamentary day in a filibuster action , granting a day of delay for the government . Immediately afterwards , Coke was summoned by the Queen , who made it clear that any action on the bills would be considered evidence of disloyalty . The warning was accepted by the Commons , and no more action was taken on the two Puritan bills .
= = = = Attorney General = = = =
On 10 April 1594 , Coke was made Attorney General for England and Wales thanks to his partnership with the Cecil family . Francis Bacon , his rival , was supported by Robert Devereux , who waged a constant war against Robert Cecil for control of the English government . The position of Master of the Rolls had become vacant in April 1593 , and Coke was expected to be appointed according to convention ; Bacon , therefore , would become Attorney General . Coke reacted by becoming even more dogmatic in his actions on behalf of the Crown , and when Devereux approached the queen on Bacon 's behalf , she replied that even Bacon 's uncle [ Lord Burghley ] considered him the second best candidate , after Coke . The Attorney General was the main prosecutor of the Crown , expected to bring all charges on its behalf and serve as its legal advisor in any situation . Coke was appointed in a time of particular difficulty ; besides famine and the conflict with Spain , war had recently broken out in Ireland .
Coke primarily dealt with matters of treason , such as the cases of Sir John Smythe and Edward Squire . He also handled religious incidents such as the disputes between the Jesuits and the Church of England , personally interrogating John Gerard after his capture . As the 1590s continued , the infighting between Cecil and Devereux persisted , with Devereux 's raid on Cadiz earning him national fame . In March 1599 Devereux was sent to defeat the growing rebellion in Ireland and was given command of 18 @,@ 000 men , but by November his army was reduced to 4 @,@ 000 , the rest " frittered away " in exchange for " [ conquering ] nothing " . On 5 June 1600 he faced a panel of Privy Councillors , judges and members of the nobility at York House , where he was charged with appointing generals without the Queen 's permission , ignoring orders and negotiating " very basely " with the leader of the rebel forces . While the members of the nobility wished to be gentle with Devereux , the lawyers and judges felt differently , recommending fines and confinement in the Tower of London . In the end a compromise was reached , with Devereux put under house arrest and dismissed from all his government offices .
Devereux immediately began plotting rebellion . Orders were sent out for " bedding " and " draperies " – codenames for weapons – and rebellious gentlemen gathered at Essex House to hear him talk of Elizabeth 's " crooked mind and crooked carcass " . In response , Coke and Cecil began a counter @-@ plot . In 1599 Sir John Hayward had written and published The First Part of the Life and Raigne of King Henrie IV , dedicating it to Devereux . Elizabeth , furious , had banned the book , suggesting that it was a " seditious prelude " intended to show her as a corrupt and poor monarch . Against the backdrop of Devereux 's plot , Coke and Cecil started a new investigation into the book , hoping to prove some involvement of Devereux in the publishing . Coke interviewed Hayward 's licensing cleric , Samuel Harsnett , who complained that the dedication had been " foisted " on him by Devereux . In reaction , Coke decided to bring charges of treason against Devereux , saying that he had " plotted and practised with the Pope and king of Spain for the deposing and selling of himself as well as the crown of England ... His permitting underhand that treasonable book of Henry IV to be printed and published ; it being plainly deciphered , not only by the matter , and by the epistle itself , for what end and for whose behalf it was made , but also the Earl himself being present so often at the playing thereof , and with great applause giving countenance to it " .
The charges were never brought because of an incident that soon transpired . On 8 February 1601 Devereux ordered his followers to meet at Essex House . A day later a group of emissaries led by Thomas Egerton and John Popham were sent to Devereux , and immediately taken hostage . After a failed attempt to garner support from the population of London , Devereux found himself surrounded in Essex House ; after burning his personal papers , he surrendered . On 19 February he was tried for treason , along with the Earl of Southampton . Coke led the case for the government , and Devereux was found guilty and executed ; the Earl of Southampton was reprieved .
= = = James I = = =
On 24 March 1603 , Elizabeth I died . James VI of Scotland set out to claim the English throne , taking the title James I , and the Cokes immediately began ingratiating themselves with the new monarch and his family . Elizabeth Hatton , Coke 's wife , travelled to Scotland to meet Anne of Denmark , the incoming Queen , and " the high @-@ tempered beauty somehow pleased that withdrawn , strong @-@ willed woman ... for as long as Anna lived ... Lady Hatton and her husband would retain the queen 's affection and trust " . Coke attended divine service with the new king on 22 May , who , following the service , took a sword from his bodyguard and knighted Coke . Coke was reconfirmed as Attorney General under James , and immediately found himself dealing with " a series of treasons , whether real or imaginary " . The first of these was the trial of Sir Walter Raleigh ; according to Cuthbert William Johnson , one of Coke 's biographers , " There is , perhaps , no reported case in which the proofs against the prisoner were weaker than in this trial ... never was an accused person condemned on slighter grounds " .
Raleigh was brought to trial on 17 November 1603 , on charges of " conspiring to deprive the King of his Government ; to alter religion ; to bring in the Roman superstition ; and to procure foreign enemies to invade the kingdom " . The government alleged that on 11 June 1603 , Raleigh had met with Lord Cobham , and they had agreed to bring Lady Arbella Stuart ( a great great granddaughter of Henry VII ) to the English throne , and to accept 600 @,@ 000 marks from the Spanish government . As such , Raleigh was charged with supporting Stuart 's claim to the throne and claiming Spanish money . He pleaded not guilty , with Coke 's only evidence being a confession from Cobham , who was described as " a weak and unprincipled creature ... who said one thing at one time , and another thing in another , and could be relied upon in nothing " . This case was " no case at all ... It supports the general charges in the indictment only by the vaguest possible reference to ' these practices , ' and ' plots and invasions ' of which no more is said " .
Coke 's behaviour during the trial has been repeatedly criticised ; on this weak evidence , he called Raleigh a " notorious traitor " , " vile viper " and " damnable atheist " , perverting the law and using every slip of the tongue as a way of further showing Raleigh 's guilt . Raleigh was found guilty and imprisoned in the Tower of London for more than a decade before finally being executed . It is generally concluded that the trial was biased strongly against Raleigh , although the assessment of Coke varies . While Magruder , in the Scottish Law Review , writes that Coke 's " fair fame was tarnished and outraged " by his part in the trial , Boyer notes that Coke was , above all , loyal . He prosecuted Raleigh in that fashion because he had been asked to show Raleigh 's guilt by the king , and as Attorney General , Coke was bound to obey .
The next significant government prosecution was the trial of the eight main Gunpowder Plot conspirators in Westminster Hall . The men were indicted on 27 January 1605 and tried by the Lords Commissioners . Coke conducted the prosecution for the government – an easy one , since the conspirators had no legal representation – and through his speeches , " blacken [ ed ] them in the eyes of the world " . The conspirators were all sentenced to death and died through various means . Due to his judicial appointment , this was the last important prosecution Coke participated in .
= = Judicial work = =
Coke 's first judicial postings came under Elizabeth ; in 1585 , he was made Recorder of Coventry , in 1587 Norwich , and in 1592 Recorder of London , a position he resigned upon his appointment as Solicitor General .
= = = Common Pleas = = =
On 20 June 1606 , Coke was made a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law , a requirement for his elevation to Chief Justice of the Common Pleas , which occurred on 30 June . His conduct was noted by Johnson as " from the first , excellent ; ever perfectly upright and fearlessly independent " , although the convention of the day was that the judges held their positions only at the pleasure of the monarch . A biographer of Francis Bacon noted that " [ t ] he most offensive of Attorney Generals [ sic ] transformed into the most admired and venerated of Judges " . Some assert that Coke became Chief Justice due to his prosecutions of Raleigh and the Gunpowder Plot conspirators , but there is no evidence to support this ; instead , it was traditional at the time
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nuts because they cannot remember where they buried them . Silvertail is the most forgetful of squirrels in the wood , and , while trying to find his nuts , digs up another squirrel 's hoard . A commotion erupts among the nutting squirrels , and , as ill luck would have it , a flock of birds fly by singing " Who 's bin [ sic ] digging @-@ up my nuts ? " and " Little bit @-@ a @-@ bread and @-@ no @-@ cheese ! " One bird finds a perch in the bush where Timmy is working and continues to sing about digging up nuts . The other squirrels take notice , suspect Timmy of robbing others of their hoards , rush upon him , scratch and cuff him , chase him up a tree , and stuff him with great difficulty through the woodpecker 's hole . Silvertail suggests they leave him there until he confesses .
Timmy lays " stunned and still " on the peck of nuts he has stored in the hollow tree while Goody searches fruitlessly for him . Eventually , Timmy stirs and discovers himself in a mossy little bed surrounded by ample provisions . Chippy Hackee , a small striped chipmunk , tends him with kindness , mentioning that it has been raining nuts through the top of tree and he has also " found a few buried " . The chipmunk coaxes Timmy to eat the nuts and Timmy grows " fatter and fatter ! "
Goody is very concerned about her husband 's disappearance , but has gone back to work collecting nuts and hiding them under a tree root . Mrs. Hackee , Chippy 's wife , emerges from beneath the root to demand an explanation regarding the shower of nuts into her home . Eventually , the two ladies complain about their runaway husbands , but the chipmunk knows where her husband is camping @-@ out because a little bird has told her . Together , they hurry to the woodpecker 's hole and hear their husbands deep within the tree singing :
" My little old man and I fell out ,
How shall we bring this matter about ?
Bring it about as well as you can ,
And get you gone , you little old man ! "
Mrs. Hackee refuses to enter the tree because her husband bites , but Goody calls to her husband and he comes to the hole with a kiss for her . He is too fat to squeeze through the hole , but Chippy Hackee ( who is not too fat ) refuses to leave and remains below chuckling . A fortnight later , a big wind blows off the top of the tree , and Timmy makes his escape . He hurries home through the rain , huddling under an umbrella with his wife .
Chippy Hackee continues to camp @-@ out in the tree stump for another week , but a bear comes lumbering through the neighbourhood ( looking for nuts perhaps ? ) and Chippy decides it 's time to hurry home . He suffers a cold in his head and is quite uncomfortable . Timmy now keeps the family nuts " fastened up with a little padlock " , and Goody is seen in the accompanying illustration sitting outside the nest tending three tiny babies . " And whenever that little bird sees the Chipmunks , he sings – ' Who 's @-@ been @-@ digging @-@ up my @-@ nuts ? Who 's been digging @-@ up my @-@ nuts ? ' But nobody ever answers ! " Chippy Hackee and his wife are seen in the last illustration trying to drive the little bird away with their tree @-@ leaf umbrella .
Potter 's idea to make the squirrel grow so fat he cannot escape the tree was imitated by A. A. Milne in Winnie the Pooh .
= = Illustrations = =
Anne Stevenson Hobbs in Beatrix Potter 's Art ( 1989 ) asserts " Minute subjects demanded minute strokes : with Bewick , William Hunt , and Birket Foster , [ Potter ] is a descendant of the pictures ' in little ' approach of the Elizabethans . " In addition to the miniaturists , Potter once admitted that the Pre @-@ Raphaelites , with their " somewhat niggling but absolutely genuine admiration for copying natural detail " , had influenced her style .
Timmy Tiptoes is unique amongst Potter 's children 's books : it is the only one depicting American mammals . The title character is an eastern grey squirrel , a species exported from America to Britain , and flourishing there around 1900 . It was unlikely Potter saw the animals in the woods around Hill Top as they had yet to become established in the Lake District . She probably relied for models on specimens in the Small Mammal House of a zoo , and consulted reference works in the library of the Natural History Museum to aid her work .
Potter either had no live models for the eastern chipmunk characters , or borrowed a pet chipmunk from a cousin . Initially , she may have been unsure of how to draw the chipmunks and chose to clothe them , then was forced to follow suit and clothe the two main players as well , while leaving the other squirrels in their natural state . Or , she may have clothed Timmy and Goody because they collect their nuts in sacks ( an unnatural way for squirrels to behave ) in imitation of a ruse she employed in Peter Rabbit when Peter only walks on his hind legs while wearing his blue jacket . When he loses his jacket , he reverts to being an animal and moves about on all fours . Because Timmy and Chippy were not drawn from nature , the two suggest stuffed animals in their lack of engaging facial expressions .
Potter probably modelled the American black bear on a specimen in the London Zoological Gardens in Regent 's Park . She wrote in her manuscript in reference to her drawing of the bear : " Intended to represent the American black bear , it has a smooth coat , like a sealskin coat . " Kutzer suggests the bear in Potter 's two illustrations of the animal would theoretically be recognized by American children , but the depiction of the bear is almost as stiff and unnatural as Potter 's depictions of humans in her other books . The bear lacks any of the species ' " clumsy gracefulness " , she argues , which Potter could only have realized after seeing bears in the wild – an opportunity that simply did not exist for her in England . The inclusion of an American black bear @-@ looking creature in the tale and its depiction in the illustrations only emphasize Potter 's awkward struggle with subject matter she had not directly observed in nature or of which she had little knowledge .
MacDonald points out that the forest backgrounds were imagined and not drawn from nature ; they thus lack the " infusions of warmth [ and ] character " that distinguish the books that were drawn and painted from the Sawrey woodlands . She concludes that it was impossible for Potter to clearly write about or draw her subjects without some sort of inspiration close at hand . Judy Taylor and her collaborators on Beatrix Potter 1866 @-@ 1943 : The Artist and Her World conclude that Timmy Tiptoes is " an uneasy book " and one in which the animals do not fit naturally into the background .
= = Scholarly commentaries = =
Ruth K. MacDonald , Professor of English at New Mexico State University and author of Beatrix Potter ( 1986 ) , observes that the depiction of domestic discord in Timmy Tiptoes is not typical for Potter or for children 's literature of the period . She considers the marital relationship between the chipmunks " abrasive and shocking " . Though their relationship may reflect the non @-@ monogamous mating habits of eastern chipmunks and offer a contrast with the happy pairing of Timmy and Goody , it is an obstacle in the flow of the tale . The reader is forced to turn his attention from the star of the book to a secondary player , and , while Timmy 's story ends with the hero happily reunited with his wife , the reunion dealt the chipmunks is uncertain and less satisfying than that granted Timmy and Goody .
The reader is forced to question the stability of the Hackee union : Chippy stays away from home long after Timmy 's situation is resolved and returns to his wife only after being frightened from the tree by a bear entirely superfluous to the tale . At home , Chippy suffers with a head cold , but Mrs. Hackee 's lack of expression in the illustration leaves the reader wondering how she took his abrupt return . One wonders why Mrs. Hackee did not pursue Chippy once she learned of his whereabouts from a bird . After the reader discovers Goody is the happy mother of triplets and Timmy has made the decision to keep his nuts under lock and key , he may wonder what sort of fate the future holds for the Hackees .
MacDonald observes that the dedication , " For Many Unknown Little Friends , Including Monica " , is evidence that Potter 's audience for Timmy Tiptoes was not as clearly defined as the audiences for her other books , especially those books composed for very specific children . Though " Monica " suggests a particular child of Potter 's acquaintance , Monica was simply one of many children who posted fan letters to the author . " I do not know the child , " Potter wrote , " She is the school friend of a little cousin , who asked for it as a favour , and the name took my fancy . " MacDonald suggests it was this lack of a clearly defined audience that led to Potter 's lack of imagination and control in the tale , and her " false step " with the chipmunks ' marital relationship .
M. Daphne Kutzer , Professor of English at the State University of New York at Plattsburgh and author of Beatrix Potter : Writing in Code ( 2003 ) , detects some similarities to The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin ( 1903 ) . Both tales have touches of the pourquoi story in their explanations of why squirrels collect nuts , and both incorporate rhymes and riddles in their narratives . However , there is a crucial difference that diminishes the artistry of Timmy Tiptoes : the rhymes and riddles in Squirrel Nutkin shed light on Nutkin 's character and create a guessing game for the reader while those in Timmy Tiptoes are bland devices that simply move the characters to reunions with their wives and the tale to its conclusion .
Kutzer points out Timmy and his wife wear clothes , but the other squirrels and the bear do not . There is no apparent reason for this differentiation . She admits that this may be Potter 's attempt to separate her anthropomorphized animals from her natural ones , but she believes the attempt fails on both narrative and artistic grounds . Logically , she argues , all the squirrels should wear ( or not wear ) clothes because they all live and behave in a natural manner : Timmy and Goody inhabit a nest in a tree ( not a comfortable little house somewhere ) , and all the squirrels gather nuts for the coming winter . Except for Timmy having a wife , there is no clear distinction between natural and personified squirrel nature . In another stumbling block to logic , Timmy 's red jacket appears then disappears then reappears in the illustrations with no basis either in the plot or Timmy 's character , but apparently in Potter 's personal need for a splash of colour here and there . In this case , Potter has allowed an external force to shape the tale rather than letting the tale find its own shape .
= = Merchandise = =
Potter confidently asserted her tales would one day be nursery classics , and part of the process in making them so was marketing strategy . She was the first to exploit the commercial possibilities of her characters and tales with a Peter Rabbit doll , an unpublished Peter Rabbit board game , and a Peter Rabbit nursery wallpaper between 1903 and 1905 . Similar " side @-@ shows " ( as she termed the spinoffs ) were produced over the following two decades .
In 1947 , Frederick Warne & Co. granted Beswick Pottery of Longton , Staffordshire rights and licences to produce the Potter characters in porcelain . In 1948 , Timmy Tiptoes became one of the first ten figurines , and was followed by Goody Tiptoes in 1961 , Chippy Hackee in 1979 , and Timmy and Goody under an umbrella in 1986 .
In 1973 , The Eden Toy Company of New York became the first and only American company to be granted licensing rights from Warne to manufacture stuffed Potter characters in plush . In 1975 , Timmy Tiptoes and Goody Tiptoes were released . In 1975 , Crummles of Poole , Dorset began manufacturing enamelled boxes depicting Potter characters on their lids , and eventually produced a 1 and 5 / 8 inch diameter Timmy Tiptoes box .
In 1977 , Schmid & Co. of Toronto and Randolph , Massachusetts were granted licensing rights to Beatrix Potter , and produced a Goody Tiptoes music box , a Chippy Hackee music box playing " Feed the Birds " , and a " Baby 's First Christmas " ornament depicting Goody cuddling one of her babies . In the middle 1980s , the Italian firm of ANRI manufactured ornaments and figurines of Timmy Tiptoes composed of a synthetic substance called Toriart .
= = Reprints and translations = =
As of 2010 , all of Potter 's 23 small format books were still in print and available in a 400 @-@ page omnibus edition , and in complete sets in presentation boxes . Timmy Tiptoes is available in paperback , board book , a Kindle edition , an Audible Audio edition , and an audiocassette format . First editions and reprints were available through antiquarian booksellers .
The English language editions of Potter 's little books still bore the Frederick Warne imprint in 2010 though the company was bought by Penguin Books in 1983 . The printing plates were remade by Penguin from new photographs of the original drawings in 1985 , and all 23 volumes released in 1987 as The Original and Authorized Edition .
Potter 's small format books have been translated into nearly thirty languages including Greek and Russian . The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes was published in the Initial Teaching Alphabet in 1966 and in Dutch as Het Verhaal van Timmie Tuimelaar in 1968 under licence to Uitgeverij Ploegsma , Amsterdam . The tale was published in Spanish by Grange Books in 1997 , and a German Thesaurus edition intended for German ESL and English GSL students in 2009 . The Thesaurus edition was printed in English with translations of difficult or unusual words and expressions located in footnotes . In 1986 , MacDonald observed that the Potter books had become a traditional part of childhood in both English @-@ speaking lands and those in which the books had been translated .
= Tremella mesenterica =
Tremella mesenterica ( common names include yellow brain , golden jelly fungus , yellow trembler , and witches ' butter ) is a common jelly fungus in the Tremellaceae family of the Agaricomycotina . It is most frequently found on dead but attached and on recently fallen branches , especially of angiosperms , as a parasite of wood decay fungi in the genus Peniophora . The gelatinous , orange @-@ yellow fruit body of the fungus , which can grow up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) diameter , has a convoluted or lobed surface that is greasy or slimy when damp . It grows in crevices in bark , appearing during rainy weather . Within a few days after rain it dries into a thin film or shriveled mass capable of reviving after subsequent rain . This fungus occurs widely in deciduous and mixed forests and is widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions that include Africa , Asia , Australia , Europe , North and South America . Although considered bland and flavorless , the fungus is edible . Tremella mesenterica produces carbohydrates that are attracting research interest because of their various biological activities .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was originally described from Sweden as Helvella mesenterica by the naturalist Anders Jahan Retzius in 1769 . It was later ( 1822 ) sanctioned by Elias Magnus Fries in the second volume of his Systema Mycologicum . It is the type species of the genus Tremella . Its distinctive appearance has led the species to accumulate a variety of common names , including " yellow trembler " , " yellow brain " , " golden jelly fungus " , and " witches ' butter " , although this latter name is also applied to Exidia glandulosa . The specific epithet is a Latin adjective formed from the Ancient Greek word μεσεντεριον ( mesenterion ) , " middle intestine " , from μεσο- ( meso- , " middle , center " ) and εντερον ( enteron , " intestine " ) , referring to its shape .
The species formerly recognized as Tremella lutescens is now seen as a form of T. mesenterica with washed @-@ out colors and considered a synonym .
Based on molecular analysis of the sequences of the D1 / D2 regions of the large subunit ribosomal RNA gene and the internal transcribed spacer regions of rRNA , T. mesenterica is most closely related to T. coalescens , T. tropica , and T. brasiliensis . This analysis included 20 of the estimated 120 Tremella species .
= = Description = =
The fruit body has an irregular shape , and usually breaks through the bark of dead branches . It is up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) broad and 2 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 0 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) high , rounded to variously lobed or brain @-@ like in appearance . The fruit body is gelatin @-@ like but tough when wet , and hard when dry . The surface is usually smooth , the lobes translucent , deep yellow or bright yellow @-@ orange , fading to pale yellow , rarely unpigmented and white or colorless . The fruit bodies dry to a dark reddish or orange . The spores , viewed in mass , are whitish or pale yellow .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are ellipsoid to roughly spherical in shape , not or rarely stalked , and typically 15 – 21 µm wide . They contain two to four septa that divide it into compartments ; the septa are most frequently diagonal or vertical . Asexual reproduction in T. mesenterica is carried out through the formation of spores called conidia , which arise from conidiophores — specialized hyphal cells that are morphologically distinct from the somatic hyphae . The conidiophores are densely branched and normally abundant in the hymenium ; young specimens may be entirely conidial . The conidia are roughly spherical , ovoid , or ellipsoid , and about 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 0 by 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 5 µm . They may be so numerous that young fruit bodies may be covered in a bright yellow , conidial slime . The spores are broadly ellipsoid to oblong , on average 10 @.@ 0 – 16 @.@ 0 by 6 @.@ 0 – 9 @.@ 5 µm ; they germinate by germ tube or by yeast @-@ like conidia of identical form to the conidia produced on the conidiophores .
= = = Edibility = = =
Although some have claimed the fungus to be inedible or merely " non @-@ poisonous " , most other sources agree that it is edible but flavorless . The gelatinous to rubbery consistency lends texture to soups . In China , the fungus is used by vegetarians to prepare " an immunomodulating cooling soup with lotus seed , lily bulbs , jujube , etc . "
= = Similar species = =
Tremella mesenterica is frequently confused with Tremella aurantia , a widespread species parasitic on the plant pathogenic fungus Stereum hirsutum . Tremella aurantia can often be recognized by the presence of its host , which typically grows on logs , stumps , and trunks . Though the two species are similarly colored , the surface of T. aurantia is usually matte , not greasy or shiny , and its lobes or folds are thicker than those of T. mesenterica . Fruit bodies of T. aurantia contain unclamped , thick @-@ walled host hyphae and consequently retain their shape when dried , rather than shriveling or collapsing to a film ( as in T. mesenterica ) . Microscopically , T. aurantia has smaller basidia and smaller , differently shaped spores measuring 8 @.@ 5 – 10 by 7 – 8 @.@ 5 µm . T. brasiliensis , known from neotropical areas and Japan , and the North American species T. mesenterella are also similar .
Tremella mesenterica may also be confused with members of the Dacrymycetaceae family , like Dacrymyces chrysospermus ( formerly D. palmatus ) , due to their superficial resemblance . Microscopic examination shows that the Dacrymycetaceae have Y @-@ shaped basidia with two spores , unlike the longitudinally split basidia characteristic of Tremella ; additionally , D. chrysospermus is smaller , has a whitish attachment point to its substrate , and grows on conifer wood .
= = Life cycle = =
Tremella mesenterica has a yeastlike phase in its life cycle that arises as a result of budding of basidiospores . The alternation between asexual and sexual propagation is achieved by mating of yeast @-@ form haploid cells of two compatible mating types . Each mating type secretes a mating pheromone that elicits sexual differentiation of the target cell having the opposite mating type to the pheromone @-@ producing cell . The sexual differentiation is characterized by the arrest of the growth in the G1 phase of the cell division cycle and subsequent formation of an elongated mating tube . Formation of the mating tube , initiated by the pheromones A @-@ 10 and a @-@ 13 , is similar to the process of bud emergence during bipolar budding in yeasts . Tremerogen A @-@ 10 has been purified and its chemical structure found to be S @-@ polyisoprenyl peptide . Fruit bodies arise from a primordium located beneath the wood bark , and sometimes more than one fruit body can originate separately from the same primordia .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Tremella mesenterica has a cosmopolitan distribution , having been recorded from Europe , North , Central , and South America , Africa , Asia , and Australia . Fruit bodies are formed during wet periods throughout the year . In British Columbia , Canada , it is sometimes found on maple , poplar , or pine , but is most abundant on red alder . It prefers to grow in habitats ranging from mesic to wet . The fungus grows parasitically on the mycelium of wood @-@ rotting corticioid fungi in the genus Peniophora . Occasionally , T. mesenterica and its host fungus can be found fruiting together .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Some Tremella species produce polysaccharides that are of interest to the medical field , because of their biological activity ; several patents have been filed in China pertaining to the use of these compounds for cancer prevention or immune system enhancement . In 1966 , Slodki reported discovering an acidic polysaccharide from haploid cells of T. mesenterica that closely resembled those produced by the species Cryptococcus laurentii . The structural similarity of the polysaccharides from the two species suggested a phylogenetic relationship between them . Subsequently , researchers chemically synthesized the polysaccharide , and determined the chemical identities of the component sugar units . The polysaccharide , known as glucuronoxylomannan — produced by fruit bodies and in pure culture conditions — has been shown to consist of a mannan backbone that is acetylated with xylan chains in a regular repeating structure . Laboratory tests have associated a number of biological activities with T. mesenterica glucuronoxylomannan , including immunostimulatory , protecting against radiation , antidiabetic , anti @-@ inflammatory , hypocholesterolemic , hepatoprotective , and antiallergic effects .
= Katherine Reutter =
Katherine Reutter ( / ˈrɔɪtər / ; born July 30 , 1988 ) is a former American short track speed skater . She is a two @-@ time medalist ( one silver , one bronze ) in the Winter Olympics , 2011 overall world silver medalist and the 2010 – 2011 overall ISU Short Track Speed Skating World Cup champion .
At the 2010 Winter Olympics , Reutter won silver in the 1000 m and bronze in the 3000 m relay . She has won one gold , two silvers , and four bronze medals at the World Championships , including overall silver medal at the 2011 World Championships . She has also won two bronze medal at the World Team Championships .
= = Personal life = =
Reutter was born and raised in Champaign , Illinois . Reutter was inspired to become a speed skater after meeting five @-@ time Olympic gold medalist Bonnie Blair at her high school . She learned to skate with her mother during a figure skating class when she was four years old , but immediately found she was more interested in speed skating . Reutter first started speed skating professionally in 2005 at the age of 17 . She began training at the Olympic Training Center in Marquette , Michigan that year . Reutter graduated from Centennial High School in 2006 . She has trained in Salt Lake City , Utah since 2007 , where she has paid for room , board , and training at her own expense .
= = Career = =
= = = 2008 – 2009 = = =
At the 2008 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships , Reutter won a bronze medal in the 3000 m with a time of 5 : 46 @.@ 518 , finishing behind Zhou Yang and Jung Eun @-@ Ju .
In February 2009 , Reutter completed a 1000 m race in 1 : 29 @.@ 667 in Dresden , Germany . It was less than 0 @.@ 2 of a second short of the world record set the previous year by Chinese short track speed skater Wang Meng . At the 2009 World Short Track Speed Skating Team Championships , in March 2009 , Reutter won a bronze medal along with Kimberly Derrick , Alyson Dudek , Lana Gehring , and Jessica Smith .
Reutter won four silver medals at the 2009 Short Track Speed Skating World Cup . She won the women 's 1500 m at the 2009 – 10 Short Track Speed Skating World Cup on November 7 , 2009 , finishing in 2 : 23 @.@ 275 , beating Cho Ha @-@ Ri of South Korea . Reutter made the 2010 U.S. Olympic team after winning the 1000 and 1500 m at the 2010 U.S. Olympic Team Trials in September 2009 .
= = = 2010 Winter Olympics = = =
Reutter ranked 1st in her qualifying heats for the 500 m with a time of 44 @.@ 187 . She then set an Olympic record in the first quarterfinal with a time of 43 @.@ 834 but the record was beaten by Wang Meng of China in the next heat , with a time of 43 @.@ 284 . Reutter started slow in the semifinals , resulting in a fourth @-@ place finish , eliminating her from medal contention . She finished seventh overall in the women 's 500 m .
Reutter competed in the semifinals for the 3000 m relay with teammates Alyson Dudek , Allison Baver and Kimberly Derrick . The U.S. team qualified for the final in second place behind South Korea with a time of 4 : 15 @.@ 376 . Reutter finished in fourth place in the 1500 m final , behind Zhou Yang of China , with Lee Eun @-@ Byul of South Korea in second , and Park Seung @-@ Hi of South Korea in third . Reutter got tangled up with Wang Meng in the semifinal , causing both skaters and Cho Ha @-@ Ri of South Korea to fall , resulting in Meng being disqualified from the final . Reutter repeated the same move in the final , bumping into Park , and later expressed remorse for both mistakes , stating " I think the room was there but maybe I just wasn 't there . I don 't know . But … I messed up and messed up some people around me , which I 'm very sorry for . " In the heats of the 1000 m , Reutter set an Olympic record and finished first overall in the heats . About an hour and a half later , Reutter competed in the 3000 m relay ( with Allison Baver , Alyson Dudek , Lana Gehring ) and won bronze behind China and Canada due to the disqualification of South Korea . In the final of the 1000 m , Reutter was edged out for the gold medal by Wang Meng , finishing behind her 1 : 29 @.@ 324 to 1 : 29 @.@ 213 .
= = = 2010 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships = = =
At the 2010 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships , in Sofia , Bulgaria , Reutter , who was fighting the flu , won bronze medals in the 1000 m and the 3000 m relay . In her first event , the 1000 m , Reutter placed third with a time of 1 : 31 @.@ 747 , finishing behind Wang Meng and Cho Ha @-@ Ri . Reutter then combined with Alyson Dudek , Kimberly Derrick , and Lana Gehring in the 3000 m relay to finish third behind South Korea and Canada with a time of 4 : 14 @.@ 231 . Reutter also placed 6th in the 500 m , 4th in the 1500 m , and 4th in the 3000 m .
= = = 2011 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships = = =
At the 2011 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships in Sheffield , England , Reutter won one gold , two silvers , and one bronze . She finished second overall with 68 points . In her first event , the 1500 m , Reutter won the gold ahead of Koreans Park Seung @-@ Hi and Cho Ha @-@ Ri in a time of 2 : 33 @.@ 978 . In winning the gold , Reutter became the first American woman to win a gold medal at a World Short Track Speed Skating Championships since Bonnie Blair did in 1986 . After the 1500 m , Reutter competed in the 3000 m relay semifinals but fell during the race , resulting in the United States not advancing to the final . In her next event , the 500 m , Reutter did not advance past the semifinals , finishing 6th overall . In the 1000 m , Reutter finished in third place behind Cho Ha @-@ Ri and Italian Arianna Fontana in a time of 2 : 23 @.@ 268 even though she tripped on a lane block . In her last event , the 3000 m , Reutter just missed the gold medal , finishing behind Cho Ha @-@ Ri 5 : 13 @.@ 677 to 5 : 13 @.@ 353 .
= = = Retirement = = =
In early 2013 due to constant injuries , Reutter announced her retirement at the age of 24 . After that , she became a coach at the Pettit National Ice Center .
= = Appearances and endorsements = =
Reutter appeared as a guest on Comedy Central 's The Colbert Report on December 14 , 2009 . Host Stephen Colbert autographed her thigh , an idea by Reutter that initially caught the comedian off guard ( Although Reutter 's website suggest that it was her manager 's idea and they had discussed it with Colbert beforehand ) . Colbert began raising funds for the U.S. Speedskating team when their sponsor , the Dutch DSB Bank , went bankrupt .
Reutter was sponsored by U.S. Speedskating , Verizon , EyeCare 20 / 20 , Bioenergy Ribose , Nike , Oakley and the Champaign Police Department , who helped pay the costs of her training in Utah .
= Paul Brown =
Paul Eugene Brown ( September 7 , 1908 – August 5 , 1991 ) was an American football coach and executive in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and National Football League ( NFL ) . Brown was the first coach of the Cleveland Browns and later played a role in founding the Cincinnati Bengals . His teams won seven league championships in a professional coaching career spanning 25 seasons . He is the only NFL coach ever to have an NFL team named after him .
Brown began his coaching career at Severn School in 1931 before becoming the head football coach at Massillon Washington High School in Massillon , Ohio , where he grew up . His high school teams lost only 10 games in 11 seasons . He was then hired at Ohio State University and coached the school to its first national football championship in 1942 . After World War II , he became head coach of the Browns , who won four AAFC championships before joining the NFL in 1950 . Brown coached the Browns to three NFL championships – in 1950 , 1954 and 1955 – but was fired in January 1963 amid a power struggle with team owner Art Modell . Brown in 1968 co @-@ founded and was the first coach of the Bengals . He retired from coaching in 1975 but remained the Bengals ' team president until his death in 1991 . The Bengals named their home stadium Paul Brown Stadium in honor of Brown . He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1967 .
Brown is credited with a number of American football innovations . He was the first coach to use game film to scout opponents , hire a full @-@ time staff of assistants , and test players on their knowledge of a playbook . He invented the modern face mask , the taxi squad and the draw play . He also played a role in breaking professional football 's color barrier , bringing some of the first African @-@ Americans to play pro football in the modern era onto his teams . Despite these accomplishments , Brown was not universally liked . He was strict and controlling , which often brought him into conflict with players who wanted a greater say in play @-@ calling . These disputes , combined with Brown 's failure to consult Modell on major personnel decisions , led to his firing as the Browns ' coach in 1963 .
= = Early life = =
Brown grew up in Massillon , Ohio , where he moved with his family from Norwalk when he was nine years of age . His father , Lester , was a dispatcher for the Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad . Massillon was a shipping and steel town obsessed with its high school and professional football teams , both called the Tigers . Massillon 's main rival at both levels was nearby Canton , at the time a bigger and richer town . When the professional teams folded in the 1920s , the rivalry between the high school teams took center stage .
Brown entered Massillon Washington High School in 1922 . Although he played football as a child , Brown was undersized for the game at less than 150 pounds and at first focused his athletic energies on the pole vault . Harry Stuhldreher , who went on to be one of Notre Dame 's legendary Four Horsemen , was then the high school quarterback . But Massillon coach Dave Stewart saw Brown 's determination to be a good vaulter despite his small size and brought him onto the football team ; as a junior in 1924 , he took over as the starting quarterback . Massillon posted a win @-@ loss record of 15 – 3 in Brown 's junior and senior years as the starter .
Brown graduated in 1925 and enrolled at Ohio State University the following year , hoping to make the Buckeyes team . He never got past the tryout phase . After his freshman year , he transferred to Miami University in Oxford , Ohio , where he followed Weeb Ewbank as the school 's starting quarterback . Under Coach Chester Pittser , Brown was named to the All @-@ Ohio small @-@ college second team by the Associated Press at the end of 1928 . In two seasons at Miami , Brown guided the team to a 14 – 3 record . He married his high school sweetheart Katie Kester the following year . Brown had taken pre @-@ law at Miami and considered studying history on a Rhodes Scholarship , but after college he instead took his first job as a coach . On Stewart 's recommendation , Severn School , a private prep school in Maryland , hired him in 1930 .
= = High school coaching career = =
= = = Severn School = = =
Brown spent two successful years at Severn . The team was undefeated in his first season and won the Maryland state championship . In 1931 , the team 's win @-@ loss @-@ tie record was 5 – 2 – 1 . Brown 's overall record was 12 – 2 – 1 . After his second year , Massillon 's head coaching job became available , and Brown took the position .
= = = Massillon Tigers = = =
Brown returned to Massillon in 1932 , when he was 24 years old and barely two years out of college . His assignment was to turn around a Tigers team that had fallen into mediocrity over the six seasons since the departure of Stewart , Brown 's old coach . In 1931 , the year before Brown arrived , the Tigers finished with a 2 – 6 @-@ 2 record.Template : Massillon Tiger Football Booster Club Brown 's strategy was to build up a disciplined , hard @-@ working team . He fired an assistant early on for arriving at a practice late because he had to work on his farm . No Tigers player was allowed to sit on the bench during a game ; Brown made them stand . At Massillon , Brown put in an offense and blocking scheme he learned from Duke 's Jimmy DeHart and Purdue 's Noble Kizer . He emphasized quickness over strength .
In his first season at Massillon , Brown 's team posted a 5 – 4 – 1 record , better than the previous year but far from Brown 's exacting standards . The Tigers improved again in 1933 , ending with an 8 – 2 record but losing to their chief rivals , the Canton McKinley High School Bulldogs . In 1934 , Massillon won all of its games until a 21 – 6 defeat to Canton in the final game of the season . As the pressure on Brown grew to turn the tables on Canton , Massillon finally accomplished the feat the following year in an undefeated season , the first of several with Brown at the helm .
By then , Brown had put his system into place : a strict , systematic approach to coaching combined with a well @-@ organized recruitment network that drew promising young players from Massillon 's junior high school football program . He paid no attention to race , and brought several African @-@ American players onto the team at a time when many northern schools excluded them .
In the ensuing five seasons , Massillon lost only one game , a 7 – 0 defeat at New Castle , Pennsylvania in 1937 after several players came down with the flu . As the Tigers ' prestige grew , Brown in 1936 convinced the school to build a new stadium almost triple the size of the existing 7 @,@ 000 @-@ seat facility . The stadium was finished in 1939 , and is now named after Brown . The pinnacle of Brown 's career at Massillon was a victory in the 1940 season against Toledo 's Waite High School . The Tigers and Waite both went undefeated in the 1939 season , and both claimed the state championship . The teams decided to settle the score the following year , and Brown 's team won 28 – 0 . The Massillon 1940 squad is still regarded by historians as one of the best in the history of state high school football .
During his nine years at Massillon , Brown invented the playbook , a detailed listing of formations and set plays , and tested his players on their knowledge of it . He also originated the practice of sending in plays to his quarterback from the sideline using hand signals . His overall record at the school was 80 – 8 – 2 , including a 35 @-@ game winning streak . Between 1935 and 1940 , the team won the state football championship six times and won the High School Football National Championship four times , outscoring opponents by 2 @,@ 393 points to 168 over that span . After the early losses to Canton , the Tigers beat the Bulldogs six straight times .
= = College and military career = =
= = = Ohio State Buckeyes = = =
Brown 's success at Massillon raised his profile in Ohio considerably ; people started calling him the " Miracle Man of Massillon . " When Ohio State was looking for a new coach in 1940 – Francis Schmidt left after losing to the rival Michigan Wolverines three times in a row – Brown was a candidate for the job . Ohio State officials were skeptical about the 33 @-@ year @-@ old making the transition to college football but were worried that they might lose talented high school recruits loyal to Brown if they did not sign him .
Ohio State offered Brown a $ 6 @,@ 500 salary ( $ 104 @,@ 574 in 2016 dollars ) , about $ 1 @,@ 500 above his Massillon pay . He accepted in January 1941 and immediately began to institute his rigorous system . Players were drilled and quizzed , and Brown focused on preparing the freshmen to take starting roles as graduating seniors left . He conditioned his players to emphasize quickness , adopting the 40 @-@ yard dash as a measure of speed because that was the distance players needed to run to cover a punt .
Brown 's first year at Ohio State was a success . The Buckeyes won all but one of eight games in 1941 ; the only loss was to Northwestern University and its star tailback , Otto Graham . The final game of the season was a 20 – 20 tie with Michigan , which the school 's supporters saw as a good outcome given that Ohio State was a heavy underdog . The Buckeyes tied for second place in the Western Conference , a grouping of college teams from the Midwestern United States ( now known as the Big Ten ) , and finished 13th in the AP Poll . Brown was fourth in balloting for national Coach of the Year .
Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 threatened to derail the 1942 season , but most college teams played on , adjusting schedules to include military teams composed of players serving in the military . The Buckeyes opened the season by beating a Fort Knox team 59 – 0 , followed by two more wins against Southern California and Indiana University . In the first AP Poll of the season , Ohio State was ranked best in the nation , the first time the school had achieved that mark . The 1942 team was the first composed mainly of players hand @-@ picked by Brown , including Bill Willis , Dante Lavelli and star halfback Les Horvath . In the middle of the season , the Buckeyes lost to the University of Wisconsin after numerous players drank bad water and got sick . That was the team 's only loss of the season , which culminated with a 21 – 7 victory over Michigan . The Buckeyes won the Western Conference and claimed their first @-@ ever national title after finishing the season at the top of the AP Poll .
The 1943 season was a disaster for Brown and the Buckeyes . Depleted by the military draft and facing tough competition from teams on Army and Navy bases , Brown was forced to play 17 @-@ year @-@ old recruits who had not yet enlisted . Ohio State had affiliated itself with the Army Specialized Training Program , which did not allow its trainees to participate in varsity sports , while schools such as Michigan and Purdue became part of the Navy 's V @-@ 12 training program , which did . The Buckeyes ended with a 3 – 6 record . In three seasons at Ohio State , Brown amassed an 18 – 8 – 1 record .
= = = Great Lakes Bluejackets = = =
Brown was classified 1 @-@ A in 1944 and commissioned as a lieutenant in the U.S. Navy . He served at the Great Lakes Naval Training Station outside Chicago as head coach of its Bluejacket football team , which competed against other service teams and college programs . The station was a waypoint for Navy recruits between training and active service in World War II , but its commanders took athletics seriously and saw winning as a morale @-@ booster and a point of personal pride . Brown could have been called up for active duty – Tony Hinkle , his predecessor , was already serving in the Pacific – but the war began to wind down as Brown arrived . Brown had little time to institute his system , and instead adopted Hinkle 's offensive scheme , borrowed from the Chicago Bears . He had a smattering of talented players , including defensive end George Young and halfback Ara Parseghian . In 1944 , the team lost to Ohio State and Notre Dame , but finished with a 9 – 2 – 1 record and was among the top 20 teams in the AP Poll .
In September 1944 , Arch Ward , the influential sports editor of the Chicago Tribune , proposed a new eight @-@ team professional football league called the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) to compete against the more established National Football League ( NFL ) once the war was over . Ward lined up wealthy owners for the new league , which included teams in Los Angeles , New York City , San Francisco and Cleveland . Arthur B. " Mickey " McBride , a taxi @-@ cab magnate who made a fortune in the newspaper business , was the owner of the Cleveland franchise . As Brown was preparing for the 1945 Bluejackets season , Ward came on McBride 's behalf to ask Brown if he wanted to coach the new team . McBride offered $ 17 @,@ 500 a year ( $ 230 @,@ 023 in today 's dollars ) – more than any coach at any level – plus a stake in the team and a stipend while he was still in the military .
On February 8 , 1945 , Brown accepted the job , saying he was sad to leave Ohio State , but he " couldn 't turn down this deal in fairness to my family . " Brown was still Ohio State 's head coach in absentia , and the decision surprised and outraged school officials who expected him to return after the war . The AAFC did not start play until after the war , however , and Brown continued to get ready for the 1945 season at Great Lakes . That year , many of his best players were transferred to bases on the West Coast as the focus of the war shifted to the Pacific . The team started with a 0 – 4 – 1 record , but rattled off six straight wins after the war ended and players returned from service overseas . Within weeks of Brown 's final Bluejackets game , a 39 – 7 victory over Notre Dame , he set off for his new job in Cleveland .
= = Professional coaching career = =
= = = Cleveland Browns in the AAFC ( 1946 – 1949 ) = = =
By the time Brown arrived in Cleveland , the team had signed a number of players to its roster , including quarterback Otto Graham , whose Northwestern squad had beaten the Buckeyes in 1941 . Many of the players came from Ohio State , Great Lakes and Massillon teams that Brown coached . Lou Groza , a placekicker and tackle , played for Brown at Ohio State before the war intervened . Receiver Dante Lavelli was a sophomore on Ohio State 's championship @-@ winning team in 1942 . Bill Willis , a defensive lineman who Brown coached at Ohio State , and Marion Motley , a running back who grew up in Canton and played for Brown at Great Lakes , became two of the first black athletes to play professional football when they joined the team in 1946 . Other signings included receiver Mac Speedie , center Frank Gatski and back Edgar " Special Delivery " Jones . Brown brought in assistants including Blanton Collier , who had been stationed at Great Lakes and met Brown at Bluejackets practices .
The name of the team was at first left up to Brown , who rejected calls for it to be christened the Browns . McBride then held a contest to name the team in May 1945 ; " Cleveland Panthers " was the winning choice , but Brown rejected it because it was the name of an earlier failed football team . " That old Panthers team failed , " Brown said . " I want no part of that name . " In August , McBride gave in to popular demand and christened the team the Browns , despite Paul Brown 's objections . With the roster fixed and the team 's name chosen , Brown set out to build a dynasty . " I want to be what the New York Yankees are in baseball or Ben Hogan is in golf , " he said .
After a training camp at Bowling Green State University , the Browns played their first game in September 1946 at Cleveland Stadium . A crowd of 60 @,@ 135 people showed up to see the Browns beat the Miami Seahawks 44 – 0 , then a record attendance mark for professional football . That touched off a string of wins ; the team ended the season with a 12 – 2 record and the top spot in the AAFC 's western division . The Browns then beat the AAFC 's New York Yankees in the championship .
Cleveland won the AAFC championship again in 1947 behind an offensive attack that employed the forward pass more frequently and effectively than was typical at the time . The Browns ' offensive success was driven by Brown 's version of the T formation , which was gradually replacing the single @-@ wing formation as football 's most popular and effective scheme .
The Browns won every game in the 1948 season , a feat that went unmatched until the Miami Dolphins ( coached by Brown disciple Don Shula ) did it in 1972 . Cleveland then won the AAFC championship for the fourth time in a row in 1949 . By then , however , the league was struggling for survival , due in part to the Browns ' dominance . Attendance at games dwindled in 1948 and 1949 as fans lost interest in lopsided victories , and at the end of the 1949 season the AAFC dissolved . Three of its teams , the San Francisco 49ers , the Baltimore Colts and the Browns , merged into the NFL . The Browns picked up a few good former AAFC players from other teams , including offensive guard Abe Gibron and defensive end Len Ford , but some observers saw Brown 's team as the lone standout in an otherwise minor league .
= = = Cleveland Browns in the NFL ( 1950 – 1955 ) = = =
The Browns ' first game in the NFL in 1950 was against the two @-@ time defending champion Philadelphia Eagles in Philadelphia . They won the game 35 – 10 , the first of 10 victories that year . After beating the New York Giants in a playoff game , the Browns went on to win the championship game against the Los Angeles Rams on a last @-@ minute field goal by Groza . " The flag of the late lamented AAFC flies high , and Paul Brown has the last laugh , " the Plain Dealer 's editorial page proclaimed . Brown said his was " the greatest football team a coach ever had , and there was never a game like this one . " In 16 seasons , Brown had led his teams to 12 championships . He was the first head coach to win both a college and NFL championship , a feat not repeated until Jimmy Johnson and later Barry Switzer did it with the Dallas Cowboys in the 1990s , and Pete Carroll who accomplished the feat with USC in 2004 and the Seattle Seahawks in 2013 .
As the Browns climbed to the top of the NFL , speculation began to mount that Brown might return to the Buckeyes . Wes Felser had resigned as the team 's coach , and Brown was seen as a possible replacement . But Brown had also alienated many Ohio State alumni by failing to return to the school after World War II and for signing away players including Groza before their college eligibility expired . He interviewed with the university 's athletic board on January 27 , 1951 , but the board unanimously rejected Brown in favor of Woody Hayes , who was unanimously endorsed by the board of trustees .
The Browns reached the championship each of the next three years , but lost all of those games . In both 1952 and 1953 , Cleveland lost championships to the Detroit Lions , who were then on the rise after decades of mediocrity . Before the 1953 season , McBride sold the team to a group of local businessmen led by David Jones for $ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 5 @,@ 306 @,@ 716 in 2016 dollars ) . While Brown was upset that McBride did not consult him about the deal , the new owners said they would stay out of the picture and let Brown run the team . Brown saw this as a crucial issue : he felt he needed full control over personnel decisions and coaching to make his system work .
Graham announced in 1953 that the following season would be his last . But the team won the championship in 1954 in a rematch against the Lions , and Brown convinced Graham to come back . Cleveland finished 1955 with a 9 – 2 – 1 record , reaching the championship game again . The Browns beat the Rams for their second straight championship , and Graham retired after the season .
= = = Later years in Cleveland ( 1956 – 1963 ) = = =
With Graham gone and the quarterback situation in flux , the Browns ended 1956 with a 5 – 7 record , Paul Brown 's first losing season as a professional coach . In the next year 's draft , the team selected Jim Brown out of Syracuse University . As television began to help football leapfrog baseball as America 's most popular sport , Jim Brown became a larger @-@ than @-@ life personality . He was handsome and charismatic in private and dominant on the field . Paul Brown , however , was critical of some aspects of Jim Brown 's game , including his disinclination to block . In Jim Brown 's first season , the team reached the championship game , again against the Lions , but lost 59 – 14 . The Browns did not contend for the championship in the following two years , when a Baltimore Colts team coached by Brown 's former protege Weeb Ewbank won a pair of titles .
As Jim Brown 's star rose , players began to question Paul Brown 's leadership and play @-@ calling in the late 1950s . The skepticism came to a head in a game against the Giants at the end of the 1958 season in which a win or tie would have given the Browns a spot in the championship game against Ewbank 's Colts . In the third quarter , the Browns drove to New York 's 16 @-@ yard line with a 10 – 3 lead and lined up for a field goal . But Coach Brown called a timeout before Groza could make the try , which alerted the Giants to a possible fake kick . Brown indeed called a fake , and the holder stumbled as he got up to throw , ruining the play . The Giants came back to win the game by a field goal and reach the championship , while the Browns went home without a spot in the title game for the second year in a row .
Paul Brown blamed the struggles on quarterback Milt Plum , whom the team had drafted in 1957 , saying the Browns had " lost faith in Plum 's ability to play under stress . " But the players were instead losing faith in Coach Brown and his autocratic style . Jim Brown started a weekly radio show , which Paul Brown did not like ; it undercut his control over the team and its message . But the coach found it hard to question Jim Brown given his feats on the field , and the tension between the two men grew . The team finished second in its division in 1959 and 1960 , even as Jim Brown racked up league @-@ leading seasons in rushing .
Art Modell , a New York advertising executive , bought the team in 1961 for almost $ 4 million ( $ 31 @,@ 674 @,@ 833 today ) . Modell , who was 35 years old at the time , bought out Brown 's 15 % stake in the team for $ 500 @,@ 000 and gave Brown a new eight @-@ year contract . He said he and Brown would have a " working partnership " , and began to play a more direct role than previous owners in the team 's operation . This angered Brown , who was used to having a free hand in football matters . Modell , who was single and only a few years older than most players , started to listen to their concerns about the coach . He became particularly close to Jim Brown , calling him " my senior partner " . Modell sat in the press box during games and could be overheard second @-@ guessing Paul Brown 's play @-@ calling , which drove a deeper wedge between the two men . At that time , Brown was the only coach who insisted on calling every offensive play . When Plum openly questioned Paul Brown 's absolute control over play @-@ calling , he was traded to Detroit .
The conflict between Paul Brown and Modell reached a breaking point when Brown traded star halfback Bobby Mitchell for the rights to Ernie Davis , a Heisman Trophy @-@ winning running back who broke all of Jim Brown 's rushing records at Syracuse . Paul Brown did not inform Modell of the move , and Modell only heard about it after getting a call from Washington Redskins owner George Preston Marshall . Davis , however , was diagnosed with leukemia before the 1962 season . He came to Cleveland to train after the cancer went into remission , but Brown would not allow him to play . Modell , however , wanted to give Davis a chance to play before he succumbed to the disease . Ultimately , the relationship between coach and owner was never repaired , and Ernie Davis never played in a professional game , dying on May 18 , 1963 .
= = = Departure from Cleveland = = =
As the rift between the players and Brown and between Modell and Brown grew , Modell fired Brown on January 7 , 1963 . A controversy developed over the timing of the decision amid a local newspaper strike , which limited discussion of the move . A printing company executive , however , got together a group of sportswriters and published a 32 @-@ page magazine fielding players ' views on the firing . Opinions were mixed ; Modell came in for his share of criticism , but tackle and team captain Mike McCormack said he did not think the team could win under Brown . Blanton Collier , Brown 's longtime assistant , was named the team 's new head coach , and Brown began to plan his next move as he continued to receive an $ 82 @,@ 500 salary under his eight @-@ year contract .
In exile after more than 30 years of coaching , Brown spent the next five years away from the sidelines , never once attending a Browns contest . While he was secure financially , Brown 's frustration grew with each passing year . " It was terrible , " he later recalled . " I had everything a man could want : leisure , enough money , a wonderful family . Yet with all that , I was eating my heart out . " Because Brown was still receiving his annual salary and liked to golf , it was said that the only two people who made more money playing golf were Arnold Palmer and Jack Nicklaus .
Brown explored coaching possibilities , but he was mindful not to put himself in a position where his control might be challenged as it had been in Cleveland . In the mid @-@ 1960s , the American Football League ( AFL ) , which had formed to compete against the NFL , put a new franchise in Cincinnati . Brown was the third @-@ largest investor in the team and was given the title of coach and general manager . He was also given the right to represent the team in all league matters , a key element of control for Brown .
= = = Cincinnati Bengals = = =
Brown called his new franchise the Bengals because Cincinnati had a team of that name in the 1930s and he thought it would provide a link to the past . Brown 's son Mike joined the front office and became his father 's top assistant and right @-@ hand man . Brown brought in other assistants including Bill Johnson , Rick Forzano and Bill Walsh . In their first two seasons in 1968 and 1969 , the Bengals fared poorly , but the team appeared to be on the upswing as Brown built up a core group of players through the draft , including quarterback Greg Cook .
The Bengals entered the NFL in 1970 as a result of the AFL @-@ NFL merger , and were placed in the newly formed American Football Conference alongside the Browns . A career @-@ ending injury to Cook before the 1970 season forced the Bengals to rely on Virgil Carter , an emergency backup who could make accurate short passes but could not heave the ball like Cook once could . So Brown and Walsh went to work designing an offense around Carter 's limitations , a scheme that was the genesis of the West Coast offense Walsh later used to great effect when he became coach of the San Francisco 49ers .
The Bengals lost their first meeting with the Browns 30 – 27 in 1970 , and Brown was booed when he did not come on the field to shake Collier 's hand after the game . " I haven 't shaken the other coach 's hands after a game for years , " Brown explained . " ... I went up to him before the game , and we did our socializing then . " But the Bengals came back to beat the Browns later in the season . Brown called it " my greatest victory . "
In his years as the Bengals ' head coach , Brown took the team to the playoffs three times , including in 1970 . Yet despite finding a franchise quarterback in Ken Anderson , Brown 's team never got past the first round of the postseason tournament . Four days after the Bengals were eliminated from the playoffs in 1975 , Brown announced he was retiring after 45 years of coaching . The game had changed dramatically during his time in the NFL , growing from America 's second sport to the country 's biggest and most lucrative pastime . Brown was 67 years old .
= = Later life and death = =
Walsh was passed over in favor of Bill " Tiger " Johnson for the head coaching job when Brown retired . In a 2006 interview , Walsh said Brown worked against his candidacy to be a head coach anywhere in the league . " All the way through I had opportunities , and I never knew about them , " Walsh said . " And then when I left him , he called whoever he thought was necessary to keep me out of the NFL . " Brown stayed on as team president following his retirement , and the Bengals later made two trips to the Super Bowl , losing both games to Walsh and the 49ers . He rarely appeared in public , however . He died on August 5 , 1991 at home of complications from pneumonia . He and Katie had three sons : Robin , Mike and Pete . Following Katie 's death of a heart attack in 1969 , he married his former secretary Mary Rightsell in 1973 . His son Robin died of cancer in 1978 . Brown is buried at Rose Hill Cemetery in Massillon .
Brown was succeeded by his son Mike as Bengals ' team president . Subsequently , in 2000 , Cincinnati opened a new football facility on the Ohio River , naming it Paul Brown Stadium . Brown was elected in 1967 to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton , Ohio . " I feel he 's as fine a coach as the game ever has had , " Otto Graham said at the induction ceremony . " I used to cuss him out and complain but now I 'm happy that I played under him . " In 2009 , Sporting News named Brown as the 12th greatest coach of all time ; only two other NFL coaches were listed above him .
= = Legacy = =
Although Brown coached dozens of successful teams at the high school , college and professional levels , his controlling personality and sharp criticisms made him unpopular with many players . Brown was a methodical and disciplined coach who tolerated no deviation from his system . His professional teams ' planes did not wait for players who were late ; anyone who missed the flight was forced to find one on his own and pay a fine to Brown . When the Browns practiced twice in a day in training camp , each session was exactly 55 minutes . Regular practices during the season lasted an hour and 12 minutes . Players who made mistakes in games were held up for ridicule during film review sessions . " There got to be a saying , " longtime Browns safety Ken Konz said years later . " ' There 's a right way , a wrong way and the Paul Brown way . ' If you did it the Paul Brown way , you were right . He was a very strict coach , and he expected you to toe the line . "
Brown was also a tough negotiator over salaries , often refusing to give players raises despite strong performance . He was called " cold and brutal " by sportswriters , and told players to be " ready to fight for your financial lives " . " When I signed with Paul , he felt that $ 1 @,@ 000 was $ 10 million , " said Gene Hickerson , a guard who played for the Browns in the late 1950s and 1960s . Brown 's stingy approach to salaries frustrated his players and was a motivating force behind the formation of the National Football League Players Association , which represents players ' interests in dealings with the league . Browns players including Dante Lavelli and Abe Gibron helped found the union in 1956 along with lawyer and former Browns assistant coach Creighton Miller . Brown was so annoyed by the union that he had a 1946 team photo in his office touched up to remove Miller .
Brown 's acrimonious departure from Cleveland was another source of criticism . His teams ' winning ways had helped obscure his harsh methods and need for control , but Modell 's active involvement in the team exposed them . Despite that Modell owned the team , Brown refused to cede any authority or be diplomatic in his relationship with Modell . Modell felt Brown was unwilling to adapt to the way football was played in the early 1960s . Many players from that time agreed . " Paul didn 't adjust to the changes in the game , " former Browns cornerback Bernie Parrish said in 1997 . " By 1962 , he was more worried about protecting his reputation as the Greatest Coach Who Ever Lived than he was about winning a title . ... By the end of the 1962 season , a lot of us wanted to be traded because we were convinced that we 'd never win a title with Paul Brown – and we never believed Paul Brown was going anywhere . " After his firing , Brown held a grudge against Modell for the rest of his life . He never forgave Collier for taking over as coach when he left , even though Collier had asked for and received his blessing .
Although he was criticized for his autocratic coaching style and strained relationships , Brown played a significant role in the evolution and modernization of football . The draw play he invented – a formation in which the quarterback drops back to pass but then hands off the ball to a running back – is still in wide use . In his autobiography , Brown said the play came about by accident in 1946 when Graham botched a play and improvised by making a late handoff to Marion Motley , who ran past the onrushing defenders for a large gain . He developed detailed pass patterns that were designed to exploit vulnerabilities in the defense . Brown is also credited with the creation of the passer 's pocket , an offensive line protection scheme that is designed to buy a quarterback a few extra precious seconds to find the open receiver .
Brown 's main contribution to the game , however , was not to the development of new plays but to the organization and administration of teams . Before Brown , football was seen as a chaotic affair where winning was a product mostly of physical prowess . Few coaches took strategy and preparation seriously . Brown , by contrast , hired a full @-@ time staff of assistants , tested his players on their intelligence and their knowledge of plays , instituted strict organization of practices and analyzed game film to get an edge on opponents . Brown created a detailed system for scouting college talent as a means to improve the Browns ' college draft .
The success of this systematic approach forced other teams to follow . Most of Brown 's organizational innovations are still in use today . " No one , I mean no one , has ever had total command and respect like Paul Brown , " Paul Wiggin , a former Browns defensive end , said in 1997 . " I believe that Paul Brown could have been a general in the Army ... you put Paul Brown in charge of anything and he would have been one of those special people who could organize and lead . "
Brown 's approach influenced future generations of coaches down to the present day . Men he worked directly with , including Don Shula , Weeb Ewbank , Chuck Noll and Bill Walsh , all adopted his system to some degree .
Brown was more than just a coach . He was a student of the game who had much to do with making professional football the attraction it is today . He made coaching a full @-@ time job for himself and all his assistants . Others had to follow suit or fall behind . So they did the logical thing — they copied his methods , both as a coach and innovator . ... " Paul Brown didn 't invent the game of football . He was just the first to take it seriously , " declared Sport Magazine in a December 1986 story ... Sid Gillman , Brown 's coaching contemporary for many years in the NFL , told the magazine he always felt that " before Paul Brown pro football was a ' daisy chain . ' He brought a system into pro football . He brought a practice routine . He broke down practice into individual areas . He had position coaches . He was an organizational genius . Before Paul Brown , coaches just rolled the ball out on the practice field . "
While Brown 's tenure in Cleveland ended in bitterness , the coach was a prolific innovator with the team . One factor in Brown 's success was his decision to hire a full @-@ time staff of dedicated position coaches , a break from the norm in an era when most assistants took second jobs in the offseason to make ends meet . Brown also invented the " taxi squad " , a group of promising players who did not make the roster but were kept on reserve . Team owner Mickey McBride put them on the payroll of his taxi company , although they did not drive cabs .
Brown sat his players down in classrooms and relentlessly tested them on their knowledge of the playbook , requiring them to copy down every play in a separate notebook for better retention . He was a terse man , and his criticisms of players were often withering and ruthless . He prohibited players from drinking , told them not to smoke in public and made coats and ties mandatory on road trips . They were not to have sex after Tuesday night during the season .
He was the first coach to use intelligence tests to evaluate players , scout opponents using game films and call plays for his quarterback using guards as messengers . He invented the draw play and helped develop the modern face mask after Len Ford and Otto Graham suffered facial injuries . Although critical of Brown 's coaching , Jim Brown said he integrated football in the right way :
Paul Brown integrated pro football without uttering a single word about integration . He just went out , signed a bunch of great black athletes , and started kicking butt . That 's how you do it . You don 't talk about it . Paul never said one word about race . But this was a time in sports when you 'd play in some cities and the white players could stay at the nice hotel , but the blacks had to stay in the homes of some black families in town . But not with Paul . We always stayed in hotels that took the entire team . Again , he never said a word . But in his own way , the man integrated football the right way – and no one was going to stop him .
= = Coaching tree = =
The following coaches are considered to be in Brown 's coaching tree , a grouping of people on whom his approach to the game is thought to have had an influence , either directly or indirectly . This is an excerpt of Brown 's tree , which is so large it is sometimes called a " forest " . Many of Brown 's coaching " descendants " have won NFL titles as head coaches , both before and after the creation of the Super Bowl .
A larger and more extended version of Paul Brown 's coaching tree , which could sometimes be called a forest , can be found here . However , this version completely omits any mention of Bill Walsh , or his tree .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = = High School = = =
1930 Severn School ( Maryland ) 7 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 State Champion
1931 Severn School ( Maryland ) 5 @-@ 2 @-@ 1
1932 Massillon Washington ( Ohio ) 5 @-@ 4 @-@ 1
1933 Massillon Washington ( Ohio )
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quantities of almonds boiled , peeled , dried and ground , and often served in pastry . Foods such as gingerbread are described . It was not at all , emphasises Clarissa Dickson Wright in her A History of English Food , a matter of large lumps of roast meat at every meal as imagined in Hollywood films .
Instead , mediaeval dishes often had the texture of a pureé , possibly containing small fragments of meat or fish : 48 % of the recipes in the Beinecke manuscript are for dishes similar to stews or pureés . Such dishes could be broadly of three types : somewhat acid , with wine , vinegar , and spices in the sauce , thickened with bread ; sweet and sour , with sugar and vinegar ; and sweet , using then @-@ expensive sugar . An example of such a sweet pureé dish for meat ( it could also be made with fish ) from the Beinecke manuscript is the rich , saffron @-@ yellow " Mortruys " , thickened with egg :
Take brawn of capons & porke , sodyn & groundyn ; tempyr hit up with milk of almondes drawn with the broth . Set hit on the fyre ; put to sigure & safron . When hit boyleth , tak som of thy milk , boylying , fro the fyre & aley hit up with yolkes of eyron that hit be ryght chargeaunt ; styre hit wel for quelling . Put therto that othyr , & ster hem togedyr , & serve hem forth as mortruys ; and strew on poudr of gynger .
= = = Sixteenth century = = =
The early modern period saw the gradual arrival of printed cookery books , though the very first , the printer Richard Pynson 's 1500 Boke of Cokery was compiled from mediaeval texts . The next , A Proper Newe Booke of Cokerye , was published sometime after 1545 . The Secretes of the Reverende Maister Alexis of Piermont was published in 1558 , translated from a French translation of Alessio Piemontese 's original Italian work on confectionery . The number of titles expanded rapidly towards the end of the century to include Thomas Dawson 's The Good Huswifes Jewell in 1585 , the Book of Cookrye by " A. W. " in 1591 , and John Partridge 's The Good Hous @-@ wives Handmaide in 1594 . These books were of two kinds : collections of so @-@ called secrets on confectionery and health remedies , aimed at aristocratic ladies ; and advice on cookery and how to manage a household , aimed at women from more ordinary backgrounds , most likely wives of minor aristocrats , clergymen , and professional men .
English tastes evolved during the sixteenth century in at least three ways . Firstly , recipes emphasise a balance of sweet and sour . Secondly , butter becomes an important ingredient in sauces , a trend which continued in later centuries . Thirdly , herbs , which could be grown locally but had been little used in the Middle Ages , started to replace spices as flavourings . In A. W. ' s Book of Cookrye , 35 % of the recipes for meat stews and sauces include herbs , most commonly thyme . On the other hand , 76 % of those meat recipes still used the distinctly mediaeval combination of sugar and dried fruit , together or separately . New ingredients were arriving from distant countries , too : The Good Huswifes Jewell introduced sweet potatoes alongside familiar Medieval recipes .
Elinor Fettiplace 's Receipt Book , compiled in 1604 ( and first published in 1986 ) gives an intimate view of Elizabethan cookery . The book provides recipes for various forms of bread , such as buttered loaves ; for apple fritters ; preserves and pickles ; and a celebration cake for 100 people . New ingredients such as the sweet potato appear . A recipe for dressing a shoulder of mutton calls for the use of the newly @-@ available citrus fruits :
Take a showlder of mutton and being halfe Roasted , Cut it in great slices and save the gravie then take Clarret wine and sinamond & sugar with a little Cloves and mace beatne and the peel of an oringe Cut thin and minced very smale . Put the mutton the gravie and these thinges together and boyle yt between two dishes , wringe the juice of an oringe into yt as yt boyleth , when yt is boyled enough lay the bone of the mutton beinge first Broyled in the dish with it then Cut slices of limonds and lay on the mutton and so serve yt in .
Pies were important both as food and for show ; the nursery rhyme Sing a Song of Sixpence , with its lines " Four and Twenty blackbirds / Baked in a pie . / / When the pie was opened , The birds began to sing " refers to the conceit of placing live birds under a pie crust just before serving at a banquet .
= = = Seventeenth century = = =
The bestselling cookery book of the early seventeenth century was Gervase Markham 's The English Huswife , published in 1615 . It appears that his recipes were from the collection of a deceased noblewoman , and therefore dated back to Elizabethan times or earlier . Women were thus becoming both the authors of cookery books and their readers , though only about 10 % of women in England were literate by 1640 . Markham 's recipes are distinctively different from mediaeval ones ; three quarters of his sauces for meat and meat pies make use of a combination of sweet and sour , and he advises :
When a broth is too sweet , to sharpen it with verjuice , when too tart to sweet it with sugar , when flat and wallowish to quicken it with orenge and lemmons , and when too bitter to make it pleasant with hearbes and spices .
Robert May 's The Accomplisht Cook was published in 1660 when he was 72 years old . The book included a substantial number of recipes for soups and stews , 38 recipes for sturgeon , and a large number of pies variously containing fish ( including sturgeon ) , meat ( including battalia pie ) , and sweet fillings .
French influence is evident in Hannah Woolley 's The Cooks Guide , 1664 . Her recipes are designed to enable her non @-@ aristocratic readers to imitate the fashionable French style of cooking with elaborate sauces . She combined the use of " Claret wine " and anchovies with more traditional cooking ingredients such as sugar , dried fruit , and vinegar .
= = = Eighteenth century = = =
John Nott 's The Cooks and Confectioners Dictionary ( 1723 ) , still with rather few precedents to go by , chose an alphabetical treatment for its recipes , from Al to Zest . The book covered everything from soups and salads to meat and fish , as well as pastries of many kinds , confectionery , and the making of beer , cider , and wine . Bills of fare are given for each month of the year .
James Woodforde 's Diary of a Country Parson gives a good idea of the sort of food eaten in England in the eighteenth century by those who could afford to eat whatever they liked . To welcome some neighbours on 8 June 1781 , he gave them for dinner :
a Couple of Chicken boiled and a Tongue , a Leg of Mutton boiled and Capers and Batter Pudding for the first Course , Second , a couple of Ducks rosted and green Peas , some Artichokes , Tarts and Blancmange . After dinner , Almonds and Raisins , Oranges and Strawberries , Mountain and Port Wines . Peas and Strawberries the first gathered this year by me . We spent a very agreeable day .
Another country clergyman , Gilbert White , in The Natural History of Selborne ( 1789 ) recorded the increased consumption of vegetables by ordinary country people in the south of England , to which , he noted , potatoes had only been added during the reign of King George III :
Green @-@ stalls in cities now support multitudes in comfortable state , while gardeners get fortunes . Every decent labourer also has his garden , which is half his support ; and common farmers provide plenty of beans , peas , and greens , for their hinds to eat with their bacon .
Hannah Glasse 's The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy was the best @-@ selling cookery book for a century from its publication in 1747 . It ran to at least 40 editions , and was widely pirated .
= = = Nineteenth century = = =
English cooking was systematized and made available to the middle classes by a series of popular books , their authors becoming household names . One of the first was Mrs Rundell 's A New System of Domestic Cookery , 1806 ; it went through sixty @-@ seven editions by 1844 , selling hundreds of thousands of copies in Britain and America . This was followed by Eliza Acton 's Modern Cookery for Private Families 1845 , which has been called " the greatest cookery book in our language " , but " modern " only in a nineteenth @-@ century sense .
An example recipe from Acton 's Modern Cookery for Private Families is her " Quince Blanc @-@ Mange ( Delicious ) " :
Dissolve in a pint of prepared juice of quinces an ounce of the best isinglass ; next , add ten ounces of sugar , roughly pounded , and stir these together over a clear fire , from twenty to thirty minutes , or until the juice jellies in falling from the spoon . Remove the scum carefully , and pour the boiling jelly gradually to half a pint of thick cream , stirring them briskly together as they are mixed : they must be stirred until very nearly cold , and then poured into a mould which has been rubbed in every part with the smallest possible quantity of very pure salad oil , or if more convenient , into one that has been dipped into cold water .
Acton was supplanted by the most famous English cookery book of the Victorian era , Isabella Beeton 's Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management , 1861 , which sold nearly two million copies up to 1868 . Where Acton 's was a book to be read and enjoyed , Beeton 's , substantially written in later editions by other hands , was a manual of instructions and recipes , to be looked up as needed . Mrs Beeton was substantially plagiarized from authors including Elizabeth Raffald and Acton . The Anglo @-@ Italian cook Charles Elmé Francatelli became a celebrity , cooking for a series of aristocrats , London clubs , and royalty including Queen Victoria . His 1846 book The Modern Cook ran through 29 editions by 1896 , popularising an elaborate cuisine described throughout with French terminology , and offering bills of fare for up to 300 people .
Three of the major hot drinks popular in England , tea , coffee , and chocolate , originated from outside Europe and were already staple items by Victorian times . Catherine of Braganza brought the Portuguese habit of tea to England around 1660 . Initially , its expense restricted it to wealthy consumers , but the price gradually dropped , until by the 19th century its use was widespread . Introduced in the 16th century , coffee became popular by the 17th century , especially in the coffee houses , the first opening in Oxford in 1650 . Hot chocolate was a popular drink by the 17th century , long before it was used as a food . Chocolate bars were developed and marketed by three English Quaker @-@ founded businesses , Joseph Fry 's ( 1847 ) , Rowntree 's ( 1862 ) , and Cadbury 's ( 1868 ) .
= = = Twentieth century = = =
Rationing was introduced in 1940 to ensure that the supply of food , limited by the U @-@ boat blockade of Britain , was distributed fairly . Foods such as bananas , onions and chocolate became hard to find , while unfamiliar items such as dried egg , dried potato , whale meat , the tinned pork product spam , and the " disgusting " imported fish called snoek appeared in the national diet . Since butter , sugar , eggs and flour were all rationed , English dishes such as pies and cakes became hard to make from traditional recipes . Instead , available foods such as carrots were used in many different dishes , their natural sugars providing sweetness in novel dishes like carrot fudge . The diet was less than enjoyable , but paradoxically , rationing meant that the population was healthier than ever before , and perhaps ever since .
Elizabeth David profoundly changed English cooking with her 1950 A Book of Mediterranean Food . Written at a time of food rationing and scarcity , her book began with " perhaps the most evocative and inspirational passage in the history of British cookery writing " :
The cooking of the Mediterranean shores , endowed with all the natural resources , the colour and flavour of the South , is a blend of tradition and brilliant improvisation . The Latin genius flashes from the kitchen pans . It is honest cooking too ; none of the sham Grand Cuisine of the International Palace Hotel
All five of David 's early books remained in print half a century later , and her reputation among cookery writers such as Nigel Slater and Clarissa Dickson Wright is of enormous influence . The historian of food Panikos Panayi suggests that this is because she consciously brought foreign cooking styles into the English kitchen ; she did this with fine writing , and with practical experience of living and cooking in the countries she wrote about . She deliberately destroyed the myths of restaurant cuisine with phrases like " the sham Grand Cuisine of the International Palace Hotel " , instead describing the home cooking of Mediterranean countries . Her books " opened the floodgates " for other cookery writers to use foreign recipes . Post @-@ David celebrity chefs , often ephemeral , included Philip Harben , Fanny Cradock , Graham Kerr ( " the galloping gourmet " ) , and Robert Carrier .
= = Stereotypes = =
In 1953 , Britain 's first celebrity chef , Philip Harben , published Traditional Dishes of Britain . Panayi observes that " The chapter titles simply list the stereotypical stalwarts of the British diet " , from Cornish pasty and Yorkshire pudding to shortbread , Lancashire hotpot , steak and kidney pudding , jellied eels , clotted cream and fish and chips . Panayi notes that Harben begins with contradictions and unsupported claims , naming Britain 's supposed reputation for the worst food in the world , but claiming that the country 's cooks were technically unmatched and that the repertoire of national dishes was the largest of any country 's .
The sociologist Bob Ashley observes that while people in Britain may agree that the core national diet consists of items such as the full English breakfast , roast beef with all the trimmings , tea with scones , and fish and chips , yet
it is highly probable that few British people have ever actually eaten the core diet in any recent single day and it may very well be the case that many Britons do not regularly eat any single item from the list .
In any case , Ashley notes , the national diet changes with time , and cookery books routinely include dishes of foreign origin . He remarks that a National Trust café whose manager remarked " We 're not allowed to do foreign food ... I can 't do lasagne or anything like that " in fact served curry , because " seemingly curry is English " . Anglo @-@ Indian cuisine has indeed been part of the national diet since the eighteenth century .
Many supposedly traditional English dishes are relatively new and can be dated to the century , and sometimes to the year , of their introduction . Thus piccalilli was introduced from India in the 18th century , as recorded by Hannah Glasse who gave a recipe for it in 1758 . Conversely , dishes and sauces still considered foreign , such as fish in sweet and sour sauce , have been in English recipe books since the Middle Ages . Other dishes took their present form only gradually , as with the so @-@ called " Full English breakfast " . Breakfasts of this kind are indeed described in later editions of " Mrs Beeton " , but as one of many variations . Thus her list of " Family Breakfasts for a Week in Winter " has for Wednesday something that looks fairly modern : " bread , muffins , butter , brawn , grilled bacon , boiled eggs " ; but on other days less modern @-@ looking breakfasts include mince , mutton cutlets , grilled kidneys , baked fresh herrings , and hash of cold game or poultry , while suggestions for " Family Breakfasts for a Week in Summer " included sardine toast , cold tongue , kedgeree and rissoles , and " Guests ' Breakfast ( Autumn ) " included cold pheasant , game pie , and pressed beef .
Stereotypes of English cuisine
= = Foreign influence = =
English cookery has been open to foreign ingredients and influence from as early as the thirteenth century , and in the case of a few foods like sausages from Roman times . The Countess of Leicester , daughter of King John purchased large amounts of cinnamon , while King Edward I ordered large quantities of spices such as pepper and ginger , as well as of what was then an expensive imported luxury , sugar . Dickson Wright refutes the popular idea that spices were used to disguise bad meat , pointing out that this would have been as fatal then as it would be today . She suggests instead that spices were used to hide the taste of salt , which was used to preserve food in the absence of refrigeration .
Panayi introduces his book Spicing Up Britain with the words of the English celebrity cook Fanny Cradock : " The English have never had a cuisine . Even Yorkshire pudding comes from Burgundy . " He cites Nicola Humble 's observation that in Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management , there are about the same number of recipes from India as from Wales , Scotland and Ireland together . Panayi created controversy by asserting , with evidence , that fish and chips had foreign origins : the fried fish from Jewish cooking , the potato chips from France ; the dish only became " an important signifier of national identity " from about 1930 . French cuisine powerfully influenced English cooking throughout the nineteenth century , and French celebrity chefs such as the Roux brothers and Raymond Blanc continue to do so in twentyfirst century England .
= = = The role of empire = = =
Curry was created by the arrival of the British in India in the seventeenth century , beginning as bowls of spicy sauce used , Lizzie Collingham writes , to add " bite to the rather bland flavours of boiled and roasted meats . " The 1758 edition of Hannah Glasse 's The Art of Cookery contains what Clarissa Dickson Wright calls a " famous recipe " which describes how " To make a currey the Indian way " ; it flavours chicken with onions fried in butter , the chicken being fried with turmeric , ginger and ground pepper , and stewed in its own stock with cream and lemon juice . Dickson Wright comments that she was " a bit sceptical " of this recipe , as it had few of the expected spices , but was " pleasantly surprised by the end result " which had " a very good and interesting flavour " .
The process of adapting Indian cooking continued for centuries . Anglo @-@ Indian recipes could completely ignore Indian rules of diet , such as by using pork or beef . Some dishes , such as " liver curry , with bacon " were simply ordinary recipes spiced up with ingredients such as curry powder . In other cases like kedgeree , Indian dishes were adapted to British tastes ; khichari was a " simple rice and lentil dish " . Curry was accepted in almost all Victorian era cookery books , such as Eliza Acton 's Modern Cookery for Private Families ( 1845 ) : she offered recipes for curried sweetbreads and curried macaroni , merging Indian and European foods into standard English cooking . By 1895 , curry was included in Dainty Dishes for Slender Incomes , aimed at the poorer classes .
Foreign influence was by no means limited to specific dishes . James Walvin , in his book Fruits of Empire , argues that potatoes , sugar ( entirely imported until around 1900 and the growing of sugar beet ) , tea , and coffee as well as increasing quantities of spices were " Fruits of Empire " that became established in Britain between 1660 and 1800 , so that by the nineteenth century " their exotic origins had been lost in the mists of time " and had become " part of the unquestioned fabric of local life " .
= = = Indian and Anglo @-@ Indian cuisine = = =
Indian cuisine is the most popular alternative to traditional cooking in Britain , followed by Chinese and Italian food . Chicken tikka masala is now considered one of Britain 's most popular dishes .
During the British Raj , Britain first started borrowing Indian dishes , creating Anglo @-@ Indian cuisine , with dishes such as Kedgeree ( 1790 ) and Mulligatawny soup ( 1791 ) .
Indian food was served in coffee houses from 1809 , and cooked at home from a similar date as cookbooks of the time attest . The Veeraswamy restaurant at 99 @-@ 101 Regent Street , London was opened in 1926 , at first serving Anglo @-@ Indian food , and is the oldest surviving Indian restaurant in Britain . There was a sharp increase in the number of curry houses in the 1940s , and again in the 1970s .
The Anglo @-@ Indian dish chicken tikka masala was apparently invented in Glasgow in the early 1970s , while balti cuisine was introduced to Britain in 1977 in Birmingham .
In 2003 , there were roughly 9000 restaurants serving Indian cuisine in Britain . The majority of Indian restaurants in Britain are run by entrepreneurs of Bangladeshi ( often Sylhet ) and Pakistani origin . According to Britain 's Food Standards Agency , the Indian food industry in the United Kingdom was worth £ 3 @.@ 2 billion in 2003 , accounting for two @-@ thirds of all eating out , and serving about 2 @.@ 5 million British customers every week .
Indian restaurants typically allow the diner to combine base ingredients — chicken , prawns or " meat " ( lamb or mutton ) — with curry sauces — from the mild korma to the scorching phall — without regard to the authenticity of the combination . The reference point for flavour and spice heat is the Madras curry sauce ( the name represents the area of India where restaurateurs obtained their spices , rather than an actual dish ) . Other sauces are sometimes variations on a basic curry sauce : for instance , vindaloo is often rendered as a fiery dish of lamb or chicken in a Madras sauce with extra chilli , rather than the Anglo @-@ Indian dish of pork marinated in wine vinegar and garlic , based on a Goan Portuguese dish carne de vinha d 'alhos .
Indian restaurants and their cuisine in Britain gradually improved from the stereotypical flock wallpaper and standardised menus . One of the pioneers was the Bombay Brasserie , which opened in Gloucester Road , London , in 1982 , serving the kind of food actually eaten in India , and has remained fully booked ever since . It was followed in 1990 by Chutney Mary in Chelsea . In 2001 , two Indian restaurants in London , Tamarind ( opened 1995 ) and Zaika ( opened 1999 ) gained Michelin stars for the quality of their cooking . In 2005 , Veeraswamy , the only Indian restaurant in Britain when it opened in Regent Street , London in 1926 , was relaunched as a top @-@ end eatery .
= = = Other influences = = =
Chinese food became established in England by the 1970s , with large cities often having a Chinatown district ; the first , in London 's Soho , developed between the two world wars . Deriving from Cantonese cuisine , the food served by Chinese restaurants , named " Chinese Food Abroad " by Kenneth Lo , has been adapted to suit western taste .
From around 1980 , other South @-@ East Asian cuisines , especially Thai , began to join the established Asian cuisines of China and the Indian subcontinent .
Italian cuisine is the most popular Mediterranean cuisine in England . In its current form , with plenty of pizza and pasta , inspired by Elizabeth David , its rise began after 1945 . There were some Italian restaurants before World War II , but they mostly served a generalised haute cuisine . Soon after the war , Italian coffee bars appeared , the first places to trade on their Italianness ; they soon started to sell simple and cheap Italian food such as minestrone soup , spaghetti bolognese and pizza . From the early 1960s , the slightly more elegant trattoria restaurants offered " Italian specialities " such as lasagne verde al forno ( baked lasagne , coloured with spinach ) .
French cuisine is largely restricted to expensive restaurants , although there are some inexpensive French bistros .
= = Food establishments = =
= = = Cafes and tea shops = = =
The English cafe is a small , inexpensive eating place . A working men 's cafe serves mainly fried or grilled food , such as fried eggs , bacon , bangers and mash ‚ black pudding , bubble and squeak , burgers , sausages , mushrooms and chips . These may be accompanied by baked beans , cooked tomatoes , and fried bread . These are referred to as " breakfast " even if they are available all day . Traditional cafes have declined with the rise of fast @-@ food chains , but remain numerous all over the UK .
A tea shop is a small restaurant that serves soft drinks and light meals , often in a sedate atmosphere . Customers may eat a cream tea or a Devonshire tea , served from a china set , and a scone with jam and clotted cream .
= = = Fish and chip shops = = =
Fish and chips is a hot dish consisting of battered fish , commonly Atlantic cod or haddock , and chips . It is a common take @-@ away food .
Both fried fish and fried chipped potatoes are of late Victorian origin . Panayi cites the Fish Trades Gazette of 29 July 1922 as stating " Later there was introduced into this country the frying and purveying of chip potatoes from France ... which had made the fried fish trade what it is today . " He also notes that The Times recorded that " potatoes chipped and fried in the French manner were introduced in Lancashire with great success about 1871 . " Panayi further observes that fish and chip shops in the 1920s were often run by Jews or Italians . A slightly earlier date is available for chips in London , however , as Dickens 's 1859 A Tale of Two Cities mentions " husky chips of potatoes , fried with some reluctant drops of oil " .
= = = Pub food = = =
The public house , or pub , is a famous English institution . In the mid @-@ 20th century , pubs were drinking establishments with little emphasis on the serving of food , other than " bar snacks " , such as pork scratchings , pickled eggs , salted crisps , and peanuts , which helped to increase beer sales . If a pub served meals these were usually basic cold dishes such as a ploughman 's lunch , invented in the 1950s .
In the 1950s some British pubs started to offer " a pie and a pint " , with hot individual steak and ale pies made easily on the premises by the landlord 's wife . In the 1960s this was developed into the then @-@ fashionable " chicken in a basket " , a portion of roast chicken with chips , served on a napkin , in a wicker basket , by the Mill pub at Withington . Quality dropped but variety increased with the introduction of microwave ovens and freezer food . " Pub grub " expanded to include British food items such as steak and ale pie , steak and kidney pudding , shepherd 's pie , fish and chips , bangers and mash , Sunday roast , and pasties . The gastropub movement of the 21st century , on the other hand , seeks to serve restaurant @-@ quality food , cooked to order from fresh ingredients , in a pub setting . In 1964 , pubs were serving 9 @.@ 1 % of meals eaten outside the home ; this rose rapidly to 37 @.@ 5 % by 1997 .
= = Vegetarianism = =
Modern western vegetarianism was founded in the United Kingdom in 1847 with the world 's first Vegetarian Society . It has increased markedly since the end of World War II , when there were around 100 @,@ 000 vegetarians in the country . By 2003 there were between 3 and 4 million vegetarians in the UK , one of the highest percentages in the Western world , while around 7 million people claim to eat no red meat . By 2015 , 11 of 22 restaurant chains studied by the Vegan Society had at least one vegetarian main course on their menu , though only 6 of these labelled vegan dishes . Top @-@ end vegetarian restaurants remain relatively few , though they are increasing rapidly : there were some 20 in Britain in 2007 , rising to 30 in 2010 .
= = Quality = =
English cuisine in the twentieth century suffered from a poor international reputation . Keith Arscott of Chawton House Library comments that " at one time people didn 't think the English knew how to cook and yet these [ eighteenth and nineteenth century ] female writers were at the forefront of modern day cooking . " English food was popularly supposed to be bland , but English cuisine has made extensive use of spices since the Middle Ages ; introduced curry to Europe ; and makes use of strong flavourings such as English mustard . It was similarly reputed to be dull , like roast beef : but that dish was highly prized both in Britain and abroad , and few people could afford it ; the " Roast Beef of Old England " lauded by William Hogarth in his 1748 painting celebrated the high quality of English cattle , which the French at the " Gate of Calais " ( the other name of his painting ) could only look at with envy . The years of wartime shortages and rationing certainly did impair the variety and flavour of English food during the twentieth century , but the nation 's cooking recovered from this with increasing prosperity and the availability of new ingredients from soon after the Second World War .
In 2005 , 600 food critics writing for the British Restaurant magazine named 14 British restaurants among the 50 best restaurants in the world , the number one being The Fat Duck in Bray , Berkshire and its chef Heston Blumenthal . The global reach of London has elevated it to the status of a leading centre of international cuisine .
Meanwhile , the list of United Kingdom food and drink products with protected status ( PDO ) under European Union law has increased rapidly , with 59 items including Cornish sardines , Yorkshire Wensleydale cheese and Yorkshire forced rhubarb , Fenland celery , West Country lamb and beef and traditional Cumberland sausage listed as registered in 2015 , and a further 13 including Birmingham Balti listed as applied for . By 2016 there were 12 cheeses from England with PDO status .
= Girl with Ball =
Girl with Ball is a 1961 painting by Roy Lichtenstein . It is an oil on canvas Pop art work that is now in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art , after being owned for several decades by Philip Johnson . It is one of Lichtenstein 's earliest Pop art works and is known for its source , which is a newspaper ad that ran for several decades and which was among Lichtenstein 's earliest works sourced from pop culture .
Girl with Ball was exhibited at Lichtenstein 's first solo exhibition and was displayed in Newsweek 's review of the show . This work significantly alters the original source and is considered exemplary of Lichtenstein 's works that exaggerate the mechanically produced appearance although the result of his painterly work . It is an enduring depiction of the contemporary beauty figure .
= = Background = =
Girl with Ball was inspired by a 1961 advertisement for the Mount Airy Lodge in the Pocono Mountains . The ad , which started running in 1955 , was widely published in the New York metropolitan area and elsewhere , including several prominent newspapers such as The New York Times and the Daily News . The advertisement was still running in newspapers more than twenty years after Lichtenstein produced the work .
According to the Lichtenstein Foundation website , in autumn 1961 , a fellow teacher at Rutgers University named Allan Kaprow made introductions between Lichtenstein and Leo Castelli Gallery director Ivan Karp . Lichtenstein showed Karp several paintings including Girl with Ball , which was the one that intrigued Karp . Karp agreed to represent Lichtenstein weeks later . After showing the painting to Andy Warhol , he sold it to architect Philip Johnson that November . The painting appeared in Newsweek 's 1962 review of Lichtenstein 's Castelli Gallery show . The work appeared in the April 3 , 1963 " Pop ! Goes the Easel " show at the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston along with his Brattata ( 1962 ) and Head @-@ Red and Yellow ( 1962 ) .
= = Description = =
Girl with Ball depicts a woman wearing a bathing suit holding a beach ball with red stripes in the same color as her lips and tongue . Lichtenstein used a painter 's version of comic strip artist techniques to create his own rendition of the subject of a nostalgic photograph , resulting in a simplified work of art with its own appeal . He produced the work using Ben @-@ Day dots of primary colors . The process is described as exaggerating the " limitations of mechanical reproduction " to strip the photograph of its polish in a startling and intense form . In 1961 , this painting was groundbreaking . Facial features such as nose and mouth are depicted using " commercial shorthand " .
His process of reworking original artwork is described as " abstraction by subtraction " , in which all features of the original are reduced to simple graphic elements . Lichtenstein alters the planar position of the subject of the picture to position her " nearer to the picture plane " . He drew the picture more distorted than might be expected of a cartoonist by augmenting and focusing on her two @-@ dimensionality .
= = Reception = =
The image and technique were regarded as unartistic . However , the painting presented an allusion to printing technology , with its Ben @-@ Day dots , and to art history , with its " Art Nouveau forms " . Though " crude and simplistic " the work demonstrates artistic intellect .
Girl with Ball is described by Diane Waldman as " striking " in the simple and bold way it presents a vacation atmosphere . She notes it is " reminiscent of Picasso 's frolicking bather in one of his paintings on the subject , Bather with Beach Ball ( fig . 48 ) , 1932 , " especially in the way Lichtenstein has scaled down the representation and the way he depicts movement .
The newspaper ad source provided Lichtenstein with " one of the most common tropes of the day for the image of a woman . " The updated Betty Grable @-@ type subject , was a fashionable glamor figure that Lichtenstein used for a symbolic value that ranks her with " iconoclastic female figures , including Manet 's Olympia , 1863 , Picasso 's Les Demoiselles d 'Avignon , 1907 and de Kooning 's three series of Women " .
= St Edwen 's Church , Llanedwen =
St Edwen 's Church , Llanedwen is a 19th @-@ century parish church near the Menai Strait , in Anglesey , north Wales . The first church was founded here by St Edwen ( daughter of Edwin of Northumbria , king and saint ) in 640 , but the present structure dates from 1856 and was designed by Henry Kennedy , the architect of the Diocese of Bangor . It contains some memorials from the 17th and 18th centuries and a reading desk that reuses panel work from the 14th and 17th centuries . The 18th @-@ century historian Henry Rowlands was vicar here , and is buried in the churchyard . The church is on land that forms part of the Plas Newydd estate , home of the family of the Marquess of Anglesey since 1812 and owned by the National Trust . Some of the Marquesses of Anglesey , and some of their employees , are also buried in the churchyard .
The church is used for worship by the Church in Wales , one of seven in a combined parish . A service is held using the Book of Common Prayer each Sunday morning . St Edwen 's is one of the few churches in regular use in Wales to be lit entirely by candles . It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is regarded as " a good example of H Kennedy 's designs for a small @-@ scale rural church . "
= = History and location = =
St Edwen 's Church is in the south of Anglesey , north Wales , in a rural area known as Llanedwen . It is about 5 miles ( 8 km ) from the county town of Llangefni , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the A4080 road between Llanfairpwllgwyngyll and Brynsiencyn and about 250 metres ( 270 yds ) from the Menai Strait that separates Anglesey from the rest of Wales . The church is on land that forms part of the Plas Newydd estate , which has been the home of the family of the Marquess of Anglesey since 1812 ; some of the former marquesses and their employees are buried in the churchyard . Plas Newydd and its grounds are now owned by the National Trust . The area of Llanedwen takes its name from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " .
According to the 19th @-@ century Anglesey historian Angharad Llwyd , the first church in the area was established by St Edwen in 640 . Nothing is known of Edwen 's life , but according to the manuscript sources , she was the daughter – perhaps the illegitimate daughter – or the niece of Edwin of Northumbria , a king who converted to Christianity in 627 and who was venerated as a saint after his death in 633 . The 12th @-@ century writer Geoffrey of Monmouth said that Edwin was born whilst his mother was taking refuge in north Wales with Cadfan ap Iago .
Llwyd described the church in 1833 as " a small but neat edifice , of great antiquity " . In 1840 , the church was rebuilt by John Welch . Writing in 1847 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that St Edwen 's was in the Early Perpendicular style , although its windows had been replaced , and measured 52 by 16 feet ( 16 by 5 m ) . The Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited in May 1850 . He said that it was " a very small church in a lovely situation " , which had " a beautiful view over the Menai " .
In 1856 , the church seen by Llwyd , Jones and Glynne was demolished and the present structure was erected , designed by Henry Kennedy , architect of the Diocese of Bangor . The only part of the old church to survive was some of the stonework at the base of the west wall . Some repair work was carried out in 1956 .
St Edwen 's , which is used for worship by the Church in Wales , is one of seven churches in the combined benefice ( churches grouped together under an incumbent priest ) of Bro Dwynwen . A service is held every Sunday morning using the 1662 Book of Common Prayer , either Holy Communion or Morning Prayer ; there are no midweek services . The parish is within the deanery of Synod Ynys Mon , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2016 , the priest in charge is the Reverend E Roberts and the associate priest is Canon Professor Leslie Francis .
People associated with the church include Henry Rowlands , vicar of St Nidan 's , Llanidan , and its associated churches ( including St Edwen 's ) in the first part of the 18th century . He wrote a history of Anglesey entitled Mona Antiqua Restaurata , published in 1723 . He is buried in the churchyard to the west of the door . His tombstone is inscribed in Latin with the words : " All things are nought save what he gave to needy ones . These have force when arts perish and writings fall to pieces . " William Bulkeley Hughes , who lived in the parish and died in 1882 , is also buried in the churchyard . He was a Member of Parliament for 40 years . The churchyard contains one Commonwealth war grave , of a First World War officer of the Westmorland and Cumberland Yeomanry .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Edwen 's is built from local red gritstone , formed into square blocks and dressed with sandstone . The roof is made from slate with stone edging . The church , which is in the Late Decorated style , has a tower topped with a broach spire at the north @-@ west corner of the nave , supported by buttresses . The church is entered through a porch with an arched doorway in the lowest of the three stages of the tower . Inside , the woodwork of the roof is exposed ; some of the nave timbers might be medieval beams reused in the 1856 rebuilding . The nave and chancel are divided by an arch and by three steps leading up from the nave . The chancel and sanctuary are separated by an altar rail set on top of some wooden panels .
There is a pair of windows in the west wall decorated with tracery ( stonework within the window frame forming a pattern ) . Scenes from the Bible and geometric patterns are shown in the stained glass , and birds ( phoenix and peacock ) are depicted at the top of the windows . The glass is dedicated to Rice Robert Hughes , a clergyman who died in 1801 . There are three arched windows in the south wall of the nave ; the stained glass of the easternmost ( dedicated to William Bulkeley Hughes ) shows biblical scenes . The easternmost window of the three in the north wall of the nave is dedicated to Thomas Bulkeley Hughes ( who died in 1836 ) , his wife and children . The chancel has one window in the east wall , which has three lights ( sections of window separated by stone mullions ) .
The pulpit has some 19th @-@ century oak panelling and reuses some ornate 17th @-@ century panel work that is decorated with pictures of cherubs , dragons , dogs and lions ' heads . The pews are made of pine ; the choir stalls also have some carved oak panels that may date from the 17th century . A reading desk from the 19th century reuses material from the 14th and 17th centuries , depicting a lion , a griffin and angels . The church also has an eight @-@ sided sandstone font decorated with a carved cross .
A survey in 1937 by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire recorded seven 17th and 18th century memorials within the church , the oldest in memory of a Thomas Owen who died in 1646 . The tombs in the churchyard include one of a Sidney Griffith ( died 1618 ) and more than 20 others from the 17th and 18th centuries . The survey also noted some oak dog tongs , likely to be from the 19th century , and three 17th @-@ century chairs .
A survey of church plate within the Bangor diocese in 1906 recorded an engraved chalice dated 1842 and a paten dated 1776 – 77 ; both are made from silver and are decorated with foliage . A silver flagon bears an inscription to denote that it was given by William Bulkeley Hughes when the new church was consecrated in 1856 . The survey also noted a flagon from about 1700 and a dish , both made of pewter , but said that an 18th @-@ century silver chalice had been lost some time after 1811 . St Edwen 's is one of the few churches in regular use in Wales to be lit only by candles .
= = Assessment = =
St Edwen 's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 23 April 1998 , and has been listed because it is seen as " a good example of H Kennedy 's designs for a small @-@ scale rural church " . Cadw ( the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes the fittings that incorporate " some fine carved work of the 14th and 17th centuries . "
Sabine Baring @-@ Gould , writing in 1908 , said that the rebuilt church was " wholly devoid of interest " . A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region notes that the Incorporated Church Building Society ( active in the 19th century ) considered Kennedy 's design was " inconsistent with the gravity of feeling which pervades the ancient churches of Wales . "
Harry Longueville Jones wrote in 1847 that the churchyard was " one of the most interesting in Anglesey , from its picturesque appearance and situation . " A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey describes St Edwen 's as " a good example of an unspoilt 19th century country church " , adding that is " little changed since it was built . " It says that it is in a " tranquil spot " , and notes that it is a landmark " visible from a considerable distance " .
= 2014 Russian Grand Prix =
The 2014 Russian Grand Prix ( formally known as the 2014 Formula 1 Russian Grand Prix ; Russian : Гран @-@ при России 2014 года ) was a Formula One motor race held on 12 October 2014 . The fifty @-@ three lap race was held at the Sochi Autodrom , a brand new circuit built on the site of the 2014 Winter Olympics in the city of Sochi in Krasnodar Krai , Russia .
The race was the sixteenth round of the 2014 season , following on from the Japanese Grand Prix at Suzuka one week previously , and preceding the United States Grand Prix at the Circuit of the Americas . The race marked the first time that the Russian Grand Prix had been held in a century , and was also the first time the Russian Grand Prix was run as a round of the Formula One World Championship since the championship was formed in 1950 .
Lewis Hamilton in a Mercedes won the race after starting from pole position and leading every lap . His team @-@ mate Nico Rosberg finished second , after working his way up from the back of field after having to make an unscheduled pit stop on the first lap . Williams 's Valtteri Bottas completed the podium , having set the fastest lap — and a new lap record — on the final lap of the race . Following Jules Bianchi 's serious accident in the Japanese Grand Prix , Marussia entered a single car for Max Chilton , leaving the grid with twenty @-@ one cars . The race ultimately proved to be Marussia 's last of the season , as the team went into administration ahead of the next race in the United States .
The result secured the World Constructors ' Championship for Mercedes with three races remaining in the season , while Hamilton extended his World Drivers ' Championship lead over Rosberg to seventeen points . Bottas 's podium allowed him to overtake Fernando Alonso and Sebastian Vettel in the drivers ' standings .
= = Background = =
= = = Preparations = = =
With the circuit being built on the site of the 2014 Winter Olympics , the International Olympic Committee voiced concerns that construction would interrupt preparations for the Olympics , and so were given the power to postpone the inaugural Russian Grand Prix until the 2015 season if preparations for the race interfered with the Winter Olympics . However , the Olympic Games started without interruption , and the IOC did not exercise their power . FIA Race Director Charlie Whiting inspected the circuit in the week before the 2014 Belgian Grand Prix and gave it the FIA 's final seal of approval , allowing the race to go ahead .
In September 2014 , the circuit hosted a round of the Russian Touring Car Championship as preparation for the Grand Prix .
= = = Controversy = = =
Following the shooting down of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 over eastern Ukraine in July 2014 and amid allegations of Russian involvement in the incident and the Russian military intervention in the country , there were calls from the British Conservative Party for Formula One to abandon the race as part of sanctions placed on the Russian government , as the race was established with financial support from the government . Similar suggestions were made from British and German parliamentarians over Russia 's hosting of the 2018 FIFA World Cup .
When responding to questions about the race — and humanitarian concerns over the revival of the European Grand Prix in Azerbaijan given Azerbaijan 's human rights record — Red Bull Racing team principal Christian Horner refused to offer any kind of judgement , pointing out that it was the responsibility of the FIA to monitor the situation and act accordingly ; a position supported by Mercedes director Toto Wolff . Bernie Ecclestone , CEO of the sport 's commercial rights holder , publicly stated that he had " no doubts " about the race taking place in the wake of the crash , and distanced the sport from ongoing political debates . With Russia facing increased economic sanctions from the European Union and United States , deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Kozak noted that the Grand Prix would not be affected in the event such sanctions were implemented , and the race went ahead as scheduled . Both Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Kozak were in attendance , with Putin presenting the race winner 's trophy .
= = = Support events = = =
The GP2 and GP3 Series — a pair of feeder championships for drivers preparing for Formula One — also made their début at the circuit , racing in support of the Grand Prix as the penultimate round of the 2014 GP2 and GP3 championships .
= = Report = =
= = = Pre @-@ event = = =
= = = = Marussia entry = = = =
Marussia driver Jules Bianchi suffered serious head injuries at the Japanese Grand Prix when he crashed into a tractor trying to recover Adrian Sutil 's Sauber under yellow @-@ flag conditions , ruling him out of the Russian Grand Prix . Per FIA regulations , the team entered two cars , with Alexander Rossi , their testing and reserve driver , being named as Bianchi 's replacement for the event . However , before Friday 's practice sessions and with FIA approval , the team opted not to run the second Marussia MR03 car and Max Chilton was their sole representative , leaving the grid with twenty @-@ one cars . As a sign of respect to Bianchi and his family , the team built up and placed his car in his side of the garage and had his livery placed on the walls for duration of the weekend .
= = = = = Tributes to Jules Bianchi = = = = =
There were several tributes at this Grand Prix to show support for Bianchi :
Marussia adopted a " # JB17 " livery on the cockpit sides of its sole participating car ;
Drivers wore a sticker on their helmets saying " Tous avec Jules # 17 " , and held a one @-@ minute silence just before the race .
= = = = Penalties = = = =
Pastor Maldonado incurred a ten @-@ place penalty at the Japanese Grand Prix for exceeding his quota of five engine components for the season . However , as he qualified seventeenth , he was unable to take the full penalty as doing so would move him past twenty @-@ second and last place on the grid . Under new rules introduced for the 2014 season , the remainder of the penalty was carried over to the Russian Grand Prix , automatically giving him a five @-@ place penalty .
= = = = Tyres = = = =
Tyre supplier Pirelli announced that they would be providing teams with their medium @-@ compound tyre as a " prime " tyre and the soft @-@ compound as the " option " tyre for the Grand Prix to cope with the brand @-@ new surface and to tolerate the high lateral loads placed on the tyre , particularly through turn 4 , an elongated constant @-@ radius corner with estimated speeds of 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) that stands out as the longest corner on the 2014 Formula One calendar .
= = = = Drag reduction system = = = =
Two drag reduction system ( DRS ) zones were introduced for the race . The detection point for the first was located on the entry to turn 1 , with the activation zone placed on the apex of the corner . The second detection point was positioned along the circuit 's back straight , with the activation zone encompassing turns 12 and 13 .
= = = Free practice = = =
In accordance with the 2014 regulations , three free practice sessions were held . Two one and a half @-@ hour sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session on Saturday morning . Per the regulations the teams were allowed to replace one of their regular drivers with a test and reserve driver during the first two sessions . Mercedes 's Nico Rosberg set the fastest time in the first free practice session , seven hundredths of a second ahead of team @-@ mate Lewis Hamilton , and two tenths of a second faster than McLaren 's Jenson Button . Elsewhere , Williams 's Valtteri Bottas carried out limited running after the tyre blankets designed to keep his tyres at the optimal operating temperature were found to have failed , damaging his tyres . Russian driver Sergey Sirotkin made his Formula One début , driving for Sauber in the place of Esteban Gutiérrez . He finished the session seventeenth overall , two and a half seconds slower than Rosberg and four tenths of a second behind Sauber teammate Adrian Sutil . Roberto Merhi also took part , driving in the place of Caterham 's Kamui Kobayashi in his third appearance of the season for the team .
Hamilton led the way in the second free practice session , finishing eight tenths of a second ahead of Kevin Magnussen and Ferrari 's Fernando Alonso . Rosberg finished fourth , though he made a mistake on his final flying lap . Hamilton was again fastest in the third practice session , three tenths of a second quicker than Rosberg , with Bottas in third . Several drivers encountered trouble whilst simulating a qualifying lap , most notably Magnussen , who damaged his suspension after running wide over a kerb ; and Hamilton , who spun at the penultimate corner , narrowly avoiding the wall . Pastor Maldonado was unable to set a lap time after his energy recovery system failed . Aided by practice and qualifying sessions from the GP2 and GP3 Series support categories , the track evolved to the point where drivers were setting lap times three and a half seconds quicker ahead of qualifying than they had been at the start of the weekend .
Following the first day 's running , officials made several changes to the circuit , including the installation of speed bumps in the turn 2 – 3 run @-@ off area to discourage drivers from deliberately running wide to carry more speed into turn 4 , a practice that had been observed during the free practice and qualifying sessions for the GP2 and GP3 races . The pit lane speed was also revised from 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) to 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) to address concerns over the narrow pit entry and its tight corners .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Normally qualifying consists of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with six drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . However , with Marussia 's permission to run a single car for the race , the qualifying procedure was revised , with five drivers — instead of the usual six — eliminated at the end of the first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) .
Lewis Hamilton topped the first period , going under 1 : 39 @.@ 000 for the first time all weekend . Nico Rosberg was a close second , with Valtteri Bottas the only other driver within a second of Hamilton 's lap time . Marcus Ericsson was eliminated in seventeenth place , once again out @-@ qualifying team @-@ mate Kamui Kobayashi , who finished nineteenth . After struggling with another engine fault , Pastor Maldonado could only set a time good enough for twentieth , out @-@ qualifying the sole Marussia of Max Chilton . Williams driver Felipe Massa proved to be a shock elimination , struggling with a fuel flow issue that left him down on power ; he was recorded going through the speed trap on the approach to turn 2 some 23 km / h ( 14 mph ) slower than Bottas , the fastest driver through the speed trap , and qualified eighteenth for his first Q1 elimination since the British Grand Prix .
Hamilton , Rosberg and Bottas once again led the way in Q2 , which saw several drivers in a close fight to avoid elimination . Having struggled with a lack of pace over the course of the weekend , Sebastian Vettel missed out on a Q3 berth by a tenth of a second . He was followed by the Force Indias of Nico Hülkenberg in twelfth and Sergio Pérez in thirteenth , while Esteban Gutiérrez out @-@ qualified Adrian Sutil to give the Saubers fourteenth and fifteenth . Romain Grosjean was the final driver eliminated in Q2 despite having improved upon his Q1 time .
The Mercedes drivers continued to dominate in the final twelve @-@ minute period , but the rapid evolution of the circuit came to an abrupt halt after the first timed laps , and neither Hamilton nor Rosberg were able to improve their times , leaving Hamilton with provisional pole . Despite the lap times dropping off , Valtteri Bottas was able to best Hamilton 's time through the first two sectors , and maintained a pace that suggested he could steal a maiden pole position until he made an unforced error in the final corner . Jenson Button finished fourth , with Kevin Magnussen proving McLaren 's newfound performance was no accident in sixth . Daniil Kvyat secured a career @-@ best fifth place in his home Grand Prix , while Daniel Ricciardo out @-@ qualified team @-@ mate Vettel for the eleventh time in 2014 with seventh . Ferrari endured their most difficult qualifying session since the British Grand Prix , with Fernando Alonso and Kimi Räikkönen closely matched , but over two seconds behind Hamilton . Jean @-@ Éric Vergne finished tenth overall , ensuring two Toro Rossos in the top ten .
= = = = Post @-@ qualifying = = = =
Kevin Magnussen and Nico Hülkenberg received five @-@ place grid penalties for gearbox changes , demoting them to eleventh and seventeenth place respectively . Pastor Maldonado qualified in twentieth which became twenty @-@ first once his carry @-@ over penalty was applied . Maldonado and Max Chilton also received a five @-@ place penalty for a gearbox change .
= = = Race = = =
At the start of the race , Nico Rosberg attempted to out @-@ brake Lewis Hamilton into turn 2 , but locked both of his front wheels , running wide and creating a flat spot on both tyres . After returning the position to Hamilton , he pitted at the end of the lap , as the flat spots would create a vibration in the car given the high speeds and lateral loading on the tyres . He immediately changed to the harder Prime compound , with the team switching to a strategy that called for him to do the next fifty @-@ two laps of the race on a single set of tyres . Rosberg took advantage of the pit strategies of other drivers and the straight @-@ line speed of his car to gradually work his way through the field . Behind him , Felipe Massa attempted to replicate his strategy , also pitting on the first lap , but switching to the softer Option compound . He was less successful that Rosberg , hampered by slower mid @-@ field drivers .
At the front of the field , Valtteri Bottas was able to keep up with Hamilton during the early stages of the race , but Hamilton was able to gradually build up a forty @-@ second lead by the time of the first — and only — round of pit stops , giving him enough of a buffer to pit without losing the lead , even when faced with the lowered speed limit and lengthy pit lane of the Sochi Autodrom . Hamilton was unchallenged throughout the race , ultimately winning by thirteen seconds ahead of Rosberg following his recovery and giving the team their ninth one @-@ two finish of the season . Bottas finished in third , his fifth podium of the season , having been overtaken by Rosberg on track . Despite having fresher tyres and setting a series of laps among the fastest in the race — including the fastest lap and the official lap record — he was unable to catch Rosberg in the final laps .
McLaren drivers Jenson Button and Kevin Magnussen finished fourth and fifth , giving Mercedes @-@ powered cars the top five places in the final standings . McLaren attempted to adjust Button 's strategy to place ahead of Rosberg after his pit stop , but were powerless to prevent Rosberg from overtaking . Magnussen spent the early phase of the race in a strategy battle with Fernando Alonso , Daniel Ricciardo and Sebastian Vettel , which he ultimately won . Alonso finished in sixth , the first non @-@ Mercedes @-@ powered driver across the line , having spent most of the race fending off Ricciardo . After spending most of the weekend struggling with an under @-@ powered and under @-@ performing car , Vettel secured four World Championship points with eighth place . Kimi Räikkönen and Sergio Pérez completed the top ten .
Felipe Massa 's attempt at replicating Rosberg 's strategy failed , leaving him outside the points in eleventh place , ahead of Nico Hülkenberg . Despite qualifying in fifth and tenth , Toro Rosso drivers Daniil Kvyat and Jean @-@ Éric Vergne finished in fourteenth and thirteenth place respectively , having been forced to race conservatively in the face of high fuel consumption and a predicted 12 ° C ( 22 ° F ) drop in temperature in the final stages of the race , which never eventuated . Esteban Gutiérrez led Sauber team @-@ mate Adrian Sutil across the line one lap down with the latter 's race having been disrupted by contact with Romain Grosjean at turn 2 for which Grosjean was punished with a five @-@ second stop / go penalty . Grosjean ultimately finished seventeenth ahead of Pastor Maldonado , with Marcus Ericsson the final classified finisher in nineteenth place , two laps behind Hamilton .
The race saw two retirements , with Kamui Kobayashi forced out on lap twenty @-@ one with what the team described as a brake issue , though Kobayashi later suggested that Caterham had deliberately retired the car to avoid damaging its power unit ahead of the
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's best goalkeeper in the 2007 season .
Kinský played for his country on five occasions . He was part of the Czech Republic squad at UEFA Euro 2004 and the 2006 FIFA World Cup , although he played at neither tournament .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Kinský played for a number of clubs in his early career , including Dukla Prague , after which he moved to Bohemians 1905 . He later spent time on loan at Motorlet Prague and EMĚ Mělník . Kinský won promotion with FC Dukla to the Gambrinus Liga , where he played for one season .
= = = Liberec = = =
Kinský joined FC Slovan Liberec in 1998 , reaching the final of the 1998 – 99 Czech Cup in his first season . In the summer of 1999 Kinský broke his thumb , resultantly not playing for the autumn half of the 1999 – 2000 season and subsequently sharing goalkeeping duties with Zbyněk Hauzr in the spring . Liberec finished the season by winning the 1999 – 2000 Czech Cup .
In July 2000 , Kinský was diagnosed with infectious mononucleosis , receiving treatment at the Střešovice military hospital in Prague and resultantly being unable to play in the autumn part of the 2000 – 01 season . The following season , he recorded consecutive clean sheets at the beginning of the campaign . Liberec went on to reach the quarter finals of the 2001 – 02 UEFA Cup and won the 2001 – 02 Gambrinus liga .
During a UEFA Cup match in the Georgian capital of Tbilisi in October 2002 , Kinský was targeted by bottles thrown onto the pitch from the crowd as the home team was defeated 1 – 0 in the match and 4 – 2 on aggregate . Three policemen were injured in the incident . He played in goal in a 4 – 0 league defeat against Viktoria Žižkov in October 2002 , a game he described as " probably the worst match in my life . " November 2002 was more successful for Kinský as he saved two penalties in a UEFA Cup penalty shootout , after the second round tie against Ipswich Town had ended level after extra time . Resultantly Liberec qualified for the third round of the competition , although Kinský missed both matches against Panathinaikos due to injury . Kinský 's contract at Liberec was due to expire in the summer of 2004 and he failed to agree a contract extension with the club during the 2003 – 04 season . He left having made a total of 137 appearances in the top division of Czech football .
= = = Russia = = =
Kinský joined Russian side Saturn Ramenskoye in January 2004 , initially signing a three @-@ year contract . Kinský joined the team on 6 January in Turkey at their training camp ahead of the 2004 Russian Premier League . He started the first six matches of the 2004 season as a substitute , before becoming the club 's first @-@ choice goalkeeper . In 2005 he was vice captain for the team , captaining the side in the absence of captain Viktor Onopko .
Following the 2006 World Cup , Kinský signed a contract extension to stay at the club for another three years . He was named the best goalkeeper of the Russian Football Premier League in 2007 . He kept his 100th top division clean sheet in a match against Tomsk in September 2008 , becoming the 17th Czech goalkeeper to reach this figure . In October 2008 , Kinský was offered the chance to move to Chelsea to be the backup goalkeeper for Petr Čech , an offer which he rejected . In November 2010 Kinský played his 200th competitive match for the club . Before the last game of the 2010 season , he was presented with a football shirt with the number 201 on it , intended to represent the number of games he had played for the club . However , due to injury Kinský was unable to take part in the match , so 200 was his actual number of competitive appearances . He left Saturn upon the expiry of his contract in December 2010 .
= = = Post @-@ playing career = = =
Kinský became a goalkeeping coach for the youth team of FC Tempo Prague after finishing his playing career , stating his desire to work as a goalkeeping coach in professional football in the future , but not as a head coach .
= = International career = =
Kinský played for the under @-@ 17 team of Czechoslovakia in 1992 , making two appearances . He went on to make three appearances for the Czech Republic national under @-@ 21 football team in 1997 .
Kinský was called up to the Czech Republic national team by coach Karel Brückner before their participation in two friendly matches in Cyprus in February 2002 . He was one of three uncapped goalkeepers named in the squad , the others being Petr Čech and Martin Vaniak . He made his debut in Cyprus on 13 February , playing the second half of the game against the host country in a 4 – 3 win .
Kinský was named in the Czech Republic squad for two major tournaments , UEFA Euro 2004 and the 2006 FIFA World Cup , but didn 't play in either competition . He played in a total of five matches for his national team between 2002 and 2004 . He also made one appearance for the " A2 " team of his country in 2006 , playing the second half of a match against Turkey B on 1 March .
= = Personal life = =
Kinský studied Russian at school . He and his wife , Martina , have two children , Tonda and Andrea , who both take part in sports . His son played youth football for FC Tempo Prague in 2012 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
Source :
= = = International = = =
Source :
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Slovan Liberec
Gambrinus Liga : 2001 – 02
Czech Cup : 1999 – 2000
= = = Country = = =
Czech Republic
UEFA European Championship semi @-@ finalist : 2004
= Pyxis =
Pyxis ( / ˈpɪksᵻs / ; Greek : box ) is a small and faint constellation in the southern sky . Abbreviated from Pyxis Nautica , its name is Latin for a mariner 's compass ( contrasting with Circinus , which represents a draftsman 's compasses ) . Pyxis was introduced by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille in the 18th century , and is counted among the 88 modern constellations . The constellation is located close to those forming the old constellation of the ship Argo Navis , and in the 19th century astronomer John Herschel suggested renaming Pyxis to Malus , the mast , but the suggestion was not followed . Pyxis is completely visible from latitudes south of 53 degrees north , with its best evening @-@ sky visibility in February and March .
The plane of the Milky Way passes through Pyxis . A faint constellation , its three brightest stars — Alpha , Beta and Gamma Pyxidis — are in a rough line . At magnitude 3 @.@ 68 , Alpha is the constellation 's brightest star . It is a blue @-@ white star around 22 @,@ 000 times as luminous as the Sun . Near Alpha is T Pyxidis , a recurrent nova that has flared up to magnitude 7 every few decades . Three star systems have planets , all discovered by doppler spectroscopy .
= = History = =
In ancient Chinese astronomy , Alpha , Beta and Gamma Pyxidis formed part of Tianmiao , a celestial temple honouring the ancestors of the emperor , along with stars from neighbouring Antlia .
The French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille first described the constellation in French as la Boussole ( the Marine Compass ) in 1752 , after he had observed and catalogued almost 10 @,@ 000 southern stars during a two @-@ year stay at the Cape of Good Hope . He devised fourteen new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe . All but one honoured instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment . Lacaille Latinised the name to Pixis [ sic ] Nautica on his 1763 chart . The Ancient Greeks identified the four main stars of Pyxis as the mast of the great ship Argo Navis .
German astronomer Johann Bode defined the constellation Lochium Funis , the Log and Line — a nautical device once used for measuring speed and distance travelled at sea — around Pyxis in his 1801 star atlas , but the depiction did not survive . In 1844 John Herschel attempted to resurrect the classical configuration of Argo Navis by renaming it Malus the Mast , a suggestion followed by Francis Baily , but Benjamin Gould restored Lacaille 's nomenclature .
= = Characteristics = =
Covering 220 @.@ 8 square degrees and hence 0 @.@ 535 % of the sky , Pyxis ranks 65th of the 88 modern constellations by area . Its position in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of 52 ° N. It is most visible in the evening sky in February and March . A small constellation , it is bordered by Hydra to the north , Puppis to the west , Vela to the south , and Antlia to the east . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' Pyx ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of eight sides ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 8h 27.7m and 9h 27.6m , while the declination coordinates are between − 17 @.@ 41 ° and − 37 @.@ 29 ° .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Lacaille gave Bayer designations to ten stars now named Alpha to Lambda Pyxidis , skipping the Greek letters iota and kappa . Although a nautical element , the constellation was not an integral part of the old Argo Navis and hence did not share in the original Bayer designations of that constellation , which were split between Carina , Vela and Puppis . Pyxis is a faint constellation , its three brightest stars — Alpha , Beta and Gamma Pyxidis — form a rough line . Overall , there are 41 stars within the constellation 's borders with apparent magnitudes brighter than or equal to 6 @.@ 5 .
With an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 68 , Alpha Pyxidis is the brightest star in the constellation . Located 880 ± 30 light @-@ years distant from Earth , it is a blue @-@ white giant star of spectral type B1.5III that is around 22 @,@ 000 times as luminous as the Sun and has 9 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 7 times its diameter . It began life with a mass 12 @.@ 1 ± 0 @.@ 6 times that of the Sun , almost 15 million years ago . Its light is dimmed by 30 % due to interstellar dust , so would have a brighter magnitude of 3 @.@ 31 if not for this . The second brightest star at magnitude 3 @.@ 97 is Beta Pyxidis , a yellow bright giant or supergiant of spectral type G7Ib @-@ II that is around 435 times as luminous as the Sun , lying 420 ± 10 light @-@ years distant away from Earth . It has a companion star of magnitude 12 @.@ 5 separated by 9 arcseconds . Gamma Pyxidis is a star of magnitude 4 @.@ 02 that lies 207 ± 2 light @-@ years distant . It is an orange giant of spectral type K3III that has cooled and swollen to 3 @.@ 7 times the diameter of the Sun after exhausting its core hydrogen .
Kappa Pyxidis was catalogued but not given a Bayer designation by Lacaille , however Gould felt the star was bright enough to warrant a letter . Kappa has a magnitude of 4 @.@ 62 and is 560 ± 50 light @-@ years distant . An orange giant of spectral type K4 / K5III , Kappa has a luminosity approximately 965 times that of the Sun . It is separated by 2 @.@ 1 arcseconds from a magnitude 10 star . Theta Pyxidis is a red giant of spectral type M1III and semi @-@ regular variable with two measured periods of 13 and 98 @.@ 3 days , and an average magnitude of 4 @.@ 71 , and is 500 ± 30 light @-@ years distant from Earth . It has expanded to approximately 54 times the diameter of the Sun .
Located around 4 degrees northeast of Alpha is T Pyxidis , a binary star system composed of a white dwarf with around 0 @.@ 8 times the Sun 's mass and a red dwarf that orbit each other every 1 @.@ 8 hours . This system is located around 15 @,@ 500 light @-@ years away from Earth . A recurrent nova , it has brightened to the 7th magnitude in the years 1890 , 1902 , 1920 , 1944 , 1966 and 2011 from a baseline of around 14th magnitude . These outbursts are thought to be due to the white dwarf accreting material from its companion and ejecting periodically .
TY Pyxidis is an eclipsing binary star whose apparent magnitude ranges from 6 @.@ 85 to 7 @.@ 5 over 3 @.@ 2 days . The two components are both of spectral type G5IV with a diameter 2 @.@ 2 times , and mass 1 @.@ 2 times that of the Sun , and revolve around each other every 3 @.@ 2 days . The system is classified as a RS Canum Venaticorum variable , a binary system with prominent starspot activity , and lies 184 ± 5 light @-@ years away . The system emits X @-@ rays , and analysing the emission curve over time led researchers to conclude that there was a loop of material arcing between the two stars . RZ Pyxidis is another eclipsing binary system , made up of two young stars less than 200 @,@ 000 years old . Both are hot blue @-@ white stars of spectral type B7V and are around 2 @.@ 5 times the size of the Sun . One is around five times as luminous as the Sun and the other around four times as luminous . The system is classified as a Beta Lyrae variable , the apparent magnitude varying from 8 @.@ 83 to 9 @.@ 72 over 0 @.@ 66 days . XX Pyxidis is one of the more @-@ studied members of a class of stars known as Delta Scuti variables — short period ( six hours at most ) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology . Astronomers made more sense of its pulsations when it became clear that it is also a binary star system . The main star is a white main sequence star of spectral type A4V that is around 1 @.@ 85 ± 0 @.@ 05 times as massive as the Sun . Its companion is most likely a red dwarf of spectral type M3V , around 0 @.@ 3 times as massive as the Sun . The two are very close — possibly only 3 times the diameter of the Sun between them — and orbit each other every 1 @.@ 15 days . The brighter star is deformed into an egg shape .
AK Pyxidis is a red giant of spectral type M5III and semi @-@ regular variable that varies between magnitudes 6 @.@ 09 and 6 @.@ 51 . Its pulsations take place over multiple periods simultaneously of 55 @.@ 5 , 57 @.@ 9 , 86 @.@ 7 , 162 @.@ 9 and 232 @.@ 6 days . UZ Pyxidis is another semi @-@ regular variable red giant , this time a carbon star , that is around 3560 times as luminous as the Sun with a surface temperature of 3482 K , located some 2116 light @-@ years away from Earth . It varies between magnitudes 6 @.@ 99 and 7 @.@ 83 over 159 days . VY Pyxidis is a BL Herculis variable ( type II Cepheid ) , ranging between apparent magnitudes 7 @.@ 13 and 7 @.@ 40 over a period of 1 @.@ 24 days . Located around 650 light @-@ years distant , it shines with a luminosity approximately 45 times that of the Sun .
The closest star to Earth in the constellation is Gliese 318 , a white dwarf of spectral class DA5 and magnitude 11 @.@ 85 . Its distance has been calculated to be 26 light @-@ years , or 28 @.@ 7 ± 0 @.@ 5 light @-@ years distant from Earth . It has around 45 % of the Sun 's mass , yet only 0 @.@ 15 % of its luminosity . WISEPC J083641.12 @-@ 185947 @.@ 2 is a brown dwarf of spectral type T8p located around 72 light @-@ years from Earth . Discovered by infrared astronomy in 2011 , it has a magnitude of 18 @.@ 79
= = = Planetary systems = = =
Pyxis is home to three stars with confirmed planetary systems — all discovered by doppler spectroscopy . A hot Jupiter , HD 73256 b , that orbits HD 73256 every 2 @.@ 55 days , was discovered using the CORALIE spectrograph in 2003 . The host star is a yellow star of spectral type G9V that has 69 % of our Sun 's luminosity , 89 % of its diameter and 105 % of its mass . Around 119 light @-@ years away , it shines with an apparent magnitude of 8 @.@ 08 and is around a billion years old . HD 73267 b was discovered with the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher ( HARPS ) in 2008 . It orbits HD 73267 every 1260 days , a 7 billion year @-@ old star of spectral type G5V that is around 89 % as massive as the Sun . A red dwarf of spectral type M2.5V that has around 42 % the Sun 's mass , Gliese 317 is orbited by two gas giant planets . Around 50 light @-@ years distant from Earth , it is a good candidate for future searches for more terrestrial rocky planets .
= = = Deep sky objects = = =
Pyxis lies in the plane of the Milky Way , although part of the eastern edge is dark , with material obscuring our galaxy arm there . NGC 2818 is a planetary nebula that lies within a dim open cluster of magnitude 8 @.@ 2 . NGC 2818A is an open cluster that lies on line of sight with it . K 1 @-@ 2 is a planetary nebula whose central star is a spectroscopic binary composed of two stars in close orbit with jets emanating from the system . The surface temperature of one component has been estimated at as high as 85 @,@ 000 K. NGC 2627 is an open cluster of magnitude 8 @.@ 4 that is visible in binoculars .
Discovered in 1995 , the Pyxis globular cluster is a 13 @.@ 3 ± 1 @.@ 3 billion year @-@ old globular cluster situated around 130 @,@ 000 light @-@ years distant from Earth and around 133 @,@ 000 light @-@ years distant from the centre of the Milky Way — a region not previously thought to contain globular clusters . Located in the galactic halo , it was noted to lie on the same plane as the Large Magellanic Cloud and the possibility has been raised that it might be an escaped object from that galaxy .
NGC 2613 is a spiral galaxy of magnitude 10 @.@ 5 which appears spindle @-@ shaped as it is almost edge @-@ on to observers on Earth . Henize 2 @-@ 10 is a dwarf galaxy which lies some 30 million light @-@ years away . It is notable for having a black hole around a million solar masses at its centre . Known as a starburst galaxy due to very high rates of star formation , it has a bluish colour due to the huge numbers of young stars within it .
= Michael Laucke =
Michael Laucke ( born 29 January 1947 ) is a Canadian classical , new flamenco , and flamenco guitarist and composer , and a music industry businessman . Starting at the age of thirteen , Laucke gave professional snooker demonstrations and his winnings allowed him to take trips from Montreal to New York City to study the classical guitar with Rolando Valdés @-@ Blain . Still active in a career spanning five decades , Laucke began performing in 1965 , recording the first of 16 albums in 1969 , and has toured in 25 countries . In 1971 , he performed his first of many concerts at the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. His first concert in New York , where he also first met Senator Claiborne Pell , took place in 1972 .
Laucke was introduced to complex flamenco techniques by Spanish guitarist Paco de Lucía when the two shared a loft and performed together for the jet set in New York City in the early 1970s . In 1982 he was selected by Andrés Segovia to perform for the PBS network at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City . Laucke subsequently became Segovia 's pupil , and also studied with other classical guitar players , including Julian Bream and Alirio Díaz . He performed mainly on classical guitar until 1990 ; from then on , his concerts have consisted exclusively of flamenco and new flamenco works .
Laucke has broadened the guitar repertoire by creating over 100 transcriptions of classical and flamenco music . Several notable Canadian composers have written atonal works for him . SOCAN 's The Music Scene magazine considered Laucke to be one of " five of Canada 's best @-@ known soloists " . Music critic emeritus , historian , and musician Eric McLean of the Montreal Gazette avowed : " Laucke is the person who has done more for the guitar in this country than anyone else . " He has received many other awards and honours throughout his career , including the Grand Prix du Disque @-@ Canada for Best Canadian Recording .
= = Early life = =
Laucke was born in Montreal , Quebec , Canada on 29 January 1947 to parents of Russian and Polish @-@ Jewish heritage . After they separated when Laucke was six months old , he lived with his mother , brother , uncle , and grandmother . His grandmother raised and nurtured him ; she died at the age of 100 .
At the age of seven , Laucke appeared in the Montreal Star newspaper having designed and built a boat from 2 @,@ 000 toothpicks . A yo @-@ yo expert by age ten , he soon discovered that he loved performing and competing , eventually winning a C $ 60 bicycle as the champion among 2 @,@ 000 contestants in a Montreal yo @-@ yo competition . He discovered an interest in playing guitar , but his brother disapproved , so he practiced at friends ' homes . He also took up snooker , and became competent enough by the age of thirteen to gain a job as a demonstrator for the Brunswick Corporation , a snooker table manufacturer . Laucke learned billiards from George Chenier , a fellow Montrealer and the North American snooker champion . The two faced each again four years later at the North American snooker championships in Montreal , where Laucke won the championship . Laucke recalls : " Then I decided to leave snooker , I had done what I wanted to do ... My love for the guitar was overwhelming . There was a lot more money in snooker , but snooker was just a passion , and music was my love . " Laucke 's snooker winnings allowed him to finance 110 trips from Montreal to New York City to study the classical guitar with Franco @-@ Spaniard Rolando Valdés @-@ Blain .
= = Early career = =
With Frank Angelo as his manager since 1961 , Laucke performed his first guitar concert in Montreal in 1965 , a program of atonal music with the Société de musique contemporaine du Québec . In 1971 , following the first of his many concerts at the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , The Washington Post proclaimed that Laucke had displayed " the highest form of virtuosity " . His first concert in New York took place in 1972 at the Greenwich House Music School . Senator Claiborne Pell was in attendance and invited Laucke to perform his first concerts in Washington , DC , thus beginning a 15 @-@ year affiliation as Laucke 's active supporter in the U.S. Pell 's former campaign manager , Raymond Nelson , handled logistics for many of Laucke 's U.S. performances . In 1973 , Laucke starred in a documentary produced by Radio @-@ Québec called La Guitare , and he performed at Montreal 's Summer Olympic Games in 1976 .
Laucke studied with several classical guitar masters : Franco – Spaniard Rolando Valdès @-@ Blain from 1963 to 1977 , Julian Bream in 1969 as winner of the Julian Bream Master classes , Alirio Díaz from 1977 to 1979 and Andrés Segovia from 1982 to 1986 . Laucke was introduced to complex and advanced flamenco techniques by Spanish guitarist Paco de Lucía when the two shared a loft in New York City in the early 1970s . During this period , de Lucía and Laucke gave a concert in the Spanish Embassy , where Countess Elsa Peretti , jewelry designer at Tiffany 's , first heard the two guitarists . She immediately invited them to one of her parties at her New York penthouse , where the two guitarists performed in private for the New York City jet set , including fashion designer Calvin Klein , Andy Warhol , Halston , and Giorgio di Sant 'Angelo . The Montreal Gazette noted that these artistic gatherings were : " the closest thing to the 18th century intellectual and artistic salon to be found anywhere these days " . Laucke was frequently hired to play at the launches of Giorgio di Sant ' Angelo 's new fashion lines and later those of Calvin Klein . " I was only 21 at the time , and it all seemed like a dream , " Laucke recalled . In 1977 , he founded Trio 3 with Sayyd Abdul Al @-@ Khabyyr and Pauline Vaillancourt , and the D 'Addario strings @-@ manufacturing company became his sponsor .
His recording of works by William Walton , Richard Rodney Bennett , and François Morel on the Radio Canada International label ( RCI 457 ) won the Canadian Music Council 's Grand Prix du Disque @-@ Canada in 1979 . The album included Morel 's new composition Me duele España , written for and dedicated to Laucke . The world premiere of the 21 @-@ minute piece took place at Place des Arts in Montreal , under the auspices of the Société de musique contemporaine du Québec .
Later that year , with an increasing number of concerts and recordings , and a busy travel schedule , Laucke became concerned that he would not have enough hours left for practising . He invented a " practiser " : a small , wooden fingerboard with six strings stretched across a bridge . The device measured 8 by 4 inches ( 20 by 10 centimetres ) and allowed him to practice quietly during travel . Laucke found that : " Those extra hours of finger exercises pay off in handsome performance dividends . "
Laucke recorded his last classical album in 1981 with singer Riki Turofsky and Guitar and Lute magazine declared it : " One of the best voice and guitar albums you will ever hear . " Although Laucke had played both classical and flamenco guitar music from an early age , he performed mainly classical guitar works until 1990 . From late 1990 onwards , his concerts have consisted exclusively of many flamenco and new flamenco works he learned from de Lucía .
= = = Teaching = = =
He was a professor of guitar at Concordia University in Montreal in 1976 , but left after two years to pursue a performing career , and has not taught guitar since . Ten years later , however , he released an eight @-@ tape instructional video series , to pass along the knowledge he had learned from his teachers . This video series was reviewed by Guitar Player magazine : " Laucke 's enthusiasm is infectious " and by Frets Magazine : " thoughtful and thorough instruction " . Laucke has also published articles on classical guitar .
= = Style and influences = =
Laucke 's classical / flamenco musical style is a blend of his classical studies with Bream , Segovia , Valdès @-@ Blain , and his friendship with de Lucía . Although classical and flamenco guitar are two quite different musical styles , Québec 's French @-@ language newspaper Le Soleil chronicled Laucke 's feelings and reasoning about performing both .
Since the classical guitar is limited , you eventually look for something else . I was doing flamenco , and I love it . There are more varied techniques in flamenco ; just in the right hand alone , we have 20 of them .
I would like flamenco to become the new jazz ! Flamenco has everything that it takes to follow in the footsteps of jazz and become a language to people of all countries and all cultures . We forget that before being a universal language , jazz was only the mode of expression of blacks in New Orleans ! Like jazz , flamenco is based on improvisation and dialogue between instrumentalists . And flamenco is something even more , since players also interact with the dancers .
( English translation )
His blend of the classical and flamenco styles , sometimes referred to as " new flamenco " ( nuevo flamenco ) , led music critic Eric McLean of the Montreal Gazette to proclaim : " It is Laucke 's interest in flamenco that makes him special : He might be called the first interpreter of flamenco music , in the sense that he borrows these traditional works by Sabicas , Carlos Montoya and Paco de Lucía , and employs them in his own fashion , a practice to which they agree . " Laucke summarized : " The Spanish guitar remains my first love . The flamenco guitar is my passion . " According to The Music Scene magazine published by Society of Composers , Authors and Music Publishers of Canada ( SOCAN ) , he is one of " five of Canada 's best @-@ known soloists " and the Canadian federal and provincial governments gave him " full recognition as the person who has done more for the guitar in this country than anyone else " .
= = = Paco de Lucía = = =
In the 1970s , Laucke moved to New York City to further his career . He was asked by Valdès @-@ Blain if he would mind sharing his one @-@ room apartment with flamenco guitarist Paco de Lucía . Laucke taught de Lucía music by Bach and Villa @-@ Lobos . In return , de Lucía showed Laucke some of the secrets of his art of flamenco , an oral tradition handed down through generations , " their secrets and knowledge jealously guarded " . Although Laucke had played flamenco for his own pleasure since he was a child , he had never felt comfortable playing it in public . De Lucía 's influence helped change this : " This meeting changed my life , " Laucke declared , " he taught me flamenco works which were not written anywhere and to which no other guitarist had access . So for me to be taught all these techniques by a guitarist of Paco 's caliber was an incredible stroke of luck " . ( English translation )
In an interview with the Montreal Gazette , Laucke stated : " [ de Lucía ] was the greatest natural talent I have ever come across . " At the time , Laucke was impressed by a piece called Entre dos aguas ( Between Two Seas ) that de Lucía was creating , which has become arguably his best @-@ known composition . Since de Lucía did not read music , Laucke offered to teach him but he refused . When the question arose as to whether Laucke would ever play de Lucía 's compositions in public , he advised Laucke , " you must do it in your own style " .
He teamed up again with de Lucía to give a series of concerts combining the two repertoires . Many newspapers talked about this association . The Canadian Spanish magazine El Popular stated : " Laucke is convinced that flamenco possesses enormous seductive powers . ' The harmonies and the rhythm leave no one indifferent ' , says Laucke . "
The meeting with de Lucía led Laucke to perform two incompatible guitar styles . In 1991 , he recorded compositions de Lucía taught him on the album Spanish Guitar Stories . De Lucía expressed his approval , saying the album was : " very beautiful , all of it , from a to z , even my pieces ! "
= = = Flamenco Road album = = =
On 12 September 2001 , Laucke released a CD called Flamenco Road , consisting mainly of his own compositions in the new flamenco style , which he also arranged . In an interview for Voir magazine , Laucke stated : " It is also very influenced by my classical background . So it 's a smoother flamenco . " An example of this style from the album can be heard in Laucke 's treatment of the well @-@ known classical guitar transcription " Leyenda " , which is given a flamenco rendition using several percussion instruments ( claves , maracas , special castanets mounted on wood blocks , chimes , and a large gong ) , bass , and flute .
Ten works were recorded at five different studios in Montreal , each chosen for its unique acoustics . The instrumentation for the recording 's title piece , " Flamenco Road " , required the use of 24 tracks . It comprises a combination of four types of guitars — flamenco , Spanish , classical , and electric — and all natural acoustic guitars are played the Spanish way , using all the fingers of the right hand without a pick . The rhythm section includes bongos , four congas , and a rock drum set blended with other percussion instruments such as claves , maracas , and castanets . It further incorporates three dancers performing typical " palmas " ( hand @-@ clapping ) in synchronization , as well as three trumpets , three pianos , and a " country @-@ style " violinist .
The enhanced CD includes two videos : one with interactive live concert footage filmed during Laucke 's tenth season at Montreal ’ s Place des Arts , and the other with the video clip of " Flamenco Road " . The latter reached number one on video charts across Canada for five consecutive weeks .
= = Contributions to the guitar repertoire = =
= = = Transcriptions = = =
SOCAN lists 112 classical works transcribed for the guitar by Laucke , illustrating the extent to which he has broadened the guitar 's repertoire in music of the Renaissance , classical , baroque , and romantic eras , as well as in flamenco . Library and Archives Canada and Canadian Libraries list 43 music recordings , music scores of transcriptions for guitar and Canadian guitar articles written by Laucke . Waterloo Music Company published and distributed 24 of Laucke 's guitar transcriptions of works by J. S. Bach , Luis de Narváez , Eric Satie , Heitor Villa @-@ Lobos and others .
= = = = Trois Gymnopédies by Eric Satie = = = =
While living in Greenwich Village , New York , in the early 1970s , Laucke became interested in the French music of Eric Satie , " the world 's first hippie " . At that time , only simplified arrangements of Trois Gymnopédies ( Three Gymnopédies ) existed for the guitar , so Laucke set out to transcribe Satie 's three works from the piano score . Determined to fit all of the notes from the original piano version using the guitar 's six strings , over the course of three weeks he calculated the number of times open strings would occur per note .
In 1979 , Laucke signed with the Waterloo Music Publishing Company , which that year published the sheet music of his transcription of Trois Gymnopédies , the first of many of his transcriptions to be published by Waterloo and arguably the only version for guitar to include all of the notes of the original piano composition . In 1985 , the company created The Michael Laucke Series of guitar arrangements and transcriptions .
In the introductory notes to his sheet music for Trois Gymnopédies , Laucke comments : " The characteristic harmonies of much of the music of Erik Satie belong to the impressionist period and , though originally written for the piano , are extremely well @-@ suited to the natural idiomatic expression of the guitar . This has led me to make these transcriptions which will enrich the repertoire of the guitar while remaining faithful to Satie 's intentions . "
After giving many concert performances of these works , Laucke recorded them on his CD entitled Flamenco Road which held the number one position on video charts across Canada for six weeks . The liner notes read : " My arrangements of ' The [ sic ] Three Gymnopédies ' comprise ALL the notes of the original piano versions : a most complex process since all the piano sounds must fit comfortably , or uncomfortably , onto the six strings of the guitar . " He continues to say : " The present recording is done as it is in concert , on one classical guitar , without overdubbing . My tempo is a little quicker than when the pieces are played on the piano , due to the shorter resonance time of notes played on the Spanish guitar . Now and then , I use a ' vibrato ' and slides , which , of course , can 't be done on the piano but which add warmth of expression to this undeniably charming , exotic and mystic music . "
= = = Original works = = =
Laucke has had 25 original , Canadian atonal works written for him , among them the Flamenco Concierto for guitar and full symphonic orchestra by Michel @-@ Georges Brégent , Me duele España by François Morel , Exploration by Jean Papineau @-@ Couture and Pour guitare , Claude Vivier 's only work for the guitar . Laucke performed all 25 works in major halls , on CBC radio and on his record albums ; all of them were commissioned by , and dedicated to , Laucke .
In 1984 , critics began to take note of the growth of new Canadian guitar works energized by Laucke . In La Presse , a Canadian newspaper , music critic Claude Gingras found in Laucke " an interpreter who could not be more convincing " . Canadian composer Claude Vivier expressed his appreciation to Laucke . In his letters , Vivier states that he had : " hardly ever met a musician as committed and dedicated , of such great quality and , above all , of such great completeness and intense capacity for work " .
= = World tours = =
Laucke 's career spans over 50 years , with concert and television appearances in 25 countries , including England ( Wigmore Hall ) , the U.S. ( Carnegie Hall , and the White House ) , as well as China , on the Great Wall of China . Other countries where Laucke performed include Bulgaria , Hungary , Hong Kong , Spain , Israel , India , Japan , Morocco , Pakistan , and Russia . In Canada , he has given annual concerts at Montreal 's Place des Arts since 1986 . Following a concert in 1990 in Quebec City 's Grand Théâtre de Québec , the French @-@ language newspaper Le Soleil wrote a review entitled " Michael Laucke makes one fall in love with the guitar " , stating : " More than a virtuoso , charismatic Michael Laucke is pure talent ! For him playing is instinctive , just like breathing ... irresistible Michael Laucke . " Critics have often written about Laucke 's stage presence . A Chicago music critic described how : " His relaxed manner , beaming smile and gracious speaking voice won the hearts of the audience before he even played a note . "
He performed many concerts in Washington , DC , under the auspices of U.S. Senator Claiborne Pell , including several at the National Gallery of Art . The Washington Post proclaimed that Laucke is : " one of the finest guitarists to have played in Washington in a long time . " On another occasion , Laucke gave the premiere of Bregent 's " Version of Sapho , " written for him , an atonal work which received a less favorable critique . The Washington Post stated : " Since the mind can only respond to some sort of form , its essential formlessness precludes discussion . A triad out of the blue signaled the end , which the large audience recognized and applauded . "
= = Personal life = =
In 1994 , Laucke became a director of the Mac AIDS Fund ( M · A · F ) established by his friend Frank Angelo , the co @-@ founder of MAC Cosmetics . After a fourteen @-@ year tenure , he became honorary charter member of the board of directors and no longer participated in its activities . According to Laucke , MAF 's directors helped coordinate the film Pandemic : Facing AIDS by Rory Kennedy , and MAF became a secondary sponsor while the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation became title sponsor .
= = Present day = =
After over 50 years of concert performances , Laucke continues an active career . Besides numerous concert appearances in North America , he has recently accepted more international tours . A new album called Flamenco Road 2 is in preparation as of September 2015 . He is also an entrepreneur and businessman in the music industry .
In 2012 , Laucke was nominated for the Order of Canada Lifetime Achievement Award . In 2015 , he was again nominated for the same award ; the results will be announced in 2016 .
= = Media = =
= = = Audio = = =
= = = Video = = =
= = Selected works = =
= = = CD = = =
Flamenco Road ( 2001 )
Michael Laucke & Fiesta Flamenco : Live ( 1996 )
Spanish Guitar ( 1993 )
Momentum – IMAX Film ( the music ) ( 1992 )
Spanish Guitar Stories ( 1991 )
Light Classics ( 1990 )
= = = LP = = =
Take A Short Cut ( 1989 )
Canadian Guitar Music ( 1987 )
Music For Jacques Cartier ( 1986 )
Canadian Guitar Quartet : Live From ( 1985 )
Com @-@ Possession ( 1985 )
Divergences ( 1984 )
Jade Eyes ( 1980 )
Michael Laucke , Guitarist : Grand Prix du Disque @-@ Canada , ( 1979 )
Trio 3 ( 1979 )
Transcription ( 1969 )
= = = Filmography = = =
Momentum ( IMAX film ) ( 1992 )
I Won 't Dance ( 1991 )
How to Play Solo Classical Guitar ( 1985 )
Michael Laucke : Guitar recital , CBC ( 1983 )
Segovia : Metropolitan museum : a master class , PBS ( 1982 )
Form & Fire : Michael Laucke ( 1981 )
Musique instrumentale : La guitare ( 1973 )
= = = Atonal works written for Laucke = = =
The following works have been performed by Laucke in Carnegie Hall ( performing Jean Papineau @-@ Couture ) , Wigmore Hall ( Michel @-@ Georges Brégent ) , and National Gallery of Art ( Michel Gonneville ) . In Canada , the SMCQ honoured Laucke 's contribution by featuring him in a two @-@ hour @-@ long concert .
Départ by François Morel ( 1970 )
Iikkii by François Morel ( 1970 )
Pour Guitare by Claude Vivier ( 1976 )
Le Cercle gnostique by Walter Boudreau ( 1976 )
Me duele españa by François Morel ( 1979 )
Contrastare no 1 by David Eagle ( 1980 )
La Fille du Pecheur by Alan Crossman ( 1981 )
Calme en soi by Bruno Deschênes ( 1981 )
Quatre études , Anachorétisme , Quatre mouvements by Claude Lassonde ( 1982 )
Image et Sonoritéé , Silène pur Satyre , La Règne by Claude Lassonde ( 1982 )
Com @-@ possession by John Rea ( 1983 )
... ascends at full moon by John Burke
Exploration by Jean Papineau @-@ Couture ( 1983 )
Le Sommeil , le Regard , le Choix by Michel Gonneville ( 1983 )
Three Amerindian Songs , Prelude by Wolfgang Bottenberg ( 1983 )
Sapho by Michel @-@ Georges Brégent ( 1983 )
Divergence by François Morel ( 1983 )
Pas de deux by Denis Dion ( 1983 )
Cobwebs in my Spanish castle by Leon Zukert ( 1983 )
Chamber Concierto for guitar by Donald Steven ( 1986 )
Concierto Flamenco by Michel @-@ Georges Brégent ( 1991 )
= = Articles = =
Laucke has published articles in music journals about the growth in popularity of the guitar in Canada including :
" The Guitar in Canada " ( five pages ) — Soundboard Magazine , California
" Growth of the Guitar in Canada " , by Michael Laucke ( six pages ) — Guitar and Lute magazine , Hawaii
" Michael Laucke Writes About the Canadian Guitar " — Waterloo Music Journal , Canada
= = Timeline = =
1976 , he performed at Montreal 's Olympic Games
1979 , Laucke won the Grand Prix du Disque @-@ Canada for Best Canadian Recording
1981 , Laucke was invited to perform a Command performance for His Excellency the Right Honourable Edward Schreyer the Governor General of Canada and his wife , as winner of the Jules Léger Prize for New Chamber Music
March 1982 , Laucke 's album Jade Eyes , for CBS records , was reviewed by Guitar and Lute magazine ( Hawaii ) as the best international classical guitar album of the year
1982 , he was selected by Segovia to perform a 25 @-@ minute work by Manuel Ponce which was filmed by the PBS network at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York , after which he became Segovia 's pupil .
1985 , 8 to 12 February — five days of interviews and career profile , two hours each day , on CBC Radio 's Morningside with Peter Gzowski
1986 , on the 450th anniversary of Jacques Cartier 's first voyage of discovery to Canada , Canadian Heritage requested that Laucke record a commemorative album . Laucke recorded music that Cartier would have heard on his voyage to the new world
1986 , several musical publications mention Laucke 's contribution to the guitar and its new repertoire . SOCAN , the Canadian copyright organization , stated in The Music Scene magazine , that they considered Laucke to be one of " five of Canada 's best @-@ known soloists "
1986 , he created an instructional video series which was critically reviewed by Guitar Player magazine and Frets Magazine .
May 1988 , two years later , Canada 's music Critic Emeritus Eric McLean wrote in the Montreal Gazette that Laucke was then recognized as : " the person who has done more for the guitar in this country than anyone else "
1991 , Laucke performed the world premiere of the Flamenco Concierto with the Montreal Symphony Orchestra . Written for him by Michel @-@ Georges Brégent , reviewers called it " Brilliant " .
1992 , Laucke performed in a Super IMAX film called Momentum , for the National Film Board of Canada ; it was shown in the Canadian pavilion during the Universal Exposition of Seville ( Expo ' 92 ) — a world 's fair . The most popular pavilions for the visitors were those of Spain and Canada . Co @-@ directed by Colin Low , it is the first film in 48 frames per second IMAX HD .
12 September 2001 , Laucke 's CD Flamenco Road reached number one on video charts across Canada for five consecutive weeks
= Sacrifice ( 2005 ) =
Sacrifice ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion that took place on August 14 , 2005 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the first show of the Sacrifice series and eighth event in the 2005 TNA PPV schedule . Nine professional wrestling matches and one pre @-@ show match were featured on the card .
The main event was a Tag Team match between the team of Jeff Jarrett and Rhino facing the team of Raven and Sabu , in which if Jarrett pinned Raven he would earn a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship match . If Raven pinned Jarrett in the contest , then Jarrett would not receive a championship match for an entire year . Jarrett and Rhino won the match , with Rhino scoring the pin . The Finals of the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament took place at Sacrifice between A.J. Styles and Samoa Joe . Joe defeated Styles in the encounter , thus becoming number @-@ one contender to the TNA X Division Championship and winning the 2005 Super X Cup trophy . Also on the card was Jerry Lynn versus Sean Waltman , which Lynn won . B.G. James was Special Guest Referee for a Tag Team match between the team of Kip James and Monty Brown and the 3Live Kru ( Konnan and Ron Killings ) , which the latter won . TNA also promoted an Internet Dream match for the show that involved an internet poll to decide who would face then @-@ TNA X Division Champion Christopher Daniels . Austin Aries was the chosen opponent ; Daniels defeated him at the event .
Sacrifice is remembered for the Finals of the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament . Corey David Lacroix of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer posted a review of the gathering , stating he felt " there was not a single bad match " on the card .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
TNA issued a press release in May 2005 announcing that they would be holding a PPV titled Sacrifice on August 14 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . TNA created a section covering the event on their website . TNA released a poster prior featuring Raven and the tagline " Pain " . TNA produced a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show for Sacrifice featuring the team of Apolo and Sonny Siaki against the team of Jerrelle Clark and Mikey Batts . An " Internet Dream match " was promoted for the event . It consisted on a poll to determine then @-@ TNA X Division Champion Christopher Daniels ' opponent in a non @-@ title bout . Austin Aries , Jay Lethal , and Roderick Strong were the choices in the poll ; Aries won , thus setting up Daniels versus Aries .
= = = Storylines = = =
Sacrifice featured nine professional wrestling matches and one pre @-@ show match that involved wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines portraying villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters ; these scripted events built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event at Sacrifice was a Tag Team match between the team of Jeff Jarrett and Rhino and the team of Raven and Sabu . This match was the result of an existing rivalry between Raven and Jarrett over the NWA World Heavyweight Championship which Raven held . At TNA 's previous PPV event No Surrender on July 17 , Raven defeated Abyss in a No Surrender Dog Collar match to retain the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . After the encounter , Jarrett distracted Raven , allowing Rhino to attack Raven from behind . On the July 22 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! , Jarrett and Rhino claimed that Raven had no allies to help defend himself before they physically assaulted him . Cassidy Riley had previously pledged allegiance to Raven , even aiding Raven in his match at No Surrender . During the July 29 episode of Impact ! , Rhino and Jarrett attacked Riley , believing he would aid Raven in some way . Afterwards , Raven announced he had chosen a partner to team with him to face Jarrett and Rhino at Sacrifice . Sabu then made his TNA return revealing himself as Raven 's partner by attacking Jarrett and Rhino .
The Finals of the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament were scheduled for Sacrifice . Over the weeks leading up to Sacrifice on Impact ! , TNA held the eight @-@ man single @-@ elimination tournament to decide which two would compete for the 2005 Super X Cup trophy and who would earn a future TNA X Division Championship match . A.J. Styles , Alex Shelley , Chris Sabin , Matt Bentley , Petey Williams , Samoa Joe , Shocker , and Sonjay Dutt all competed in the tournament . Joe defeated Dutt , Shelley defeated Shocker , Styles defeated Bentley , and Williams defeated Sabin in the Quarterfinals on the respective July 22 and July 29 episodes of Impact ! to advance to the Semifinals . In the Semifinals , Joe defeated Shelley and Styles defeated Williams to advance to the Finals at Sacrifice on the August 5 and August 10 episodes of Impact ! , respectively . With their victories , Joe versus Styles in the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament Final was scheduled for Sacrifice .
Jerry Lynn versus Sean Waltman was also promoted for Sacrifice . At No Surrender , Lynn was Special Guest Referee for a bout between Styles and Waltman , which Styles won after aid from Lynn . TNA created a storyline from this and Lynn and Waltman 's past real @-@ life friendship . On the July 22 episode of Impact ! , Waltman accused Lynn of trying to steal his spotlight in a backstage segment , while Lynn took credit for Waltman 's success . Lynn argued that he was the one who helped get Waltman into the industry as well as early success thanks to a critically acclaimed series of matches the two had in the past . The segment ended with Waltman challenging Lynn to a match at Sacrifice , which Lynn accepted . This bout was also promoted as a clash between two pioneers of TNA 's X Division style .
At No Surrender , the team of Kip James and Monty Brown fought the 3Live Kru ( Konnan and Ron Killings ) in a Tag Team Street Fight . Brown and Kip won the encounter , however , during the bout Kip assaulted several TNA personnel . As such , a storyline developed in which referees refused to participate in future encounters involving Kip . After a rematch between the two teams was announced for Sacrifice on the July 22 episode of Impact ! , a segment took place between referees Andrew Thomas , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson and NWA Championship Committee member Larry Zbyszko . In the segment , each refused to referee the bout at Sacrifice , telling Zbyszko he would need to find a replacement . Former 3Live Kru member B.G. James was appointed the Special Guest Referee by Zbyszko for the bout at Sacrifice on the July 29 episode of Impact ! .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ show = = =
TNA held a thirty minute pre @-@ show prior to the event , during which the team of Apolo and Sonny Siaki defeated the team of Jerrelle Clark and Mikey Batts in a bout lasting 4 minutes and 27 seconds . A segment took place on the pre @-@ show between Larry Zbyszko , Jeff Jarrett , and TNA commentator Mike Tenay , in which Jarrett questioned Zbyszko on whether he would earn a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship match if he pinned Raven during the main event . Zbyszko agreed he would earn the title shot , however , adding if Raven pinned Jarrett then Jarrett would not have a title match for a full year .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Sacrifice , as well as the pre @-@ show , featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast . Jeremy Borash ( for the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Finals only ) and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees for the encounters . Shane Douglas handled the interview duties for the event . Besides employees who appeared in a wrestling role , Cassidy Riley , James Mitchell , Jimmy Hart , and Zbyszko all appeared on camera , either in backstage or in ringside segments .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
A Six Man Tag Team match pitting the team of Chris Sabin , Shark Boy , and Sonjay Dutt against The Diamonds in the Rough ( Elix Skipper , David Young , and Simon Diamond ) was the first bout of the telecast . Its duration was 7 minutes and 21 seconds . Sabin won the encounter for his team by pinning Skipper with a small package pin .
Alex Shelley fought Shocker in the second
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set , Rihanna also performed other songs from Good Girl Gone Bad , including " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Take a Bow " . " Run This Town " and " Umbrella " were performed with assistance of Jay @-@ Z , whose vocals are featured on the songs . On February 5 , 2010 , Rihanna performed at the Pepsi Super Bowl in Miami , Florida . She performed " Disturbia " in a medley with other songs including " Russian Roulette " and " Wait Your Turn " . Rihanna performed the song while revealing a one @-@ shoulder , one @-@ leg catsuit that featured white trimming . In February 2010 she also recorded an AOL Sessions , where she performed the song together with other tracks including " Hard " , " Rude Boy " and " Take a Bow " .
Rihanna performed " Disturbia " on her three major tours : Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 — 09 ) , Last Girl on Earth ( 2010 — 11 ) and the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) . The song was added on the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour set list during the Australasian leg of the tour . It was the opening song , performed only after the intro on the tour . Rihanna also performed " Disturbia " on her second major concert tour , Last Girl on Earth Tour . The song was performed as the sixth track , after " Fire Bomb " . Rihanna performed a slower ballad remix tempo of the song , surrounded by three big four @-@ legged insect monsters as she crawled on the floor to escape while singing it . About the performance Lisa Wilton from Calgary Sun commented that : " Rihanna 's goth side came out – and by ' goth side ' I mean she sang alongside dancers dressed as freaky , giant spiders – during the darker dancefloor anthem , ' Disturbia ' . " On her Loud Tour , Rihanna performed " Disturbia " as second track , only after the opening song " Only Girl ( In the World ) " . Rihanna performed the song in a brightly colored sequined bikini , while partially been dragging on a moveable floor . Rob Williams from Winnipeg Free Press stated : " Rihanna dropped her blue coat to reveal a jewel- encrusted bikini for ' Disturbia ' . It was the first of numerous costume changes that showed off her fashion sense and plenty of skin . " Rihanna performed " Disturbia " at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 , as the second song on the set list .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Braid ( video game ) =
Braid is a platform and puzzle video game developed by Number None , Inc . The game was originally released in August 2008 for the Xbox 360 's Xbox Live Arcade service . Ports were developed and released for Microsoft Windows in April 2009 , OS X in May 2009 , PlayStation 3 in November 2009 , and Linux in December 2010 .
The basic story elements unfold as the protagonist , Tim , attempts to rescue a princess from a monster . Text passages laid throughout the game reveal a multifaceted narrative , giving clues about Tim 's contemplations and motivations . The game features traditional aspects of the platform genre while integrating various powers of time @-@ manipulation . Using these abilities , the player progresses by finding and assembling jigsaw puzzle pieces .
Jonathan Blow designed the game as a personal critique of contemporary trends in game development . He funded the three @-@ year project with his own money . Webcomic artist David Hellman drew the artwork , which underwent several iterations until it satisfied Blow 's vision . A preliminary version of Braid without the final artwork won the " Innovation in Game Design " award at the 2006 Independent Games Festival ; the final version received additional accolades . The game received highly positive reviews from critics , eventually becoming the highest critically rated title on Xbox Live . Some reviewers , however , criticized the game 's price relative to its length .
Braid was seen as a keystone title in the growth of indie game development since its 2008 release , and Jonathan Blow and its production were documented in the 2012 film , Indie Game : The Movie . The game , as of 2015 , had total revenue nearing $ 6 million , which Blow used to fund his next game , The Witness .
= = Gameplay = =
Braid is played by solving physical puzzles in a standard platform game environment . The player controls the protagonist Tim as he runs , jumps , and climbs across the game 's levels . Tim jumps and stomps on enemies to defeat them , and can collect keys to unlock doors or operate levers to trigger platforms . A defining game element is the player 's unlimited ability to reverse time and " rewind " actions , even after dying . The game is divided into six worlds , which are experienced sequentially and can be entered from different rooms of Tim 's house ; the player can return to any world previously visited to attempt to solve puzzles they missed .
Each world has its own time @-@ based game mechanic :
2 . Time and Forgiveness plays as an ordinary platform game , except that the player may rewind time to undo their actions . The section includes several challenges that would be unplayable or unfair in an ordinary platform game , but become feasible when the rewind mechanic is available .
3 . Time and Mystery introduces objects surrounded by a green glow that are unaffected by time manipulation ; for example , switches will remain flipped even if time is rewound to before the action occurred . Rewinding can thus be used to change the synchronization between objects that can and cannot be rewound , the basis of many puzzles in this section . This theme is also used in later worlds to denote objects unaffected by the player 's time manipulation .
4 . Time and Place links the passage of time to the player character 's location on the horizontal axis . As the player moves toward the right , time flows forward , while moving toward the left reverses the flow ; standing still or moving vertically will pause time . The player 's location must be carefully managed in relation to enemies and objects .
5 . Time and Decision involves a " shadow " of the player character appearing after the player rewinds time and performing the actions that the real player character rewound ; if the timeline expires , the shadow will complete any initiated falls and jumps but will otherwise stand still before disappearing . Things coloured in violet can interact both with the main character and its shadow at the same time . Puzzles in this section revolve around using this mechanic to carry out multiple actions at once .
6 . Hesitance provides the player with a magic ring which , when dropped , warps the flow of time around itself ; the closer moving objects ( including Tim ) are to it , the slower time passes for them . The regular rewind control remains available .
The final world is labeled simply " 1 . " In this world , time flows in reverse . Rewinding time returns the flow of time to its normal state .
Each stage contains puzzle pieces that must be collected to create jigsaw puzzles that tell the story , and to unlock the last stage . On completing the main game , a speedrun mode becomes available for select levels and the entire game . There are also eight stars hidden throughout the world of Braid that correspond to the stars in the constellation of Andromeda just outside the main character 's house .
= = Plot = =
Tim is a man searching for a princess who " has been snatched by a horrible and evil monster . " His relationship with this princess is vague at best , and the only clear part of this relationship is that Tim has made some sort of mistake which he hopes to reconcile or , if possible , erase . As one progresses through the six worlds in Braid , storyline text at the beginning of each world provides further insight into Tim 's quest for the princess , and alludes to the overarching gameplay mechanic of each level . The themes evoked include forgiveness , desire , and frustration . The final level , in which everything but Tim moves in reverse , depicts the princess escaping from a knight , and working together with Tim to surpass obstacles and meet at her home . Tim is suddenly locked out of the house , and , as time progresses forward , reversing Tim 's actions , the events show the princess running from Tim , setting traps that he is able to evade , until she is rescued by the knight . Tim is revealed to be the " monster " the princess is running from .
Following completion of the game , the player finds additional texts that expand the story . The ending of the game is purposely ambiguous , and has been subject to multiple interpretations . One theory , based on the inclusion of a hidden event and the famous quotation stated by Kenneth Bainbridge after the detonation of the first atomic bomb — " Now we are all sons of bitches " — is that the princess represents the atomic bomb and Tim is a scientist involved in its development . Some also refer to the name of the game as both reference to the hair braid of the princess Tim seeks as well as the intertwining of time , demonstrated by the various time mechanics explored in the game . Journalists have considered Braid 's plot to be interwoven with the game itself , much as the book Dictionary of the Khazars and the films Memento and Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind interweave the narrative into the work 's construction . In this sense , some have considered the game to carry a simple credo , such as " You must look back to go forwards " as suggested by Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead . Others have likened Braid to punk rock , designed ( as explicitly stated by Blow ) specifically as a statement against the status quo of the industry ; it is considered to deconstruct traditional gameplay concepts , such as jumping on enemies or rescuing a princess from a castle as borrowed from Super Mario Bros. , and rebuild them in the game to force the player to rethink current game design . Blow has stated that there is more than one interpretation of the story ; he " would not be capable " of explaining the whole story of the game in words , and said that the central idea is " something big and subtle and resists being looked at directly . " Blow considered Braid to be " about the journey , not the destination " . He deliberately designed the plot not to be fully revealed to the player unless they completed the game , seeing it as a way to provide " a longer @-@ term challenge " .
= = Development = =
Jonathan Blow created Braid as a game that deconstructed current video games trends , " bringing together the abstract parts of a complex puzzle , revealing deep moral and philosophical questions " . Blow came up with the concept of Braid in December 2004 while on a trip to Thailand , and started development work on it in April the following year . By December 2005 , a version of the game was completed that had the same number of worlds and puzzles as the final version , but lacked the final artwork ; this version won the Independent Games Festival game design award at the 2006 Game Developer 's Conference . While working on the art direction , Blow tightened the presentation and mechanics of the puzzles to improve their playability . During the game 's three years of development , Blow put about US $ 200 @,@ 000 of his own money into its development , most going towards hiring of David Hellman for artwork and for living expenses .
Originally , Blow had envisioned the game to be broken into several different worlds as in the final game , each exploring facets of space , time , and causality , but with each world having very different high @-@ level mechanics . One mechanic that he could not develop further was a world with no " arrow of time " that would have required the player to traverse the level in a manner that could be repeated in reverse . For example , the player would have been forbidden to jump down from a tall height while moving in forward time , as they would not be able to jump that height in reverse time . While this idea was not used , Blow discovered the rewind feature could be developed further for other aspects . Another game mechanic that Blow considered was to show the player the expected result of an action they would take ; while this concept was informative , he did not find it to be an entertaining game mechanic . Blow had previously explored this in a prototype game called " Oracle Billiards " , the game predicting each billiards shot before it was made . He had found the billiards setting too chaotic for this idea and this led him to try out similar ideas in a simpler " Mario @-@ style " setting . After selecting the game mechanics he wanted , he began adding puzzles that made philosophical points on his views on game design in general . After brainstorming more puzzles and concepts , Blow dropped the least interesting puzzles and worlds from the game . Blow wanted to include significant consequences of rewinding time , not found in games such as Prince of Persia : The Sands of Time , Blinx : the Time Sweeper , and Timeshift in which rewinding time creates few or no changes to the game 's world . While these games immerse the player with these time @-@ shifting effects using a first- or third @-@ person perspective , he decided to use a 2D presentation . Blow noted that some of the puzzles in Braid would have been more difficult or impossible to solve in any other perspective .
One of Blow 's design goals was to achieve gameplay innovation naturally through the artistic expression of the game . He used Rod Humble 's The Marriage as an example , in which Humble set out to make a game that related his feelings of being in a marriage , instead of developing game concepts first and adding the story later . As such , Blow noted that while there were no new gameplay mechanics , the gameplay felt different from any other game . Another concept that he used for Braid 's development related to the game 's presentation to the player . Blow recognized that many games present a complex interface to the player that get in the way of understanding the game , but at times are needed to explain the game 's rules to draw in players . Blow referenced Jeff Minter 's Space Giraffe , pointing out that the game never communicated the purpose of playing the game upfront to the player , citing that as one of the reasons for the game 's poor reception . Braid was developed to promote this non @-@ verbal communication to the player , explaining the fundamental rule of each world at its start and allow the player to interact with that rule throughout the world . Commenting during the development of his following game , The Witness , Blow noted that he would run into difficulty in demonstrating Braid through video footage alone , as it would not show " what happens in the player 's mind during the puzzle @-@ solving process " , a problem that he had also encountered with The Witness .
Blow recognized that the puzzles in Braid had a range of difficulties , with some puzzles being more difficult for certain players than others , and did not have any set difficulty curve . He designed most of the game 's levels to let the player bypass the puzzles , allowing them to experience the rest of the game even if they could not solve a difficult puzzle . Only certain boss fights require the player to defeat the enemy character before continuing on , using a combination of the time mechanics . Blow hoped that players would be able to find solutions to puzzles they had skipped by completing puzzles later in the game . Blow felt that " unearned rewards are false and meaningless " , and thus included collectibles earned only after solving a puzzle . He strongly discouraged players from using a walkthrough to work their way through Braid , instead encouraging players to solve them on their own so that they " will feel very good about " completing the puzzles without help ; Blow created his own official " walkthrough " that guides the player but instead restates his insistence that the player work through the puzzles on their own . Some puzzles pay homage to other video games ; one level features a Donkey Kong @-@ inspired puzzle , and the ending of most worlds tells the player that " the princess is in another castle " , similar to the end of each world in Super Mario Bros.
The game 's story was influenced by such works as Italo Calvino 's Invisible Cities , Alan Lightman 's Einstein 's Dreams , Robert A. Heinlein 's The Cat Who Walks Through Walls , and David Lynch 's Mulholland Drive . Specifically , while Blow took the unique narrative model of Invisible Cities , he did not like the homage to it in Einstein 's Dreams , and thus avoided taking the story in that direction . Blow 's goal was that Braid would " be mind @-@ expanding " and that " people [ would ] get experiences from it that they [ had ] not gotten from anything else " . Blow opted to present his story through on @-@ screen text instead of in @-@ game cutscenes , asserting , against criticism of the lack of such cut @-@ scenes , that Braid was " conceived as a videogame with its story presented in the tradition of a few books that I respect " .
= = = Artwork = = =
The game 's artwork took more than a year to complete . Background artwork for the game went through initial rough color concepts created by Mike Corriero ( creative illustrator and concept artist ) and ultimately the final artwork was created by David Hellman , artist of the critically acclaimed webcomic A Lesson Is Learned but the Damage Is Irreversible . Blow gave Hellman rough images of the level 's layout and told him to draw over it . Hellman and Blow iterated through several styles before settling on final versions . Through these changes , the two worked to identify and remove elements of the art that could confuse the player , while retaining aesthetic elements that would be generalized by the player as non @-@ functional parts of the level . Once the game 's overall artwork was created , Blow and Hellman broke out functional pieces that could be used in Braid 's level editor . As each world was built up using these pieces , Blow suggested more changes that reflected the tone of each world and avoided art that distracted from the gameplay . " Time and Forgiveness " , the first world the player encounters , was drawn to create a feel of exploration and forgiveness , while artwork for " Time and Decision " used a mix of " luxurious domestic objects ( nice furniture and fabrics ) with rugged outdoor objects ( swampy water , rotting piers and nautical rope ) " to create an intentionally " incongruous " look to convey aspects of alternate realities . Several variations on the game 's backgrounds were done until they arrived at the concept of blurring the background elements to make them appear out of focus , while keeping the foreground elements sharply in focus and clear to the player . Particle effects were applied to both background and foreground elements to add apparent motion to them , such as the waving of grass blades or the movement of clouds . The character visuals were originally created by Edmund McMillen , but were later redrawn by Hellman " to better match the now @-@ predominant style of the backgrounds " .
= = = Music = = =
Braid features licensed music from Magnatune artists Cheryl Ann Fulton , Shira Kammen and Jami Sieber . Part of Blow 's decision to use licensed music was to reduce development costs . He also felt that those who regularly compose video game music did not have the necessary skills needed to create the mood he wanted for the game . He ultimately selected eight tracks that were sufficiently long to avoid notable looping while a player attempted to solve a difficult puzzle , and that provided a " different and interesting " sound when played in reverse to match the reverse time mechanic of the gameplay . Blow also selected tracks that were " organic and complex " as to help set the game 's mood and aimed " to present something that isn 't necessarily clear @-@ cut " . The selection of the music influenced the creation of the background artwork for the game . Both Kammen and Sieber received favorable feedback from listeners as a result of their works ' inclusion in Braid . Magnatune released a soundtrack of the game 's music on April 9 , 2009 , which includes two additional track remixes that incorporate some of the time @-@ shifting elements from the game . The pieces included in Braid are :
" Maenam " by Jami Sieber , from Hidden Sky
" Undercurrent " by Jami Sieber , from Lush Mechanique
" The Darkening Ground " by Jami Sieber , from Lush Mechanique
" Tell It by Heart " by Jami Sieber , from Second Sight
" Long Past Gone " by Jami Sieber , from Second Sight
" Downstream " by Shira Kammen , from Music of Waters ( The entire track is actually composed of three pieces of music . The first is " Downstream " itself , composed by Kammen , the second is " O Son do Ar " , composed by Luar Na Lubre , and the third is Eric Montbel 's " Borrèia d 'Aragon " )
" Lullaby Set " by Shira Kammen and Swan , from Wild Wood
" Romanesca " by Cheryl Ann Fulton , from The Once and Future Harp
= = Release = =
Prior to release , Blow withdrew Braid from the 2007 Slamdance Guerrilla Games Competition in protest after the controversial Super Columbine Massacre RPG ! was dropped from the competition despite being one of six finalists . Several other developers followed suit and later withdrew their games , including thatgamecompany 's flOw and The Behemoth 's Castle Crashers .
Braid was originally developed as a Windows title with possible console versions , though Blow was not committed to releasing either a PC or console version first . Blow signed up with Microsoft to release the game on Xbox Live in mid @-@ 2007 , with that version officially announced at the 2007 Tokyo Game Show . Blow was critical of the Xbox Live certification process , as he believed the effort to meet all the requirements could have been better spent on polishing the game . At the same time , the certification team allowed him to retain certain aspects of his vision for the game that were otherwise contrary to the process , including giving the player immediate control of the game instead of requiring a start @-@ up title screen . Microsoft also requested that Blow include some additional hints to the player based on results of playtesting , but Blow held his ground , refusing to release the game if he was forced to add these . He said he would likely not release a game again on the Xbox Live service under the same business model . Blow later released a Braid theme for Xbox Live ; though he wanted to release this theme for free , Microsoft required the theme to be priced at a nominal level .
The Windows version was originally slated for a late 2008 release but slipped to at least October 2008 . Blow decided to prevent Braid being overwhelmed by a number of large titles that were scheduled for release in late 2008 and pushed the release to early 2009 . The PC version benefited from the work by Blow to create Braid on a standardized platform like the Xbox 360 in order to finish the core game before dealing with various compatibility issues inherent in PC development . Prior to the game 's release for Microsoft Windows , Blow had priced the game at US $ 20 , using pricing models for other games such as World of Goo and Crayon Physics Deluxe . However , this was priced $ 5 more than the Xbox Live version , leading many to criticize his pricing choice . Due to this response , Blow reduced the price to meet the Xbox Live cost , stating that he would " rather have people talking about the game itself " than complaining about its cost . Hothead Games ported Braid to both the PlayStation 3 and Macintosh platforms . A Linux port was done by Ryan C. Gordon and released in December 2010 as part of the second Humble Indie Bundle alongside the Windows and Mac version . It was further added as a bonus to the Humble Indie Bundle V. Blow said that a WiiWare version would not be possible under Nintendo 's current size restrictions .
Blow has expressed that he has no current plans to release more levels or make a sequel ; however , he specified that " if another developer out there really likes the time mechanics and wants to make a game that uses them , and perhaps some new ones , with their own new level designs , then hey , awesome . " Shortly after the PC release , Blow released resources for a level editor for Braid that allow users to import new graphics into the game .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release to Xbox Live Arcade , Braid was met with nearly unanimously positive reviews , with an aggregate review score of 93 % at Metacritic , making it the top @-@ rated Xbox Live Arcade game and the 10th highest @-@ rated Xbox 360 game . Braid was purchased by more than 55 @,@ 000 people during the first week of release . According to Blow , Braid was the second @-@ largest selling Xbox Live Arcade title in 2008 and sales were " very profitable " , making him more money than if he had been working at a high @-@ paying job for the time it took to develop the game . The game had sold 450 @,@ 000 copies by April 2012 . By 2014 , Blow had stated that sales of Braid brought in more than $ 4 million in revenue , much of which he used towards the development of his 2016 game , The Witness .
Braid has been considered a masterpiece , and was highly praised for the unique puzzles it presented . Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer noted the creative variation on time manipulation and the need to understand the non @-@ linearity of his actions made him feel as if " years of gaming blinders have been ripped away . " Jason Hill of The Age stated the puzzles were " elaborate and formidable " , but " impeccably designed and hugely satisfying to solve " , a point reiterated by Sunday Herald Sun 's Paddy Reiley . The connection between the puzzles and the overall presentation of the game was favorably received ; Tom McShea of GameSpot stated that Braid was " the rare game that will make you rack your brain trying to solve puzzles one minute while challenging you to come to terms with its mature tale the next " . Sam Roberts , game director for the Slamdance Film Festival Guerrilla Gamemaking Competition , was impressed that Braid did not " feel immature " as it " expects [ as ] much " of the player as any other form of media and " doesn 't short you in any respect " . Braid 's artwork and presentation were given high regards . Nick Suttner of 1UP.com commented that Braid 's artwork " juxtapose old @-@ school design sensibilities with impressionist backdrops and lovingly hand @-@ painted environments " , while McShea stated that the game 's visuals were " eye @-@ catching but never distracting " . Wired 's Jean Snow wrote that Braid 's " beautiful symphonic melodies contribute to what is already an impressive and unique vision " , and that " the soothing tunes are probably the reason you never really lose it when facing particularly tough puzzles " . Arthouse Games ' Jason Rohrer interpreted the ability to rewind time indefinitely as a commentary about traditional platform game design : the fact the player is not forced to restart the level when they die gives greater emphasis to the game 's " core challenges " .
The game was primarily criticized for its short length . IGN 's Hilary Goldstein stated that the game offers " no reason to come back " once you 've completed all the puzzles . However , others compared Braid 's short experience to similar criticisms with Portal in that its length " can be disregarded in the face of its unique approach to storytelling and expansive ideas " . The game 's price was also seen as a negative for the game , though McShea wrote that " Braid is worth every penny " . Blow later said that he expected the price to be US $ 10 , but Microsoft , in promoting the game as part of its Summer of Arcade , made the price $ 15 . Edge also noted that while Blow had tried to integrate the story and gameplay throughout the game , this only worked well in the final world , and otherwise the story was " a little trite in its self @-@ conscious obscurity " . However , others — including new media academics — have disagreed , praising the philosophical complexity of the game , saying " Jonathan Blow 's Braid is the sort of ontological labyrinth that Jorge Luis Borges might have made . Embedded in the simple gameplay design are genuinely huge concepts . "
The PC version of the game was considered to be " faithful " to the Xbox 360 version of the game , retaining the same content without adding any new features . Reviewers commented that Braid benefited from keyboard controls . However , as a port of the Xbox 360 version , the lack of initial support for optimizing the graphics display for one 's computer , either through larger screen resolutions or turning off certain game effects , was seen as a drawback , though it is expected that patches will be released to add these options . Both the PlayStation 3 and Macintosh ports of the game by Hothead Games were found to be easily accessible on the system and retained all the innovation and challenge of the original Xbox Live game .
= = = Awards = = =
In addition to winning the Independent Games Festival award in 2006 during its design , Braid was selected by GameSpot for their 2008 awards in " Best Original Downloadable Console Game " , " Best Platformer " , and " Best Licensed Music " , and by Official Xbox Magazine for their 2008 awards of " Xbox Live Arcade Game of the Year " , " Best Soundtrack " , and " Best Ending " and one of their " Indisputably Incredible Runners @-@ ups to Game of the Year " . Braid was awarded the " Casual Game of the Year " at the 12th Annual Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Awards . Braid was nominated for five Xbox Live Arcade 2008 awards , winning one award in the category of " Best Innovation " . MacWorld included Braid in its 2009 Game Hall of Fame . IGN named Braid the 8th best Xbox Live Arcade game in a September 2010 listing .
= = = Legacy = = =
Developers have cited Braid as an influence on their game design ; The Guardian considered the game as the " Sex , Lies , and Videotape " of indie gaming , a potent symbol for the saleable potential of non @-@ mainstream productions " . Japanese video game developer Goichi " Suda51 " Suda , developer of killer7 and No More Heroes , stated that playing Braid made him want to try making a 2D title . Tim can be unlocked as a playable character in Super Meat Boy , a game designed by independent game developer Edmund McMillen who had previously created Gish and the original character designs for Braid . Braid has also garnered academic interest and acclaim for its complexity , with narratologists saying " Anyone who thinks ... the unique constraints of game play cannot possibly be used to best structure a story has probably not encountered Braid , which marries pure mechanics and story into a philosophical platform . " Braid 's use of narrative elements and puzzle @-@ making has been compared to similar techniques of " imperative storytelling " in novels such as Life A User 's Manual and Through the Looking @-@ Glass .
Braid is considered a title that launched wide interest in independently @-@ developed video games starting around 2008 and onward . Joshuah Bearman for the New York Times called Braid the " Easy Rider moment " , showcasing how a small developer can be as successful as a large one , while Sam Machkovech for Ars Technica compared the game to The Beach Boys ' Pet Sounds , a transformative work in the genre that used familiar elements in a new manner . Braid , along with Jonathan Blow 's insight on the game , was featured in Indie Game : The Movie .
= Edmund Herring =
Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Francis Herring , KCMG , KBE , DSO , MC , KStJ , ED , KC ( 2 September 1892 – 5 January 1982 ) was a senior Australian Army officer during the Second World War , Lieutenant Governor of Victoria , and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria . A Rhodes scholar , Herring was at New College , Oxford , when the First World War broke out and served with the Royal Field Artillery on the Macedonian front , for which he was awarded the Military Cross and Distinguished Service Order . After the war he carved out a successful career as a barrister and King 's Counsel . He also joined the Australian Army , rising to the rank of colonel by 1939 .
During the Second World War , Herring commanded the 6th Division Artillery in the Western Desert Campaign and the Battle of Greece . In 1942 , as a corps commander , he commanded the land forces in the Kokoda Track campaign . The following year , he directed operations at Lae and Nadzab . Herring left his corps to become the longest @-@ serving Chief Justice and Lieutenant Governor of Victoria , serving for three decades . In the latter capacity , he was patron of many charitable organisations .
= = Education and early life = =
Edmund Francis Herring , known as Ned to his family , was born in Maryborough , Victoria , on 2 September 1892 , the third of five children of Edmund Selwyn Herring , a solicitor , and his Irish @-@ born wife Gertrude Stella Herring , formerly Fetherstonhaugh . He was educated at Maryborough College and High School and at Melbourne Grammar , where he excelled at tennis and cricket , and was both School Captain and Dux in 1910 . While at Melbourne Grammar , he served in the Commonwealth Cadet Corps , reaching the rank of sergeant .
In 1911 , Herring entered Trinity College , the Church of England residential college at the University of Melbourne , where he played cricket and tennis . In 1912 , he won a Rhodes Scholarship to the University of Oxford in England . There , he joined the Officers Training Corps in 1913 . In November of that year he enlisted as a trooper in King Edward 's Horse , a cavalry unit in the British Army .
= = First World War = =
King Edward 's Horse was mobilised in August 1914 , but was not immediately sent overseas . In December 1914 , Herring was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Field Artillery , and was posted to B Battery , 99th Field Artillery Brigade of the British 22nd Division . The division moved to the Western Front in August 1915 , but was there only a month before being transferred to the Macedonian front , where it served for the rest of the war .
In the Battle of Doiran in April 1917 , Herring served as an artillery observer , directing artillery fire in support of the 22nd Division 's attack from a front line observation post on Pip Ridge . There was a furious artillery duel . Twenty minutes after Captain Thomas Winwood took Herring 's place as forward observer , the observation post took a direct hit from an enemy shell , killing Winwood . Herring succeeded Winwood as battery captain , and was promoted to acting captain in April 1917 . For his " conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty " under heavy shellfire , Herring received an immediate award of the Military Cross .
After three years ' service , Herring was granted three weeks ' leave in Australia in October 1917 . He returned to Maryborough , where he met Mary Ranken Lyle , the daughter of the mathematical physicist Thomas Lyle , then a medical student at the University of Melbourne , on New Year 's Day 1918 . The two became constant companions and agreed to correspond regularly .
Herring departed for Salonika in February , returning to duty there in March 1918 , and was promoted to acting major on 24 October 1918 on assuming command of B Battery , 99th Field Artillery Brigade . For his service as a battery commander , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order . He reverted to lieutenant on ceasing to command the battery on 22 January 1919 .
= = Between the wars = =
When the war ended , Herring wished to return to Australia and see Mary before resuming his studies at the University of Oxford in October 1919 . Mary wrote back pointing out the impracticality of this idea ; while she would be disappointed not to see him , he should remain in England and complete his course at Oxford first . The university had awarded him a wartime Bachelor of Arts ( BA ) degree in 1915 ; the Rhodes Scholarship Trust allowed him to resume his scholarship , and he studied for a Bachelor of Civil Law ( BCL ) degree . Since it had been five years since he had been awarded his BA , he was entitled to a MA as well , and graduated with both degrees in July 1920 . After a holiday in Britain and France with his sister Kathleen , he arrived back in Melbourne on 26 November 1920 .
Herring was admitted to practice in Victoria as a barrister and solicitor on 1 March 1921 and signed the roll of counsel of the Victorian Bar on 8 June of that year , while Mary graduated with her Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery ( MB BS ) and became a resident surgeon at Royal Melbourne Hospital . The two were married on 6 April 1922 , and had three daughters , Mary Cecile ( Molly ) , born in 1924 , Judith Ann ( Judy ) , born in 1926 , and Margaret Lyle , born in 1933 . Herring worked as a barrister , and lectured in law at the University of Melbourne . He became a King 's Counsel on 25 February 1936 . Mary worked as a physician at antenatal clinics .
Herring joined the Australian Army on 1 October 1922 as a legal staff officer in the part @-@ time militia , with the rank of captain . On 1 August 1923 he transferred to Australian Field Artillery . He was promoted to major on 1 July 1925 , lieutenant colonel on 1 July 1929 , and temporary colonel on 1 August 1939 , commanding the 3rd Division Artillery .
Herring was involved in politics throughout the 1930s . He was elected to the Melbourne Club in 1927 , a year before Sir Thomas Lyle became its president . He joined the Young Nationalists , an organisation founded by Robert Menzies and Wilfrid Kent Hughes . Along with many senior army and ex @-@ army officers , he was also a member of the clandestine far @-@ right wing paramilitary organisation known as the White Guard , White Army or League of National Security . Composed primarily of former soldiers , the White Guard saw themselves as defenders of order who stood ready to stop a Catholic or Communist revolution in the wake of an emergency like the 1923 Victorian Police strike . After failing to gain United Australia Party preselection for the Victorian Legislative Assembly seat of Prahran in 1931 , he ran as an unendorsed candidate ( i.e. one lacking formal political endorsement ) for the seat of Brighton in 1936 . He gained 12 @,@ 258 votes , losing by just 528 . Herring also joined the Christian service organisation Toc H in 1925 and became its Victorian Area Commissioner in 1936 .
= = Second World War = =
On 6 October 1939 , Herring was informed that Major General Sir Thomas Blamey had decided to appoint him as Commander , Royal Artillery , of the 6th Division , of the new Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) being raised for service overseas . A week later , Herring was promoted to substantive colonel and temporary brigadier , and given the AIF serial number VX15 . His first task was to organise his new command , which was equipped with World War I vintage 18 pounder guns and 4 @.@ 5 inch howitzers . Herring left for Palestine on 15 April 1940 , along with the 6th Division 's commander , Major General Iven Mackay and his headquarters . Training was difficult as the old ammunition was in short supply . His command was only partially reequipped with the new 25 pounders before being committed to the Western Desert Campaign in December 1940 .
= = = Western desert = = =
At the Battle of Bardia , Herring controlled all 120 guns used in the division 's attack , in which the infantry were supported by Great @-@ War @-@ style barrages . After the victory at Bardia , Herring 's gunners supported the attack on Tobruk . More than half of his guns were British , and some were commanded by regular British officers who were sceptical of the ability of an Australian Militia officer . War Correspondent Chester Wilmot noted that :
Herring has a quiet , easy manner and his last war service has given him an understanding of the British to which they were quick to respond . After Bardia and Tobruk those officers who had been most skeptical were his strongest champions . In building up the artillery plan , Herring brought to bear the same thorough , relentless logic and attention to detail with which he had so often built up a legal argument .
= = = Greece = = =
In the campaign in Greece , Herring had , in addition to his own gunners , the 2nd Regiment , Royal Horse Artillery , 64th Medium Regiment , Royal Artillery and , for a time , the 6th Field Regiment , Royal New Zealand Artillery , under his command . His Australian , New Zealand and British gunners demonstrated " the extent to which , in such rugged country , artillery , with reliable infantry ahead , could halt and confuse a pursuer " but they were unable to stop the enemy advance .
Herring was ordered to evacuate from Greece . He was one of between 7 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 troops that gathered at Nafplion on 24 April 1941 , although transportation had been arranged for only 5 @,@ 000 . The ship that he was to sail on , the Ulster Prince ran aground near the harbour entrance . She was refloated but then ran aground again near the wharf . Despite this , some 6 @,@ 600 men and women were embarked . Herring and fellow Brigadier Clive Steele were among 5 @,@ 100 that managed to reach Crete on the Royal Navy transport HMS Glenearn . From there they flew back to Alexandria . Others were transported by HMS Phoebe , HMS Hyacinth , HMAS Stuart and HMAS Voyager , which carried 150 Australian and New Zealand nurses . For his service in Libya and Greece , Herring was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) .
= = = Defence of Australia = = =
Herring was promoted to the temporary rank of major general on 14 August 1941 when he took over command of the 6th Division . He returned to Australia with it in March 1942 . Unaware that the government had already decided that General Sir Thomas Blamey should be appointed Commander in Chief , Herring , along with Major General George Alan Vasey and Brigadier Clive Steele , approached Army Minister Frank Forde with a proposal that all officers over the age of 50 be immediately retired and Major General Horace Robertson appointed Commander in Chief . The ' revolt of the generals ' collapsed with the announcement that General Blamey was returning from the Middle East to become Commander in Chief , but seems to have done the participants no harm .
In Blamey 's reorganisation of the Army in April 1942 , Herring was given command of Northern Territory Force . At this time Darwin was being subjected to Japanese air raids . As supply by sea or air was impractical , Herring developed a land line of communications running across the outback from Alice Springs .
On 14 August 1942 , Herring was ordered to Esk , Queensland , to assume command of II Corps with the temporary rank of Lieutenant General . As such , he was responsible for the defence of Brisbane . At this time he was criticised in Federal Parliament by Arthur Calwell for allegedly issuing a verbal order whilst commander of the 6th Division that no officer was to be commissioned unless they had at least attained an Intermediate Certificate . There was no evidence that such an order was ever issued , but the allegation reflected a suspicion that Herring was an elitist .
= = = Papuan campaign = = =
In the wake of the dismissal of Lieutenant General Sydney Rowell for insubordination , Blamey ordered Herring to join him in Port Moresby as the new commander of I Corps . Before departing , Herring met with General Douglas MacArthur , who emphasised that the first duty of a soldier was obedience to his superiors .
As at Darwin , Herring 's primary difficulty was logistics . The troops on the Kokoda Track had to be supplied from Port Moresby either by air or by Papuan native carriers who lugged stores over the track on their backs . MacArthur created the Combined Operation Service Command ( COSC ) , an unusual combined Australian @-@ American logistical organisation , under U.S. Brigadier General Dwight Johns , who in turn was answerable to Herring . Herring backed a plan to take American engineers off working on the airstrips in order to develop the port by building a causeway to Tatana Island , the successful completion of which doubled the port 's capacity and was the logistical turning point of the campaign .
More controversial was Herring 's relief of Brigadier Arnold Potts and Blamey 's of Major General Arthur Samuel Allen at Herring 's urging . Herring acknowledged that the two men had faced a difficult task but felt that they were tired and that Brigadier Ivan Dougherty and Major General Vasey could do better . Supporters of Allen , who left school at age 14 , saw this as the action of an autocratic elitist who " ran his staff as he had controlled junior counsel in his barrister 's chamber ; they did his bidding , his way , or were forthwith dispensed with " .
In a letter to Herring in 1959 , General Robert L. Eichelberger ( who had himself relieved two division commanders – Major Generals Edwin F. Harding and Horace H. Fuller ) had this to say about the matter :
It is a funny thing about war historians . If a general dismisses a subordinate at any time he is immediately attacked ; whereas in our football game , if you have a better player for a particular place , you always play him , and everybody expects you to do this . I have little doubt that the same is true of your ball game . War historians never seem to give generals credit for having thought that X might be better than Y for the next phase of operations .
In November , Herring flew across the mountains to take control of the fighting around Buna , leaving Blamey to control operations elsewhere in New Guinea . Herring planned the systematic reduction of the Japanese positions at Buna and Sanananda . He struggled to amass enough troops , equipment , guns , and supplies to allow Australian troops under Vasey and Americans under Eichelberger to overcome the Japanese and capture the area .
= = = New Guinea campaign = = =
Following the victory at Buna , for which Herring and Eichelberger were appointed Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire , Blamey ordered him to return to Australia for a rest . While in Melbourne , Herring had an attack of malaria , but recovered to resume command in New Guinea in May . Blamey charged him with responsibility for the next phase of Operation Cartwheel , the capture of Lae . Herring would command I Corps , which would be part of New Guinea Force , under Blamey and later Mackay . Blamey intended to have Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead command the subsequent phase of the operation , the assault on Madang .
At this time operations were in train to drive the Japanese back to Salamaua . Once again , the difficulties of supplying the attacking force were formidable . Out of sensitivity towards the sensibilities of the Americans , Herring left the command arrangements between Major General Stanley Savige 's 3rd Division and units of the American 41st Infantry Division ambiguous . This backfired , producing acrimony between the Australian and American commanders . Herring prepared to fire Savige , but an investigation by Major General Frank Berryman determined that the dispute was not Savige 's fault .
The new offensive , which opened on 5 September 1943 with the 7th Division landing at Nadzab by air and 9th Division landing at Lae from the ships of Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey 's VII Amphibious Force , saw the rapid capture of Lae . While the 7th Division moved up the Markham and Ramu Valleys , the 9th Division made another landing at Scarlet Beach near Finschhafen . The timing of the landing was contentious , with Barbey , who feared air attack , wanting to land at night while Herring held out for a dawn landing , threatening to take the issue to General MacArthur . Eventually Berryman managed to persuade Herring to accept a compromise H @-@ hour in the darkness before dawn . The U.S. Naval Historian Samuel Eliot Morison noted : " The Australians proved to be right ; ' Uncle Dan 's ' outfit was not prepared for a neat night landing . The usual SNAFU developed . " But Berryman saw Herring as being uncooperative , and his intransigence as a sign of battle weariness .
In the subsequent Battle of Finschhafen , it soon became clear that the strength of the Japanese forces there had been seriously underestimated , and the 9th Division needed to be resupplied and reinforced , and its casualties evacuated . Herring strove to get the necessary amphibious lift from the navy but the commander of the United States Seventh Fleet , Vice Admiral Arthur S. Carpender , was reluctant to expose his ships to the Japanese air threat . The matter went up the chain of command to Mackay , to Blamey , and ultimately to MacArthur , who could do little , given that he had no real authority over the U.S. Navy .
Carpender was not inflexible , and reached a compromise with Mackay to transport a battalion to Finschhafen in high speed transports ( APDs ) . Herring was in Dobodura , lunching with Lieutenant General Brehon B. Somervell , when he heard this news . He decided to fly to Milne Bay to discuss the matter of resupply in general with Barbey . On 28 September , Herring and two of his staff officers , Brigadiers R. B. Sutherland and R. Bierwirth , boarded a U.S. Fifth Air Force B @-@ 25 Mitchell bomber at Dobodura . As the plane was about to take off , the undercarriage collapsed and the plane ploughed into the Marston Mat runway . A propeller shattered , splinters ripped through the fuselage into the cabin and Sutherland , who was sitting in the navigator 's compartment next to Herring , was struck by a flying fragment that killed him instantly . The crew , Herring and Bierwirth escaped shaken but unscathed . The trip to Milne Bay was cancelled . Brigadier Sutherland was buried with full military honours at Soputa the next day , with a fly past by B @-@ 25s . When next he flew , Herring once again took a B @-@ 25 and made a point of requesting the major who had been in charge of the crashed plane to be his pilot .
Mackay became convinced that Herring was becoming increasingly difficult to work with as a result of stress and fatigue and asked Blamey for permission to relieve him . Blamey 's response was characteristic : Morshead would be on the next plane . Yet Blamey maintained his faith in Herring , who retained command of I Corps on the Atherton Tableland , where he trained his men for the next operation . He did not know when or where this would be , so he focused on amphibious warfare . He created the 1st Beach Group and developed tactics and doctrine for amphibious operations based on his own experience in the New Guinea Campaign and reports from the Allied invasion of Sicily . The benefits of his work would be realised in the Borneo Campaign .
= = Chief Justiceship and later life = =
On 2 February 1944 , the Victorian government decided to appoint Herring as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria . Blamey advised the Prime Minister that :
General Herring is prepared to accept the appointment and I recommend he be released from the Army . He has had two serious attacks of Malaria . I am afraid that in view of his age , further tropical service may seriously injure his health and that the command may suffer as a result . He has rendered excellent service over four years , mainly on active service in the field .
It was not quite the end of his military service . Herring was recalled to duty for a year as Director General of Recruiting in August 1950 when the Korean War spurred efforts to build up the Army again . In January 1953 , Herring was selected as leader of the Australian Services Contingent for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . This saw Australian soldiers as the Queen 's Guard at Buckingham Palace on 26 May 1953 , with Herring personally taking part in the procession . On 10 July , he was made a Knight of the Order of St John at Buckingham Palace . At the same time , Mary was made a commander of the same order for her charity work .
Herring maintained connections with his comrades from both World Wars . On the way back from the coronation , the Herrings stayed with the Eichelbergers in Asheville , North Carolina . The two generals remained close friends , exchanging regular letters until Eichelberger 's death in 1961 . In 1962 , Herring visited Richard O 'Connor at his home in Ross . In 1967 and 1971 , the Herrings again travelled to America where they were guests of Dwight Johns and his wife . In 1973 , he visited Washington , D.C. for the annual reunion of MacArthur 's staff , and resolved that the next reunion should be held in Australia . He obtained government backing for his idea , and arranged for more than twenty former American generals , including Leif J. Sverdrup , Hugh John Casey , William C. Chase and Clyde D. Eddleman and their wives , to visit Australia in 1974 , with commemorative functions being held in Melbourne , Sydney and Brisbane . Herring steadfastly believed that MacArthur , like Blamey , was a great commander who was not fully appreciated in his own country .
Herring 's twenty years as Chief Justice was a period of significant change and growth in the administration of the law . During his period of office the number of judges on the Court increased from six to fourteen , reflecting the growth in cases . Herring earned a reputation as a fine judge and able administrator . He set up the Chief Justice 's Law Reform Committee to try to ensure justice in Victoria 's courts was abreast of the times , and a committee for religious observances and services to arrange the religious services marking the opening of the legal year . Herring retired as Chief Justice in 1964 but stayed on as Lieutenant Governor until his 80th birthday in 1972 , serving in the position for a record 27 years . For his service as Lieutenant Governor , Herring was made a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in the King 's Birthday Honours of 9 June 1949 .
In a speech given on the occasion of his retiring as Chief Justice of Victoria , Herring said :
And now the time has come for me to lay down my office , but before I do so there are two matters to which I feel bound to draw attention . The first is this , that under the Australian constitution the great common law courts of Australia are the Supreme Courts of the States . Federal Parliament has no power to set up common law courts and so it is to the Supreme Courts of the States the citizen must look for protection from illegal arrest and other encroachments on his liberty . It is to these Courts that he must come for a writ of habeas corpus . These Courts and their prestige must , therefore , at all costs be sustained so that they will continue to attract the finest characters and best legal brains that we can produce . As a community we will pay heavily if we allow our Supreme Court to be relegated to a position of inferiority . The second matter I feel I should mention is that the principle of the independence of the judiciary from the executive is fundamental to our freedom . What happens when this principle is departed from is evident from what is going on in many lands today . We must see to it that our citizens all understand that an independent judiciary is the greatest bulwark of their liberties and their best protection from totalitarian rule .
While opening the Victorian Returned Services League Conference shortly before his retirement as Lieutenant Governor , Herring criticised anti @-@ war protesters and praised Australian soldiers who had served in the Vietnam War . " People who throw stones at Americans , " he said , " should stop and think where we would have been in 1942 without the Americans . " Such remarks earned him a rebuke from the then acting State Opposition Leader , Frank Wilkes , as " untactful " for a representative of the Crown .
Herring again became the subject of controversy in May 1978 when Barry Jones revealed in Federal Parliament that during the Second World War Herring had confirmed death sentences on 22 Papuans convicted of handing over seven Anglican missionaries to the Japanese , which Jones called " the darkest secret in modern Australian history " . The Papuans had been convicted of offences including murder and treason . Herring claimed that they had been treated fairly under the conventions and circumstances applicable in wartime . " I have a clear conscience about it " , he said . The seven missionaries had all been murdered by the Japanese . Four of them were women who had been raped as well . The Papuans had also handed over to the Japanese for execution two planters , six Australian soldiers , and two American airmen , and they had murdered Australian soldiers of the 39th Infantry Battalion near Kokoda . They were handed over to ANGAU , which had carried out the executions at Higaturu in September 1943 .
Herring was president of the Boy Scouts ' Association of Victoria for 23 years , and was later the first president of the Australian Boy Scouts ' Association from 1959 to 1977 . He was chairman of trustees of the Shrine of Remembrance from 1945 to 1978 ( and remained a trustee until his death ) and chairman of trustees of the Australian War Memorial from 1959 to 1974 . He was made a fellow of New College , Oxford , in 1949 , received an honorary DCL from Oxford in 1953 , became an honorary bencher of the Inner Temple in 1963 and received an honorary LLD from Monash University in 1973 . He was also active in the Anglican Church , and for many years was chancellor of the diocese of Melbourne , the highest church office that could be held by a layman . In 1980 he was elected one of the inaugural fellows of Trinity College , Melbourne , under its new constitution .
= = Death and legacy = =
Herring died at a Camberwell , Victoria , nursing home on 5 January 1982 . He was given a state funeral at St Paul 's Cathedral , Melbourne , planned by his wife , Dame Mary Ranken Herring , who had died three months before .
Victoria 's Herring Island is named after him ; it is beside the Monash Freeway ( named for Herrings fellow " civilian soldier " , general and lawyer , Sir John Monash ) in Melbourne 's Yarra River at South Yarra , approximately 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from the city . Herring 's wartime portraits are in the Australian War Memorial in Canberra , which featured him as one of the fifty most prominent Australians with a military background . His papers are in the State Library of Victoria .
= Princess Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine ( 1895 – 1903 ) =
Princess Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine ( Prinzessin Elisabeth Marie Alice Viktoria von Hessen und bei Rhein ) ( 11 March 1895 – 16 November 1903 ) was the only daughter of Ernst Ludwig , Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine and his first wife , Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha . She was named after her paternal great @-@ grandmother , who was born Princess Elisabeth of Prussia . Her paternal aunt had the same name and was also nicknamed Ella . Elisabeth 's early death was rumored to be a result of poison meant for her uncle , Tsar Nicholas II , but the court physician said she died of virulent typhoid , probably caused by her taking a drink of water from a contaminated stream .
= = Birth = =
Her parents , nicknamed ' Ernie ' and ' Ducky , ' were first cousins who married at the instigation of their common grandmother , Queen Victoria . The marriage was an unhappy one from the start . Princess Victoria Melita was eighteen at the time of Elisabeth 's birth . She was fond of Elisabeth , but found it hard to compete with Ernst 's devotion to their daughter . Ernst was convinced even before Elisabeth could speak that he alone could understand her . At the age of six months , she was scheduled to move to a new nursery and her father ' consulted ' her on her color preferences . He claimed that she made ' happy little squeals ' when he showed her a particular shade of lilac material . Ernst then decorated her nursery in shades of lilac . He later had a playhouse built for his daughter that stood in its own garden . Adults were forbidden to enter " much to the frustration of royal nurses and tutors , who could be seen pacing up and down impatiently outside as they waited for their high @-@ spirited young charges to stop their games and emerge . "
= = Childhood = =
Margaretta Eagar , a governess for the daughters of Tsar Nicholas II , described Elisabeth as " a sweet and pretty child , with wide grey @-@ blue eyes and a profusion of dark hair . She was much like her mother , not only in face , but also in manner . " The four @-@ year @-@ old Elisabeth wanted a baby sister and tried to persuade her aunt and uncle to let her parents adopt one of her paternal first cousins , Tatiana or Maria . Her parents had only one other child together , a stillborn son , in 1900 .
She was a favorite with her great @-@ grandmother , Queen Victoria , who called the little girl " my precious . " Queen Victoria refused to permit the unhappily married Victoria and Ernst to divorce for the sake of Elisabeth . It was Elisabeth whom Queen Victoria asked to see first and to receive eightieth birthday greetings from in 1899 . When the child heard Queen Victoria 's pony cart approaching on the road below Windsor Castle , the four @-@ year @-@ old Elisabeth ran out on the balcony , waving and calling , " Granny Gran , I 'm here ! " Elisabeth 's playfulness made the queen laugh out loud .
Elisabeth 's grandmother , Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia , the Duchess of Edinburgh , brought five @-@ year @-@ old Elisabeth to see Queen Victoria on her death bed on 22 January 1901 . After the queen died , the child was taken in to see her body and told that her great @-@ grandmother had gone to be with the angels . " But I don 't see the wings , " Elisabeth whispered . Elisabeth sat next to her second cousin , Prince Edward of York ( called David by family and friends , later to become King Edward VIII ) during Queen Victoria 's funeral . " Sweet little David behaved so well during the service , " wrote his aunt Maud , " and was supported by the little Hesse girl who took him under her protection and held him most of the time round his neck . They looked such a delightful little couple . "
In his memoirs , written more than thirty years after her death , her father wrote of Elisabeth 's " deep sensitivity " and " very large heart . " He wrote that " I never knew a child who had so much influence on adults . Her inner personality was very strong , and she had a natural quality that protected her from being spoiled . " In October 1901 , after the death of Queen Victoria , Elisabeth 's parents finally divorced . Her mother had rekindled a previous romance with another cousin , her future husband , Grand Duke Cyril Vladimirovich of Russia . Her father , according to letters written by her mother , had been caught cavorting with domestic servants . Her parents ' divorce meant that Elisabeth divided her year between Darmstadt and her mother 's new home in Coburg . Elisabeth was at first mistrustful of her mother and resented the divorce , although Victoria did her best to mend her relationship with her daughter during her visit with Elisabeth in the spring of 1902 . She was only partially successful , though Victoria enjoyed turning her daughter into an outstanding horsewoman .
In his memoirs , Ernst said he had difficulty persuading Elisabeth to visit her mother . Before one visit , he found the child " whimpering under a sofa , full of despair . " He assured Elisabeth that her mother loved her too . " Mama says she loves me , but you do love me , " Elisabeth replied . Margaret Eagar thought the child 's eyes were the saddest she had ever seen . " Looking at her I used to wonder what those wide grey @-@ blue eyes saw , to bring such a look of sadness to the childish face , " she wrote . Eagar wondered if Elisabeth had a premonition of her own death because she often told her cousin Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia that " I shall never see this again . " However , despite Elisabeth 's sad eyes , she was generally a sweet , happy child who was a peacemaker when her cousins had a dispute .
= = Death = =
On 6 October 1903 , Ernst hosted a large family gathering at Darmstadt for the wedding of his niece , Princess Alice of Battenberg , to Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark . A few weeks later he took Elisabeth to stay with his younger sister , Empress Alexandra Feodorovna , her husband , Tsar Nicholas II , and their family . At the imperial family 's hunting lodge in Skierniewice , Poland , Elisabeth went on long walks and had picnics in the forest with her cousins .
Her nanny , who called Elisabeth " my baby , " woke Elisabeth in the middle of the night and settled her in a window seat of the nursery so that she might look out on the game spread out upon the grounds below . One morning , the eight @-@ year @-@ old awoke with a sore throat and pains in her chest , which the Russian Court doctor put down to too much excitement with her cousins the previous day . Her fever rose to 104 degrees . The imperial party didn 't believe her illness was a serious one and went ahead with their plans for the day and attended the theater as planned . By the evening Elisabeth was in even more severe pain and had started gasping for breath . A specialist was summoned from Warsaw . The specialist gave her injections of caffeine and camphor to stimulate her slowing heart , but without success .
" Suddenly she sat up in her bed and looked from one to the other of us with wide , frightened eyes , " wrote Eagar . " She cried out suddenly , ' I 'm dying ! I 'm dying ! ' She was coaxed to lie down again , but remained agitated . " The child turned to me , and said anxiously , ' Send a telegram to mama . ' " Eagar promised it would be done . " She added , ' immediately . ' ... We continued to fan the feeble spark of life , but moment by moment it declined . She began to talk to her cousins , and seemed to imagine she was playing with them . She asked for little Anastasie and I brought the wee thing into the room . The dying eyes rested on her for a moment , and Anastasie said , ' Poor cousin Ella ! Poor Princess Elizabeth ! ' I took the baby out of the room . " Doctors told Alexandra that the child 's mother should be notified , but the telegram did not arrive until the following morning , when Elisabeth had already died . An autopsy following her death confirmed that she had died of virulent typhoid , although it was rumored she had eaten from a poisoned dish intended for the Tsar .
= = Funeral and legacy = =
Elisabeth 's body was placed in a silver casket , a gift from Nicholas II , for the journey back to Darmstadt . Her father arranged a white funeral , with white instead of black for the funeral trappings , white flowers , and white horses for the procession . The Hessian people came out by the thousands to view the funeral procession and " sobbed in unison so that I could hear it , " Ernst wrote . A cousin , Kaiser Wilhelm II , expressed shock at the child 's death in a letter to Tsar Nicholas II on 7 November 1903 . " How joyous and merry she was that day at Wolfsgarten , when I was there , so full of life and fun and health ... What a terrible heartrending blow for poor Ernie , who doted and adored that little enchantress ! " Elisabeth was buried in the Rosenhöhe with other members of the Hessian grand ducal family . A marble angel was later installed to watch over her grave . In a final gesture to Elisabeth and Ernst , Victoria Melita placed her badge of the Order of Hesse , granted to her upon her marriage , into Elisabeth 's coffin . Ernst was still devastated by the memory of his daughter 's death thirty years later . " My little Elisabeth , " he wrote in his memoirs , " was the sunshine of my life . "
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
11 March 1895 – 16 November 1903 : Her Grand Ducal Highness Princess Elisabeth Marie Alice Viktoria of Hesse and by Rhine
= = Ancestry = =
= Thiomersal controversy =
The thiomersal controversy describes claims that vaccines containing the mercury @-@ based preservative thiomersal contribute to the development of autism and other brain development disorders . Thimerosal is no longer used in children 's vaccines in the United States , except
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Newcastle United was set up as a private company limited by shares on 6 September 1895 . The club traded in this way for much of the 20th century , until April 1997 , when John Hall , who bought 72 @.@ 9 % of the club for £ 3 million in 1991 , floated the club on the stock exchange as a public limited company , with less than half the shares sold to the Hall family and the majority holding going to his business partner Freddy Shepherd . Later that year , Hall stepped down as chairman and was replaced by Shepherd , with the Hall family represented on the board by John 's son Douglas . In December 1998 , after buying a 6 @.@ 3 % stake in the club for £ 10 million , the media group NTL had considered a full takeover of the club . This was later dropped after the April 1999 Competition Commission , brought in due to government concerns about football clubs being owned by media companies .
In 2007 , businessman Mike Ashley purchased the combined stakes of both Douglas and John Hall , 41 % share in the club , through a holding company St James Holdings , with a view to buy the rest . Upon purchasing this share , he appointed Chris Mort as chairman , while gaining more shares , owning 93 @.@ 19 % of the club by 29 June 2007 . This figure reached 95 % on 11 July 2007 , forcing the remaining shareholders to sell their shares .
Since completing the purchase of the club , Ashley has twice announced that he planned to sell the club . The first occurred after fan protests over the resignation of Kevin Keegan on 14 September 2008 , when Ashley stated , " I have listened to you . You want me out . That is what I am now trying to do . " However , he took it off the market on 28 December 2008 after being unable to find a buyer . On 31 May 2009 , it was reported that Ashley was attempting to sell the club again . On 8 June 2009 , Ashley confirmed that the club was up for sale at an asking price of £ 100 million . By the end of August 2009 , the club was back off the market .
= = Social responsibility = =
Newcastle United established the Newcastle United Foundation in summer 2008 , which seeks to encourage learning and promote healthy living amongst disadvantaged children , young people and families in the North East region , as well as promoting equality and diversity . The Foundation 's manager Kate Bradley told charity news website The Third Sector , " Children look up to players as their heroes , and anything they say is instantly taken on board . If Newcastle defender Steven Taylor tells them not to eat a Mars bar for breakfast , they 'll listen . " In 2010 , the charity taught over 5 @,@ 000 children about healthy living .
The Foundation 's commitment , along with a similar foundation run by West Bromwich Albion , the unique relationship that Aston Villa has with Acorns Children 's Hospice and Tottenham Hotspur has with SOS Children 's Villages UK , are some leading examples of commitment in the highest level of football to responsibility and change in the communities in which they work and who enrich them through their support and ticket sales . The work of these clubs , and others , are changing the way professional sport interacts with their communities and supporters .
In December 2012 , the club announced that it had become the world ’ s first carbon positive football club .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
Supporters of Newcastle United are drawn from all over the North East and beyond , with supporters ' clubs all across the world . The club 's nickname is ' The Magpies ' , while the club 's supporters are also known as the Geordies or the Toon Army . The name Toon originates from the Geordie pronunciation of town . In a 2004 survey by Co @-@ operative Financial Services , it was found that Newcastle United topped the league table for the cost incurred and distance travelled by Newcastle @-@ based fans wishing to travel to every Premier League away game . The total distance travelled for a fan to attend every away game from Newcastle was found to be equivalent to a round @-@ the @-@ world trip . In the 2009 – 10 season , when the club were playing in English football 's second tier , the Football League Championship , the average attendance at St James ' Park was 43 @,@ 388 , the fourth @-@ highest for an English club that season . At the end of the 2011 – 12 Premier league season , Newcastle United held the third @-@ highest average attendance for the season , at 49 @,@ 935 . This figure was only surpassed by Arsenal and Manchester United , the only two clubs in the Premier League with larger stadiums .
The club 's supporters publish a number of fanzines including True Faith and The Mag , along with NUFC.com , which was established in 1996 . They set up Newcastle United Supporters Trust in September 2008 , aiming to " represent the broad church of Newcastle United 's support . "
In addition to the usual English football chants , Newcastle 's supporters sing the traditional Tyneside song " Blaydon Races . "
Traditionally , Newcastle 's main rivals are Sunderland , against whom the Tyne – Wear derby is competed .
= = Statistics = =
To date , inclusive of the 2015 – 16 season , Newcastle United have spent 85 seasons in the top @-@ flight . They are eighth in the All @-@ time FA Premier League table and have the ninth @-@ highest total of major honours won by an English club with 11 wins . The holder of the record for the most appearances is Jimmy Lawrence , having made 496 first team appearances between 1904 and 1921 . The club 's top goal scorer is Alan Shearer , who scored 206 goals in all competitions between 1996 and 2006 . Andy Cole holds the record for the most goals scored in a season : 41 in the 1993 – 94 season in the Premier League . Shay Given was the most capped international for the club , with 127 appearances for Republic of Ireland .
The club 's widest victory margin in the league was in the 13 – 0 win against Newport County in the Second Division in 1946 . Their heaviest defeat in the league was 9 – 0 against Burton Wanderers in the Second Division in 1895 . The club 's longest number of consecutive seasons in the top flight of English football was 36 from 1898 – 99 until 1933 – 34 .
Newcastle 's record home attendance is 68 @,@ 386 for a First Division match against Chelsea on 3 September 1930 . The club 's highest attendance in the Premier League is 52 @,@ 389 , in a match against Manchester City on 6 May 2012 . Newcastle lost the game 2 – 0 . The highest transfer fee received for a Newcastle player is £ 35 million , from Liverpool for Andy Carroll in January 2011 , while the most spent by the club on a player was £ 16 million for striker Michael Owen from Real Madrid in August 2005 .
= = = Honours = = =
= = = = Domestic = = = =
Football League First Division :
Winners ( 4 ) – 1904 – 05 , 1906 – 07 , 1908 – 09 , 1926 – 27
Football League Championship :
Winners ( 3 ) – 1964 – 65 , 1992 – 93 , 2009 – 10
FA Cup :
Winners ( 6 ) – 1910 , 1924 , 1932 , 1951 , 1952 , 1955
FA Community Shield :
Winners ( 1 ) – 1909
= = = = European = = = =
Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup :
Winners ( 1 ) − 1969
UEFA Intertoto Cup :
Winners ( 1 ) − 2006
= = = = Other honours = = = =
Texaco Cup :
Winners ( 2 ) − 1974 , 1975
Anglo @-@ Italian Cup :
Winners ( 1 ) − 1973
= = Players = =
As of 22 July 2016 .
= = = Current squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Players outside the First @-@ team squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Reserves and academy = = =
For reserve and academy squads , see Newcastle United F.C. Reserves and Academy
= = = Notable players = = =
For details on former players , see List of Newcastle United F.C. players and Category : Newcastle United F.C. players
= = Board of Directors = =
= = Management = =
= = = Current backroom staff = = =
= = = = First Team = = = =
= = = = Reserves & Academy = = = =
= = = Notable managers = = =
= Dawn Marie Psaltis =
Dawn Marie Psaltis ( born November 3 , 1970 ) is an American retired professional wrestler and professional wrestling valet . She is perhaps best known for her appearances with Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) and the SmackDown ! brand of World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) under her ring name Dawn Marie , where she was a WWE Diva .
Before entering the sports entertainment industry , Psaltis made her living in real estate . After deciding to pursue a career in modeling or acting , Psaltis began managing wrestlers on the independent circuit after meeting a wrestling promoter . She signed a deal with ECW after what was supposed to be a three @-@ week stint . She managed The Impact Players and Simon and Swinger until ECW 's bankruptcy in 2001 .
Psaltis then joined WWE , where her most notable feud involved her marrying Al Wilson , the storyline father of her rival Torrie Wilson . She was released from her WWE contract in 2005 after revealing that she was pregnant , which resulted in her filing a lawsuit against her former employers .
= = Early life = =
Psaltis was raised by her father , a zoologist , and together , they spent their time camping and hunting . In her youth , she was a fan of the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , admiring wrestlers such as Bob Backlund , Jimmy Snuka , and Roddy Piper . Psaltis graduated from the New York University Stern School of Business at the age of 22 . She then went on to work for a real estate consultancy firm in Manhattan , New York , reaching the position of Director of International Real Estate .
After meeting an ex @-@ boyfriend who had aspired to play football professionally and finding out that he had been signed by the Chicago Bears , Psaltis decided that she wanted to pursue a career in entertainment . She resigned from the firm and moved into the entertainment industry with the goal of becoming either a model or an actress .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career and independent circuit = = =
While signing modeling posters for Jonathan Gold , a talent agent and professional wrestling promoter , Psaltis jokingly told Gold that she would be interested in pursuing a career in wrestling . Gold took her comment at face value and later contacted Psaltis , informing her that she was scheduled to appear at a wrestling show in New Jersey . With some trepidation , she went to the show and managed Tony Atlas in his match against Jimmy Snuka . Psaltis made her professional wrestling debut in January 1995 . She met her future fiancé Simon Diamond during her time in the independent wrestling promotions . She also met Buddy Landell and Devon Storm , both of whom helped train her . Psaltis spent four years working on the northeastern independent circuit , appearing with promotions such as Maryland Championship Wrestling and the Mid @-@ Eastern Wrestling Federation .
= = = Extreme Championship Wrestling ( 1998 – 2001 ) = = =
In 1998 , Psaltis was informed that Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) employee Buh Buh Ray Dudley was interested in bringing her into ECW . At the behest of Dudley , Psaltis traveled to the ECW Arena in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , where ECW promoter Paul Heyman told her that he would book her for several appearances in an angle with Lance Storm . She debuted in ECW on August 28 , 1998 as the manager of Storm , feuding with Chris Candido and his manager , Tammy Lynn Sytch . Although she was only supposed to have a three @-@ week role in the company , Heyman was impressed by the chemistry between Psaltis and Storm and offered her a contract , which she accepted . Psaltis created her character to be in love with Storm and clumsy rather than glamorous .
Storm and Psaltis feuded with Candido and Sytch for several months , during which time Psaltis was renamed " Tammy Lynn Bytch " to spite Candido and his manager . After the respective feuds ended , she used the ring name " Dawn Marie Bytch , " which was eventually shortened to simply Dawn Marie . After Storm formed a tag team with Justin Credible known as the Impact Players in the summer of 1999 , she managed both men , helping them win the ECW Tag Team Championship on two occasions . Psaltis continued to manage Storm until he left ECW for World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) in May 2000 . Psaltis was also offered a contract by WCW , but declined to leave ECW in order to remain with her fiancé , ECW wrestler Simon Diamond . She also had two years left on her ECW contract .
After Storm departed ECW , Psaltis became a color commentator on ECW pay @-@ per @-@ views and the television series ECW on TNN . On December 3 , 2000 at the Massacre on 34th Street pay @-@ per @-@ view , as part of a new angle , she announced that she would become the manager of the winner of the opening match pitting Simon Diamond and Swinger against Christian York and Joey Matthews . Although York and Matthews won the bout , Psaltis opted to join forces with Diamond and Swinger , whom she managed until ECW declared bankruptcy in April 2001 .
= = = Return to independent circuit ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = =
Following the bankruptcy of ECW , Psaltis returned to the independent circuit , managing Diamond . The duo made several appearances alongside Swinger with the short lived X Wrestling Federation in November 2001 . During her time on the independent circuit , she trained as a wrestler under Simon Diamond and Mikey Whipwreck . Also in 2001 , Psaltis worked as a stock trader , and in 2002 , she co @-@ hosted a syndicated wrestling radio show known as the " Piledriver Rock and Wrestling Radio Show " .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Debut and Vince McMahon 's Legal Assistant ( 2002 ) = = = =
In April 2002 , Psaltis began negotiating with the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , eventually agreeing to a deal . She made her World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) television debut on the May 30 episode of SmackDown ! as Vince McMahon 's legal assistant . She debuted with the name " Dawn Marie Rinaldi " although it was quickly shortened to the original " Dawn Marie " . In her initial storyline , she briefly feuded with Stacy Keibler over McMahon 's affections until McMahon turned over the General Management position to his daughter , Stephanie McMahon , which was followed shortly by Keibler 's departure for the RAW brand .
= = = = Feud with Torrie Wilson ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = = =
Psaltis would begin a controversial feud with Torrie Wilson in 2002 . On the October 17 episode of Smackdown ! , Marie picked up her first victory when she teamed up with Matt Hardy to defeat Rikishi and Torrie Wilson . In the angle , Psaltis attempted to marry Wilson 's real @-@ life father Al Wilson . She also revealed that she had developed feelings for Torrie , and the two shared an on @-@ screen kiss . Dawn Marie even offered to cancel the wedding if Torrie would go to a hotel with her for the night . Despite this , as part of the angle , she developed feelings for Al , and the two got married in Albuquerque , New Mexico on an episode of SmackDown ! in their underwear . Al then , in storyline , died from a heart attack after having rigorous sex numerous times in succession on their honeymoon . In response , Wilson defeated Psaltis at No Mercy in October . She defeated Psaltis again at the Royal Rumble in 2003 in what was billed as a Stepmother vs. Stepdaughter match . The feud lasted approximately nine months .
A year later , Psaltis began a second feud with Wilson . As part of the feud , the two had a match with Wilson 's career on the line when the SmackDown ! General Manager at the time , Kurt Angle , made the stipulation for the match at Judgment Day , which Wilson won .
= = = = Various feuds and release ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = = =
After being on hiatus from SmackDown ! programming , Psaltis began a new storyline with Miss Jackie , involving whether she and Jackie 's fiancée , Charlie Haas , had an affair . This angle led up to a match between the two at Armageddon , with Haas as the guest referee . Psaltis won the match , but afterward , Haas confirmed their affair and broke off both relationships .
At the No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ view , on February 20 , Dawn Marie entered a feud with Michelle McCool after McCool attacked Marie during the Divas Contest where Marie and Torrie Wilson co @-@ hosted the contest . On the March 3 episode of Smackdown ! , Marie teamed up with Rene Dupree in losing effort to Big Show and McCool in a mixed tag team match . On the March 24 episode of Smackdown ! , Dawn Marie pinned McCool by using the ropes for leverage . On the April 14 episode of Smackdown ! , Dawn Marie was defeated by Torrie in a Divas Match , this would turn out to be Marie 's last match .
Her last appearance with the company was at ECW One Night Stand , managing Lance Storm for his match against Chris Jericho . Afterward , she was released from her WWE contract on July 6 , 2005 while on maternity leave , as she was pregnant .
= = = Other Promotions ( 2005 – present ) = = =
On November 5 , 2005 , a visibly pregnant Psaltis appeared at the ECW reunion event Hardcore Homecoming : November Reign , which is unaffiliated with World Wrestling Entertainment , holding the key for the main event steel cage match between Jerry Lynn and Justin Credible . The match was won by Justin Credible after Psaltis , Jason Knight , and Lance Storm interfered on his behalf . In June 2006 , she managed Johnny Candido in a match for the National Wrestling Superstars promotion .
In July 2009 , Psaltis signed with Dragon Gate USA as the " Live Event Hostess " , a role similar to that of the ring announcer . Marie made appearance for The U.W.E at their pay @-@ per @-@ view Meltdown , on July 21 , 2012 , managing Kevin Murphy and Richie Nightmare against " The Thrill Seeker " Sage Strong and The Mercenary whom was managed by Tommy Dreamer .
Marie is currently taking part in World Wrestling Fan Xperience showcase .
= = = Women Superstars Uncensored ( 2008 , 2010 ) = = =
On March 8 , 2008 , Marie made her debut for Women Superstars Uncensored as a special guest referee for match between Alexa Thatcher and Cindy Rogers versus Nikki Roxx and Alere Little Feather . Marie made her in @-@ ring debut , On the March 22 , 2008 episode of Women Superstars Uncensored , competing in the WSU / NWS ( Women 's J @-@ Cup ) losing to Becky Bayless in the first round . On the June 21 episode of Women Superstars Uncensored , Marie was defeated by Becky Bayless following the match it was then turned in a tag team match where she teamed up with Portia Perez in a winning effort defeating Bayless and Angelina Love . On the August 23 , 2008 episode of Women Superstars Uncensored , Marie 's final match was where she competed in a no @-@ contest with Trixie Lynn , Marie was scheduled to face Becky Bayless but was changed due to Bayless being signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling .
On the March 6 , 2010 episode of Women Superstars Uncensored , Marie was inducted into " Women Superstars Uncensored " Hall of Fame by Alicia .
= = Other media = =
Psaltis starred in The Vampire Carmilla , a 1999 independent film . In 2008 , she appeared in the second installment of Paul Heyman 's The Heyman Hustle video blog , which featured her and Heyman on the streets of New York City in winter , with Psaltis wearing only a bikini under a fur coat .
= = Personal life = =
While wrestling in ECW , Psaltis took one college class a semester because of her love of learning and reading . She also took acting classes with the intention of becoming an actress after her career in professional wrestling was over .
Psaltis began dating Simon Diamond in October 1998 . Before dating , the two had been good friends for almost two years . They had planned to be married by the end of 2000 or into 2001 . They did not wed , but stayed engaged for several years afterwards . After seven years together , their relationship had come to an end .
Later , Psaltis met a man named Matthew , whom she married in June 2005 in Las Vegas . In December 2005 , Psaltis gave birth to her first child , a boy named Matthew . In January 2006 , she filed a complaint against WWE with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission , claiming that her contract had been wrongfully terminated as a result of her pregnancy and that she had suffered mental duress as a result of the release . The case was reportedly settled in late 2007 . Psaltis gave birth to her second child , a girl named Katelyn Marie in May 2009 .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Corner slingshot splash
Sitout facebuster
Signature moves
Hair pull snapmare
Atomic drop
Fujiwara armbar
Slap
Drop toe hold
Headbutt
Two handed chokeslam
DDT
Wrestlers managed
Tony Atlas
Simon Diamond
Swinger
Lance Storm
The Impact Players ( Justin Credible and Lance Storm )
Devon Storm
Buddy Landell
Steve Corino
Johnny Candido
Kevin Matthews
Richie Nightmare
Managers
Tammy Lynn Sytch
Entrance themes
" Hell on High Heels " by Mötley Crüe
" El Phantasmo and the Chicken @-@ Run Blast @-@ O @-@ Rama ( Wine , Women & Song Mix ) " by White Zombie
" Neckbone " by Powerman 5000
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Women Superstars Uncensored
WSU Hall of Fame ( 2010 )
= Pacific Rim ( film ) =
Pacific Rim is a 2013 American science fiction monster film directed by Guillermo del Toro , and starring Charlie Hunnam , Idris Elba , Rinko Kikuchi , Charlie Day , Robert Kazinsky , Max Martini , and Ron Perlman . The screenplay is by Travis Beacham and del Toro , with a story by Beacham .
The film is set in the future , when Earth is at war with the Kaiju , colossal monsters which have emerged from an interdimensional portal on the bottom of the Pacific Ocean . To combat the monsters , humanity unites to create the Jaegers , gigantic humanoid mechas each controlled by at least two pilots , whose minds are joined by a neural bridge . Focusing on the war 's later days , the story follows Raleigh Becket , a washed @-@ up Jaeger pilot called out of retirement and teamed with rookie pilot Mako Mori as part of a last @-@ ditch effort to defeat the Kaiju .
Principal photography began on November 14 , 2011 in Toronto and lasted through April 2012 . The film was produced by Legendary Pictures and distributed by Warner Bros .. It was released on July 12 , 2013 including in 3D and IMAX 3D , receiving generally positive reviews ; the visual effects and action sequences were highly praised . While the film was a box @-@ office disappointment in the United States , it was highly successful in other territories . It earned a worldwide total of more than $ 411 million — $ 114 million in China alone , its largest market — becoming Del Toro 's most commercially successful film to date .
A sequel with the working title Maelstrom was announced in 2014 , and , following delays , is now to be directed by Steven S. DeKnight and produced by Del Toro , for a scheduled release of February 23 , 2018 .
= = Plot = =
In 2013 , Earth is under attack by gigantic alien monsters ( called Kaiju ) emerging from an inter @-@ dimensional portal called " The Breach " at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean . Humanity unites to construct colossal robots , nicknamed Jaegers , to combat the alien threat . Each Jaeger is controlled by two or more pilots , who are mentally linked via a process called " drifting " to share the mental stress of piloting the machine .
In 2020 , Gipsy Danger , piloted by brothers Raleigh and Yancy Becket , is assigned to protect the Alaskan coastline from a Kaiju . The monster survives the initial assault and blindsides Gipsy Danger , then rips open her hull and kills Yancy . Raleigh takes control of Gipsy alone and kills the Kaiju . Traumatized by the loss of his brother , Raleigh quits the Jaeger program .
Five years later , Kaiju attacks have increased in both frequency and strength , to the point that Jaegers are being destroyed faster than they can be built . World leaders decide to cut funding for the Jaeger program in favor of anti @-@ Kaiju coastal walls . Marshal Stacker Pentecost , veteran Jaeger pilot and commanding officer of the program , summons the surviving Jaegers and pilots to a base in Hong Kong called Shatterdome . He finds Raleigh and convinces him to rejoin the program and make a last stand .
At Shatterdome , Raleigh and Pentecost are greeted by Mako Mori , the director of the Jaeger refurbishment . He sees the remaining Jaegers and their crews : Striker Eureka , Cherno Alpha , and Crimson Typhoon . The fourth Jaeger is Gipsy Danger , rebuilt and refurbished with additional weapons and a nuclear reactor . Pentecost tells Raleigh his plan is to use the four Jaegers to seal the Breach with a nuclear weapon . To find a new partner to pilot Gipsy , Raleigh holds a tryout with the base 's fighters , and finds his most " drift @-@ compatible " partner to be Mori , who is revealed to be Pentecost 's adopted daughter . In their test drift , Mako becomes lost in her memory of the Kaiju attack that orphaned her , and nearly discharges Gipsy Danger 's plasma caster . Pentecost grounds Mako , leaving Raleigh without a copilot .
Pentecost consults with Kaiju scientists Newton Geiszler and Hermann Gottlieb . Herman believes that the Breach is stabilizing , allowing increasing numbers of Kaiju to invade at a time , but allowing them to drop the weapon into the Breach . Newton , for his part , creates a device that allows him to drift with a Kaiju 's brain fragment , and discovers that the Kaiju are bioweapons created by extraterrestrial colonists to wipe out humanity and invade Earth . Pentecost instructs Newton to find black market dealer Hannibal Chau to obtain an intact Kaiju brain and acquire more information . At Hannibal 's place , Newton realizes that during his previous drift , the Kaiju 's hive mind gained access to his knowledge , just as he gained theirs . Two Kaiju , code @-@ named Otachi and Leatherback , are unleashed upon Hong Kong simultaneously to find him .
All Jaegers , except for Gipsy Danger , are dispatched . The Kaiju easily destroy Crimson Typhoon and Cherno Alpha , and immobilize Striker Eureka with an EMP blast . Out of options , Pentecost allows Raleigh and Mako to pilot Gipsy Danger . They kill Leatherback , then pursue Otachi , which is hunting for Newton . After a lengthy and destructive battle , Raleigh and Mako manage to kill Otachi . Newton and Hannibal rush to Otachi 's carcass , and discover that it is pregnant . The infant Kaiju bursts out and swallows Hannibal , before being asphyxiated by its own umbilical cord . Newton and Hermann drift with the infant Kaiju 's brain , and learn that the Breach only opens in the presence of Kaiju DNA .
Pentecost reveals to Raleigh he is terminally ill due to piloting a first generation Jaeger with no radiation shielding . The last time he piloted a Jaeger was during the Tokyo attack , during which he was forced to kill the Kaiju alone , making him and Raleigh the only pilots who have killed a Kaiju without a copilot ( known as solo combat ) . He has the remaining Jaegers proceed with the mission . With pilot Hercules Hansen injured during the previous fight , Pentecost and Chuck Hansen pilot Striker Eureka and carry the bomb ; Raleigh and Mako provide cover in Gipsy Danger . At the bottom of the Pacific Ocean , the two Jaegers are faced with three Kaiju , as Gottlieb predicted . Raleigh and Mako manage to kill the first , but Gipsy Danger is crippled by the second , and Striker Eureka takes critical damage fighting the third . Pentecost and Chuck detonate their nuclear bomb , killing another Kaiju and injuring the last one . Raleigh and Mako defeat the injured Kaiju , then , considering Newton 's discovery , they use the Kaiju corpse to drive Gipsy Danger into the Breach . Seeing Mako has passed out because her oxygen supply is depleted , Raleigh gives Mako his supply and ejects her via an escape pod . He then manually overloads the Jaeger 's nuclear reactor , just as it descends into the aliens ' homeworld , and ejects himself through the Breach .
Gipsy 's reactor explodes , killing the aliens and sealing the Breach . Mako and Raleigh 's pods surface in the Pacific Ocean , and the two embrace as rescue helicopters arrive . In a mid @-@ credits scene , Hannibal cuts his way out of the dead infant Kaiju .
= = Cast = =
Charlie Hunnam as Raleigh Becket :
A washed @-@ up former pilot called out of retirement by the Pan Pacific Defense Corps . On casting Hunnam , del Toro stated : " I saw him and I thought he had an earnest , really honest nature . And he was the kind of guy that I can relate to , as a male audience member I go , ' I like that guy . I would like to have a few beers with that guy ' … he has an earthy quality . " Describing the character , Hunnam stated : " When you meet me , in the beginning of the story , I 've suffered a giant loss . Not only has it killed my sense of self @-@ worth , but also my will to fight and keep on going . And then , Rinko and Idris , and a couple other people , bring me out of retirement to try to help with this grand push . I think that journey is a very relatable one . Everybody , at some point in their life , has fallen down and not felt like getting back up , but you have to , no matter how difficult it is . " Hunnam was also considered for the role of Prince Nuada in del Toro 's previous film , Hellboy II : The Golden Army . Paul Michael Wyers plays Raleigh as a child .
Idris Elba as Stacker Pentecost :
Raleigh 's commanding officer . On selecting Elba , del Toro stated : " This is a movie where I have had to deal with more dialogue than ever , and the way I cast the movie was — who do I want to hear say these things ? Who do I want Charlie Hunnam to go against ? Who can really tell Charlie Hunnam ' sit down and listen ' ? " In another interview , the director said : " I wanted to have Idris not be the blonde , square @-@ jawed , Anglo , super hip marine that knows [ everything ] . I wanted somebody that could bring a lot of authority , but that you could feel the weight of the world on his shoulders . When I watched Luther , that 's the essence of the character ... Luther is carrying literally the evils of the world on his shoulders . He 's doing penance for all humanity ... Idris is one of those actors that is capable of embodying humanity , in almost like a Rodin sculpture @-@ type , larger than life , almost like a Russian realism statue , you know , big hands , all the turmoil of humanity in his eyes . I wanted somebody that you could have doubts internally , and very few guys can do that . " To prepare for the role , Elba watched footage of politicians David Cameron and Barack Obama , as well as Russell Crowe in Gladiator and Mel Gibson in Braveheart . Del Toro initially offered the role to Tom Cruise , who declined because of scheduling conflicts .
Rinko Kikuchi as Mako Mori :
Raleigh 's co @-@ pilot who lost her family in a Kaiju attack . Though Mori possesses a strength and fury that should serve well against the Kaiju , Pentecost is reluctant to use her , partly because of a fatherly bond and partly because he knows she is still fighting the terror of her childhood . Del Toro stated : " I was very careful how I built the movie . One of the other things I decided was that I wanted a female lead who has the equal force as the male leads . She 's not going to be a sex kitten , she 's not going to come out in cutoff shorts and a tank top , and it 's going to be a real earnestly drawn character . " Noting that the other actors were exhausted and " destroyed physically " by filming in the intensive Jaeger cockpit harnesses , del Toro said : " The only one that didn 't break was Rinko Kikuchi , the girl . She never complained ... I asked Rinko her secret and she said ' I think of gummi bears and flowers . ' I try to do that in my life now . " Mana Ashida plays Mako as a child .
Charlie Day as Dr. Newton Geiszler :
A scientist studying the Kaiju . Day stated : " Certainly myself and Burn Gorman provide a little bit of much needed levity , it 's a break from the monsters and the guys fighting . But then the character gets thrust into the story in a way that his life is seriously at risk and it becomes a little more action oriented and a little more horror movie @-@ esque . So , he kinda bounces back between being humorous and also being real ... the rest of these guys , they look really good in their suits and they 've got abs , they can kick and fight and punch . Newt is sort of the ' everyman ' and he 's flawed and he 's arrogant . " Del Toro gave Geiszler the mentality of a celebrity chef , with tattoos and a " big personality " . According to the director , Day was cast based on his performance in an episode of It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia : " He comes out with a stick , and he has a monologue about what it is to hunt the rats in the basement . It was very funny , but he was coming from character . He was not doing big stuff , he was , like , really mourning and lamenting his job , you know , how inhuman it is . And I thought , ' This guy is great at shading and comedy . ' There are moments in the movie where he delivers them both . " Trek Buccino portrays Geiszler as a child .
Max Martini as Herc Hansen :
Chuck 's father and co @-@ pilot . Kazinsky stated Martini hated the fact that he was cast as Chuck 's father , being only 13 years Kazinsky 's senior . However , Kazinsky said they developed a bond while filming , " Because we were working so tight together , we would finish and then we would go out for dinner every night and we would go to the gym together on days off we had ... The emotional scene toward the end with the father @-@ son parting , it was very easy for me to play because I had grown to actually genuinely love Max as a man and as a friend . " Kazinsky revealed that Herc and Chuck 's pet bulldog was del Toro 's idea and said , " The dog 's name was Max , ironically , and we ended up using Max for so many things . The story was that Herc and Chuck have difficulty communicating , that they communicated via the dog , and all the love that they couldn 't show each other they would show the dog . " The role was originally written for Ron Perlman , but del Toro decided the scenes between Perlman 's Herc and Hunnam 's Raleigh " might start to feel like Sons of Anarchy 2 @.@ 0 " .
Robert Kazinsky as Chuck Hansen :
An Australian Jaeger pilot considered the finest soldier left in the Resistance . He and his father pilot Striker Eureka , " the strongest and the fastest " Jaeger with eleven Kaiju kills , and make up the Resistance 's " go @-@ to team " . Kazinsky , a fan of science @-@ fiction , was initially drawn by the film 's concept , " My immediate reaction was ' Holy crap , that 's cool . ' In the hands of somebody else , you might sit there and go , ' Well , this might be terrible , ' but with del Toro doing it , you kind of go , ' This is going to be amazing . ' " . Reflecting on his experience in the film , Kazinsky said in an interview , " The most fun I have ever had in my entire life was Pacific Rim , playing Chuck was incredibly fun . "
Ron Perlman as Hannibal Chau :
A black marketeer who makes a living dealing Kaiju organs . Perlman stated , " I actually think this character was designed to be played by another ethnicity other than myself . And somewhere along the way , [ del Toro ] had the notion , ' Wouldn 't it be interesting to turn this guy into more of an invention . ' So , in other words , somebody takes on a persona that completely sounds like he 's someone else and acts like he 's someone else but he 's really , you know , as you see me . That added a dimension to the larger @-@ than @-@ life aspect of the character ... I 'm playing somebody very close to my own origins . But a completely made @-@ up persona ... which makes him even more full of shit . And I think that 's the charm of the guy — that he 's kind of elusive , hard to pin down . " Pacific Rim marks Perlman 's fifth appearance in a del Toro film . The director stated : " I think the moment you have a guy that is called Hannibal Chau and Ron shows up , and he 's from Brooklyn and he 's been selling black market organs , you know the whole story ... That 's all I need to know . If it 's any other actor , there 's a lot more explaining to do . But when Ron comes in with that look , you can make your own story and it 'll be as compelling as anything I can invent . You do a little weightlifting with the audience . " The bird tattoos on Chau 's fingers indicate his past as a gangster . In the film , Chau states he took the name from his favorite historical figure and his second @-@ favorite Szechuan restaurant in Brooklyn . Del Toro drew inspiration from Burt Lancaster 's performance in Elmer Gantry when writing the character .
Clifton Collins , Jr. as Ops Tendo Choi :
A Chinese @-@ American Jaeger technician . Collins described his character as the " brains " behind the Jaegers .
Burn Gorman as Dr. Hermann Gottlieb :
A scientist studying the Kaiju alongside Geiszler . According to del Toro , Gottlieb is a " tweed @-@ wearing , English , phlegmatic introvert that never leaves the lab " . The modest Gottlie
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that Guillermo del Toro would direct Travis Beacham 's fantasy screenplay , Killing on Carnival Row , but the project never materialized . Beacham conceived Pacific Rim the following year . While walking on the beach near Santa Monica Pier , the screenwriter imagined a giant robot and a giant monster fighting to the death . " They just sort of materialized out of the fog , these vast , godlike things . " He later conceived the idea that each robot had two pilots , asking " what happens when one of those people dies ? " Deciding this would be " a story about loss , moving on after loss , and dealing with survivor 's guilt " , Beacham commenced writing the film . On May 28 , 2010 , it was reported that Legendary Pictures had purchased Beacham 's detailed 25 @-@ page film treatment , now titled Pacific Rim .
On July 28 , 2010 , it was reported that del Toro would next direct an adaptation of H. P. Lovecraft 's At the Mountains of Madness for Universal Studios , with James Cameron producing . When del Toro met with Legendary Pictures to discuss the possibility of collaborating with them on a film , he was intrigued by Beacham 's treatment — still a " very small pitch " at this point . Del Toro struck a deal with Legendary : while directing At the Mountains of Madness , he would produce and co @-@ write Pacific Rim ; because of the films ' conflicting production schedules , he would direct Pacific Rim only if At the Mountains of Madness were cancelled . Tom Cruise was attached to star in the Lovecraft adaptation .
On March 7 , 2011 , it was reported that Universal would not proceed with At the Mountains of Madness because del Toro was unwilling to compromise on the $ 150 million budget and R rating . The director later reflected , " When it happened , this has never happened to me , but I actually cried that weekend a lot . I don 't want to sound like a puny soul , but I really was devastated . I was weeping for the movie . " The project collapsed on a Friday , and del Toro signed to direct Pacific Rim the following Monday .
Del Toro spent a year working with Beacham on the screenplay , and is credited as co @-@ writer . He introduced ideas he had always wished to see in the genre , such as a Kaiju birth and a Kaiju attack seen from a child 's perspective . The script also received an uncredited rewrite from Neil Cross , who previously created the Idris Elba @-@ starring drama series Luther and wrote the del Toro @-@ produced horror film Mama . Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan were enlisted to perform uncredited rewrites when their spec script Monstropolis caught the filmmaker 's attention . Drew Pearce also carried out uncredited work on the script .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Filming began on November 14 , 2011 and continued in Toronto into April 2012 . Del Toro gave an update after the second week on filming finished . The film was referred to as Silent Seas and Still Seas during production .
Del Toro had never shot a film in less than 115 days , but had only 103 to shoot Pacific Rim . In order to achieve this , del Toro scheduled a splinter unit that he could direct early in the day , before main unit , and on his off @-@ days . The director worked 17 to 18 hours a day , seven days a week , for much of the schedule . Del Toro took a new approach to directing actors , allowing " looser " movements and improvisation ; the director maintained tight control over the production : " Everything , 100 % goes through me sooner or later . I do not delegate anything . Some people like it , some people don 't , but it has to be done that way . "
The film was shot using Red Epic cameras . At first Guillermo del Toro decided not to shoot or convert the film to 3D , as the effect would not work due to the sheer size of the film 's robots and monsters , explaining
I didn 't want to make the movie 3D because when you have things that big ... the thing that happens naturally , you 're looking at two buildings lets say at 300 feet [ away ] , if you move there is no parallax . They 're so big that , in 3D , you barely notice anything no matter how fast you move ... To force the 3D effects for robots and monsters that are supposed to be big you are making their [ perspective ] miniaturized , making them human scale .
It was later announced that the film would be converted to 3D , with the conversion taking 40 weeks longer than most . Del Toro said : " What can I tell you ? I changed my mind . I 'm not running for office . I can do a Romney . "
Del Toro cut approximately an hour of material from the film . The unused footage explored the characters and their arcs in greater detail , but the director felt it was necessary to strike a balance , stating : " We cannot pretend this is Ibsen with monsters and giant robots . I cannot pretend I 'm doing a profound reflection on mankind . " Each character 's arc was edited down to its minimal requirements . The director wanted to keep the film around two hours , particularly for younger viewers . Alejandro González Iñárritu and Alfonso Cuarón helped with the editing ; Iñárritu removed ten minutes of footage , while Cuarón removed " a few minutes " and rearranged several scenes . Iñárritu and Cuarón receive a " special thanks " in the film 's end credits , as do James Cameron and David Cronenberg .
= = = Design = = =
Del Toro envisioned Pacific Rim as an earnest , colorful adventure story , with an " incredibly airy and light feel " , in contrast to the " super @-@ brooding , super @-@ dark , cynical summer movie " . The director focused on " big , beautiful , sophisticated visuals " and action that would satisfy an adult audience , but has stated his " real hope " is to introduce the Kaiju and mecha genres to a generation of children . While the film draws heavily on these genres , it avoids direct references to previous works . Del Toro intended to create something original but " madly in love " with its influences , instilled with " epic beauty " and " operatic grandeur " . The end credits dedicate the film to Ray Harryhausen and Ishirō Honda , who helped to establish the giant monster genre with films such as The Beast from 20 @,@ 000 Fathoms and Godzilla respectively .
The film was to honor the Kaiju and mecha genres while creating an original stand @-@ alone film , something " conscious of the heritage , but not a pastiche or an homage or a greatest hits of everything " . The director made a point of starting from scratch , without emulating or referencing any previous examples of those genres . He cautioned his designers not to turn to films like Gamera , Godzilla , or The War of the Gargantuas for inspiration , stating : " I didn 't want to be postmodern , or referential , or just belong to a genre . I really wanted to create something new , something madly in love with those things . I tried to bring epic beauty to it , and drama and operatic grandeur . " Rather than popular culture , he drew inspiration from works of art such as The Colossus and George Bellows 's boxing paintings . The film 's designers include Wayne Barlowe , Oscar Chichoni , monster sculptors David Meng and Simon Lee , and Hellboy II and The Hobbit designer Francisco Ruiz Velasco . Del Toro has acknowledged that some designs created for his cancelled At the Mountains of Madness adaptation may have been used in Pacific Rim .
Approximately one hundred Kaiju and one hundred Jaegers were designed , but only a fraction of these appear in the film ; every week the filmmakers would " do an American Idol " and vote for the best . In designing Kaiju , the film 's artists frequently drew inspiration from nature rather than other works . The director commented : " Kaijus are essentially outlandish in a way , but on the other hand they come sort of in families : you 've got the reptilian Kaiju , the insect Kaiju , the sort of crustacean Kaiju ... So to take an outlandish design and then render it with an attention to real animal anatomy and detail is interesting . " Del Toro avoided making the Kaiju too similar to any Earth creatures , instead opting to make them otherworldly and alien . Del Toro called the film 's Kaiju " weapons " , stating that they are " the cleaning crew , the cats sent into the warehouse to clean out the mice . " Certain design elements are shared by all the Kaiju ; this is intended to suggest that they are connected and were designed for a similar purpose . Each Kaiju was given a vaguely humanoid silhouette to echo the man @-@ in @-@ suit aesthetic of early Japanese Kaiju films . While del Toro 's other films feature ancient or damaged monsters , the Kaiju lack scars or any evidence of prior culture , indicating that they are engineered creations rather than the result of an evolutionary system .
Knifehead , the first Kaiju to appear in the film , is a tribute to the plodding kaiju of 1960s Japanese films , and is intended to look almost like a man in a rubber suit ; its head was inspired by that of a goblin shark . Leatherback , the bouncer @-@ like Kaiju which spews electro @-@ magnetic charges , is a favorite of del Toro , who conceived it as a " brawler with this sort of beer belly " ; the lumbering movements of gorillas were used as a reference . The Kaiju Otachi homages the dragons of Chinese mythology . The director called it a " Swiss army knife of a Kaiju " ; with almost 20 minutes of screen time , it was given numerous features so the audience would not tire of it . The creature moves like a Komodo dragon in water , sports multiple jaws and an acid @-@ filled neck sack , and unfurls wings when necessary . It is also more intelligent than the other Kaiju , employing eagle @-@ inspired strategies against the Jaegers . Onibaba , the Kaiju that orphans Mako Mori , resembles a fusion of a Japanese temple and a crustacean . Slattern , the largest Kaiju , is distinguished by its extremely long neck and " half @-@ horn , half @-@ crown " head , which del Toro considered both demonic and majestic .
Gipsy Danger , the American Jaeger , was based on the shape of New York City 's Art Deco buildings , such as the Chrysler Building and the Empire State Building , but infused with John Wayne 's gunslinger gait and hip movements . Cherno Alpha , the Russian Jaeger , was based on the shape and paint patterns of a T @-@ series Russian tank , combined with a giant containment silo to give the appearance of a walking nuclear power plant with a cooling tower on its head . Crimson Typhoon , the three @-@ armed Chinese Jaeger , is piloted by triplets and resembles a " medieval little warrior " ; its texture evokes Chinese lacquered wood with golden edges . Striker Eureka , the Australian Jaeger , is likened by del Toro to a Land Rover ; the most elegant and masculine Jaeger , it has a jutting chest , a camouflage paint scheme recalling the Australian outback , and the bravado of its pilots .
The film 's costumes were designed by Shane Mahan and Kate Hawley , who spent several months on the costumes of the Jaeger pilots . The Russian pilot suits are old @-@ fashioned and echo cosmonaut space suits .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Industrial Light & Magic was chosen to the visual effects for Pacific Rim . Del Toro hired Oscar winners John Knoll and Hal T. Hickel , both known for their work on the Star Wars prequel trilogy and the Pirates of the Caribbean films . Legacy Effects co @-@ owner Shane Mahan , known for creating the armored suits for Iron Man , was tasked with building the suits , helmets and conn @-@ pods . Oscar winner Clay Pinney , known for his work on Independence Day and Star Trek , was also brought on board . Hybride Technologies , a division of Ubisoft , and Rodeo FX also contributed to the visual effects .
Del Toro conceived the film as an operatic work :
That was one of the first words I said to the entire team at ILM . I said , " This movie needs to be theatrical , operatic , romantic . " We used a lot of words not usually associated with high @-@ tech blockbusters ... We went for a very , very , very , very saturated color palette for the battle for Hong Kong . I kept asking John to tap into his inner Mexican and be able to saturate the greens and the purples and the pinks and the oranges .
The classic Japanese woodblock print The Great Wave off Kanagawa by Hokusai was a common motif in the ocean battles ; Del Toro recalled , " I would say ' Give me a Hokusai wave ' … we use the waves and weather in the movie very operatically . " The director asked that Knoll not necessarily match the lighting from shot to shot : " It 's pretty unorthodox to do that , but I think the results are really beautiful and very artistically free and powerful , not something you would associate with a big sci @-@ fi action movie . " Del Toro considers the film 's digital water its most exciting visual effect : " The water dynamics in this movie are technically beautiful , but also artistically incredibly expressive . We agreed on making the water become almost another character . We would time the water very precisely . I 'd say ' Get out of the wave [ on this frame ] . ' "
The film also features extensive miniature effect shots provided by 32TEN Studios , under the supervision of ILM VFX Producer Susan Greenhow and ILM VFX Supervisors John Knoll and Lindy DeQuattro . Shot using RED Epic cameras on 3D rigs , the scenes produced by 32TEN involved the creation of a ¼ scale office building interior which was destroyed by the fist of a Jaeger robot which was on a separate pneumatically controlled rig , as well as a sequence which depicted several rows of seats in a soccer stadium being blown apart as a Jaeger lands in the stadium , which was created by using ¼ -scale seats blown apart by air cannons . Additionally 32TEN provided several practical elements for ILM ’ s compositing team including dust clouds , breaking glass and water effects .
= = Video game = =
A single @-@ player fighting video game based on the film was announced by the Australian Classification Board for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . Published and developed by Yuke 's , Pacific Rim : The Video Game was released along with the film on July 12 , 2013 . The game received generally negative reviews . Reliance Games developed a Pacific Rim tie @-@ in game for smartphone platforms , such as iOS and Android devices ; this version also received negative reviews .
= = Music = =
The film 's score was composed by Ramin Djawadi . Del Toro selected Djawadi based on his works on Prison Break , Iron Man , and Game of Thrones , stating : " His scores have a grandeur , but they have also an incredible sort of human soul . " The director also stated that some Russian rap would be featured in the film . The soundtrack was released on digital download from Amazon on June 18 , 2013 and CD on June 25 , 2013 . The physical version of the soundtrack was released on July 9 , 2013 by WaterTower Music , three days before the theatrical release of the film itself . Guest musicians Tom Morello and Priscilla Ahn also feature as soloists on the score . Two songs appear in the film which are not included on the soundtrack are " Just Like Your Tenderness " by Luo Xiaoxuan , and the ending theme " Drift " , performed by Blake Perlman featuring Rza . The OST received mostly positive reviews . The Action Elite rated the album with a perfect five stars , the Empire gave four , while MSN and Filmtracks also gave the soundtrack four out of five stars . On July 27 , 2013 , the soundtrack was appeared at peak position number 7 on " US Billboard Top Soundtracks . "
= = Marketing and promotion = =
On November 28 , 2012 , the official film website premiered alongside two viral videos — one depicting the initial Kaiju attack as captured by a handheld camera . Blueprints depicting the designs for the Jaeger machines were also released online . On June 5 , 2013 , the graphic novel Pacific Rim : Tales from Year Zero was released . Written by Travis Beacham and featuring cover art by Alex Ross , Tales from Year Zero serves as an introductory prologue to the film , and is set twelve years before its events . On June 18 , Insight Editions published Pacific Rim : Man , Machines , and Monsters , an art book written by David S. Cohen . The book chronicles the film 's production with concept art , photography , the cast and crew 's accounts of the shoot , and a foreword by del Toro . On July 2 , a viral video was released in which Ron Perlman 's character , Hannibal Chau , advertises his fictional Kaiju organ dealership , Kaiju Remedies .
On the day of the film 's release , July 12 , 2013 , another viral video was released to promote the film . It involved the collaboration of the film studio ( including del Toro himself ) and the YouTube network Polaris ( also known as The Game Station ) . It featured members of the YouTube network ( such as the Game Grumps ) as Jaeger pilots fighting Kaiju . On July 16 , a novelization by Alex Irvine was released . NECA began selling action figures of the film 's Kaiju and Jaegers .
= = Release = =
Pacific Rim was initially expected to reach theaters in July 2012 . However , Warner Bros. decided to postpone the film 's release date to May 10 , 2013 . In March 2012 , it was announced that the film would be released on July 12 , 2013 . The film premiered in Mexico City on July 1 , 2013 .
= = = Box office = = =
Pacific Rim grossed $ 101 @.@ 8 million in North America , and has had a favorable international release , grossing $ 309 @.@ 2 million in other countries , for a worldwide total of $ 411 @,@ 002 @,@ 906 .
The film grossed $ 3 @.@ 6 million from Thursday night showings , 23 percent of which came from IMAX showings . It then faced competition from Grown Ups 2 and ultimately fell behind it on opening day , earning $ 14 @.@ 6 million . The film reached the # 3 spot during the opening weekend with $ 37 @.@ 2 million , behind Despicable Me 2 and Grown Ups 2 . This is the highest ever opening for a film by del Toro , surpassing Hellboy II : The Golden Army . Around 50 percent of tickets were in 3D , which makes it the second highest 3D share of 2013 , behind Gravity . During its second weekend , the film dropped a steep 57 % with a gross of $ 16 million , and during its third weekend , had dropped a further 52 % with a gross of $ 7 @.@ 7 million .
On July 22 , 2013 , it was reported that the film had reached # 1 at the international box office over the weekend . The film had a successful opening in China , grossing $ 45 @.@ 2 million , until overtaken by The Hobbit : The Battle of the Five Armies the largest opening in China for a Warner Bros. title , and the sixth @-@ largest Chinese debut of all time for any Hollywood film . On August 19 , 2013 , its gross crossed $ 100 million in China alone , becoming the sixth @-@ highest grossing American film ever in China . It grossed a total of $ 114 @.@ 3 million in the country , making China the largest market for the film . In Japan , the film landed in the fifth position on opening weekend , with an initial earning of $ 3 million ( behind World War Z 's gross of $ 3 @.@ 4 million ) .
In September 2013 , Forbes highlighted Pacific Rim as " the rare English @-@ language film in history to cross $ 400 million while barely crossing $ 100 million domestic " .
= = = Critical response = = =
Pacific Rim received generally positive reviews from critics . Review aggregation website Metacritic gives a rating of 64 out of 100 based on reviews from 48 critics , which indicates " generally favorable " reviews . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 71 % approval rating with an average rating of 6 @.@ 7 / 10 based on 259 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " It may sport more style than substance , but Pacific Rim is a solid modern creature feature bolstered by fantastical imagery and an irresistible sense of fun . "
The Daily Telegraph 's Robbie Collin awarded the film five stars out of five , likening the experience of watching it to rediscovering a favorite childhood cartoon . He praised del Toro for investing his own affection for the genre and sense of artistry into the project in such a way that the viewer found themselves immersed in the film rather than watching from afar , noting the director had catered to younger and older audiences alike and expressed surprise that the film could rise above the sum of its parts . Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave a positive review , describing the film as the sum of the potential every monster film had ever tried to fulfill . Lou Lumenick of The New York Post gave the film four stars out of four , and said it had " no shortage of brains , brawn , eye candy , wit and even some poetry " , praising the " clean and coherent " action sequences and the " terrific chemistry " between Hunnam and Kikuchi . Drew McWeeny of HitFix highlighted other aspects of the film , paying particular attention to the production and art design . He also praised the cinematography for " perfectly capturing " the film , and described the score as " ridiculously cool " . Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers called the film " the work of a humanist ready to banish cynicism for compassion " , saying that del Toro " drives the action with a heartbeat " . Keith Uhlich of Time Out called the film " pure , pleasurable comic @-@ book absurdity " , and noted that del Toro had lent the proceedings a " plausible humanity " lacking in most of summer 2013 's destruction @-@ heavy blockbusters . He said the Kaijus ' civilian victims make a " palpably personal impression " , deeming one scene with Mako Mori " as mythically moving as anything in the mecha anime , like Neon Genesis Evangelion , that the director emulates with expert aplomb . " The Village Voice 's Stephanie Zacharek called it " summer entertainment with a pulse " , praising its " dumbly brilliant " action and freedom from elitism , but noted the story is predictable and suggested del Toro 's time would be better spent on more visionary films . Angela Watercutter of Wired called it the " most awesome movie of the summer " , a " fist @-@ pumping , awe @-@ inspiring ride " , and opined that its focus on spectacle rather than characterization " simply does not matter " in the summer blockbuster context . Richard Roeper gave the film a B , commenting that either the Jaegers or Kaiju " can take down any of the Transformers . " Leonard Maltin gave the film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , calling it " three @-@ quarters of a really good movie that doesn 't know when to quit . "
The Guardian 's Andrew Pulver was less enthusiastic , calling the film a mix of " wafer @-@ thin psychodrama " and " plot @-@ generator dialogue " . Time 's Richard Corliss said the action was let down by " inert " drama , describing the film as " 45 minutes of awesome encased in 90 minutes of yawnsome . " Justin Chang of Variety criticized it as loud and lacking the nuance and subtlety of del Toro 's previous films . The New Yorker 's Anthony Lane 's verdict read as " It is possible to applaud Pacific Rim for the efficacy of its business model while deploring the tale that has been engendered — long , loud , dark , and very wet . You might as well watch the birth of an elephant . " The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mike LaSalle reacted extremely negatively by stating " If this is the best we can do in terms of movies - if something like this can speak to the soul of audiences - maybe we should just turn over the cameras and the equipment to the alien dinosaurs and see what they come up with ... Director Guillermo del Toro , who gave us Pan 's Labyrinth not too many years ago , used to be known as an artistic and discerning filmmaker , despite his affection for blockbuster action and grotesqueness . But too often he gets lost in his computer ... Why go to the movies to look at somebody else 's computer after looking at your own all week ? ... The actors can 't make Pacific Rim any better . They can only relieve some of the pain . " Slant Magazine 's Ed Gonzalez , who said the film lacked poignancy , compared it to a video game : " a stylish but programmatic ride toward an inevitable final boss battle " . The Wrap 's Alonso Duralde criticized the choice to set most battles at night or during the rain , feeling it detracted from the action , and said the comic relief actors — Day , Gorman , and Perlman — stole the film from the less interesting leads . Jordan Hoffman of Film.com identified Hunnam as the weak link in the cast , calling him a " charisma black hole " . Giles Hardie of The Sydney Morning Herald was particularly critical of the film , awarding the action sequences " five IQ points out of five " as he described the film as an hour and twenty minutes of fight sequences vaguely connected by ten minutes of story .
Director Rian Johnson praised the film , as did Japanese game director Hideo Kojima , who called it the " ultimate otaku film " and stated he " never imagined [ he ] would be fortunate enough to see a film like this in [ his ] life " . Go Nagai , who pioneered the idea of mecha piloted from an interior cockpit , praised the film 's fun and intense action , while game developer Fumito Ueda said its battle scenes surpassed memories of the tokusatsu films he saw as an impressionable child . Science fiction author William Gibson called the film " A ravishing display of intelligent , often wonderfully witty visual design , every frame alive with coherent language , in the service of what is at heart a children 's story ... A baroque that doesn 't curdle , that never fetishizes itself . "
The inclusion of only one female character of note resulted in Pacific Rim not passing the Bechdel test . This became a topic of discussion in the media and on the Internet . Opinions were divided between those pointing to the film as an example of Hollywood 's practice of ostracizing women , and those noting that the film did not sexually objectify Mako Mori and gave her a narrative arc not revolving around a man .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Home media = = =
Pacific Rim became available for download on the iTunes Store and Vudu on October 1 , 2013 . The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc in the USA on October 15 , 2013 , and in the UK and other countries on November 25 , 2013 . A collector 's edition was also available on the same date . To help promote the home media release , Bryan Harley and Roque Rodriguez of Fresno , California , produced a " sweded " version of the film 's Gipsy Danger vs. Otachi battle scene , after del Toro was impressed by the duo 's " sweded " trailer released on YouTube in March 2013 . As of March 2014 , Pacific Rim has sold 961 @,@ 845 DVDs along with 1 @,@ 427 @,@ 692 Blu @-@ ray discs in the United States for $ 10 @,@ 045 @,@ 530 and $ 24 @,@ 634 @,@ 992 in revenue respectively for a total of $ 37 @,@ 079 @,@ 122 .
= = Sequels = =
In July 2012 , del Toro discussed the possibility of making a Pacific Rim sequel . " We always leave ideas that were in the first draft as you go along . You know , either a set piece that was great but too expensive , an idea that was really bright , but it couldn 't quite fit the structure ... so we have a little stash of stuff we wanted to do that we didn 't get to do . So if that 's a possibility , A ) I would be very happy to do a sequel , but B ) a lot of these ideas , set pieces and all that , actually have in them a really good seed for a sequel . " On December 4 , Legendary Pictures announced that it had selected Pacific Rim co @-@ writer Travis Beacham to write the sequel , along with del Toro , though there was no comment as to whether del Toro would return to direct the second film . At WonderCon 2013 , del Toro expressed enthusiasm for a potential crossover between Pacific Rim and Godzilla — another Legendary Pictures Kaiju film — but stressed that no such plans were in place . In July 2013 , del Toro discussed the sequel , stating : " The main idea that we 're bouncing off is the fact that Newt drifted with a Kaiju brain , and all Kaiju brains are connected . We say that . They are like a hive mentality . So , you know , draw your own conclusions . " The director has also stated the sequel will feature " Gipsy 2 @.@ 0 " , as well as a " merging of Kaiju and Jaeger " . In October 2013 , del Toro revealed that he and Beacham would return to write the sequel , despite the film not yet being greenlit at the time .
In June 2014 , when the sequel was still unconfirmed , del Toro stated that he had secretly been working on the script with Zak Penn for several months and confirmed that Raleigh and Mako would return . Beacham initially developed the storyline with del Toro , but dropped out to work on the TV series Hieroglyph . Later in June 2014 , del Toro confirmed that he would direct the sequel , and that it would be released by Universal Studios , Legendary 's new financing and distribution partner , on April 7 , 2017 . A non @-@ episodic animated series connecting both films and a continuation of the graphic novel were also announced . On July 9 , del Toro announced that the design production for Pacific Rim 2 would start in August 2014 , and that scouting for the location would take place in July 2015 , with principal photography commencing in November that year .
In October 2014 , del Toro talked about beginning production for Pacific Rim 2 in late 2015 , and also mentioned the possibility of a third installment . The next month , del Toro confirmed that the sequel will not be an immediate follow @-@ up and will take place years after the first film , focusing on the aftermath of the Kaiju war and fate of the Jaeger technology . Del Toro additionally confirmed that the characters for Charlie Day and Burn Gorman will return , with the sequel set to feature " very different " types of Jaegers and Kaiju and that the film will be " quite a different adventure " .
In January 2015 , Penn revealed that film 's sequel will focus on the origins of Kaiju . In April 2015 , Legendary announced that the sequel film 's release date has been moved to August 4 , 2017 . Filming was expected to begin in November 2015 at Toronto 's Pinewood Studios with the working title Maelstrom .
On September 16 , 2015 , the sequel was reported to have been " halted indefinitely " due to conflicts between Legendary and Universal Studios ; however , Del Toro later clarified that the sequel was simply " moved further " and the film will continue to proceed , stating , " We are still turning in a screenplay and a budget in three weeks . As far as I ’ m concerned , it ’ s not gone . We ’ re still on it . " On September 29 , 2015 , Universal removed the sequel from their release calendar but confirmed that the sequel is still moving forward , stating that the extra time will be used to ensure the sequel is the " vanguard , fully @-@ immersive experience that the franchise deserves . " Del Toro expressed interest in casting Maisie Williams in the film . Del Toro later tweeted that the budget and the script of the film are finished . In February 2016 , it was announced that Steven S. DeKnight will direct the sequel , making it his feature film directorial debut , while del Toro will serve as a producer . They also announced that they are working on a possible Pacific Rim 3 script in the future . On June 6 , 2016 , John Boyega announced that he would serve as the lead for Pacific Rim 2 as the son of Stacker Pentecost , and that his own production company would co @-@ produce . At the end of the month , Deadline.com reported that Scott Eastwood was in early negotiations to join the cast in a key role . A new release date of February 23 , 2018 was confirmed by the studio on June 30 , 2016 . Ars Technica reported on July 20 , 2016 that the screenwriters for the new film were Emily Carmichael and Kira Snyder .
= USS Alabama ( BB @-@ 8 ) =
USS Alabama ( BB @-@ 8 ) was an Illinois @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the United States Navy . She was the second ship of her class , and the second to carry her name . Her keel was laid in December 1896 at the William Cramp and Sons shipyard , and she was launched in May 1898 . She was commissioned into the fleet in October 1900 . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) guns and she had a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
Alabama spent the first seven years of her career in the North Atlantic Fleet conducting peacetime training . In 1904 , she made a visit to Europe and toured the Mediterranean . She took part in the cruise of the Great White Fleet until damage to her machinery forced her to leave the cruise in San Francisco . She instead completed a shorter circumnavigation in company with the battleship Maine . The ship received an extensive modernization from 1909 to 1912 , after which she was used as a training ship in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet . She continued in this role during World War I. After the war , Alabama was stricken from the naval register and allocated to bombing tests that were conducted in September 1921 . She was sunk in the tests by US Army Air Service bombers and later sold for scrap in March 1924 .
= = Description = =
Alabama was 374 feet ( 114 m ) long overall and had a beam of 72 ft 3 in ( 22 @.@ 02 m ) and a draft of 23 ft 6 in ( 7 @.@ 16 m ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 565 long tons ( 11 @,@ 751 t ) as designed and up to 12 @,@ 250 long tons ( 12 @,@ 450 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 16 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 000 kW ) and eight coal @-@ fired fire @-@ tube boilers , generating a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were replaced by cage masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 536 officers and enlisted men , which increased to 690 – 713 .
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 13 in ( 330 mm ) / 35 caliber guns guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 6 in ( 152 mm ) / 40 caliber Mark IV guns , which were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried sixteen 6 @-@ pounder guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and six 1 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , Alabama carried four 18 in ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck mounted launchers .
Alabama 's main armored belt was 16 @.@ 5 in ( 419 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 4 in ( 102 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had 15 in ( 381 mm ) of armor plating on their exposed sides . Armor that was 6 in thick protected the secondary battery . The conning tower had 10 in ( 254 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Alabama was laid down at the William Cramp & Sons shipyard in Philadelphia on 2 December 1896 and was launched on 18 May 1898 . She was commissioned on 16 October 1900 , the first member of her class to enter service . The ship 's first commander was Captain Willard H. Brownson . Alabama was assigned to the North Atlantic Squadron , though she remained at Philadelphia until 13 December , when she made a visit to New York , where she remained through January 1901 . On the 27th , Alabama steamed south for the Gulf of Mexico , where she joined the rest of the North Atlantic Squadron for training exercises off Pensacola , Florida . For the next six years , she followed a pattern of fleet training in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean during the winter , followed by repairs and then operations off the east coast of the United States from the middle of the year onward . The only interruption came in 1904 , when she , the battleships Kearsarge , Maine , and Iowa , and the protected cruisers Olympia , Baltimore , and Cleveland made a visit to southern Europe . During the trip , they stopped in Lisbon , Portugal , before touring the Mediterranean until mid @-@ August . They then recrossed the Atlantic , stopping in the Azores while en route , and arrived in Newport , Rhode Island on 29 August . Toward the end of September , Alabama went into dry dock at the League Island Navy Yard for repairs , which were completed by early December . On 31 July 1906 , the ship was involved in a collision with her sister Illinois .
Alabama 's next significant action was the cruise of the Great White Fleet around the world , which started with a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt in Hampton Roads . On 17 December , the fleet steamed out of Hampton Roads and cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America , making stops in Port of Spain , Rio de Janeiro , Punta Arenas , and Valparaíso , among other cities . After arriving in Mexico in March 1908 , the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice . The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas , stopping in San Francisco , where Alabama was detached from the rest of the fleet . The ship could not keep up with the fleet due to a cracked cylinder head , which necessitated repairs at the Mare Island Navy Yard . The battleship Maine also left the fleet , as her boilers had proved to be badly inefficient , requiring excessive amounts of coal .
On 8 June , Alabama and Maine began their crossing of the Pacific independently , via Honolulu , Hawaii , Guam , and Manila in the Philippines . They then cruised south to Singapore in August and crossed the Indian Ocean , stopping in Colombo , Ceylon , and Aden on the Arabian peninsula on the way . The ships then steamed through the Mediterranean , stopping only in Naples , Italy , before calling at Gibraltar and then proceeding across the Atlantic in early October . They stopped in the Azores before arriving off the east coast of the United States on 19 October ; the two ships then parted company , with Alabama steaming to New York , while Maine went to Portsmouth , New Hampshire . Both ships arrived the following day . Following her arrival , Alabama was reduced to reserve status on 3 November . She remained in New York , and on 17 August 1909 , she was decommissioned for a major overhaul that lasted until early 1912 .
Alabama returned to service on 17 April 1912 in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet , under Commander Charles F. Preston . The ships of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet — which included eight other battleships and three cruisers — were kept in service with reduced crews that could be fleshed out with naval militiamen and volunteers in the event of an emergency . There were enough officers and men in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet to fully man two or three ships , which allowed them to take them to sea in rotating groups to ensure that the ships were in good condition . On 25 July , Alabama was temporarily placed in full commission for service with the Atlantic Fleet during the summer training exercises , before returning to reserve status on 10 September . In mid @-@ 1913 , the Navy began to use the Atlantic Reserve Fleet to train naval militia units . Alabama operated off the east coast of the United States and made two training cruises to Bermuda that summer to train men from the naval militias of several states . These operations ended on 2 September , and on 31 October she was again laid up .
The ship remained largely inactive in Philadelphia for the next three years . On 22 January 1917 , she became a receiving ship for naval recruits . Alabama was transferred to the southern Chesapeake to begin training recruits in the middle of March . Shortly thereafter , on 6 April , the United States declared war on Germany . Two days later , Alabama became the flagship of the 1st Division , Atlantic Fleet , and for the rest of the war she continued her training mission of the east coast of the United States . During this period , she made one cruise to the Gulf of Mexico from late June to early July 1918 . On 11 November , Germany signed the Armistice that ended the fighting in Europe ; Alabama continued training naval recruits , though at a reduced level of intensity . She took part in fleet maneuvers in February and March 1919 in the West Indies before returning to Philadelphia in April for repairs . A summer training cruise for midshipmen from the US Naval Academy followed ; Alabama departed Philadelphia on 28 May bound for Annapolis , where she arrived the next day . After taking on a contingent of 184 midshipmen , she steamed out of Annapolis on 9 June . The cruise went to the West Indies and passed through the Panama Canal and back . By mid @-@ July , the ship was cruising off the coast of New England . She returned south in August for maneuvers , and at the end of the month she returned the midshipmen to Annapolis before docking in Philadelphia .
= = = Bombing tests = = =
Alabama was decommissioned for the final time on 7 May 1920 , having spent the previous nine months inactive at Philadelphia . The ship was transferred to the War Department for use as a target ship on 15 September 1921 , and she was stricken from the naval register . She was allocated to bombing tests conducted by the US Army Air Service on 27 September 1921 , under the supervision of General Billy Mitchell . In addition to Alabama , the old battleships New Jersey and Virginia were to be sunk in the tests . The first phase of the testing began on 23 September , and included tests with chemical bombs , including tear gas and white phosphorus , to demonstrate how such weapons could be used to disable command and control systems and kill exposed personnel . That night , another test with 300 @-@ pound ( 140 kg ) demolition bombs took place , the purpose of which was to determine whether flares could sufficiently illuminate a target for precise bombing . The second phase took place the next morning , and it was a much larger operation . The 1st Provisional Air Brigade took part in the tests , which were to simulate a combat scenario . A group of eight Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s , armed with 25 lb ( 11 kg ) bombs attacked first ; their bombs and machine gun fire were intended to simulate clearing the decks of anti @-@ aircraft gunners in preparation for the heavy bombers . Four Martin NBS @-@ 1 bombers attacked next , with 300 lb bombs at an altitude of 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 46
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0 m ) . Two of the bombs hit the deck toward the bow . Three more NBS @-@ 1s followed with 1 @,@ 100 lb ( 500 kg ) armor @-@ piercing bombs , though none of these hit .
On 25 September , the last round of tests took place . Seven more NBS @-@ 1s attacked the ship ; three carried 1 @,@ 100 lb bombs , while the other four carried one 2 @,@ 000 lb ( 910 kg ) bomb each . One of the 2 @,@ 000 lb bombs landed close to the ship on the port side ; the mining effect caused considerable damage , and Alabama began listing to port . The bombers scored two more near @-@ misses with the 2 @,@ 000 lb bombs , followed by a direct hit and two near misses with the 1 @,@ 100 lb bombs . The last bomb , a 2 @,@ 000 lb weapon , struck the ship at her stern . The blast broke her anchor chains , and the battered ship began to drift toward the wrecks of San Marcos and Indiana , the latter having been sunk in bombing tests earlier that year . The ship remained afloat for another two days before finally sinking in shallow water on 27 September . Mitchell attempted to use the sinking as evidence of the predominance of the bomber in his efforts to secure an independent Air Force , though the Navy pointed out that the ship was stationary , undefended , unmanned , and was not protected with the latest " all or nothing " armor scheme . The sunken wreck was sold for scrap on 19 March 1924 .
= Lobe den Herrn , meine Seele , BWV 143 =
Lobe den Herrn , meine Seele ( Praise the Lord , my soul ) , BWV 143 , is an early cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . It is not known if he composed the cantata for New Year 's Day in Mühlhausen or Weimar , as the date of composition is unclear .
An unknown librettist drew mainly from Psalm 146 and from Jakob Ebert 's hymn " Du Friedefürst , Herr Jesu Christ " to develop seven movements , supplying only two of the movements himself . The text assembly is similar to Bach 's early cantatas . Bach 's authorship is doubted because the cantata has several features unusual for Bach 's later cantatas : it is the only Bach cantata to combine three corni da caccia with timpani . The cantata is in seven movements which combine the three major text sources : psalm , hymn and contemporary poetry . The opening chorus is based on a psalm verse , followed by the first hymn stanza and another psalm verse as a recitative . An aria on poetry is followed by a third psalm verse as an aria . It is followed by another aria on poetry , which simultaneously quotes the hymn tune instrumentally . The last movement combines elements of a chorale fantasia on the third stanza of the hymn , with vivid counterpoint of " Hallelujah " which closes the psalm .
= = History and text = =
Bach wrote the cantata for New Year 's Day , which is also the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ . The prescribed readings for the day were from the Epistle to the Galatians , " by faith we inherit " ( Galatians 3 : 23 – 29 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the circumcision and naming of Jesus eight days after his birth . However , most of the text for the cantata was taken by the unknown librettist from Psalms 146 , and from Jakob Ebert 's hymn " Du Friedefürst , Herr Jesu Christ " , written in 1601 .
The text is compiled from psalm verses ( verse 1 for movement 1 , verse 5 for movement 3 , and verse 10 for movement 5 ) , and two stanzas from the hymn , the first as movement 2 , the third as the final movement . Only movements 4 and 6 are free poetry , with the hymn tune sounding again instrumentally during movement 6 . Due to its text structure , the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff dates the work to around 1710 .
The oldest ( and also the only ) manuscript was written in 1762 , after Bach 's death . The provenance of the cantata is disputed : some suggest that it may not be a Bach work because of its " unpretentious " nature and the lack of authoritative original music , or perhaps it was a transposition of an earlier work . Alternatively , part of the cantata may have been written by Bach , while other parts ( likely the choruses and the bass aria ) were added or amended by other composers . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , remarks on the stylistic similarity of the text structure to Bach 's early cantatas written in Mühlhausen . He also sees similar musical expression to the cantata for the inauguration of a new town council there , Gott ist mein König , BWV 71 , written in 1708 . While some musicologists assume that it may have been composed for the same occasion one year later , Gardiner proposes that it could either be a still earlier work , or that it " was , at least in part , an apprentice piece written in Weimar under Bach 's direct tutelage .
Bach 's biographer Philipp Spitta had written that the cantata was first performed on New Year 's Day of 1735 . However , according to more recent research , it was not performed at all that day , but rather Part IV of the Christmas Oratorio .
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata is scored festively for three vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , tenor ( T ) , and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of three corni da caccia ( Co ) , timpani ( Ti , listed with the winds ) , bassoon ( Fg ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) and basso continuo . It is the only Bach cantata to combine three corni da caccia with timpani .
The cantata is structured in seven movements . It begins with a chorus on a verse from the psalm , followed by the first stanza from the hymn , sung by the soprano . Another psalm verse is rendered as a tenor recitative , followed by a tenor aria on free poetry . A third psalm verse is set as a bass aria , answered by another tenor aria on free poetry with an instrumental quotation of the hymn tune . The cantata is closed by a hybrid movement which combines like a chorale fantasia the third stanza of the hymn as cantus firmus with a vivid counterpoint of " Hallelujah " closing the psalm .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
The opening chorus on the first verse of the psalm , " Lobe den Herrn , meine Seele " ( Praise the Lord , my soul . ) , is quite short , using imitative fanfare figures without much harmonic development . It employs a ritornello theme on the tonic and dominant chords , incorporating a descending @-@ third sequence . The voices sing mostly in homophony .
The soprano chorale , " Du Friedefürst , Herr Jesu Christ " ( O Prince of peace , Lord Jesus Christ ) , is accompanied by a violin obbligato . Although the vocal line is mostly undecorated , it is accompanied by a rhythmically active violin counterpoint following the circle of fifths . The obbligato line reaches a double cadence before the soprano entrance .
The tenor recitative on another verse from the psalm , " Wohl dem , des Hülfe der Gott Jakob ist " ( It is fortunate for him , whose help the God of Jacob is ) , is quite short and is considered unremarkable .
The fourth movement is a tenor aria in free verse , " Tausendfaches Unglück , Schrecken " ( Thousand @-@ fold misfortune , terror ) . The vocal line is " convoluted and angular " , reflecting the themes of misfortune , fear and death . The musicologist Julian Mincham suggests that these themes suggest that Salomon Franck may be the poet , as these were recurrent images in his texts , but also notes a lack of integration atypical of Franck 's oeuvre .
The bass aria on the tenth verse from the psalm , " Der Herr ist König ewiglich " ( The Lord is King eternally ) , employs a triadic motif similar to that of Gott ist mein König , BWV 71 . It is short and has a limited range of tonal development or chromatic variation . The voice is accompanied by the horns and timpani , vithout strings , illustrating God 's power .
The sixth movement is another tenor aria on free poetry , " Jesu , Retter deiner Herde " ( Jesus , saver of Your flock ) , characterized by the layered scale figuration in the instrumental accompaniment . The voice , bassoon and continuo perform as a trio , while the chorale tune is heard in the violins and organ with the Vox humana stop .
The closing chorus employs the third stanza of the chorale , " Gedenk , Herr , jetzund an dein Amt " ( Think , Lord , at this time on Your office ) , as a cantus firmus in the soprano . It is not composed as the typical four @-@ part setting , but the lower voices sing lively contrasting Alleluia , derived from the psalm .
= = Recordings = =
Frankfurter Kantorei / Bach @-@ Collegium Stuttgart . Die Bach Kantate . Hänssler , 1975 .
Thomanerchor / Neues Bachisches Collegium Musicum . Kantaten Mit Corno da Caccia . Eterna , 1984 .
Monteverdi Choir / English Baroque Soloists . Bach Cantatas vol . 17 . Soli deo Gloria , 2000 .
Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir . J.S. Bach : Complete Cantatas . Antoine Marchand , 2001 .
= Off the Wall ( album ) =
Off the Wall is the fifth studio album by American singer Michael Jackson . It is his debut studio album released through Epic Records . It was released on August 10 , 1979 , following Jackson 's critically well @-@ received film performance in The Wiz . While working on that project , Jackson and Quincy Jones had become friends , and Jones agreed to work with Jackson on his next studio album . Recording sessions took place between December 1978 and June 1979 at Allen Zentz Recording , Westlake Recording Studios , and Cherokee Studios in Los Angeles , California . Jackson collaborated with a number of other writers and performers such as Paul McCartney , Stevie Wonder and Rod Temperton . Five singles were released from the album . Three of the singles had music videos released . Jackson wrote three of the songs himself , including the number @-@ one Grammy @-@ winning single " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . It was his first solo release under Epic Records , the label he would record on until his death roughly 30 years later .
The record was a departure from Jackson 's previous work for Motown . The lyrical themes on the record relate to escapism , liberation , loneliness , hedonism and romance . Several critics observed that Off the Wall was crafted from funk , disco , soft rock , jazz , broadway and pop ballads . Jackson received positive reviews for his vocal performance on the record . The record gained critical acclaim and recognition and won the singer his first Grammy Award . With Off the Wall , Jackson became the first solo artist to have four singles from the same album peak inside the top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100 . The album was an enormous commercial success ; as of 2014 it is certified eight times platinum in the United States and has reportedly sold more than 20 million copies worldwide , making it one of the best selling albums of all time .
On October 16 , 2001 , a special edition reissue of Off the Wall was released by Sony Records . It was re @-@ released on February 26 , 2016 . Recent reviews by AllMusic and Blender have continued to praise Off the Wall for its appeal in the 21st century . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 68 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . The National Association of Recording Merchandisers listed it at number 80 of the Definitive 200 Albums of All Time . In 2008 , Off the Wall was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame .
= = Background = =
Starting in 1972 , Michael Jackson released a total of four solo studio albums with Motown , among them Got to Be There and Ben . These were released as part of The Jackson 5 franchise , and produced successful singles such as " Got to Be There " , " Ben " and a remake of Bobby Day 's " Rockin ' Robin " . The Jackson 5 's sales , however , began declining in 1973 , and the band members chafed under Motown 's strict refusal to allow them creative control or input . Although the group scored several top 40 hits , including the top five disco single " Dancing Machine " and the top 20 hit " I Am Love " , The Jackson 5 ( minus Jermaine Jackson ) left Motown in 1975 . The Jackson 5 signed a new contract with CBS Records in June 1975 , first joining the Philadelphia International Records division and then Epic Records . As a result of legal proceedings , the group was renamed The Jacksons . After the name change , the band continued to tour internationally , releasing six more albums between 1976 and 1984 . From 1976 to 1984 , Michael Jackson was the lead songwriter of the group , writing or co @-@ writing such hits as " Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) " , " This Place Hotel " and " Can You Feel It " .
In 1978 , Jackson starred as Scarecrow in the film musical The Wiz . The musical scores were arranged by Quincy Jones , who formed a partnership with Jackson during the film 's production and agreed to produce the singer 's solo album Off the Wall . Jackson was dedicated to the role , and watched videotapes of gazelles , cheetahs and panthers in order to learn graceful movements for his part . Jones recalled working with Jackson as one of his favorite experiences from The Wiz , and spoke of Jackson 's dedication to his role , comparing his acting style to Sammy Davis , Jr . Critics panned The Wiz upon its October 1978 release . Jackson 's performance as the Scarecrow was one of the only positively reviewed elements of the film , with critics noting that Jackson possessed " genuine acting talent " and " provided the only genuinely memorable moments . " Of the results of the film , Jackson stated : " I don 't think it could have been any better , I really don 't " . In 1980 , Jackson stated that his time working on The Wiz was " my greatest experience so far ... I 'll never forget that " .
= = Production = =
When Jackson began the Off the Wall project he was not sure what he wanted as the final result ; however , he did not want another record that sounded like The Jacksons , but rather he wanted more creative freedom , something he had not been allowed on prior albums . Jones produced " Off the Wall " , with co @-@ production credit given to Jackson on the songs he wrote for the album . Songwriters included Jackson , Heatwave 's Rod Temperton , Stevie Wonder and Paul McCartney . All sessions took place at Los Angeles County @-@ based recording studios . Rhythm tracks and vocals were recorded at Allen Zentz Recording , the horn section 's contributions took place at Westlake Audio , and string instrumentation was recorded at Cherokee Studios in West Hollywood . Following the initial sessions , audio mixing was handled by Grammy @-@ winning engineer Bruce Swedien at Westlake Audio , after which the original tapes went to the A & M Recording Studio , also located in L.A. , for mastering . Swedien would later mix the recording sessions for Jackson 's next album and his most well @-@ known work , 1982 's Thriller . Jones recalled that , at first , he found Jackson to be very introverted , shy and non @-@ assertive .
" She 's Out of My Life " was written for Jones by Tom Bahler three years prior . Jackson heard and enjoyed it , and Jones allowed him to use it on the record . Jones called in Heatwave 's keyboardist Rod Temperton to write three songs . The intention was for Jackson and Jones to select one of his songs , but Jackson , liking them all , included all of them in the final cut . Jackson stayed up all night to learn the lyrics to these songs instead of singing from a sheet . He finished the vocals to these three Temperton songs in two recording sessions . Temperton took a different approach to his song writing after spending some time researching the background to Jackson 's music style . Temperton mixed his traditional harmony segments with the idea of adding shorter note melodies to suit Jackson 's aggressive style . Jackson wrote " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " after humming a melody in his kitchen . After listening to hundreds of songs , Jackson and Jones decided upon a batch to record . In hindsight , Jones believed they took a lot of risks in the production of Off the Wall and the final choice of album tracks . Attention was also paid to the album cover , which shows Jackson smiling , wearing a tuxedo and trademark socks . His manager stated , " The tuxedo was the overall plan for the Off the Wall project and package . The tuxedo was our idea , the socks were Michael ' " .
= = Music and vocals = =
Music critics Stephen Thomas Erlewine and Stephen Holden of AllMusic observed that Off the Wall was crafted from funk , disco @-@ pop , soul , soft rock , jazz and pop ballads . Prominent examples include the ballad " She 's Out of My Life " , the funk tune " Workin ' Day and Night " , and the disco song " Get on the Floor " . " I Can 't Help It " is a jazz piece . In Quincy Jones ' autobiography , he compares Jackson to other jazz singers noting that Jackson " has some of the same qualities as the great jazz singers I 'd worked with : Ella , Sinatra , Sassy , Aretha , Ray Charles , Dinah . Each of them had that purity , that strong signature sound and that open wound that pushed them to greatness . " " She 's Out of My Life " is a melodic pop ballad . The end of the former song showed an " emotional " Jackson crying as the track concluded . Of the song R & B writer Nelson George proclaimed , " [ It ] became a Jackson signature similar to the way " My Way " served Frank Sinatra . The vulnerability , verging on fragility that would become embedded in Michael 's persona found , perhaps , its richest expression in this wistful ballad " . " Rock with You " is a romantic , mid @-@ tempo song . The album 's songs have a tempo ranging from 66 beats per minute on " She 's Out of My Life " , to 128 on " Workin ' Day and Night " .
With the arrival of Off the Wall in the late 1970s , Jackson 's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded ; AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine described him as a " blindingly gifted vocalist " . At the time , Rolling Stone compared his vocals to the " breathless , dreamy stutter " of Stevie Wonder . Their analysis was also that " Jackson 's feathery @-@ timbered tenor is extraordinary beautiful . It slides smoothly into a startling falsetto that 's used very daringly " . Writer , journalist and biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli expressed the opinion that Jackson sings with " sexy falsetto " vocals in " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " .
= = Release = =
Taraborrelli stated , " Fans and industry peers alike were left with their mouths agape when Off the Wall was issued to the public . Fans proclaimed that they hadn 't heard him sing with such joy and abandon since the early Jackson 5 days " . On July 28 , 1979 , Off the Wall 's first single , " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " , was released . It peaked atop the Billboard Hot 100 and reached number three in the UK . On November 3 , 1979 the second single from the album , " Rock with You " was released , again it peaked atop the Billboard Hot 100 .
In February , the album 's title track was released as a single and went to number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and became a top 10 hit in four countries . " She 's Out of My Life " , also reaching number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in June . Thus Off the Wall became the first album by a solo artist to generate four US top 10 hits . Today , Off the Wall is certified 8 × Multi @-@ Platinum in the US for shipments of eight million units and sold over 20 million copies worldwide . The album 's success lead to the start of a 9 @-@ year partnership between Jackson and Jones ; their next collaboration would be Thriller , which is the world 's best selling album of all time .
= = Reception = =
Off the Wall was hailed as a major breakthrough for Jackson , while receiving critical recognition , along with praises , from major music publications . In a 1979 review of the album , Rolling Stone magazine contributor Stephen Holden praised Jackson 's maturity and transition from his early Motown material , while calling the album a " slick , sophisticated R & B @-@ pop showcase with a definite disco slant " . Holden went on to compare Jackson to Stevie Wonder , another Motown performer who began recording at a young age and gained critical acclaim for his transition .
In The Village Voice , Robert Christgau hailed Off the Wall as " the dance groove of the year " and that Jackson 's vocal stylings were a reminder that he had grown up . In a review for Melody Maker Phil McNeill expressed the opinion that in Off the Wall Jackson sounded comfortable , confident and in control . He believed " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " had a " classy " introduction and that it was the best song on the album . He also praised " Rock with You " , describing it as " masterful " . The reviewer concurred with a colleague that Jackson was " probably the best singer in the world right now in terms of style and technique " . Giving the album a favorable review in Smash Hits , David Hepworth said that Jackson " sings like an angel " . Sounds shared the same point of view , qualifying Jackson 's voice as " astoninshingly agile " . The first side of Off the Wall is praised for its " clutch of dancers that must have even Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards watching their backs " .
In 1980 , Jackson won three awards at the American Music Awards for his solo efforts : Favorite Soul / R & B Album , Favorite Male Soul / R & B Artist and Favorite Soul / R & B Single ( for " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " ) . That year , he also won Billboard Music Awards for Top Black Artist and Top Black Album and a Grammy Award for Best Male R & B Vocal Performance ( for " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " ) . Despite its commercial success , Jackson felt Off the Wall should have made a much bigger impact , and was determined to exceed expectations with his next release . In particular , Jackson was disappointed that he had won only a single Grammy Award at the 1980 Grammys , a Grammy Award for Best Male R & B Vocal Performance for " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . Jackson stated that " It was totally unfair that it didn 't get Record of the Year and it can never happen again " .
= = Legacy = =
On October 16 , 2001 , a special edition reissue of Off the Wall was released by Sony Records . The material found strong praise from critics more than 20 years after the original release . AllMusic gave the record a five star review , praising the record 's disco @-@ tinged funk and mainstream pop blend , along with Jackson 's songwriting and Jones ' crafty production . The publication believed , " [ Off the Wall ] is an enormously fresh record , one that remains vibrant and giddily exciting years after its release " .
In recent years Blender gave the record a full five star review stating that it was , " A blockbuster party LP that looked beyond funk to the future of dance music , and beyond soul ballads to the future of heart @-@ tuggers — in fact , beyond R & B to color @-@ blind pop . Hence , the forgivable Wings cover " .
In 2003 , the album was ranked number 68 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . The National Association of Recording Merchandisers listed it at number 80 of the Definitive 200 Albums of All Time . In 2004 , Nelson George wrote of Jackson and his music , " the argument for his greatness in the recording studio begins with his arrangements of " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . The layers of percussion and the stacks of backing vocals , both artfully choreographed to create drama and ecstasy on the dance floor , still rock parties in the 21st century " . In 2008 , Off the Wall was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame .
On January 7 , 2016 , Sony Music and The Estate of Michael Jackson announced that Off the Wall will be reissued and packaged with a new documentary directed by Spike Lee entitled Michael Jackson 's Journey from Motown to Off the Wall . The reissue and documentary was released on February 26 , 2016 .
Grammy Awards
Grammy Hall of Fame
= = Track listing = =
Notes
The original LP , cassette pressings and first CD issue of this album contain the original mixes of " Rock with You " and " Get on the Floor " .
= = Personnel = =
= = Sales = =
= Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull =
Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull is a 2008 American science fiction adventure film . It is the fourth installment in the Indiana Jones series created by George Lucas and directed by Steven Spielberg . Released nineteen years after the previous film , the film acknowledges the age of its star Harrison Ford by being set in 1957 . It pays tribute to the science fiction B @-@ movies of the era , pitting Indiana Jones against Soviet agents — led by Irina Spalko ( Cate Blanchett ) — searching for a telepathic crystal skull . Indiana is aided by his former lover Marion Ravenwood ( Karen Allen ) and their son Mutt Williams ( Shia LaBeouf ) . Ray Winstone , John Hurt and Jim Broadbent are also part of the supporting cast .
Screenwriters Jeb Stuart , Jeffrey Boam , Frank Darabont , and Jeff Nathanson wrote drafts before David Koepp 's script satisfied the producers . Shooting began on June 18 , 2007 , and took place in various locations including New Mexico ; New Haven , Connecticut ; Hawaii ; and Fresno , California , as well as on sound stages in Los Angeles . To keep aesthetic continuity with the previous films , the crew relied on traditional stunt work instead of computer @-@ generated stunt doubles , and cinematographer Janusz Kamiński studied Douglas Slocombe 's style from the previous films .
The film premiered at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival on May 18 , 2008 , and was released worldwide on May 22 , 2008 to generally positive reviews from critics , although audience reception was more mixed . Significant praise was geared towards the performances , action scenes , John Williams ' musical score , and costume design . However , the main points of criticism were towards the dialogue , storyline , pacing , and overuse of CGI . It was also a financial success , grossing over $ 786 million worldwide , becoming the franchise 's highest @-@ grossing film when not adjusted for inflation , and the second highest @-@ grossing film of 2008 . Marketing relied heavily on the public 's nostalgia for the series , with products taking inspiration from all four films . Kingdom of the Crystal Skull is also the last film in the series to be distributed by Paramount Pictures , as Walt Disney Studios has become the distributor of its future films , since its parent company 's acquisition of Lucasfilm in 2012 .
= = Plot = =
In 1957 , nineteen years after The Last Crusade , Indiana Jones and his partner George " Mac " McHale are kidnapped in Nevada by Soviet agents under Colonel Dr. Irina Spalko . The Soviets infiltrate warehouse labeled " Warehouse 51 " and force Jones to locate an alien corpse with a crystal skull , recovered ten years earlier . Upon its discovery , Mac reveals he is a double agent working for the Soviets . Jones escapes , unsuccessfully attempts to retrieve the skull , and in a fight with Spalko 's sadistic henchman , Colonel Antonin Dovchenko , they both fall onto a rocket sled , which ignites and speeds them away . Jones staggers away and , still pursued , arrives in a model town at the Nevada Test Site , minutes before an atomic bomb test , and takes shelter in a lead @-@ lined refrigerator . Jones is rescued , decontaminated , and apprehended by FBI agents , who suspect him of working for the Soviets ; and though freed on the recommendation of General Ross , who vouches for him , he is put on indefinite leave of absence from Marshall College , also at the cost of the dean having to resign to keep Indiana 's job at the college .
Jones is approached by greaser Mutt Williams , who tells him that Harold Oxley had found a crystal skull in Peru , suffered a mental breakdown , and was later kidnapped . In return , Jones tells Mutt about the legend of crystal skulls found in Akator . Mutt gives Jones a letter from his mother , who is also held captive , containing a riddle written by Oxley in an ancient Native American language . KGB agents try to take the letter , but Jones and Mutt evade them and reach Peru . At the local psychiatric hospital , Oxley 's scribbles on the walls and floor of his cell lead them to the grave of Francisco de Orellana , a Conquistador searching for Akator . They discover the skull at the grave , with Jones reasoning that Oxley had returned it there .
On leaving the grave site , Jones and Mutt are captured by Mac and the Soviets and taken to their camp in the Amazon jungle , where they find Oxley and Mutt 's mother , Marion Ravenwood , who later reveals that Mutt is Jones ' son , Henry Jones III . Jones berates her for not convincing him to finish school . Mac tells Jones he is really a CIA double @-@ agent to regain Jones ' trust . Spalko believes that the crystal skull belongs to an alien life form and holds great psychic power , and that finding more skulls in Akator will grant the Soviets the advantage of psychic warfare . Spalko uses the skull on Jones to enable him to understand Oxley and identify a route to Akator . Jones and his four allies escape with the skull into the Amazon . They elude giant ants , and after Dovchenko loses a fight with Jones , he is devoured by the ants . Jones and his allies survive three waterfalls in a GAZ 46 amphibious vehicle ( which gets destroyed after the third drop ) , as many of the Soviets fall from a cliff while trying to pursue them . Jones and Oxley then identify a rock formation that leads them to Akator , unaware that Mac is still loyal to Spalko and has been dropping transceivers to allow the surviving Soviets to track them .
They escape the city 's guardians , gain access to the temple , and find it filled with artifacts from many ancient civilizations . Indy believes the aliens - in fact , inter @-@ dimensional beings - were " archaeologists " studying the different cultures of Earth , and Mac remarks that there 's not a museum in the world that wouldn 't sell its soul for the collection inside the temple . The five enter a chamber containing the crystal skeletons of thirteen enthroned skeletal crystal beings , one missing its skull . Spalko arrives and presents the skull to this skeleton . It suddenly flies from her hands to the skeleton and rejoins , whereupon the aliens reanimate and telepathically offer a reward in ancient Mayan through Oxley . A portal to their dimension becomes activated , and Spalko demands knowledge equal to the aliens ' . The thirteen beings fuse into one , and in the process of receiving the overwhelming knowledge , Spalko is disintegrated and sucked into the portal . Indy , Marion , Mutt , and Oxley - now released from the skull - escape , while the Soviets are also drawn into the portal . Mac is caught in the pull while trying to scrounge some of the treasure , and even though Indy offers him the whip to pull him to safety , he replies wink of his eye , " Jonesy , I 'm gonna be all right , " lets go and is pulled in . The survivors watch as the temple walls crumble , revealing a flying saucer rising from the debris , which vanishes into the " space between spaces " while the hollow in the valley floor left by its departure is flooded by the waters of the Amazon .
The following year , Indy is reinstated at Marshall College and made an associate dean . He and Marion are then married in a church . As the wedding party leaves the chapel , a gust of wind blows Indy 's brown fedora off the coat rack and deposits it at Mutt 's feet . Mutt picks it up and is about to don it before Indy takes it from him and puts it on with a grin .
= = Cast = =
Harrison Ford reprises the role of Dr. Henry " Indiana " Jones , Jr . To prepare for the role , the 64 @-@ year @-@ old Ford spent three hours a day at a gym , practiced with the bullwhip for two weeks , and relied on a high @-@ protein diet of fish and vegetables . Ford had kept fit during the series ' hiatus anyway , as he hoped for another film . He performed many of his own stunts because stunt technology had become safer since 1989 , and he also felt it improved his performance . It is also said that he still fit into his pants from Raiders of the Lost Ark . He argued , " The appeal of Indiana Jones isn 't his youth but his imagination , his resourcefulness . His physicality is a big part of it , especially the way he gets out of tight situations . But it 's not all hitting people and falling from high places . My ambition in action is to have the audience look straight in the face of character and not at the back of a capable stuntman 's head . I hope to continue that no matter how old I get . " Ford felt his return would reduce American ageism ( he refused to dye his hair for the role ) , because of the film 's family appeal : " This is a movie which is geared not to [ the young ] segment of the demographic , an age @-@ defined segment ... We 've got a great shot at breaking the movie demographic constraints . " He told Koepp to add more references to his age in the script . Spielberg said Ford was not too old to play Indiana : " When a guy gets to be that age and he still packs the same punch , and he still runs just as fast and climbs just as high , he 's gonna be breathing a little heavier at the end of the set piece . And I felt , ' Let 's have some fun with that . Let 's not hide that . ' " Spielberg recalled the line in Raiders that said , " It 's not the years , it 's the mileage , " and felt he could not tell the difference between Ford during the shoots for Last Crusade and Kingdom of the Crystal Skull .
Cate Blanchett plays Soviet agent Irina Spalko . Screenwriter David Koepp created the character . Frank Marshall said Spalko continued the tradition of Indiana having a love @-@ hate relationship " with every woman he ever comes in contact with . " Blanchett had wanted to play a villain for a " couple of years " , and enjoyed being part of the Indiana Jones legacy . Spielberg praised Blanchett as a " master of disguise " , and considers her his favorite Indiana Jones villain for inventing much of Spalko 's character . Spalko 's bob cut was her idea , with the character 's stern looks and behaviour recalling Rosa Klebb in From Russia with Love . Blanchett learned to fence for the character ; but during filming , Spielberg decided to give Spalko " karate chop " skills . LaBeouf recalled Blanchett was elusive on set , and Ford was surprised when he met her on set out of costume . He noted , " There 's no aspect of her behavior that was not consistent with this bizarre person she 's playing . "
Karen Allen reprises the role of Marion Ravenwood ( under the married name of Marion Williams ) , who previously appeared in Raiders of the Lost Ark . Frank Darabont 's script introduced the idea of Marion returning as Indiana 's love interest . Allen was not aware her character was in the script until Spielberg called her in January 2007 , saying , " It 's been announced ! We 're gonna make Indiana Jones 4 ! And guess what ? You 're in it ! " Ford found Allen " one of the easiest people to work with [ he 's ] ever known . She 's a completely self @-@ sufficient woman , and that 's part of the character she plays . A lot of her charm and the charm of the character is there . And again , it 's not an age @-@ dependent thing . It has to do with her spirit and her nature . " Allen found Ford easier to work with on this film , than in Raiders .
Shia LaBeouf plays Mutt Williams / Henry Jones III , Indiana 's sidekick and son . The concept of Indiana Jones having offspring was introduced in The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles ; in the episode " Princeton , February 1916 " , Indy and his high school sweetheart discuss having a child and naming him " Henry Jones III . " ( This scene was deleted from the VHS and DVD releases . ) ; additionally , in several episodes , an elderly Indy is shown to have a daughter . During the film 's development , the latter was incorporated into Frank Darabont 's script , with Indiana and Marion having a 13 @-@ year @-@ old daughter . Spielberg found this too similar to The Lost World : Jurassic Park , so a son was created instead . Koepp credited the character 's creation to Jeff Nathanson and Lucas . Koepp wanted to make Mutt more academic , but Lucas likened Mutt to Marlon Brando 's character in The Wild One : " he needs to be what Indiana Jones ' father thought
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the Beetons . Published works were also copied , largely unattributed to any of the sources . These included Eliza Acton 's Modern Cookery for Private Families , Elizabeth Raffald 's The Experienced English Housekeeper , Marie @-@ Antoine Carême 's Le Pâtissier royal parisien , Louis Eustache Ude 's The French Cook , Alexis Soyer 's The Modern Housewife or , Ménagère and The Pantropheon , Hannah Glasse 's The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy , Maria Eliza Rundell 's A New System of Domestic Cookery , and the works of Charles Elmé Francatelli . Suzanne Daly and Ross G. Forman , in their examination of Victorian cooking culture , consider that the plagiarism makes it " an important index of mid @-@ Victorian and middle @-@ class society " because the production of the text from its own readers ensures that it is a reflection of what was actually being cooked and eaten at the time . In copying the recipes of others , Isabella was following the recommendation given to her by Henrietta English , a family friend , who wrote that " Cookery is a Science that is only learnt by Long Experience and years of study which of course you have not had . Therefore my advice would be compile a book from receipts from a Variety of the Best Books published on Cookery and Heaven knows there is a great variety for you to choose from . "
The Beetons partly followed the layout of Acton 's recipes , although with a major alteration : whereas the earlier writer provided the method of cooking followed by a list of the required ingredients , the recipes in The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine listed the components before the cooking process . Isabella 's standardised layout used for the recipes also showed the approximate costs of each serving , the seasonality of the ingredients and the number of portions per dish . According to the twentieth @-@ century British cookery writer Elizabeth David , one of the strengths of Isabella 's writing was in the " clarity and details of her general instructions , her brisk comments , her no @-@ nonsense asides " . Margaret Beetham , the historian , sees that one of the strengths of the book was the " consistent principle of organisation which made its heterogeneous contents look uniform and orderly " , and brought a consistent style in presentation and layout . Whereas Daly and Forman consider such an approach as " nothing if not formulaic " , Hughes sees it as " the thing most beloved by the mid Victorians , a system " .
During the particularly bitter winter of 1858 – 59 Isabella prepared her own soup that she served to the poor of Pinner , " Soup for benevolent purposes " ; her sister later recalled that Isabella " was busy making [ the ] soup for the poor , and the children used to call with their cans regularly to be refilled " . The recipe would become the only entry in her Book of Household Management that was her own . After two years of miscarriages , the couple 's second son was born in June 1859 ; he was also named Samuel Orchart Beeton . Hughes sees the miscarriages as further evidence of Samuel 's syphilis .
As early as 1857 the Beetons had considered using the magazine columns as the basis of a book of collected recipes and homecare advice , Hughes believes , and in November 1859 they launched a series of 48 @-@ page monthly supplements with The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . The print block for the whole series of the supplements was set from the beginning so the break between each edition was fixed at 48 pages , regardless of the text , and in several issues the text of a sentence or recipe is split between the end of one instalment and the beginning of the next .
The Beetons decided to revamp The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine , particularly the fashion column , which the historian Graham Nown describes as " a rather drab piece " . They travelled to Paris in March 1860 to meet Adolphe Goubaud , the publisher of the French magazine Le Moniteur de la Mode . The magazine carried a full @-@ sized dress pattern outlined on a fold @-@ out piece of paper for users to cut out and make their own dresses . The Beetons came to an agreement with Goubaud for the Frenchman to provide patterns and illustrations for their magazine . The first edition to carry the new feature appeared on 1 May , six weeks after the couple returned from Paris . For the redesigned magazine , Samuel was joined as editor by Isabella , who was described as " Editress " . As well as being co @-@ editors , the couple were also equal partners . Isabella brought an efficiency and strong business acumen to Samuel 's normally disorganised and financially wasteful approach . She joined her husband at work , travelling daily by train to the office , where her presence caused a stir among commuters , most of whom were male . In June 1860 Isabella and Samuel travelled to Killarney , Ireland , for a fortnight 's holiday , leaving their son at home with his nurse . The Beetons enjoyed the sightseeing , although on the days it rained , they stayed inside their hotel and worked on the next edition of The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . Isabella was impressed with the food they were served , and wrote in her diary that the dinners were " conducted in quite the French style " .
In September 1861 the Beetons released a new , weekly publication called The Queen , the Ladies ' Newspaper . With the Beetons busy running their other titles , they employed Frederick Greenwood as the editor .
= = = Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management and later , 1861 – 65 = = =
The complete version of Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management , consisting of the 24 collected monthly instalments , was published on 1 October 1861 ; it became one of the major publishing events of the nineteenth century . Isabella included an extensive 26 @-@ page " Analytical Index " in the book . Although not an innovation — it had been used in The Family Friend magazine since 1855 — Hughes considers the index in the Book of Household Management to be " fabulously detailed and exhaustively cross @-@ referenced " . Of the 1 @,@ 112 pages , over 900 contained recipes . The remainder provided advice on fashion , child care , animal husbandry , poisons , the management of servants , science , religion , first aid and the importance in the use of local and seasonal produce . In its first year of publication , the book sold 60 @,@ 000 copies . It reflected Victorian values , particularly hard work , thrift and cleanliness . Christopher Clausen , in his study of the British middle classes , sees that Isabella " reflected better than anyone else , and for a larger audience , the optimistic message that mid @-@ Victorian England was filled with opportunities for those who were willing to learn how to take advantage of them " . The food writer Annette Hope thinks that " one can understand its success . If ... young ladies knew nothing of domestic arrangements , no better book than this could have been devised for them . "
The reviews for Book of Household Management were positive . The critic for the London Evening Standard considered that Isabella had earned herself a household reputation , remarking that she had " succeeded in producing a volume which will be , for years to come , a treasure to be made much of in every English household " . The critic for the Saturday Review wrote that " for a really valuable repertory of hints on all sorts of household matters , we recommend Mrs Beeton with few misgivings " . The anonymous reviewer for The Bradford Observer considered that " the information afforded ... appears intelligible and explicit " ; the reviewer also praised the layout of the recipes , highlighting details relating to ingredients , seasonality and the times needed . Writing in The Morning Chronicle , an anonymous commentator opined that " Mrs Beeton has omitted nothing which tends to the comfort of housekeepers , or facilitates the many little troubles and cares that fall to the lot of every wife and mother . She may safely predict that this book will in future take precedence of every other on the same subject . " For the 1906 edition of the book , The Illustrated London News 's reviewer considered the work " a formidable body of domestic doctrine " , and thought that " the book is almost of the first magnitude " .
Samuel 's business decisions from 1861 were unproductive and included an ill @-@ advised investment in purchasing paper — in which he lost £ 1 @,@ 000 — and a court case over unpaid bills . His hubris in business affairs brought on financial difficulties and in early 1862 the couple had moved from their comfortable Pinner house to premises over their office . The air of central London was not conducive to the health of the Beetons ' son , and he began to ail . Three days after Christmas his health worsened and he died on New Year 's Eve 1862 at the age of three ; his death certificate gave the cause as " suppressed scarlatina " and " laryngitis " . In March 1863 Isabella found that she was pregnant again , and in April the couple moved to a house in Greenhithe , Kent ; their son , who they named Orchart , was born on New Year 's Eve 1863 . Although the couple had been through financial problems , they enjoyed relative prosperity during 1863 , boosted by the sale of The Queen to Edward Cox in the middle of the year .
In the middle of 1864 the Beetons again visited the Goubauds in Paris — the couple 's third visit to the city — and Isabella was pregnant during the visit , just as she had been the previous year . On her return to Britain she began working on an abridged version of the Book of Household Management , which was to be titled The Dictionary of Every @-@ Day Cookery . On 29 January 1865 , while working on the proofs of the dictionary , she went into labour ; the baby — Mayson Moss — was born that day . Isabella began to feel feverish the following day and died of puerperal fever on 6 February at the age of 28 .
Isabella was buried at West Norwood Cemetery on 11 February . When The Dictionary of Every @-@ Day Cookery was published in the same year , Samuel added a tribute to his wife at the end :
Her works speak for themselves ; and , although taken from this world in the very height and strength , and in the early days of womanhood , she felt satisfaction — so great to all who strive with good intent and warm will — of knowing herself regarded with respect and gratitude .
= = Legacy = =
In May 1866 , following a severe downturn in his financial fortunes , Samuel sold the rights to the Book of Household Management to Ward , Lock and Tyler ( later Ward Lock & Co ) . The writer Nancy Spain , in her biography of Isabella , reports that , given the money the company made from the Beetons ' work , " surely no man ever made a worse or more impractical bargain " than Samuel did . In subsequent publications Ward Lock suppressed the details of the lives of the Beetons — especially the death of Isabella — in order to protect their investment by letting readers think she was still alive and creating recipes — what Hughes considers to be " intentional censorship " . Those later editions continued to make the connection to Isabella in what Beetham considers to be a " fairly ruthless marketing policy which was begun by Beeton but carried on vigorously by Ward , Lock , and Tyler " . Those subsequent volumes bearing Isabella 's name became less reflective of the original . Since its initial publication the Book of Household Management has been issued in numerous hardback and paperback editions , translated into several languages and has never been out of print .
Isabella and her main work have been subjected to criticism over the course of the twentieth century . Elizabeth David complains of recipes that are " sometimes slapdash and misleading " , although she acknowledges that Prosper Montagné 's Larousse Gastronomique also contains errors . The television cook Delia Smith admits she was puzzled " how on earth Mrs Beeton 's book managed to utterly eclipse ... [ Acton 's ] superior work " , while her fellow chef , Clarissa Dickson Wright , opines that " It would be unfair to blame any one person or one book for the decline of English cookery , but Isabella Beeton and her ubiquitous book do have a lot to answer for . " In comparison , the food writer Bee Wilson opines that disparaging Isabella 's work was only a " fashionable " stance to take and that the cook 's writing " simply makes you want to cook " . Christopher Driver , the journalist and food critic , suggests that the " relative stagnation and want of refinement in the indigenous cooking of Britain between 1880 and 1930 " may instead be explained by the " progressive debasement under successive editors , revises and enlargers " . David comments that " when plain English cooks " were active in their kitchens , " they followed plain English recipes and chiefly those from the Mrs Beeton books or their derivatives " . Dickson Wright considers Beeton to be a " fascinating source of information " from a social history viewpoint , and Aylett and Ordish consider the work to be " the best and most reliable guide for the scholar to the domestic history of the mid @-@ Victorian era " .
Despite the criticism , Clausen observes that " ' Mrs. Beeton ' has ... been for over a century the standard English cookbook , frequently outselling every other book but the Bible " . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the term Mrs Beeton became used as a generic name for " an authority on cooking and domestic subjects " as early as 1891 , and Beetham opines that " ' Mrs. Beeton ' became a trade mark , a brand name " . In a review by Gavin Koh published in a 2009 issue of The BMJ , Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management was labelled a medical classic . In Isabella 's " attempt to educate the average reader about common medical complaints and their management " , Koh argues , " she preceded the family health guides of today " . Robin Wensley , a professor of strategic management , believes that Isabella 's advice and guidance on household management can also be applied to business management , and her lessons on the subject have stood the test of time better than some of her advice on cooking or etiquette .
Following the radio broadcast of Meet Mrs. Beeton , a 1934 comedy in which Samuel was portrayed in an unflattering light , and Mrs Beeton , a 1937 documentary , Mayston Beeton worked with H. Montgomery Hyde to produce the biography Mr and Mrs Beeton , although completion and publication were delayed until 1951 . In the meantime Nancy Spain published Mrs Beeton and her Husband in 1948 , updated and retitled in 1956 to The Beeton Story . In the new edition Spain hinted at , but did not elucidate upon , on the possibility that Samuel contracted syphilis . Several other biographies followed , including from the historian Sarah Freeman , who wrote Isabella and Sam in 1977 ; Nown 's Mrs Beeton : 150 Years of Cookery and Household Management , published on the 150th anniversary of Isabella 's birthday , and Hughes 's The Short Life and Long Times of Mrs Beeton , published in 2006 . Isabella was ignored by the Dictionary of National Biography for many years : while Acton was included in the first published volume of 1885 , Isabella did not have an entry until 1993 .
There have been several television broadcasts about Isabella . In 1970 Margaret Tyzack portrayed her in a solo performance written by Rosemary Hill , in 2006 Anna Madeley played Isabella in a docudrama , and Sophie Dahl presented a documentary , The Marvellous Mrs Beeton , in the same year .
The literary historian Kate Thomas sees Isabella as " a powerful force in the making of middle @-@ class Victorian domesticity " , while the Oxford University Press , advertising an abridged edition of the Book of Household Management , considers Isabella 's work a " founding text " and " a force in shaping " the middle @-@ class identity of the Victorian era . Within that identity , the historian Sarah Richardson sees that one of Beeton 's achievements was the integration of different threads of domestic science into one volume , which " elevat [ ed ] the middle @-@ class female housekeeper 's role ... placing it in a broader and more public context " . Nown quotes an unnamed academic who thought that " Mrs Beetonism has preserved the family as a social unit , and made social reforms a possibility " , while Nicola Humble , in her history of British food , sees The Book of Household Management as " an engine for social change " which led to a " new cult of domesticity that was to play such a major role in mid @-@ Victorian life " . Nown considers Isabella
... a singular and remarkable woman , praised in her lifetime and later forgotten and ignored when a pride in light pastry ... were no longer considered prerequisites for womanhood . Yet in her lively , progressive way , she helped many women to overcome the loneliness of marriage and gave the family the importance it deserved . In the climate of her time she was brave , strong @-@ minded and a tireless champion of her sisters everywhere .
= Eastcote House Gardens =
Eastcote House Gardens is an area of public parkland in Eastcote , within the London Borough of Hillingdon . The site covers 3 @.@ 63 hectares ( 9 acres ) and incorporates the walled garden , dovecote and coach house of Eastcote House . The house was demolished in 1964 by the Ruislip @-@ Northwood Urban District Council ( RNUDC ) , the predecessor of the London Borough of Hillingdon . At the public 's request , the garden and outbuildings were retained and are now maintained by a group of volunteers , the Friends of Eastcote House Gardens , in partnership with the local authority .
Eastcote House was one of three largest in Eastcote , together with Highgrove House and Haydon Hall . All came to be owned by the RNUDC , but only Highgrove House remains in its original form ; Haydon Hall was demolished in 1967 by the RNUDC 's successor .
The coach house , dovecote , and garden walls received Grade II listed status on 6 September 1974 . Ecological surveys have found fifty types of trees in the gardens , and numerous species of birds , mammals and insects have been recorded . The gardens received the Green Flag Award in September 2011 following an earlier inspection .
= = History = =
= = = Eastcote House = = =
Eastcote House is first recorded in 1507 , when it was known as " Hopkyttes " , under the ownership of the Walleston family . In 1525 , Ralph Hawtrey married Winifred Walleston , and they made Hopkyttes their marital home , renaming it Eastcote House . The house was extended by either Ralph Hawtrey or his son John , and the brick exterior added . The original timber framework was not revealed again until the house was demolished . John Hawtrey built the dovecote without applying for the required licence . After his death in 1593 , his nephew Ralph Hawtrey applied retrospectively , and the licence was granted . During the 18th century , the dovecote was substantially rebuilt , leaving only the original first few rows of bricks . The Hawtrey family , later the Hawtrey @-@ Deanes , continued to live in the house until Francis Deane moved to East View in Uxbridge in 1878 . Eastcote House was then let to tenants and parts of the estate sold for housing developments .
The Ruislip @-@ Northwood Urban District Council purchased the house and grounds , totalling 9 @.@ 1 acres ( 3 @.@ 7 ha ) , in 1931 after it became endangered by the proposed new housing development by the builders Comben & Wakeling . Eastcote House became a public building for the use of the Scouts , Guides , Women 's Institute and a welfare clinic , though under the ownership of the council , the condition of the house deteriorated . In 1962 the house was declared unsafe , and it was demolished two years later after the council ruled there were no features of the house worth retaining .
The Eastcote Billiards Club began using the coach house in 1938 . The club 's lease of the building expired in 2005 , but the club remained in residence , rent @-@ free . In 2013 , the club had moved to nearby Haydon Hall .
= = = Gardens = = =
The narrow bricks in the garden walls have been dated to around the 17th century . The walled garden would originally have been used predominantly for growing fruit , vegetables , and herbs for the household 's consumption , as well as flowers to exhibit at shows and for pleasure .
The walled garden , coach house , and dovecote were retained at the public 's request when the house was demolished . On 6 September 1974 , the garden walls and remaining buildings were awarded Grade II listed status . The herb garden was planted across the four centre beds in 1977 to celebrate the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II . These included Artemisia , catmint , Santolina and curry plants . To keep the plants within the beds , each was lined by box in 1983 .
The eastern wall was rebuilt in 1981 , at which point the northern wall was reduced by seven layers of brick . An area of topiary with seven specimens was planted in 1983 with box , behind the coach house . Lilacs , weeping cherries and hibiscus were planted in 1984 along the garden wall near the coach house . A pergola covered with laburnum and wisteria was introduced in 1986 leading to the entrance into the walled garden . Between 1986 and 1988 , two iron gates and a sundial were added . In the 1990s , the orchard near the walled garden was supplemented by black mulberry , walnut and quince trees .
A footbridge crossing the River Pinn and leading to Long Meadow was replaced in 2007 ; the original had been built in 1977 . In 2008 , the Friends of Eastcote House Gardens was formed to care for the gardens and ensure they remain protected . The group received a £ 24 @,@ 000 grant from the Big Lottery Fund for the replanting of the gardens , which went ahead in April 2010 . The Mayor of Hillingdon officially reopened the gardens on 17 July 2010 .
A survey completed in November 2009 found 50 types of trees in the gardens . Bats were found in the coach house during an ecological survey , but were not believed to be nesting there long @-@ term . Species of birds observed in the gardens have included song thrush , jay , wren , robin , kingfisher and tawny owl . Mammals regularly observed include hedgehogs , grey squirrels and foxes . Butterflies including the holly blue and painted lady have been recorded .
Hillingdon Council provided a £ 150 @,@ 000 grant in September 2010 for the restoration of the buildings . In April 2011 , the council joined with the Friends to seek funding of up to £ 1 million from the Heritage Lottery Fund , to support restoration work . It is planned that the coach house could be converted into a tea room .
The gardens received the Green Flag Award in 2011 following an earlier inspection . The flag was raised in a ceremony on 14 September 2011 .
= Perseus ( constellation ) =
Perseus , named after the Greek mythological hero Perseus , is a constellation in the northern sky . It is one of the 48 listed by the 2nd @-@ century astronomer Ptolemy , and among the 88 modern constellations defined by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) . It is located in the northern celestial hemisphere near several other constellations named after ancient Greek legends surrounding Perseus , including Andromeda to the west and Cassiopeia to the north . Perseus is also bordered by Aries and Taurus to the south , Auriga to the east , Camelopardalis to the north , and Triangulum to the west . Some star atlases during the early 19th century also depicted Perseus holding onto the head of the Medusa , whose asterism was named together as Perseus et Caput Medusae , however , this never came into popular usage .
The galactic plane of the Milky Way passes through Perseus but is mostly obscured by molecular clouds . The constellation 's brightest star is the yellow @-@ white supergiant Alpha Persei ( also called Mirfak ) , which shines at magnitude 1 @.@ 79 . It and many of the surrounding stars are members of an open cluster known as the Alpha Persei Cluster . The best @-@ known star , however , is Algol ( Beta Persei ) , linked with ominous legends because of its variability , which is noticeable to the naked eye . Rather than being an intrinsically variable star , it is an eclipsing binary . Other notable star systems in Perseus include X Persei , a binary system containing a neutron star , and GK Persei , a nova that peaked at magnitude 0 @.@ 2 in 1901 . The Double Cluster , comprising two open clusters quite near each other in the sky , was known to the ancient Chinese . The constellation gives its name to the Perseus cluster ( Abell 426 ) , a massive galaxy cluster located 250 million light @-@ years from Earth . It hosts the radiant of the annual Perseids meteor shower — one of the most prominent meteor showers in the sky .
= = History and mythology = =
The constellation of Perseus may be derived from the Babylonian Old Man ( MUL.SHU.GI ) constellation , then associated with East in the MUL.APIN — an astronomical compilation dating to around 1000 BCE . In Greek mythology , Perseus was the son of Danaë , who was sent by King Polydectes to bring the head of Medusa the Gorgon — whose visage caused all who gazed upon her to turn to stone — as a wedding gift . Perseus slew Medusa in her sleep , and Pegasus and Chrysaor appeared from her body . Perseus continued to the realm of Cepheus whose daughter Andromeda was to be sacrificed to Cetus the sea monster .
Perseus rescued the princess Andromeda from Cetus by turning it to stone with Medusa 's head . He turned Polydectes and his followers to stone and appointed Dictys the fisherman king . Perseus and Andromeda married and had six children . In the sky , Perseus lies near the constellations Andromeda , Cepheus , Cassiopeia ( Andromeda 's mother ) , Cetus , and Pegasus .
= = = In non @-@ Western astronomy = = =
Four Chinese constellations are contained in the area of the sky identified with Perseus in the West . Tiānchuán ( 天船 ) , the Celestial Boat , was the third paranatellon ( A star or constellation which rises at the same time as another star or object . ) of the third house of the White Tiger of the West , representing the boats that Chinese people were reminded to build in case of a catastrophic flood season . Incorporating stars from the northern part of the constellation , it contained Mu , Delta , Psi , Alpha , Gamma and Eta Persei . Jīshuǐ ( 積水 ) , the Swollen Waters , was the fourth paranatellon of the aforementioned house , representing the potential of unusually high floods during the end of August and beginning of September at the beginning of the flood season . Lambda and possibly Mu Persei lay within it . Dàlíng ( 大陵 ) , the Great Trench , was the fifth paranatellon of that house , representing the trenches where criminals executed en masse in August were interred . It was formed by Kappa , Omega , Rho , 24 , 17 and 15 Persei . The pile of corpses prior to their interment was represented by Jīshī ( 積屍 , Algol ) , the sixth paranatellon of the house . The Double Cluster , h and Chi Persei , had special significance in Chinese astronomy . Known as Hsi and Ho , the two clusters represented two astronomers who failed to predict a total solar eclipse and were subsequently beheaded .
In Polynesia , Perseus was not commonly recognized as a separate constellation ; the only people that named it were those of the Society Islands , who called it Faa @-@ iti , meaning " Little Valley " . Algol may have been named Matohi by the Māori people , but the evidence for this identification is disputed . Matohi ( " Split " ) occasionally came into conflict with Tangaroa @-@ whakapau over which of them should appear in the sky , the outcome affecting the tides . It matches the Maori description of a blue @-@ white star near Aldebaran but does not disappear as the myth would indicate .
= = Characteristics = =
Perseus is bordered by Aries and Taurus to the south , Auriga to the east , Camelopardalis and Cassiopeia to the north , and Andromeda and Triangulum to the west . Covering 615 square degrees , it ranks twenty @-@ fourth of the 88 constellations in size . It appears prominently in the northern sky during the Northern Hemisphere 's spring . Its main asterism consists of 19 stars . The constellation 's boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a 26 @-@ sided polygon . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 01h 29.1m and 04h 51.2m , while the declination coordinates are between 30 @.@ 92 ° and 59 @.@ 11 ° . The International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) adopted the three @-@ letter abbreviation " Per " for the constellation in 1922 .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Algol ( from the Arabic رأس الغول Ra 's al @-@ Ghul , which means The Demon 's Head ) , also known by its Bayer designation Beta Persei , is the best @-@ known star in Perseus . Representing the eye of the Gorgon Medusa in Greek mythology , it was called Horus in Egyptian mythology and Rosh ha Satan ( " Satan 's Head " ) in Hebrew . Located 92 @.@ 8 light @-@ years from Earth , it varies in apparent magnitude from a minimum of 3 @.@ 5 to a maximum of 2 @.@ 3 over a period of 2 @.@ 867 days . The star system is the prototype of a group of eclipsing binary stars named Algol variables , though it has a third member to make up what is actually a triple star system . The brightest component is a blue @-@ white main @-@ sequence star of spectral type B8V , which is 3 @.@ 5 times as massive and 180 times as luminous as the Sun . The secondary component is an orange subgiant star of type K0IV that has begun cooling and expanding to 3 @.@ 5 times the radius of the Sun , and has 4 @.@ 5 times the luminosity and 80 % of its mass . These two are separated by only 0 @.@ 05 astronomical units ( AU ) — five percent of the distance between the Earth and Sun ; the main dip in brightness arises when the larger fainter companion passes in front of the hotter brighter primary . The tertiary component is a main sequence star of type A7 , which is located on average 2 @.@ 69 AU from the other two stars . AG Persei is another Algol variable in Perseus , whose primary component is a B @-@ type main sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 6 @.@ 69 . Phi Persei is a double star , although the two components do not eclipse each other . The primary star is a Be star of spectral type B0.5 , possibly a giant star , and the secondary companion is likely a stellar remnant . The secondary has a similar spectral type to O @-@ type subdwarfs .
With the historical name Mirfak ( Arabic for elbow ) or Algenib , Alpha Persei is the brightest star of this constellation with an apparent magnitude of 1 @.@ 79 . A supergiant of spectral type F5Ib located around 590 light @-@ years away from Earth , Mirfak has 5 @,@ 000 times the luminosity and 42 times the diameter of our Sun . It is the brightest member of the Alpha Persei Cluster ( also known as Melotte 20 and Collinder 39 ) , which is an open cluster containing many luminous stars . Neighboring bright stars that are members include the Be stars Delta ( magnitude 3 @.@ 0 ) , Psi ( 4 @.@ 3 ) , and 48 Persei ( 4 @.@ 0 ) ; the Beta Cephei variable Epsilon Persei ( 2 @.@ 9 ) ; and the stars 29 ( 5 @.@ 2 ) , 30 ( 5 @.@ 5 ) , 31 ( 5 @.@ 0 ) , and 34 Persei ( 4 @.@ 7 ) . Of magnitude 4 @.@ 05 , nearby Iota Persei has been considered a member of the group , but is actually located a mere 34 light @-@ years distant . This star is very similar to our Sun , shining with 2 @.@ 2 times its luminosity . It is a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G0V . Extensive searches have failed to find evidence of it having a planetary system .
Zeta Persei is the third @-@ brightest star in the constellation at magnitude 2 @.@ 86 . Around 750 light @-@ years from Earth , it is a blue @-@ white supergiant 26 – 27 times the radius of the Sun and 47 @,@ 000 times its luminosity . It is the brightest star ( as seen from Earth ) of a moving group of bright blue @-@ white giant and supergiant stars , the Perseus OB2 Association or Zeta Persei Association . Zeta is a triple star system , with a companion blue @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type B8 and apparent magnitude 9 @.@ 16 around 3900 AU distant from the primary , and a white main sequence star of magnitude 9 @.@ 90 and spectral type A2 , some 50 @,@ 000 AU away , that may or may not be gravitationally bound to the other two . X Persei is a double system in this association ; one component is a hot , bright star and the other is a neutron star . With an apparent magnitude of 6 @.@ 72 , it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye even in perfectly dark conditions . The system is an X @-@ ray source and the primary star appears to be undergoing substantial mass loss . Once thought to be a member of the Perseus OB2 Association , Omicron Persei is a multiple star system with a combined visual magnitude of 3 @.@ 85 . It is composed of two blue @-@ white stars — a giant of spectral class B1.5 and main sequence star of B3 — which orbit each other every 4 @.@ 5 days and are distorted into ovoids due to their small separation . The system has a third star about which little is known . At an estimated distance of 1475 light @-@ years from Earth , the system is now thought to lie too far from the center of the Zeta Persei group to belong to it .
GRO J0422 + 32 ( V518 Persei ) is another X @-@ ray binary in Perseus . One component is a red dwarf star of spectral type M4.5V , which orbits a mysterious dense and heavy object — possibly a black hole — every 5 @.@ 1 hours . The system is an X @-@ ray nova , meaning that it experiences periodic outbursts in the X @-@ ray band of the electromagnetic spectrum . If the system does indeed contain a black hole , it would be the smallest one ever recorded . Further analysis in 2012 calculated a mass of 2 @.@ 1 solar masses , which raises questions as to what the object actually is as it appears to be too small to be a black hole .
GK Persei , also known as Nova Persei 1901 , is a bright nova that appeared halfway between Algol and Delta Persei . Discovered on 21 February 1901 by Scottish amateur astronomer Thomas David Anderson , it peaked at magnitude 0 @.@ 2 — almost as bright as Capella and Vega . It faded to magnitude 13 around 30 years after its peak brightness . Xi Persei , traditionally known as Menkhib , a blue giant of spectral type O7III , is one of the hottest bright stars in the sky , with a surface temperature of 37 @,@ 500 K. It is one of the more massive stars , being between 26 and 32 solar masses , and is 330 @,@ 000 times as luminous as our Sun .
Named Gorgonea Tertia , Rho Persei varies in brightness like Algol , but is a pulsating rather than eclipsing star . At an advanced stage of stellar evolution , it is a red giant that has expanded for the second time to have a radius around 150 times that of our Sun . Its helium has been fused into heavier elements and its core is composed of carbon and oxygen . It is a semiregular variable star of the Mu Cephei type , whose apparent magnitude varies between 3 @.@ 3 and 4 @.@ 0 with periods of 50 , 120 and 250 days . The Double Cluster contains three even larger stars , each over 700 solar radii : S , RS , and SU Persei are all semiregular pulsating M @-@ type supergiants . The stars are not visible to the naked eye ; SU Persei , the brightest of the three , has an apparent magnitude of 7 @.@ 9 and thus is visible through binoculars . AX Persei is another binary star , the primary component is a red giant in an advanced phase of stellar evolution , which is transferring material onto an accretion disc around a smaller star . The star system is one of the few eclipsing symbiotic binaries , but is unusual because the secondary star is not a white dwarf , but an A @-@ type star . DY Persei is a variable star that is the prototype of DY Persei variables , which are carbon @-@ rich R Coronae Borealis variables that exhibit the variability of asymptotic giant branch stars . DY Persei itself is a carbon star that is too dim to see through binoculars , with an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 6 .
Seven stars in Perseus have been found to have planetary systems . V718 Persei is a star in the young open cluster IC 348 that appears to be periodically eclipsed by a giant planet every 4 @.@ 7 years . This has been inferred to be an object with a maximum mass of 6 times that of Jupiter and an orbital radius of 3 @.@ 3 AU .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
The galactic plane of the Milky Way passes through Perseus , but is much less obvious than elsewhere in the sky as it is mostly obscured by molecular clouds . The Perseus Arm is a spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy and stretches across the sky from the constellation Cassiopeia through Perseus and Auriga to Gemini and Monoceros . This segment is towards the rim of the galaxy .
Within the Perseus Arm lie two open clusters ( NGC 869 and NGC 884 ) known as the Double Cluster . Sometimes known as h and Chi ( χ ) Persei respectively , they are easily visible through binoculars and small telescopes . Both lie more than 7 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from Earth and are several hundred light @-@ years apart . The Double Cluster was first recorded during the reign of the Chinese king Tsung @-@ K 'ang , who reigned during the Xia dynasty ( 2858 – 2146 BCE ) . Both clusters are of approximately magnitude 4 and 0 @.@ 5 degrees in diameter . The two are Trumpler class I 3 r clusters , though NGC 869 is a Shapley class f and NGC 884 is a Shapley class e cluster . These classifications indicate that they are both quite rich ( dense ) ; NGC 869 is the richer of the pair . The clusters are both distinct from the surrounding star field and are clearly concentrated at their centers . The constituent stars , numbering over 100 in each cluster , range widely in brightness .
M34 is an open cluster that appears at magnitude 5 @.@ 5 , and is approximately 1 @,@ 500 light @-@ years from Earth . It contains about 100 stars scattered over a field of view larger than that of the full moon . M34 can be resolved with good eyesight but is best viewed using a telescope at low magnifications . IC 348 is a somewhat young open cluster that is still contained within the nebula from which its stars formed . It is located about 1 @,@ 027 light @-@ years from Earth , is about 2 million years old , and contains many stars with circumstellar disks . Many brown dwarfs have been discovered in this cluster due to its age ; since brown dwarfs cool as they age , it is easier to find them in younger clusters .
There are many nebulae in Perseus . M76 is a planetary nebula , also called the Little Dumbbell Nebula . It appears two arc @-@ minutes by one arc @-@ minute across and has an apparent brightness of magnitude 10 @.@ 1 . NGC 1499 , also known as the California Nebula , is an emission nebula that was discovered in 1884 – 85 by American astronomer Edward E. Barnard . It is very difficult to observe visually because its low surface brightness makes it appear dimmer than most other emission nebulae . NGC 1333 is a reflection nebula and a star @-@ forming region . Perseus also contains a giant molecular cloud , called the Perseus molecular cloud ; it belongs to the Orion Spur and is known for its low rate of star formation compared to similar clouds .
Perseus contains some notable galaxies . NGC 1023 is a barred spiral galaxy of magnitude 10 @.@ 35 , around 11 @.@ 6 million pc ( 38 million ly ) from Earth . It is the principal member of the NGC 1023 group of galaxies and is possibly interacting with another galaxy . NGC 1260 is either a lenticular or tightly @-@ wound spiral galaxy about 76 @.@ 7 million pc ( 250 million ly ) from Earth . It was the host galaxy of the supernova SN 2006gy , one of the brightest ever recorded . It is a member of the Perseus cluster ( Abell 426 ) , a massive galaxy cluster located 76 @.@ 6 million pc ( 250 million ly ) from Earth . With a redshift of 0 @.@ 0179 , Abell 426 is the closest major cluster to the Earth . NGC 1275 , a component of the cluster , is a Seyfert galaxy containing an active nucleus that produces jets of material , surrounding the galaxy with massive bubbles . These bubbles create sound waves that travel through the Perseus Cluster , sounding a B flat 57 octaves below middle C. This galaxy is a cD galaxy that has undergone many galactic mergers throughout its existence , as evidenced by the " high velocity system " — the remnants of a smaller galaxy — surrounding it . Its active nucleus is a strong source of radio waves .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
The Perseids are a prominent annual meteor shower that appear to radiate from Perseus from mid @-@ July , peaking in activity between 9 and 14 August each year . Associated with Comet Swift – Tuttle , they have been observed for about 2 @,@ 000 years . The September Epsilon Perseids , discovered in 2012 , are a meteor shower with an unknown parent body in the Oort cloud .
= Brolga =
The brolga ( Grus rubicunda ) , formerly known as the native companion , is a bird in the crane family . It has also been given the name Australian crane , a term coined in 1865 by well @-@ known ornithological artist John Gould in his Birds of Australia .
The brolga is a common , gregarious wetland bird species of tropical and south @-@ eastern Australia and New Guinea . It is a tall , upright bird with a small head , long beak , slender neck and long legs . The plumage is mainly grey , with black wing tips , and it has an orange @-@ red band of colour on its head . It is well known for its intricate mating dance . The nest is built of sticks on an island in marshland and usually two eggs are laid . Incubation takes 32 days and the newly hatched young are precocial . The adult diet is mostly plant matter , but invertebrates and small vertebrates are also eaten .
Although the bird is not considered endangered over the majority of its range , populations are showing some decline , especially in southern Australia , and local action plans are being undertaken in some areas . It is the official bird emblem of the state of Queensland .
= = Description = =
The brolga is a tall bird with a large beak , long slender neck and stilt @-@ like legs . The sexes are indistinguishable in appearance though the females are usually a little smaller . The adult has a grey @-@ green , skin @-@ covered crown , and the face , cheeks and throat pouch are also featherless and are coral red . Other parts of the head are olive green and clothed in dark bristles . The gular pouch , which is particularly pendulous in adult males , is covered with such dense bristles as to make it appear black . The beak is greyish @-@ green , long and slender , and the iris is yellowish @-@ orange . The ear coverts appear as a grey patch of small feathers surrounded by red naked skin and the body plumage is silvery @-@ grey . The feathers on the back and the wing coverts have pale margins . The primary wing feathers are black and the secondaries grey . The legs and feet are greyish @-@ black . Juveniles lack the red band and have fully feathered heads with dark irises . A fully @-@ grown brolga can reach a height of 0 @.@ 7 to 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 2 ft 4 in to 4 ft 3 in ) and has a wingspan of 1 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 5 ft 7 in to 7 ft 10 in ) . Adult males average slightly less than 7 kilograms ( 15 lb ) with females averaging a little under 6 kilograms ( 13 lb ) . The weight can range from 3 @.@ 7 to 8 @.@ 7 kilograms ( 8 @.@ 2 to 19 @.@ 2 lb ) .
The brolga can easily be confused with the sarus crane , however the latter 's red head colouring extends partly down the neck while the brolga 's is confined to the head . The brolga is more silvery @-@ grey in colour than the sarus , the legs are blackish rather than pink and the trumpeting and grating calls it makes are at a lower pitch . Additionally , in Australia the range of the sarus is limited to a few scattered localities in northern Australia , compared to the more widespread distribution of the brolga .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Brolgas are widespread and often abundant in north and north @-@ east Australia , especially north @-@ east Queensland , and are common as far south as Victoria . They are also found in southern New Guinea and as rare vagrants in New Zealand and the northern part of Western Australia . The population in northern Australia is estimated at between 20 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 birds and in southern Australia , 1 @,@ 000 birds . The numbers of individuals in New Guinea are unknown .
Brolgas are non @-@ migratory but move to different areas in response to seasonal rains . In northern Australia , during the dry season ( June to November ) , populations of brolgas are gregarious and largely occupy a strip of freshwater marshland up to 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) wide , lying between the coastal hills and the saline mangrove swamps that fringe the sea . They also visit freshwater lagoons in the vicinity , river and tidal pools , the edges of lakes and irrigated farmland . In December , shortly before the start of the monsoon season , they disperse to their breeding areas . Some remain near the coast but others move up to 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) inland to similar habitats . Little is known of the movements and habitats of the New Guinea populations .
Further south , in Victoria and New South Wales , rainfall is spread more evenly throughout the year and the driest season lasts from December to May . At this time , southern populations congregate in inland flocking areas which include upland marshes , the edges of reservoirs and lakes , pastures and agricultural land . When rain arrives in June and July , they disperse to the coastal freshwater marshes , shallow lakes , wet meadows and other wetlands where they breed .
Queensland is the state in which the greatest numbers of brolgas are found , and sometimes flocks of over 1 @,@ 000 individuals are seen here . The bird is the official bird emblem for the state and also appears on its coat of arms .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Brolgas are gregarious creatures ; the basic social unit is a pair or small family group of about three or four birds , usually parents together with juvenile offspring , though some of such groups are unrelated . In the non @-@ breeding season , they gather into large flocks , which appear to be many self @-@ contained individual groups rather than a single social unit . Within the flock , families tend to remain separate and to coordinate their activities with one another rather than with the flock as a whole .
When taking off from the ground the flight is ungainly , with much flapping of wings . The bird 's black wingtips are visible while it is in the air and once it gathers speed , its flight is much more graceful and it often ascends to great heights . Here it may be barely discernible as it wheels in great circles , sometimes emitting its hoarse cry .
= = = Diet = = =
Brolgas are omnivorous and forage in wetlands and saltwater marshes . They tear up the ground with their powerful beaks in search of bulbs and edible roots . Northern populations mainly eat tubers of the bulkuru sedge ( Eleocharis dulcis ) which they extract by digging holes in the mud , but these are not available south of Brisbane . They also eat the shoots and leaves of wetland and upland plants , cereal grains , seeds , insects , mollusks , crustaceans , frogs and lizards . In saltwater marshes they may drink saline water and they have glands near their eyes through which they can excrete excess salt .
= = = Mating and breeding = = =
Brolgas are monogamous and usually bond for life , though new pairings may follow a fatality of one individual . A feature of a bonded couple is the synchronous calling which the female usually initiates . She stands with her wings folded and beak pointed to the sky and emits a series of trumpeting calls . The male stands alongside in a similar posture but with his wings flared and primaries drooping . He emits one longer call for every two emitted by the female .
Brolgas are well known for their ritualised , intricate mating dances . The performance begins with a bird picking up some grass and tossing it into the air before catching it in its bill . The bird then jumps a metre ( yard ) into the air with outstretched wings and continues by stretching its neck , bowing , strutting around , calling and bobbing its head up and down . Sometimes just one brolga dances for its mate ; often they dance in pairs ; and sometimes a whole group of about a dozen dance together , lining up roughly opposite each other before they start .
The brolga breeds throughout its range in Australia and New Guinea . The start of the breeding season is largely determined by rainfall rather than the time of year ; thus the season is February to May after the rainy season in the monsoonal areas , and September to December in southern Australia . The flocks split up and pairs establish nesting territories in wetlands . In food @-@ rich habitats , nests can be quite close together , and are often found in the same area as those of the sarus crane . The nest , which is built by both sexes , is a raised mound of sticks , uprooted grass , and other plant material sited on a small island in shallow water , or occasionally floating . If no grasses are available , mud or roots unearthed from marsh beds are employed . Sometimes the birds make hardly any nest , take over a disused swan nest , or simply lay on bare ground .
There is a single brood produced per year . The clutch size is usually two , but occasionally one or three eggs are laid about two days apart . The dull white eggs are sparsely spotted or blotched with reddish brown , with the markings being denser at the larger end of the egg . They measure 95 by 61 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 7 by 2 @.@ 4 in ) . Both sexes incubate the eggs with the female sitting on the nest at night . Hatching is not synchronised , and occurs after about thirty @-@ two days of incubation . The newly hatched chicks are covered with grey down and weigh about 100 grams ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) . They are precocial and are able to leave the nest within a day or two . Both parents feed and guard the young . The chicks fledge within four or five weeks , are fully feathered within three months and are able to fly about two weeks later . When threatened , they hide and stay quiet while the parents perform a broken @-@ wing display to distract the predator . The adults continue to protect the young for up to eleven months , or for nearly two years if they do not breed again in the interim .
= = Conservation status = =
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species lists the brolga as being of " least concern " . This is because it has a large range and a population of more than 10 @,@ 000 individuals . Although the population may be declining slowly , this is not at a rate that would warrant the brolga being included in a more vulnerable category . Brolga are not listed as threatened on the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 . However , their conservation status varies from state to state within Australia . For example , the brolga is listed as threatened under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act ( 1988 ) . Under this Act , an Action Statement for the recovery and future management of this species has been prepared . It is also included in the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria where it is listed as vulnerable .
The chief threats faced by the brolga , particularly in the southern part of its range , are habitat destruction , the drainage of wetlands , collision with powerlines , and predation by the introduced red fox . It is more secure in its northern habitat as the land is mostly unsuitable for farming and much of it is in national parks or private ownership , but changes in vegetation cover , encouraged by the rooting activities of feral pigs , may reduce the abundance of bulkuru sedge and may make the brolga more vulnerable by providing cover for predators .
Conservation measures being undertaken include international cooperation , legal protection , research , monitoring , habitat management , education and the maintenance of captive flocks for propagation and reintroduction . Although the bird breeds well in the wild , it has proved much more problematic to get it to breed while in captivity . The International Crane Foundation , a conservation organisation located in Baraboo , Wisconsin , began a captive breeding programme with three pairs of wild brolga captured in Australia in 1972 . In 1984 they imported twelve fertile eggs for further breeding .
= = Taxonomy = =
When first described by the naturalist George Perry in 1810 , the brolga was misclassified as a species of Ardea , the genus that includes the herons and egrets . It is in fact a member of the Gruiformes — the order that includes the crakes , rails , and cranes , and a member of the genus Grus . The ornithologist John Gould used the name Grus australasianus when he wrote about it and noted it to be widespread in the north and east of Australia . He also recorded that it was easy to tame , and that James Macarthur had kept a pair at his home in Camden . Calling it the Australian Crane , he mentioned that its early colonial name had been Native Companion . The Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union made brolga , a popular name derived from Gamilaraay burralga , the official name for the bird in 1926 .
In 1976 , it was suggested that the brolga , sarus crane ( Grus antigone ) and white @-@ naped crane ( Grus vipio ) formed a natural group on the basis of similarities in their calls . This was further confirmed by molecular studies of their DNA . These also showed that the brolga is more closely related to the white @-@ naped crane than it is to the morphologically more similar sarus crane .
There have traditionally been considered to be two subspecies ; G.r. argentea is the northern Australian crane and is found in Western Australia , the Northern Territory and western Queensland ; G.r. rubicunda , the southern Australian crane , occurs in New Guinea , Queensland , New South Wales , Victoria and South Australia . The two subspecies intergrade where their ranges coincide . Some authorities now consider that there are no subspecies , merely two separate populations of the bird adapted to breed at different periods of the year .
= Steve Dodd =
Steve Dodd ( 1 June 1928 – 10 November 2014 ) was an Indigenous Australian actor , notable for playing indigenous characters across seven decades of Australian film . After beginning his working life as a stockman and rodeo rider , Dodd was given his first film roles by prominent Australian actor Chips Rafferty . His career was interrupted by six years in the Australian Army during the Korean War , and limited by typecasting .
Dodd performed in several major Australian movies , including Gallipoli and The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith , in which he played Tabidgi , the murdering uncle of the lead character . He also held minor parts in Australia @-@ based international film productions including The Coca @-@ Cola Kid , Quigley Down Under and The Matrix . He likewise appeared in minor roles in early Australian television series , such as Homicide and Rush , as well as later series including The Flying Doctors . In 2013 , Dodd was honoured with the Jimmy Little Lifetime Achievement Award at the 19th Deadly Awards at the Sydney Opera House . He died in November 2014 .
= = Life and career outside acting = =
Dodd , also known as Mullawa or Mulla walla ( flying fish ) , was an Arunta or Arrente Indigenous man from central Australia . It is unclear if Dodd was from the Northern Territory or South Australia : one source states he was born in Alice Springs , and another states he was born at the Hermannsburg Mission , to the town 's south @-@ west . However a third source suggests Oodnadatta , across the border in South Australia , while Dodd himself , in a 2011 interview , stated he was South Australian . A 1953 newspaper report states that he was from Coober Pedy and had been resident at Colebrook Home , which housed Indigenous children from northern South Australia ; some residents subsequently identified as members of the Stolen Generation . The only record of a birth date is in the Department of Veterans ' Affairs ' Nominal Roll of Australian Veterans of the Korean War , which gives 1 June 1928 .
In 1966 he was reported to be a bachelor ; later sources shed no light on his marital status . In 1971 he remarked in an interview that his father and six brothers were living in the Northern Territory .
In the 19th and 20th centuries , Indigenous Australian men played significant roles as stockmen in the Australian pastoral industry , and as entertainers participating in competitive demonstrations of stockmen 's skills , referred to as rough riding . Dodd worked as a stockman , horse breaker and rodeo rider prior to and during his acting career , including a period working for rider and entertainer Smoky Dawson . He was a member of the Rough Riders Association , and gave exhibition rides at the Calgary Stampede in
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Dodd served in Korea , during a six @-@ year stint in the Australian Army , with the 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ; his service number was 41018 . Interviewed in May 2011 he indicated that he " was the first Aboriginal to sign up from South Australia to go to Korea " . A photograph of him in uniform in Korea is amongst images on permanent display at the Australian War Memorial . From 1969 to at least 1973 Dodd worked as a guide for Airlines of New South Wales , escorting tours to Uluru and other locations in central Australia . Dodd has stated that he demonstrated boomerang and spear @-@ throwing at Expo 70 , and at an Olympic Games ( though which year is unknown ) . He was also a participant in a re @-@ enactment of Captain James Cook 's landing in Australia , as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations .
In 1985 , Dodd was living in Manly , New South Wales , having spent fifteen years in Sydney 's northern suburbs . For the last two decades of his life , Dodd lived at St Georges Basin on the south coast of New South Wales , where he died on 10 November 2014 , aged 86 .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Dodd 's first opportunity to act in Australian film came in 1946 , when actor Chips Rafferty noticed Dodd on the set of The Overlanders and gave him a small role . It was the first of three Rafferty movies in which Dodd secured a part , the second being Bitter Springs in 1950 . This film was notable for being " a serious study of the relations of white settlers and Aborigines " and " more honest than most Australian film @-@ makers ventured to be at that time " .
Film writer Bruce Molloy described the film as a " lucid and dramatically effective representation " of black – white conflict in colonial Australia , giving Indigenous Australians " a degree of justice long denied them in cinematic representation " .
Dodd was working on Bitter Springs as a tracker and interpreter for actor Michael Pate when Rafferty arranged for him to have an on @-@ screen role . There was a positive relationship between the Indigenous Arrente people and the cast and crew , particularly Rafferty , involved in the location filming for Bitter Springs in the area of Quorn in northern South Australia . Michael Pate said that Rafferty " wasn 't a prejudiced person ... Chips was a person who appreciated the Aborigine [ sic ] very much ... he got on very well with the people " . Dodd , meanwhile , appreciated Rafferty 's vision for an Australian film industry and its potential to provide opportunities for Indigenous Australians .
Rafferty was the star of the film that gave Dodd his third minor screen role , Kangaroo ( 1952 ) .
In 1957 , the J Arthur Rank Organisation , an English company , came to Australia to make a film adaptation of Robbery Under Arms , an Australian colonial novel by Rolf Boldrewood . Dodd travelled to Britain and the United States with the company for six months ; in what role is unknown . He said he worked with Rafferty on a fourth film , Wake in Fright , in 1971 , but Dodd 's name does not appear in published cast lists . In the same year , he was cast in the role of an Aboriginal caretaker for a film he said was called Sacrifice .
On stage , Dodd performed the role of Darky Morris in a 1966 J.C. Williamson stage production of Desire of the Moth , with a season of nearly three months in Melbourne and Sydney . In 1971 , he appeared in an early Sydney production of Kevin Gilbert 's seminal work , The Cherry Pickers .
There were numerous small television roles for Dodd . His work for Smoky Dawson included appearing in a television production , Adventure with Smoky Dawson : Tim Goes Walkabout , broadcast in June 1966 . In other television work , Dodd participated in a Channel 7 documentary series about pioneering Australian transport company Cobb and Co , and also worked on several documentary programs for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation . Dodd had minor roles in many early Australian TV dramas of the 1960s and 1970s , including Skippy the Bush Kangaroo , Division 4 , Delta ( 1969 ) , Riptide ( 1969 ) , Woobinda – Animal Doctor ( 1970 ) , Spyforce ( 1972 – 73 ) , Homicide ( 1974 ) , and Rush ( 1976 ) . One of these , Woobinda – Animal Doctor , marked the first appearance of an Indigenous Australian in a television series lead role – not by Dodd , but by a Bindi Williams , playing an adopted son of the show 's star . In 1973 it was reported that a television film Marra Marra featuring prominent Aboriginal actors David Gumpilil and Bob Maza , together with Dodd and Zac Martin , had been completed .
Although Dodd obtained small parts in several television series , for many years he and his fellow Aboriginal actors found themselves included in only minor and typecast roles in television productions . According to Indigenous actor , historian and activist Gary Foley , Dodd joked that " he was sick of roles where his total dialogue was , ' he went that way , Boss ! ' " Reflecting on this issue , a commentator remarked on the 1978 film Little Boy Lost : " There are many irrelevant scenes , the most obvious one being where Tracker Bindi ( Steve Dodd ) , an Aboriginal , is introduced – yet another tired reinforcement of a false stereotype . "
= = = Later career = = =
Dodd contributed to several films in which issues facing Indigenous Australians , such as land rights and race relations , were the central subjects . These appearances included Bitter Springs ( mentioned above ) and The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith ( 1978 ) , the first of two films in which he appeared alongside Jack Thompson . Dodd played the character of Tabidgi , the uncle of the lead character , Aboriginal man Jimmie Blacksmith . In the film , Jimmie Blacksmith marries a white woman named Gilda Marshall ( played by Angela Punch McGregor ) . When they have a baby , Dodd 's character , " a tribal elder , ... is worried about Jimmie 's marriage to a white woman and has brought him a talisman to keep him safe " . Pauline Kael , writing in The New Yorker , described the performances of the two black professional actors ( Jack Charles and Dodd ) as " wonderful as sots : ... Steve Dodds [ sic ] , who is tried for murder and simply says , ' You 'd think it would take a good while to make up your mind to kill someone and then to kill them , but take my word for it , it only takes a second ' " .
Dodd 's career was busiest in the 1980s , and by 1985 it was reported that he had acted in 55 movies or television features . In 1981 he played Billy Snakeskin in the film Gallipoli , about the fate of young men who participated in the World War I Gallipoli Campaign of 1915 . This was followed by parts in Chase Through the Night and Essington , both in 1984 . In 1985 he played the role of Mr Joe in The Coca @-@ Cola Kid , an Australian romantic comedy with an international cast including Eric Roberts and Greta Scacchi . In 1986 he appeared in the film Short Changed , while through the mid @-@ 1980s he had minor parts in the popular television series The Flying Doctors ( 1985 – 1988 ) .
The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith was not the only film in which Dodd appeared that addressed topical Indigenous issues of the day . A decade after Jimmie Blacksmith , Dodd performed in Ground Zero , again with Jack Thompson in one of the lead roles . This film is a thriller based on claims that Indigenous Australians were used as human guinea pigs in the British nuclear tests at Maralinga . The film uses as its context the McClelland Royal Commission , which was investigating radioactive contamination at the site . In the film , Dodd plays a minor character named Freddy Tjapaljarri .
Sources differ on whether Dodd had a part in Evil Angels ( released as A Cry in the Dark outside of Australia and New Zealand ) , the 1988 film about the Azaria Chamberlain disappearance , with Dodd 's name not included in the cast list published by Australian Film 1978 – 1994 , but appearing in the longer cast listing provided by IMDb . In 1988 he played a minor role in Kadaicha , an unreleased horror film about a series of unexplained murders . In 1990 Dodd appeared in two films : Quigley Down Under , a western made in Australia but starring American Tom Selleck and Briton Alan Rickman ; and The Crossing , an Australian drama set in a country town .
Dodd 's career returned to politically contentious Indigenous issues when he played a minor role , of Kummengu , in the 1991 film Deadly . This film is a police drama based around the death of an Indigenous man in police custody . As in Ground Zero , the subject was very topical : the movie was released at the same time as the report of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody , which had for four years been examining why so many Indigenous Australians died in police detention .
In 1999 , Dodd was one of three actors in Wind , a short film portraying the pursuit of an old Aboriginal man ( Dodd ) by a young black tracker and a white police sergeant . That same year was marked by the most commercially successful film of his career , The Matrix . Later , Dodd played minor roles in an episode of television series The Alice ( 2006 ) and the movies My Country ( 2007 ) and Broken Sun ( 2008 ) ; by this time his career in film and television had lasted for over sixty years .
In 2013 , Dodd received the Jimmy Little Lifetime Achievement Award at the 19th Deadly Awards at the Sydney Opera House . Departing from tradition by presenting the award to someone who was not primarily a musician , the organisers described Dodd as " an actor that created a pathway for others across the entire arts and music sectors to follow , at a time when typecasting stereotypes and discrimination was the ' norm ' in Australia 's arts industry " .
= = Filmography = =
= Society and culture of the Han dynasty =
The Han dynasty ( 206 BC – 220 AD ) was a period of ancient China divided into the Western Han ( 206 BC – 9 AD ) and Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 AD ) periods , when the capital cities were located at Chang 'an and Luoyang , respectively . It was founded by Emperor Gaozu of Han and briefly interrupted by the regime of Wang Mang ( r . 9 – 23 CE ) who usurped the throne from a child Han emperor .
The Han dynasty was an age of great economic , technological , cultural , and social progress in China . Its society was governed by an emperor who shared power with an official bureaucracy and semi @-@ feudal nobility . Its laws , customs , literature , and education were largely guided by the philosophy and ethical system of Confucianism , yet the influence of Legalism and Daoism ( from the previous Zhou dynasty ) could still be seen . Members of the scholarly @-@ gentry class who aspired to hold public office were required to receive a Confucian @-@ based education . A new synthetic ideology of Han Confucianism was created when the scholar Dong Zhongshu ( 179 – 104 BCE ) united the Confucian canon allegedly edited by Kongzi , or Confucius ( 551 – 479 BCE ) , with cosmological cycles of yin and yang and the Chinese five elements .
Although the social status of nobles , officials , farmers , and artisan @-@ craftsmen were considered above the station of the lowly registered merchant , wealthy and successful businessmen acquired huge fortunes which allowed them to rival the social prestige of even the most powerful nobles and highest officials . Slaves were at the bottom of the social order , yet they represented only a tiny portion of the overall population . Retainers attached themselves to the estates of wealthy landowners , while medical physicians and state @-@ employed religious occultists could make a decent living . People of all social classes believed in various deities , spirits , immortals , and demons . While Han Daoists were organized into small groups chiefly concerned with achieving immortality through various means , by the mid 2nd century CE they formed large hierarchical religious societies that challenged imperial authority and viewed Laozi ( fl . 6th century BCE ) as a holy prophet .
The typical Han @-@ era Chinese household contained a nuclear family with an average of four to five members , unlike in later dynasties when multiple generations and extended family members commonly lived in the same household . Families were patrilineal , which made the father the supreme head of the house . Arranged marriages were the norm , while a new wife was expected to join the clan of her husband . Having sons over daughters was considered extremely important for the sake of carrying on ancestor worship . Although girls and women were expected by custom and Confucian tradition to behave passively towards their male relatives , mothers were given a familial status above that of their sons . Women also engaged in various professions in and outside of the home and were given protection under the law . The empress was superior in status to the male relatives of her consort clan , while the mother of the emperor — the empress dowager — had the authority to override his decisions and choose his successor ( if one had not been appointed before his death ) .
= = Social class = =
= = = Royal family , regents , nobles , and eunuchs = = =
At the apex of Han society was the emperor , a member of the Liu family and thus a descendant of the founder Emperor Gaozu ( r . 202 – 195 BCE ) . His subjects were not allowed to address him by name ; instead they used indirect references such as " under the steps to the throne " ( bixia 陛下 ) or " superior one " ( shang 上 ) . If a commoner , government minister , or noble entered the palace without official permission , the punishment was execution . Although the Commandant of Justice — one of the central government 's Nine Ministers — was in charge of meting out sentences in court cases , the emperor not only had the ability to override the Commandant 's decision , but also had the sole ability to draft new laws or repeal old ones . An emperor could pardon anyone and grant general amnesties . Although the emperor often obeyed the majority consensus of his ministers in court conferences ( tingyi 廷議 ) , his approval was still needed for any state policy decision and he sometimes even rejected the majority opinion .
The emperor 's most powerful relative was the empress dowager , widow to the previous emperor and usually the natural mother of the emperor . If the grandmother of an emperor — the grand empress dowager — was still alive during his reign , she enjoyed a superior position over the empress dowager . Emperors often sought the approval of the empress dowager for their decisions . If an emperor was only a child , he acted merely as a figurehead while the empress dowager dominated court politics . She not only had the right to issue edicts and pardons , but if the emperor died without a designated heir , she had the sole right to appoint a new emperor . Below the empress dowager were the empress and imperial concubines . Although she was the wife of the emperor , the empress 's position at court was not secure and she could be removed by the emperor . However , the empress did enjoy the submission of concubines as her subordinates , who advocated the elevation of their sons over the empress 's at their own peril .
In the early Western Han , imperial relatives and some military officers who had served Emperor Gaozu were made kings who ruled over large semi @-@ autonomous fiefs , but once the non @-@ related kings had died off , an imperial edict outlawed all non @-@ Liu family members from becoming kings . The emperor 's brothers , paternal cousins , brother 's sons , and emperor 's sons — excluding the heir apparent — were made kings . The emperor 's sisters and daughters were made princesses with fiefs . Although the central government eventually stripped away the political power of the kings and appointed their administrative staffs , kings still had a right to collect a portion of the taxes in their territory as personal income and enjoyed a social status that ranked just below the emperor . Each king had a son designated to be heir apparent , while his other sons and brothers were given the rank of marquess and ruled over small marquessates where a portion of the taxes went to their private purse . Although kings and marquesses enjoyed many privileges , the imperial court was at times aggressive towards them to check their power . Starting with Emperor Gaozu 's reign , thousands of noble families , including those from the royal houses of Qi , Chu , Yan , Zhao , Han , and Wei from the Warring States period , were forcibly moved to the vicinity of the capital Chang 'an . In the first half of Western Han , resettlement could also be imposed on powerful and wealthy officials as well as individuals who owned property worth more than a million cash .
The position of regent ( officially known as General @-@ in @-@ Chief 大將軍 ) was created during Emperor Wu 's reign ( r . 141 – 87 BCE ) when he appointed three officials to form a triumvirate regency over the central government while the child Emperor Zhao ( r . 87 – 74 BCE ) sat on the throne . Regents were often relatives @-@ in @-@ law to the emperor through his empress 's family , but they could also be men of lowly means who depended on the emperor 's favor to advance their position at court . Eunuchs who maintained the harem of the palace could also gain a similar level of power . They often came from the middle class and had links to trade . In the Western Han , there are only a handful of examples where eunuchs rose to power since the official bureaucracy was strong enough to suppress them . After the eunuch Shi Xian ( 石顯 ) became the Prefect of the Palace Masters of Writing ( 中尚書 ) , Emperor Yuan ( r . 48 – 33 BCE ) relinquished much of his authority to him , so that he was allowed to make vital policy decisions and was respected by officials . However , Shi Xian was expelled from office once Emperor Cheng ( 33 – 7 BCE ) took the throne . No palace eunuch would obtain comparable authority again until after 92 CE , when the eunuchs led by Zheng Zhong ( d . 107 CE ) sided with Emperor He ( r . 88 – 105 CE ) in a coup to overthrow the Dou 竇 clan of the empress dowager . Officials complained when eunuchs like Sun Cheng ( d . 132 CE ) were awarded by Emperor Shun ( r . 125 – 144 CE ) with marquessates , yet after the year 135 CE the eunuchs were given legal authority to pass on fiefs to adopted sons . Although Emperor Ling ( r . 168 – 189 CE ) relinquished a great deal of authority to eunuchs Zhao Zhong ( d . 189 CE ) and Zhang Rang ( d . 189 CE ) , the eunuchs were slaughtered in 189 CE when Yuan Shao ( d . 202 CE ) besieged and stormed the palaces of Luoyang .
= = = Gentry scholars and officials = = =
Those who served in government had a privileged position in Han society that was just one tier below the nobles ( yet some high officials were also ennobled and had fiefs ) . They could not be arrested for crimes unless permission was granted by the emperor . However , when officials were arrested , they were imprisoned and fettered like commoners . Their punishments in court also had to gain the approval of the emperor . Officials were not exempt from execution , yet they were often given a chance to commit suicide as a dignified alternative . The most senior posts were the Three Excellencies — excluding the Grand Tutor , a post that was irregularly occupied . The individual titles and functions of the Three Excellencies changed from Western to Eastern Han . However , their annual salaries remained at 10 @,@ 000 dan ( 石 ) of grain , largely commuted to payments in coin cash and luxury items like silk . Below them were the Nine Ministers , each of whom headed a major government bureau and earned 2 @,@ 000 bushels a year . The lowest @-@ paid government employees made Equivalent to 100 bushels annually . It was thought that wealthy officials would be less tempted by bribes . Therefore , in the beginning of the dynasty , having a total assessed taxable wealth of one hundred thousand coins was a prerequisite for holding office . This was reduced to forty thousand coins in 142 BCE , yet from Emperor Wu 's reign onwards this policy was no longer enforced .
Starting in Western Han was a system of recommendation where local officials submitted proposals to the capital on which of their subordinates were worthy candidates for holding office ; this created a patron @-@ client relationship between former superiors and successful nominees to higher office . With the enhanced prestige of the consort clan under Empress Dowager Dou ( d . 97 CE ) , a succession of regents from her clan and others amassed a large amount of clients whose chances of promotion hinged on the political survival of the empress dowager 's clan , which was often short @-@ lived . Aside from patron @-@ client relationships , one could use family connections to secure office . Patricia Ebrey writes that in the Western Han , access to public office and promotion through social mobility were open to a larger segment of the populace than in Eastern Han . A third of the two hundred and fifty @-@ two Eastern Han government officials who had biographies in the Book of Later Han were sons or grandsons of officials , while a fifth came from prominent provincial families or had ancestors who had served as officials . For forty @-@ six of the one hundred and ten years between 86 and 196 CE , at least one post of the Three Excellencies was occupied by a member of either the Yuan or Yang clan .
Many central government officials also began their careers as subordinate officers for commandery @-@ level administrations . There are only rare cases ( i.e. involving military merit during rebellions of late Eastern Han ) when subordinate officers of county @-@ level administrations advanced to the level of central government . Even if one secured an office by these means , an official was still expected to be competent , thus a formal education became the hallmark of those aspiring to fill public office . In addition to private tutoring , the Imperial University was established in 124 BCE which then accommodated only fifty pupils , but by the 2nd century CE the student body had reached about thirty thousand . These students could be appointed by the emperor to various government posts according to their examination grades .
Despite a decline in social mobility for those of less prominent clans , the local elites became far more integrated into a nationwide upper class social structure during the Eastern Han period , thus expanding the classification of who belonged to the upper class . The emerging gentry class — which became fully consolidated during the Eastern Han — consisted of unemployed scholars , teachers , students , and government officials . These men , although geographically separated and mired in local activities , started to view themselves as participants in wider national affairs of politics and scholarship . They recognized shared values of filial piety , deference , and emphasizing study in the Five Classics over holding public office . Emperors Yuan and Cheng were forced to abandon their resettlement schemes for officials and their families around the royal tombs settlement in 40 BCE and 15 BCE , respectively ; unlike the days of Emperor Wu , historian Cho @-@ Yun Hsu asserts that at this point officials and scholars had so much influence in both local and national @-@ level politics that to forcibly relocate them became unthinkable .
In a show of solidarity against the eunuchs ' interference in court politics with the coup against the regent Liang Ji ( d . 159 CE ) , a widespread student protest broke out where Imperial University students took to the streets and chanted the names of the eunuchs they opposed . At the instigation of the eunuchs , Emperor Huan ( r . 146 – 168 CE ) initiated the Partisan Prohibitions in 166 CE , a wide @-@ scale proscription against Li Ying ( 李膺 ) and his associates in the Imperial University and in the provinces from holding office ( branded as partisans : 黨人 ) . With the suicide of regent Dou Wu ( d . 168 CE ) in his confrontation with the eunuchs shortly after Emperor Ling ( r . 168 – 189 CE ) was placed on the throne , the eunuchs banned hundreds more from holding office while selling offices at the highest bidder . Repulsed by what they viewed as a corrupted government , many gentrymen considered a moral , scholarly life superior to holding office , and thus rejected nominations to serve at court . Until they were repealed in 184 CE ( to garner gentry support against the Yellow Turban Rebellion ) , the partisant prohibitions created a large independent , disaffected portion of the gentry who did not simply return to a reclusive life in their hometowns , but maintained contacts with other gentry throughout China and actively engaged in the protest movement . Acknowledging that the gentry class was able to recruit and certify itself , the Chancellor Cao Cao ( 155 – 220 CE ) established the nine @-@ rank system where a distinguished gentry figure in each county and commandery would assign local gentlemen a rank that the government would use to evaluate nominees for office .
= = = Farmers and landowners = = =
Many scholars who needed additional funds for education or vied for political office found farming as a decent profession which , although humble , was not looked down upon by fellow gentrymen . Wealthy nobles , officials , and merchants could own land , but they often did not cultivate it themselves and merely acted as absentee landlords while living in the city . They mostly relied on poor tenant farmers ( diannong 佃農 ) who paid rent in the form of roughly fifty percent of their produce in exchange for land , tools , draft animals , and a small house . Wage laborers ( gunong 雇農 ) and slaves were also employed on the estates of the wealthy , although they were not as numerous as tenants . During Western Han , the small independent owner @-@ cultivator represented the majority of farming peasants , yet their economic struggle to remain independent during times of war , natural disaster and crisis drove many into debt , banditry , slavery , and dramatically increased the number of landless tenants by late Eastern Han . The social status of poor independent owner @-@ cultivators was above tenants and wage laborers , yet below that of wealthy landowners . While wealthy landowners employed tenants and wage laborers , landowners who managed small to medium @-@ sized estates often acted as managers over their sons who tilled the fields and daughters who weaved clothes and engaged in sericulture to produce silk for the home or sale at market .
During the Western Han , farming peasants formed the majority of those who were conscripted by the government to perform corvée labor or military duties . For the labor service ( gengzu 更卒 ) , males aged fifteen to fifty @-@ six would be drafted for one month out of the year to work on construction projects and perform other duties in their commanderies and counties . For the military obligation ( zhengzu 正卒 ) , all males aged twenty @-@ three were to train for one year in one of three branches of the military : infantry , cavalry , or navy . Until they reached age fifty @-@ six , they were liable to perform one year of active service as troops sent to guard the frontiers from hostile nomads or to act as guards in the capital city . Significant changes were made to this system during Eastern Han ; a commuting tax could be paid by peasants if they wanted to avoid the one @-@ month labor obligation , since hired labor became more popular in construction and other projects . The military service obligation could even be avoided if a peasant paid a commuting tax , since the Eastern Han military became largely a volunteer force . Other commoners such as merchants were also able to join the army .
= = = Artisans and craftsmen = = =
Artisans and craftsmen during the Han had a socio @-@ economic status between that of farmers and merchants . Yet some were able to obtain a valuable income , such as one craftsman who made knives and swords and was able to eat food fit for nobles and officials . Artisans and craftsmen also enjoyed a legal status that was superior to merchants . Unlike lowly merchants , artisans were allowed by law to wear fancy silks , ride on horseback , and ride in carriages . There were also no laws which barred artisans from becoming officials . An artisan painter who worked at the Imperial Academy turned down many offers to become nominated for public office . In contrast , a bureaucrat who appointed a merchant as an official could suffer impeachment from office , while some even avoided nominations by claiming they were merchants .
Despite their legal privileges over that of merchants , the work of artisans was considered by Han Confucian scholars to be of secondary importance to that of farmers . This is perhaps largely because scholars and officials could not survive without the farmer 's product and taxes paid in grain . The government relied on taxed grain to fund its military campaigns and stored surplus grain to mitigate widespread famine during times of poor harvest . Despite the prominence given to farmers , Confucian scholars did accept that artisans performed a vital economic role . This view was only rejected by a small minority of Legalists , who advocated a society of only soldiers and farmers , and certain Daoists who wanted everyone to live in self @-@ sufficient villages and without commercial interests .
Artisans could be privately employed or they could work for the government . While government workshops employed convicts , corvée laborers , and state @-@ owned slaves to perform menial tasks , the master craftsman was paid a significant income for his work in producing luxury items such as bronze mirrors and lacquerwares .
= = = Merchants and industrialists = = =
With the exception of the bookseller and apothecary , the scholarly gentry class did not engage in trade professions , since scholars and government officials viewed the merchant class as lowly and contemptible . Sympathetic to the plight of farming peasants who had lost their land , a court edict of 94 CE stipulated that farming peasants who had been reduced to selling wares as street peddlers were not to be taxed as registered merchants , since the latter were heavily taxed by the state . Registered merchants , the majority being small urban shopkeepers , were obligated to pay commercial taxes in addition to the poll tax .
Registered merchants were forced by law to wear white @-@ colored clothes , an indication of their low status , and could be singled out for conscription into the armed forces and forced to resettle in lands to the deep south where malaria was known to be prevalent . In contrast , itinerant merchants were often richer due to their trade between a network of towns and cities and their ability to avoid registering as merchants . Starting with Emperor Gaozu 's reign , registered merchants were banned from wearing silk clothes , riding on horseback , or holding public office . This is in stark contrast to unregistered itinerant merchants who Chao Cuo ( d . 154 BCE ) states wore fine silks , rode in carriages pulled by fat horses , and whose wealth allowed them to associate with government officials .
Although these laws were relaxed over time , Emperor Wu renewed the state 's persecution of merchants when in 119 BCE he made it illegal for registered merchants to purchase land . If they violated this law , their land and slaves would be confiscated by the state . The effectiveness of this law is questionable , since contemporary Han writers mention merchants owning huge tracts of land . A merchant who owned property worth a thousand catties of gold — equivalent to ten million cash coins — was considered a great merchant . Such a fortune was one hundred times larger than the average income of a middle class landowner @-@ cultivator and dwarfed the annual 200 @,@ 000 cash @-@ coin income of a marquess who collected taxes from a thousand households . Some merchant families made fortunes worth over a hundred million cash , which was equivalent to the wealth acquired by the highest officials in government .
Merchants engaged in a multitude of private trades and industries . A single merchant often combined several trades to make greater profits , such as animal breeding , farming , manufacturing , trade , and money @-@ lending . Some of the most profitable commodities sold during the Han were salt and iron , since a wealthy salt or iron distributor could own properties worth as much as ten million cash . In the early Western Han period , powerful merchants could muster a workforce of over a thousand peasants to work in salt mines and marshes to evaporate brine to make salt , or at ironworks sites where they operated bellows and casted iron implements . To curb the influence of such wealthy industrialists , Emperor Wu nationalized these industries by 117 BCE and for the first time drafted former merchants with technical know @-@ how such as Sang Hongyang ( d . 80 BCE ) to head these government monopolies . However , by the Eastern Han period the central government abolished the state monopolies on salt and iron . Even before this , the state must have halted its employment of former merchants in the government salt and iron agencies , since an edict of 7 BCE restated the ban on merchants entering the bureaucracy . However , the usurper Wang Mang ( r . 9 – 23 CE ) did employ some merchants as low @-@ level officials with a salary @-@ rank of 600 bushels . Another profitable industry was brewing wine and liquor , which the state briefly monopolized from 98 to 81 BCE , yet relinquished its production to private merchants once again ( with alcohol taxes reinstalled ) . The official Cui Shi ( 催寔 ) ( d . 170 CE ) started a brewery business to help pay for his father 's costly funeral , an act which was heavily criticized by his fellow gentrymen who considered this sideline occupation a shameful one for any scholar . Cinnabar mining was also a very lucrative industry .
= = = Guests and retainers = = =
Commoners known as guests and retainers ( binke 賓客 ) who lived on the property of a host in exchange for services had existed since the Warring States period . Retainers often originally belonged to other social groups , and sometimes they were fugitives seeking shelter from authorities . Hosts were often wealthy nobles and officials , yet they were sometimes wealthy commoners . In a typical relationship , a host provided lodging , food , clothing , and carriage transport for his retainers in return for occasional and non @-@ routine work or services such as an advisory role , a post as bodyguard , menial physical labor around the house , and sometimes more dangerous missions such as committing assassinations , fighting off roving bandits , or riding into battle to defend the host . Others could work as spies , scholarly protégés , or astrologers .
A host treated his retainers very well and showered them with luxury gifts if he wanted to boast his wealth and status . One retainer even received a sword scabbard decorated with jade and pearls , while others were given items like shoes decorated with pearls . However , not all retainers shared the same status , as those showered with gifts often provided highly skilled work or greater services ; retainers who were not as skilled were given lesser gifts and seated in less honorable positions when meeting the host . Regardless of status , any retainer was allowed to come and go from his host 's residence as he or she pleased , unlike a slave who was the property of his master and permanently attached to the estate . There was no official government policy on how to deal with retainers , but when they broke laws they were arrested , and when their master broke the law , sometimes the retainers were detained alongside him .
Retainers formed a large portion of the fighting forces amassed by the future Emperor Guangwu ( r . 25 – 57 CE ) during the civil war against Wang Mang 's failing regime . The military role of retainers became much more pronounced by the late 2nd century CE during the political turmoil that would eventually split the empire into three competing states . By then , hosts began to treat retainers as their personal troops ( buqu 部曲 ) , which undercut the freedoms of mobility and independence that earlier retainers had enjoyed . Whereas individual retainers had earlier joined a host by their own personal decision , by the late 2nd century CE the lives of the retainers ' entire families became heavily controlled by the host .
= = = Slaves = = =
Slaves ( nuli 奴隸 ) comprised roughly 1 % of the population , a proportion far less than the contemporary Greco @-@ Roman world which relied on the labor of a large slave population . Slaves were classified into two categories : those who were privately owned , and those who were owned by the state . Privately owned slaves were often former peasants who fell into debt and sold themselves into slavery , while others were former government slaves bestowed to nobles and high officials as rewards for their services . State @-@ owned slaves were sometimes prisoners of war ( yet not all were made slaves ) . However , most slaves were tributary gifts given to the court by foreign states , families of criminals who committed treason against the state , and former private slaves who were either donated to authorities ( since this would exempt the former slaveholder from labor obligations ) or confiscated by the state if their master had broken a law . In both Western and Eastern Han , arrested criminals became convicts and it was only during the reign of Wang Mang that counterfeiting criminals were made into slaves .
State @-@ owned slaves were put to work in palaces , offices , workshops , stables , and sometimes state @-@ owned agricultural fields , while privately owned slaves were employed in domestic services and sometimes farming . However , the vast majority of non @-@ independent farmers working for wealthy landowners were not hired laborers or slaves , but were landless peasants who paid rent as tenants . It might have been more economically feasible to maintain tenants instead of slaves , since slave masters were obligated to pay an annual poll tax of 240 coins for each slave they owned ( the same rate merchants had to pay for their poll tax ) . Government slaves were not assigned to work in the government 's monopolized industries over iron and salt ( which lasted from Emperor Wu 's reign until the beginning of Eastern Han ) . Privately owned slaves were usually assigned to kitchen duty while others fulfilled roles as armed bodyguards , mounted escorts , acrobats , jugglers , dancers , singers , and musicians .
The children of both government and private slaves were born slaves . Government slaves could be granted freedom by the emperor if they were deemed too elderly , if the emperor pitied them , or if they committed a meritous act worthy of a manumission . In one exceptional case , the former slave Jin Midi ( d . 86 BCE ) became one of the regents over the government . Private slaves could buy their freedom from their master , while some masters chose to free their slaves . Although slaves were subject to beatings if they did not obey their masters , it was against the law to murder a slave ; kings were stripped of their kingdoms after it was found that they had murdered slaves , while Wang Mang even forced one of his sons to commit suicide for murdering a slave . An edict of 35 CE repealed the death penalty for any slave who killed a commoner .
Not all slaves had the same social status . Some slaves of wealthy families lived better than commoners since they were allowed to wear luxurious clothes and consume quality food and wine . Slaves of high officials could even be feared and respected . The slaves of regent Huo Guang ( d . 68 BCE ) sometimes came armed to the marketplace and fought commoners , forced the Imperial Secretary to kowtow and apologize ( after a scuffle with his slaves over the right @-@ of @-@ way on the street ) , and were provided services by some officials who sought a promotion through Huo Guang 's influence .
= = = Other occupations = = =
In addition to officials , teachers , merchants , farmers , artisans , and retainers , there were many other occupations . The pig @-@ breeder was not seen as a lowly profession if it was merely utilized by a poor scholar to pay for a formal education . For example , the first chancellor in Han to lack either a military background or a title as marquess was the pig @-@ breeder Gongsun Hong ( 公孫弘 ) of Emperor Wu 's reign . Physicians who practiced medicine and studied medical classics could not only make a decent income , but were also able to gain an education and become officials . The physician Hua Tuo ( d . 208 CE ) was nominated for office while another became Prefect of the Gentlemen of the Palace ( 郎中令 ) . Those who practiced occult arts of Chinese alchemy and mediumship were often employed by the government to conduct religious sacrifices , while on rare occasions — such as with Luan Da ( d . 112 BCE ) — an occultist might marry a princesses or be enfeoffed as a marquess . While it was socially acceptable for gentry scholars to engage in the occult arts of divination and Chinese astrology , career diviners were of a lower status and earned only a modest income . Other humble occultist professions included sorcery and physiognomy ; like merchants , those who practiced sorcery were banned from holding public office . Being a butcher was another lowly occupation , yet there is one case where a butcher became an official during Emperor Gaozu 's reign , while Empress He ( d . 189 CE ) and her brother , the regent He Jin ( d . 189 CE ) , came from a family of butchers . Runners and messengers who worked for the government were also considered to have a lowly status , yet some later became government officials .
= = = Twenty ranks = = =
The Han court upheld a socio @-@ economic ranking system for commoners and nobles , which was based on the twenty @-@ ranks system installed by the statesman Shang Yang ( d . 338 BCE ) of the State of Qin . All males above the age of 15 ( excluding slaves ) could be promoted in rank up to level eight . When a commoner was promoted in rank , he was granted a more honorable place in the seating arrangements of hamlet banquets , was given a greater portion of hunted game at the table , was punished less severely for certain crimes , and could become exempt from labor service obligations to the state . This system favored the elderly , since a longer lifespan meant more opportunities to become promoted . In addition to an increase in salary ( see table to the right ) , newly promoted men were granted wine and ox @-@ meat for a celebratory banquet . The 19th and 20th ranks were both marquess ranks , yet only a 20th rank allowed one to have a marquessate fief .
Promotions in rank were decided by the emperor and could occur on special occasions , such as installation of a new emperor , inauguration of a new reign title , the wedding of a new empress , or the selection of a royal heir apparent . The central government sometimes sold ranks to collect more revenues for the state . The official Chao Cuo ( d . 154 BCE ) once wrote that anyone who presented a substantial amount of agricultural grain to the government would also be promoted in rank .
= = Urban and rural life = =
During the Han , the empire was divided into large administrative units of kingdoms and commanderies ; within a commandery there were counties , and within counties there were districts that contained at least several hamlets . An average hamlet contained about a hundred families and usually was enclosed by a wall with two gates . At the center of social life in the hamlet was the religious altar ( built in honor of a local deity ) where festivities could be staged . Each district and county also had an official religious altar . The official reach of government extended no further than the district level , where county @-@ appointed officials included the chief of police who maintained law and order and the district tax collector . However , the government was able to control local society at the hamlet level with their bestowal of twenty ranks .
The government funded flood control projects involving the building of new canals , thus aiding the speed of waterborne transport and allowing undeveloped areas to become irrigated farmlands . These conscription labor projects allowed for the building of new hamlets which were dependent on the government for their livelihoods . When the authority of the central government declined in the late Eastern Han period , many commoners living in such hamlets were forced to flee their lands and work as tenants on large estates of wealthy landowners . The people of older hamlets which never had to rely on central government projects for their wellbeing or existence often sought support from powerful local families .
The Western Han capital at Chang 'an was divided into one hundred and sixty walled residential wards . Affairs of each ward were overseen by a low @-@ ranking official . Influential families within the wards usually maintained social order . Historians are still unsure as to how many government @-@ controlled marketplaces existed in Chang 'an . Although there are claims of nine markets , it is possible that seven of them were actually divisible parts of two main markets : the East Market and West Market . Both the East Market and West Market had a two @-@ story government office with a flag and drum placed on the roof . A market chief and deputy were headquartered in each of these buildings , yet not much is known about their involvement in the marketplace . In the Eastern Han capital of Luoyang , the market chief 's office employed thirty @-@ six sub @-@ officers who ventured into the marketplace daily to maintain law and order . They also collected taxes on commercial goods , assigned standard prices for specific commodities on the basis of monthly reviews , and authorized contracts between merchants and their customers or clients . Besides merchants engaging in marketplace violations , other crimes were committed by adolescent street gangs who often wore clothes distinguishing their gang . The maintenance of law and order outside the market and in slum areas was conducted by constables ; Han officials sometimes argued for increasing their salaries which they assumed would encourage them to reject bribes from criminals .
There were many amusements in the cities which could attract audiences rich and poor , such as trained animals performing tricks , cockfighting and caged animal fights between tigers , horse racing , puppet shows , musical performances with dancing , acrobatic feats , and juggling . Wealthy families could afford their own house choirs and five @-@ piece orchestras with bells , drums , flutes , and stringed instruments . Gambling and board games such as liubo also provided entertainment .
= = Marriage , gender , and kinship = =
= = = Patrilineal , nuclear family = = =
Chinese kinship relations during the Han were influenced by Confucian mores and involved both immediate nuclear family and extended family members . The Chinese family was patrilineal , since a father 's sons did not consider a mother 's kin to be part of their clan ; instead , they were considered ' outside relatives ' . The Han dynasty law code inherited the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BCE ) law that any family with more than two sons had to pay extra taxes . This was not repealed until the Cao Wei period ( 220 – 265 CE ) . The average Han family under one household typically had about four or five immediate family members , which was unlike the large extended families under one household in later dynasties . It was common during Han to send adult married sons away with a portion of the family fortune and visit them occasionally , yet in all dynasties during and after the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 CE ) , a son who moved away and lived separately from his living parents would be considered a criminal . Larger families appeared during the Eastern Han when some married brothers chose to live with each other 's families . However , a household with three generations living under its roof was incredibly rare . This is in contrast to the Jin dynasty ( 265 – 420 ) , when having three or more generations under one roof was commonplace .
= = = Clan and lineage = = =
The Chinese clan or lineage involved men who shared a common patrilineal ancestor , yet were divided into subgroups whose behavior towards each other was regulated according to Confucian mores which dictated what relative should be closer and more intimate . The four different subgroups were : ( 1 ) brother , brother 's sons , and brother 's grandsons ; ( 2 ) father 's brothers , father 's brother 's sons and grandsons ; ( 3 ) paternal grandfather 's brothers , their sons , and grandsons ; and ( 4 ) paternal great @-@ grandfather 's brothers , their sons , grandsons , and great @-@ grandsons . While one was expected to mourn for an entire year over the death of any relative in the first subgroup , one was expected to mourn for only five months when a relative in the second subgroup had died . No ritual mourning was expected at all for relatives in the third and fourth subgroups . While a son mourned three years for a father 's death , he only mourned one year for his mother 's . Since carrying on the patrilineal line meant the continuation of ancestor worship , it was important to have at least one son , even if he was adopted from another family ( although it was considered imperative that he share the same surname , otherwise his ancestral sacrifices could be considered null and void ) .
The majority of clan or lineage groups were not very influential in local society . However , prominent kinship groups could enjoy a great deal of ad hoc influence , especially if a member served as a government official . Wealthy scholars or officials often shared the same kinship group with poor commoners . Since clan members were expected to defend fellow members ( even to the point of murder ) , government authorities constantly struggled to suppress powerful kinship groups . Local lineage groups formed the backbone of rebel forces in the popular uprising against Wang Mang in the early 1st century CE . When central government authority broke down in the late Eastern Han , less @-@ developed areas of the country remained relatively stable due to entrenched kinship groups , while in heavily developed areas ( where kinship groups had been effectively broken down by the state ) there were many more peasants willing to turn to rebel movements for protection and survival .
= = = Marriage and divorce = = =
Although romantic love was not discouraged , marriages were arranged as agreements and bonds formed between two clans ( with property as the chief concern ) , not necessarily two individuals . A father 's input on who his sons and daughters should marry carried more weight than the mother , although a grandfather could override a father 's decision . Once a couple had married , the new wife was obligated to visit the family temple so she could become part of the husband 's clan and be properly worshipped by her descendants after death . However , she retained her natal surname . The vast majority of people during Han practiced monogamy , although wealthy officials and nobles could afford to support one or many concubines in addition to their legal wife .
Although the ideal ages for marriage were thirty for a man and twenty for a woman , it was common for a male to marry at age sixteen and a female at age fourteen . To encourage families to marry off their daughters , a law was introduced in 189 BCE that increased the poll tax rate fivefold for unmarried women between the ages of fifteen and thirty . People of the Han practiced a strict form of exogamy where one could not marry a person who had the same surname , even if both partners could not be traced back to a common ancestor ( however , this excluded the royal family , who sometimes married distant relatives for political reasons ) . Officials often married into families with officials of equal status and sometimes married royal princesses or had their daughters marry kings and even the emperor .
By custom there were seven conditions where a man could divorce his wife . These were : ( 1 ) disobedience to parents @-@ in @-@ law , ( 2 ) barrenness ( unable to continue family line ) , ( 3 ) adultery ( mixing another clan 's blood into the family ) , ( 4 ) jealousy ( of concubines ) , ( 5 ) incurable disease ( unable to continue family line ) , ( 6 ) loquacity ( not getting along with brothers @-@ in @-@ law or sisters @-@ in @-@ law ) , and ( 7 ) theft . However , a husband was not allowed to divorce his wife if she had completed three years of mourning for one of his deceased parents , if there were no living relatives in her father 's family to return to , or if the husband 's family was originally poor but became rich after marriage . Sometimes women were also able to initiate the divorce and remarry if the husband 's family was in poverty , he was diseased , or his in @-@ laws were too abusive . Although remarriage was frowned upon ( especially since divorce meant a wife took away her dowry wealth from her ex @-@ husband 's family ) , it was nonetheless common amongst divorcees and widowers in all social groups .
= = = Inheritance = = =
The two types of inheritance during Han included the common inheritance of property from the deceased , which all social groups ( except for slaves ) participated in , and the inheritance of titles , which only the people of twenty ranks , nobility , and royalty could enjoy . In the first form , officials and commoners bequeathed an equal share of property to each of their sons in their will . This excluded daughters , who married into other families and thus did not carry on the family name . However , daughters did receive a portion of the family property in the form of their marriage dowries , which were sometimes equal to a brother 's share of wealth in the will . The second type of inheritance involved the practice of primogeniture , where the official title was inherited by only one son . This was as true of the emperor as it was for any king , marquess , or commoner of the twenty ranks . However , to limit the power of the kings while still upholding primogeniture , an imperial edict of 127 BCE stated that kings had to divide the territories of their kingdoms between the chosen successor ( i.e. heir apparent ) and the kings ' brothers , who were made marquesses , thus establishing new marquessates and effectively reducing the size of every kingdom with each generation .
= = = Status and position of women = = =
Historian Ban Zhao ( 45 – 116 CE ) wrote in her Lessons for Women that , like the opposite and complementary forces of yin and yang , men 's great virtues were strength and rigidity , while a woman 's great virtues were respect and compliance . Throughout her life , a Han woman was to bend to the will of first her father , then her husband , and then her adult son ( 三從四德 ) . However , there are many recorded deviations from this rule , as some Han women are written to have engaged in heated arguments with their husbands over concubines ( sometimes beating concubines out of jealousy and to punish the husband ) , wrote essays and letters for husbands serving as government officials , and sometimes husbands turned to their wives for advice on political affairs of the court . When a father died , the eldest son was theoretically the senior member of the family , yet as hinted in various works of Han literature , they still had to obey the will of their mother and she could even force them to kowtow to her when apologizing for an offense . Deviations from common customs regarding gender were especially pronounced in the imperial family . The empress was able to give orders to her male relatives ( even her father ) and if they disobeyed her , she could publicly reprimand and humiliate them .
Certain occupations were traditionally reserved for women , while they were also exempted from corvée labor duties . Women were expected to rear children , weave clothes for the family , and perform domestic duties such as cooking ; although farming was considered men 's work , sometimes women tilled fields alongside their husbands and brothers . Some women formed communal spinning and weaving groups to pool resources together to pay for candles , lamp oil , and heat during night and winter . A successful textile business could employ hundreds of women . Singing and dancing to entertain wealthy patrons were other common professions open for women . When a husband died , sometimes the widow became the sole supporter of her children , and thus had to make a living weaving silk cloths or making straw sandals to sell in the market . Some women also turned to the humble profession of sorcery for income . Other more fortunate women could become renowned medical physicians who provided services to the families of high officials and nobility . Some wealthy women engaged in luxury trade , such as one who frequently sold pearls to a princess . Some even aided in their husband 's business decisions . Female merchants dressed in silk clothes which rivaled even female nobles ' attire were considered immoral compared to the ideal woman weaver .
= = Education , literature , and philosophy = =
= = = Competing ideologies = = =
The historian Sima Tan ( d . 110 BCE ) wrote that the Legalist tradition inherited by Han from the previous Qin dynasty taught that imposing severe man @-@ made laws which were short of kindness would produce a well @-@ ordered society , given that human nature was innately immoral and had to be checked . ' Legalism ' was the label created by Han scholars to describe the socio @-@ political philosophy formulated largely by Shen Buhai ( d . 340 BCE ) , Shang Yang ( d . 338 BCE ) , and Han Fei ( c . 280 – c . 233 BCE ) , a philosophy which stressed that government had to rely on a strict system of punishments and rewards to maintain law and order . Some early Western Han officials were influenced by the tenet of ' nonaction ' apparent in Han Fei 's work and the Daoist Laozi . By utilizing this concept , they argued that once laws and administrative systems were set in place , the government functioned smoothly and intervention on behalf of the ruler became unnecessary . This school of thought was known as ' Yellow Emperor and Laozi ' ( Huang @-@ Lao 黃老 ) , which gained full acceptance at court under the patronage of Empress Dowager Dou ( d . 135 BCE ) . Its followers believed that the originator of ordered civilization was the mythical Yellow Emperor , a view that contradicted later Confucian scholars ' views that the mythological Yao and Shun were responsible for bringing man out of a state of anarchy . Works such as the Huainanzi ( presented in 139 BCE ) introduced new systematic ideas about the cosmos which undercut the message of Huang @-@ Lao thought . Scholars such as Shusun Tong ( 叔孫通 ) began to express greater emphasis for ethical ideas espoused in ' Classicist ' philosophical works such as those of Kongzi ( i.e. Confucius , 551 – 479 BCE ) , an ideology anachronistically known as Confucianism . Emperor Gaozu found Shusun Tong 's Confucian reforms of court rituals useful so long as they further exalted his status , yet it was not until Emperor Wu 's reign that Confucianism gained exclusive patronage at court .
= = = Confucianism becomes paramount = = =
At the core of Confucian ethics were the selected virtues of filial piety , harmonious relationships , ritual , and righteousness . The amalgamation of these ideas into a theological system involving earlier cosmological theories of yin and yang as well as the five phases ( i.e. natural cycles which governed Heaven , Earth , and Man ) was first pioneered by the official Dong Zhongshu ( 179 – 104 BCE ) . Although full authenticity of Dong 's authorship of the Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals comes into question with hints that parts were rewritten around the time of Liu Xiang ( 79 – 8 BCE ) or Liu Xin ( d . 23 CE ) , three of his original memorials sent to the throne discussing his syncretic version of Confucianism were preserved in the 1st @-@ century @-@ CE Book of Han .
Since his model incorporated and justified the imperial government into the natural order of the universe , it appealed to Emperor Wu , who in 136 BCE abolished non @-@ Confucian academic chairs or erudites ( 博士 ) not dealing with the Confucian Five Classics : the Classic of Poetry , the Classic of Changes , the Classic of Rites , the Classic of History , and the Spring and Autumn Annals . Expanding on the position of Mengzi ( c . 372 – 289 BCE ) that human nature was innately good , Dong wrote that people needed external nourishment of education to become ' awakened ' and develop morality . To produce morally sound officials , Emperor Wu further sponsored Confucian education when he established the Imperial University in 124 BCE . Despite mainstream acceptance of Confucianism for the rest of Han ( and until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1911 ) , philosophers still defended some Legalist ideas while the state 's laws and policies reflect a compromise reached between Legalism and Han Confucianism .
There were varying regional traditions or ' schools ' within Confucianism assigned to certain texts . The two which caused most debate were New Texts and Old Texts traditions . The former represented works transmitted orally after the Qin book burning of 213 BCE , and the latter was newly discovered texts alleged by Kong Anguo , Liu Xin , and others to have been excavated from the walls of Kongzi 's home , displayed archaic written characters , and thus were more authentic versions . Although initially rejected , the Old Texts found acceptance at the courts of Emperor Ping ( r . 1 BCE – 5 CE ) and Wang Mang , were rejected by Emperor Guangwu , and accepted once more by Emperor Zhang only to be rejected a third time by the following rulers .
= = = Further philosophical synthesis = = =
In contrast to Dong 's certainty about innate goodness , the contemporary writer Jia Yi ( 201 – 169 BCE ) synthesized the opposing perspectives of Mengzi and Xunzi ( c . 312 – c . 230 BCE ) in the chapter " Protecting and Tutoring " ( Baofu 保傅 ) of his book New Recommendations ( Xinshu 新書 ) to argue that human nature was malleable and thus neither originally good or evil . Han Confucianism was transformed in the Eastern Han period when scholars struggled to understand how Wang Mang 's regime had failed despite its great sponsorship of Confucian reform . The transition from Western Han idealism to Eastern Han skepticism can be represented in part by the Exemplary Sayings ( Fayan 法言 ) of Yang Xiong ( 53 BCE – 18 CE ) , who argued that human nature was indeterminate , that one could cultivate good and escape negative situations by learning the valuable precepts of many schools of thought ( not just Confucianism ) , yet man had no control over his ultimate fate ( 命 ) decided by Heaven . In his New Discussions ( Xinlun 新論 ) , Huan Tan ( 43 BCE – 28 CE ) argued that although the Han court sponsored Confucian education , the government had become corrupt and thus undermined Dong Zhongshu 's cosmically ordained belief that Confucian education went hand @-@ in @-@ hand with political success . In his Balanced Discourse ( Lunheng ) , Wang Chong ( 27 – 100 CE ) argued that human life was not a coherent whole dictated by a unitary will of Heaven as in Dong 's synthesis , but rather was broken down into three planes : biological ( mental and physical ) , sociopolitical , and moral , elements which interacted with each other to produce different results and random fate . Eastern Han Confucians incorporated ideas of Legalism and Daoism to explain how society could be salvaged , such as Wang Fu ( 78 – 163 CE ) in his Comments of a Recluse ( Qian fu lun ) who argued that the evils accumulated by mankind over time could be rectified by direct engagement of the body @-@ politic ( the Legalist approach ) , but that the individual had to cultivate personal virtue in the meantime as a long @-@ term solution ( the Daoist approach ) .
= = = Public and private education = = =
In order to secure a position as a teacher , erudite in the capital , or government official , a student could choose one of several paths to become well educated . Perhaps the most prestigious path was enrollment in the Imperial University . Students had to be above the age of eighteen to enroll , and were selected by the Minister of Ceremonies from those recommended by local authorities . Other students could choose to enroll in a school sponsored by the local commandery government . A professional teacher who opened a private school in a small town or village could sometimes gather a following of several hundred to over a thousand students . Students were expected to pay tuition , thus a teacher enjoyed a significant salary . His standing in the local community was usually paramount , and was even sought as an arbiter in disputes . Although the size of the Imperial Academy was greatly expanded in Eastern Han , private schools grew in importance as the imperial government lost authority and its academy 's persecution of Old Text tradition drove many to pursue Old Text studies in private institutions .
= = = The Standard Histories = = =
Before the Records of the Grand Historian ( Shiji ) by Sima Qian ( 145 – 86 BCE ) , there existed terse chronicles of events such as the Spring and Autumn Annals and the chronicle found at Shuihudi covering events in the State of Qin and Qin dynasty from 306 to 217 BCE . There was also the Classic of History — part of the Confucian canon — which recorded the deeds of past rulers and political events ( sometimes mythological instead of historical ) . However , Sima 's work is considered the first of China 's Standard Histories , laid the groundwork for Chinese historiography by creating the first universal history of China . He divided his work of one hundred and thirty chapters into basic annals , chronological tables in grid format ( with year @-@ by @-@ year accounts since 841 BCE , the start of the Gonghe Regency ) , treatises on general subjects ( such as the economy and the calendar ) , histories of hereditary houses and states , biographies on individuals arranged in roughly chronological order , and his own autobiography as the last chapter . Being a court archivist allowed Sima to utilize eighty textual sources in addition to memorials , edicts , and stone inscriptions . These sources enhanced the enormous scope of his work , which mentions roughly four thousand people by name . He also traveled extensively to interview witnesses for more recent accounts .
Unlike the Western historiographical tradition established by the Greek Herodotus ( c . 484 c . – 425 BCE ) , University of North Carolina associate professor Dr. Grant Hardy asserts that Sima 's work was intended to be a textual microcosm representing every aspect of the Universe , Earth , and Man in model form , in much the same way that the raised @-@ relief map in the tomb of Qin Shi Huang ( r . 221 – 210 BCE ) represented his empire . Hardy explains that this was not unique to Sima 's work , as Han scholars believed encoded secrets existed in the Spring and Autumn Annals , which was deemed " a microcosm incorporating all the essential moral and historical principles by which the world operated " and future events could be prognosticated . However , Hardy 's microcosm thesis as an explanation for the Shiji 's inconsistencies in ideological approach , organization , and literary characteristics has been criticized by Michael Loewe and David Schaberg . They express doubt about Hardy 's view that Sima intended his work to be a well @-@ planned , homogeneous model of reality , rather than a loosely connected collection of narratives which retains the original ideological biases of the various sources used .
The next Standard History was the Book of Han , compiled by Ban Biao ( 3 – 54 CE ) , his son Ban Gu ( 32 – 92 CE ) , and his daughter Ban Zhao ( 45 – 116 CE ) . Unlike Sima 's private and independent work , this history text was commissioned and sponsored by the Han court under Emperor Ming ( r . 57 – 75 CE ) , who let Ban Gu use the imperial archives . This set a significant precedent for the rest of the Standard Histories , since the historian was now virtually unable to criticize his ruling patron . The Book of Han covered the history of China left off from Sima 's work during Emperor Wu 's reign up until the middle Eastern Han . Although the Records of the Three Kingdoms included events in late Eastern Han , no history work focused exclusively on the Eastern Han period until the Book of Later Han was compiled by Fan Ye ( 398 – 445 CE ) .
= = = Treatises , dictionaries , manuals , and biographies = = =
The Ready Guide ( Erya ) is the oldest known Chinese dictionary and was compiled sometime in the 3rd century BCE before the Han . Dictionaries written during the Han dynasty include Yang Xiong 's Regional Speech ( Fangyan ) of 15 BCE and Xu Shen 's ( c . 58 – c . 147 CE ) Explaining Unitary Characters and Analyzing Compound Characters ( Shuowen Jiezi ) of 121 CE . Yang Xiong 's Fangyan was the first Chinese dialect vocabulary work ; the modern Chinese term for ' dialect ' is derived from the title of this book . In the Shuowen Jiezi , Xu Shen divided written characters between wen ( 文 ) and zi ( 字 ) , where the former were original pictographs and the latter were characters derived from them . Listing 9 @,@ 353 characters with 1 @,@ 163 variant forms , Xu arranged these into 540 section headers according to their written radicals . This convenient and systematic approach of arranging characters by their radicals became the standard for all Chinese dictionaries to follow .
Handbooks , guides , manuals , and treatises for various subjects were written in the Han . The Western Han Book of Fan Shengzhi ( Fan Shengzhi shu 氾勝之書 ) written during Emperor Cheng 's reign is one of two manuals on agricultural techniques and processes that have survived from the Han . The other is the Eastern Han Monthly Instructions for the Four Classes of People ( Simin yueling 四民月令 ) written by Cui Shi ( 催寔 ) ( d . 170 CE ) . Mathematical treatises included the Book on Numbers and Computation ( Suan shu shu ) The Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven ( Zhoubi suanjing ) , and the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art ( Jiuzhang Suanshu ) . There were also works on astronomy , such as the Miscellaneous Readings of Cosmic Patterns and Pneuma Images ( Tianwen qixiang zazhan 天文氣象雜
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decides to create his own concoction , including kerosene . After drinking it , he suffers from immediate kidney failure , requiring constant dialysis . Deciding to go to The Drunken Clam with Quagmire and Joe , he is reluctant to go to his scheduled dialysis appointment , in order to watch the 1984 CBS series Charles in Charge .
In preparation for a special appearance at their school , James Woods High School , Chris is assigned to write an essay about " hope " to welcome United States President Barack Obama . After reading his essay to the entire school , along with his sister , Meg , President Barack Obama , dressed similarly to Conrad Birdie as portrayed in the film version of the musical , begins singing and playing guitar in the school 's auditorium . Obama then performs the song " Honestly Sincere " from the stage musical and film Bye Bye Birdie .
= = Reception = =
" New Kidney in Town " was broadcast on January 9 , 2011 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , and was preceded by The Simpsons and the series premiere of the animated series Bob 's Burgers , and followed by Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's spin @-@ off , The Cleveland Show . It was watched by 9 @.@ 29 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with Desperate Housewives on ABC , Undercover Boss on CBS and The Cape on NBC . The episode also acquired a 4 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating Bob 's Burgers and The Cleveland Show in addition to significantly edging out the latter in total viewership . The episode 's ratings increased significantly from the previous episode , largely due to the lead @-@ in provided by the NFL Wild Card game that preceded the " Animation Domination " line @-@ up .
Television critics reacted mostly positive toward the episode , calling the storyline " heartfelt . " In a simultaneous review of the episodes of The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show that preceded and followed the show , respectively , The A.V. Club 's Rowan Kaiser wrote , " I spent the entire time expecting the rug to be pulled out and the whole thing revealed to be Seth MacFarlane just trying to manipulate my emotions . " Kaiser went on to compliment series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , stating " some of the more recent formal experiments that the show has done , such as the hour @-@ long murder mystery in this season 's premiere , indicate that MacFarlane and company agree with the criticism . " He concluded his review by writing , " I have to give props to Family Guy for going outside their wheelhouse without winking excessively at their audience , but I think it may have been a little bit too far to be truly great . " Kaiser ultimately gave the episode a B rating , the best rating of the night , beating The Cleveland Show episode " Ain 't Nothin ' But Mutton Bustin ' " and The Simpsons episode " Moms I 'd Like to Forget " . In another positive review of the episode , Jason Hughes of TV Squad praised the episode 's " funniest moments , " which included the opening sequence involving Peter and the Red Bull , as well as the reference to The Price Is Right . Hughes went on to comment that the episode " taught us about the depths and bonds of love that make a family . Whether it 's acceptance , hope or sacrifice , there 's no limit to what we will do for family . " Kate Moon of TV Fanatic also commented positively on the episode , writing in her review of the storyline , " Overall , I found the installment to be refreshing with everyone taking a part in Peter ’ s dilemma . It was actually sweet and emotional for a change . " Moon also praised the scenes involving President Obama , and Stewie 's attempt at saving Brian .
The episode was among four other episodes submitted by the Family Guy production team for consideration of an Emmy Award nomination , in the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series category . " New Kidney in Town " was submitted , along with " Halloween on Spooner Street " , " Road to the North Pole " , " And I 'm Joyce Kinney " and " Trading Places " . The series was successfully nominated in 2009 , but failed to merit an award . Mark Hentemann , executive producer and showrunner of Family Guy said of the nominating process , " We had internal discussions in the writers ' room , and it seemed like we were much more akin to the other primetime comedies than we were to children 's shows in animation . We assumed we would not get anywhere , and so it was a great surprise when we got the nomination . "
= Japanese cruiser Tokiwa =
Tokiwa ( 常盤 ) was the second and last Asama @-@ class armored cruiser built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the late 1890s . As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself , the ship was built in Britain . She played minor roles in the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 and World War I , but was very active during the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 where she participated in the Battle of Port Arthur , the Battle off Ulsan , and the Battle of Tsushima . After the war she was sometimes used as a training ship for naval cadets .
Tokiwa was converted into a minelayer in 1922 – 24 . She was placed in reserve in 1927 after she was damaged by an accidental explosion of several mines . The ship was deployed to Northern China in 1932 – 33 after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria . After her refit in 1937 , Tokiwa returned to active duty and was assigned to the 4th Fleet in 1939 . During the Pacific War , she participated in the occupation of the Gilbert Islands and Rabaul and Kavieng in New Guinea . Damaged by American aircraft shortly afterwards , the ship was forced to return to Japan for repairs . Tokiwa laid minefields during 1944 – 45 until she was twice damaged by American mines in 1945 . After repairs were completed , the ship was badly damaged by American aircraft and her crew was forced to beach her lest she sink shortly before the end of the war . Tokiwa was salvaged in 1947 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= = Background and description = =
The 1896 Naval Expansion Plan was made after the First Sino @-@ Japanese War and included four armored cruisers in addition to four more battleships , all of which had to be ordered from British shipyards as Japan lacked the capability to build them itself . Further consideration of the Russian building program caused the IJN to believe that the battleships ordered under the original plan would not be sufficient to counter the Imperial Russian Navy . Budgetary limitations prevented ordering more battleships and the IJN decided to expand the number of more affordable armored cruisers to be ordered from four to six ships . The revised plan is commonly known as the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " . Unlike most of their contemporaries which were designed for commerce raiding or to defend colonies and trade routes , Tokiwa and her half @-@ sisters were intended as fleet scouts and to be employed in the battleline .
The ship was 134 @.@ 72 meters ( 442 ft 0 in ) long overall and 124 @.@ 36 meters ( 408 ft 0 in ) between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 20 @.@ 48 meters ( 67 ft 2 in ) and had an average draft of 7 @.@ 4 meters ( 24 ft 3 in ) . Tokiwa displaced 9 @,@ 667 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 514 long tons ) at normal load and 10 @,@ 476 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 311 long tons ) at deep load . The ship had a metacentric height of 0 @.@ 88 meters ( 2 ft 11 in ) . Her crew consisted of 676 officers and enlisted men .
Tokiwa had two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was provided by a dozen cylindrical boilers and the engines were rated at a total of 18 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) . The ship had a designed speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) and reached 23 @.@ 1 knots ( 42 @.@ 8 km / h ; 26 @.@ 6 mph ) during her sea trials from 19 @,@ 040 ihp ( 14 @,@ 200 kW ) . She carried up to 1 @,@ 390 long tons ( 1 @,@ 410 t ) of coal and could steam for 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament for all of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " armored cruisers was four eight @-@ inch guns in twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The secondary armament consisted of 14 Elswick Ordnance Company " Pattern Z " quick @-@ firing ( QF ) , 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns . Only four of these guns were not mounted in armored casemates on the main and upper decks and their mounts on the upper deck were protected by gun shields . Tokiwa was also equipped with a dozen QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt guns and eight QF 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Yamauchi guns as close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . The ship was equipped with five 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , one above water in the bow and four submerged tubes , two on each broadside .
All of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " armored cruisers used the same armor scheme with some minor differences , of which the most important was that the two Asama @-@ class ships used less tough Harvey armor . The waterline belt ran the full length of the ship and its thickness varied from 178 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) amidships to 89 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) at the bow and stern . It had a height of 2 @.@ 13 meters ( 7 ft 0 in ) , of which 1 @.@ 52 meters ( 5 ft 0 in ) was normally underwater . The upper strake of belt armor was 127 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) thick and extended from the upper edge of the waterline belt to the main deck . It extended 65 @.@ 42 meters ( 214 ft 8 in ) from the forward to the rear barbette . The Asama class had oblique 127 mm armored bulkheads that closed off the ends of the central armored citadel .
The barbettes , gun turrets and the front of the casemates were all 152 millimeters thick while the sides and rear of the casemates were protected by 51 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor . The deck was also 51 millimeters thick and the armor protecting the conning tower was 356 millimeters ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) in thickness .
= = Construction and career = =
The contract for Tokiwa was signed on 6 July 1897 with Armstrong Whitworth . The ship had already been laid down at their shipyard in Elswick on 6 January 1897 as a speculative venture . She was launched on 6 July 1898 and completed on 18 May 1899 . The ship departed for Japan the next day and arrived in Yokosuka on 16 July . Captain Dewa Shigetō had been appointed on 5 April to supervise her construction and bring her to Japan . He was relieved of command after his arrival by Captain Nakayama Nagaaki . The following year , Tokiwa supported Japanese forces during the Boxer Rebellion in China .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
Sublieutenant Kichisaburō Nomura , later Foreign Minister , was appointed to the ship in July 1903 until the ship 's return after the Battle off Ulsan in August 1904 . Captain Yoshimatsu Motaro assumed command of Tokiwa on 18 January 1904 . At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War a few weeks later , the ship was assigned to the 2nd Division of the 2nd Fleet . She participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 , when Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the Combined Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur . Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his destroyers to be much more successful than it was , anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened , but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack . The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin , which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russians . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defenses with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese eight- and six @-@ inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships , which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect . Although many ships on both sides were hit , Russian casualties numbered some 150 , while the Japanese suffered roughly 90 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged .
In early March , Tokiwa was detached from the 2nd Division and reassigned to Rear Admiral Dewa 's 3rd Division . On 10 March , Tokiwa and the protected cruiser Chitose attempted to capture the disabled destroyer Steregushchiy , but were driven off by heavy fire from the shore defenses , although they managed to rescue the wounded crewmen . Tōgō successfully lured out a portion of the Russian Pacific Squadron on 13 April , including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov 's flagship , the battleship Petropavlovsk . During this action , Tokiwa engaged the Russian cruisers that preceded the battleships before falling back on Tōgō 's battleships . When Makarov spotted the five Japanese battleships , he turned back for Port Arthur and his flagship ran into the minefield just laid by the Japanese . The ship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded , and Makarov was one of the 677 killed . In addition to this loss , the battleship Pobeda was damaged by a mine .
Tokiwa rejoined the 2nd Division a few days later and Kamimura was ordered north in mid @-@ April to cover the Sea of Japan and defend the Korea Strait against any attempt by the Vladivostok Independent Cruiser Squadron , under the command of Rear Admiral Karl Jessen , to break through and unite with the Pacific Squadron . The two units narrowly missed each other on the 24th in heavy fog and the Japanese proceeded to Vladivostok where they laid several minefields before arriving back at Wonsan on the 30th .
The division failed to intercept the Russian squadron as it attacked several transports south of Okinoshima Island on 15 June due to heavy rain and fog . The Russians sortied again on 30 June and Kamimura finally was able to intercept them the next day near Okinoshima . The light was failing when they were spotted and the Russians were able to disengage in the darkness . Jessen 's ships sortied again on 17 July headed for the eastern coast of Japan to act as a diversion and pull Japanese forces out of the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea . The Russian ships passed through Tsugaru Strait two days later and began capturing ships bound for Japan . The arrival of the Russians off Tokyo Bay on the 24th caused the Naval General Staff to order Kamimura to sail for Cape Toi Misaki , Kyūshū , fearing that Jessen would circumnavigate Japan to reach Port Arthur . Two days later he was ordered north to the Kii Channel and then to Tokyo Bay on the 28th . The General Staff finally ordered him back to Tsushima Island on the 30th ; later that day he received word that Jessen 's ships had passed through the Tsugaru Strait early that morning and reached Vladivostok on 1 August .
= = = = Battle off Ulsan = = = =
On 10 August , the ships at Port Arthur attempted a breakout to Vladivostok , but were turned back in the Battle of the Yellow Sea . Jessen was ordered to rendezvous with them , but the order was delayed . His three armored cruisers , Rossia , Gromoboi , and Rurik , had to raise steam , so he did not sortie until the evening of 13 August . By dawn he had reached Tsushima , but turned back when he failed to see any ships from the Port Arthur squadron . 36 miles ( 58 km ) north of the island he encountered Kamimura 's squadron , which consisted of four modern armored cruisers , Iwate , Izumo , Azuma , and Tokiwa . The two squadrons had passed during the night without spotting one another and each had reversed course around first light . This put the Japanese ships astride the Russian route to Vladivostok .
Jessen ordered his ships to turn to the northeast when he spotted the Japanese at 05 : 00 and they followed suit , albeit on a slightly converging course . Both sides opened fire around 05 : 23 at a range of 8 @,@ 500 meters ( 9 @,@ 300 yd ) . The Japanese ships concentrated their fire on Rurik , the rear ship of the Russian formation . She was hit fairly quickly and began to fall astern of the other two ships . Jessen turned southeast in an attempt to open the range , but this blinded the Russian gunners with the rising sun and prevented any of their broadside guns from bearing on the Japanese . About 06 : 00 , Jessen turned 180 ° to starboard in an attempt to reach the Korean coast and to allow Rurik to rejoin the squadron . Kamimura followed suit around 06 : 10 , but turned to port , which opened the range between the squadrons . Azuma then developed engine problems and the Japanese squadron slowed to conform with her best speed . Firing recommenced at 06 : 24 and Rurik was hit three times in the stern , flooding her steering compartment ; she had to be steered with her engines . Her speed continued to decrease , further exposing her to Japanese fire , and her steering jammed to port around 06 : 40 .
Jessen made another 180 ° turn in an attempt to interpose his two ships between the Japanese and Rurik , but the latter ship suddenly turn to starboard and increased speed and passed between Jessen 's ships and the Japanese . Kamimura turned 180 ° as well so that both squadrons were heading southeast on parallel courses , but Jessen quickly made another 180 ° turn so that they headed on opposing courses . The Russians reversed course for the third time around 07 : 45 in another attempt to support Rurik although Rossia was on fire herself ; her fires were extinguished about twenty minutes later . Kamimura circled Rurik to the south at 08 : 00 and allowed the other two Russian ships to get to his north and gave them an uncontested route to Vladivostok . Despite this , Jessen turned back once more at 08 : 15 and ordered Rurik to make her own way back to Vladivostok before turning north at his maximum speed , about 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
About this time Kamimura 's two elderly protected cruisers , Naniwa and Takachiho , were approaching from the south . Their arrival allowed Kamimura to pursue Jessen with all of his armored cruisers while the two new arrivals dealt with Rurik . They fought a running battle with the Russians for the next hour and a half ; scoring enough hits on them to force their speed down to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Azuma 's engines again broke down during this chase and Tokiwa assumed her place in the line . The Japanese closed to a minimum of about 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 5 @,@ 500 yd ) , but Kamimura then opened the range up to 6 @,@ 500 meters ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) .
About 10 : 00 , Kamimura 's gunnery officer erroneously informed him that Izumo had expended three @-@ quarters of her ammunition and he turned back after a five @-@ minute rapid @-@ fire barrage . He did not wish to leave the Tsushima Strait unguarded and thought that he could use his remaining ammunition on Rurik . By this time she had been sunk by Naniwa and Takachiho . They had radioed Kamimura that she was sunk , but he did not receive the message . Shortly after the Japanese turned back , Gromoboi and Rossia were forced to heave @-@ to to make repairs . None of the Japanese ships were seriously damaged and Tokiwa only suffered three men wounded during the battle . After the battle the cruiser was transferred to Rear Admiral Uryū Sotokichi 's command who began a blockade of Shanghai on 20 August where the Russian cruiser Askold and a destroyer had taken refuge after the Battle of the Yellow Sea . He returned home on 8 September after the Chinese government formally interned the Russian ships .
In mid @-@ September , Tokiwa and Iwate were transferred to the 1st Division . In November the cruiser was sent to the Kure Naval Arsenal to refit . The ship was reassigned to the 2nd Division after the refit , which was ordered north to Wonsan on 2 February to escort the occupation force there . Tokiwa was ordered home on 12 February for another refit . On 13 April , the 2nd Division , including the armored cruisers Izumo and Kasuga , sailed to escort minelayers as they laid 715 mines off Vladivostok .
= = = = Battle of Tsushima = = = =
As the Russian 2nd and 3rd Pacific Squadrons approached Japan on 27 May , having sailed from the Baltic Sea , they were spotted by patrolling Japanese ships early that morning , but visibility was limited and radio reception poor . The preliminary reports were enough to cause Tōgō to order his ships to put to sea and the 2nd Division spotted the Russian ships under the command of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky at around 11 : 30 . Kamimura closed to about a range of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) before sheering off under fire to join Tōgō 's battleships . Tokiwa was third in line of six when Tōgō opened fire on the 2nd Pacific Squadron at 14 : 10 and , like most of the ships in the division , engaged the battleship Oslyabya which was forced to fall out of formation at 14 : 50 and sank 20 minutes later . By this time the Russian formation was in disorder and Knyaz Suvorov suddenly appeared out of the mist at 15 : 35 at a range of about 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . All of Kamimura 's ships engaged her for five minutes or so with Azuma and the armored cruiser Yakumo also firing torpedoes at the Russian ship without effect .
After 17 : 30 Kamimura led his division in a fruitless pursuit of some of the Russian cruisers , leaving Tōgō 's battleships to their own devices . He abandoned his chase around 18 : 03 and turned northwards to rejoin Tōgō . His ships spotted the rear of the Russian battleline around 18 : 30 and opened fire when the range closed to 8 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 – 9 @,@ 800 yd ) . Nothing is known of any effect on the Russians and they ceased fire by 19 : 30 and rejoined Tōgō at 20 : 08 as night was falling . The surviving Russian ships were spotted the next morning and the Japanese ships opened fire around 10 : 30 , staying beyond the range at which the Russian ships could effectively reply . Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov therefore decided to surrender his ships as he could neither return fire nor close the range . Over the course of the battle , Tokiwa was struck by one large and seven small shells , mostly 75 @-@ millimeter . They caused only minor damage , but killed one crewman and wounded fourteen .
Captain Imai Kanemasa assumed command of the ship on 14 June , as Tōgō was reorganizing the fleet for future operations . As the IJN was preparing to invade Sakhalin Island in early July , Kamimura 's 2nd Division , now reduced to Iwate , Izumo , and Tokiwa , was tasked to defend the Korea Strait before it escorted troops that made an amphibious landing in northeastern Korea . In mid @-@ August , the division covered the landing at Chongjin , closer to the Russian border . In 1910 , Tokiwa 's boilers were replaced by Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers and her six @-@ inch guns were replaced by Japanese @-@ built models . In December 1911 , Iwate and Tokiwa were deployed to Port Arthur to keep order there during the Chinese Revolution .
= = = World War I = = =
The ship participated in the early stages of the Battle of Tsingtao before returning to Sasebo on 2 October 1914 . The following month , Tokiwa was deployed to Singapore preparatory to searching for the German commerce raider Emden , but the ship was sunk before the mission began . The cruiser was assigned to the Training Squadron on 1 September 1916 preparatory to her departure on 5 April 1917 with Yakumo on a training cruise to ports in California , Hawaii and the South Sea Islands with cadets from the 44th class of the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy . After her return on 17 August , the ship was relieved of her assignment to the Training Squadron on 25 August and sent to Honolulu , Hawaii in October to protect shipping from any German commerce raiders and to allow the US Navy to redeploy its forces to the Atlantic .
Tokiwa was reassigned to the Training Squadron on 10 August 1918 and returned home to prepare for her next training cruise , together with Azuma , that began on 1 March 1919 for South Asia and Australia and again on 24 November 1919 , also with Azuma , for Singapore , Southeast Asia , Suez Canal and the Mediterranean Sea . After her return on 20 May 1920 , the ship was relieved of her assignment to the Training Squadron on 4 June . Tokiwa was reclassified as a 1st class coast @-@ defense ship on 30 September 1921 .
= = = Converted into a minelayer = = =
On 30 September 1922 , Tokiwa began her conversion into a minelayer at the Sasebo Naval Arsenal . To accommodate her 200 – 300 mines , her rear 8 @-@ inch gun turret removed , as were the six 6 @-@ inch guns on the main deck . In addition , the number of light guns was reduced to two 12 @-@ pounders , although two 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were added . These modifications were completed in March 1924 . The ship 's stern suffered substantial damage in an accidental explosion in Saiki Bay on 1 August 1927 when fuzed mines were being disarmed . One mine detonated and then several others followed , killing 35 crewmen and wounding 65 . Tokiwa was assigned to the reserve fleet after repairs .
Tokiwa was assigned to the 1st Fleet from January 1932 to May 1933 after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and patrolled northern China . From November 1937 to 1938 , the ship was retrofitted with eight Kampon boilers that reduced her maximum speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) and her remaining torpedo tubes were removed . The space made available by these changes increased her capacity to 500 mines . With the establishment of the 4th Fleet on 15 November 1939 , Tokiwa was assigned to the 18th Division , and a year later to the 19th Division under the command of Rear Admiral Kiyohide Shima together with the minelayer Okinoshima . In 1940 , the ship was refitted as a training minelayer which reduced her capacity to 200 @-@ 300 mines . As part of the refit , her forward 8 @-@ inch gun turret and the four amidships 6 @-@ inch guns were removed , as was one of the 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type AA guns . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament was heavily reinforced with the addition of two single 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns and twenty license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 @-@ millimeter Type 96 light AA guns in twin @-@ gun mounts .
= = = Pacific War = = =
On 9 and 10 December 1941 , Tokiwa and the other minelayers of the 19th Division escorted two troop transports that carried the occupation forces for Makin and Tarawa in the Gilbert Islands . In January 1942 , the ship participated in Operation R ( the invasion of Rabaul and Kavieng ) and returned to Kwajalein Atoll afterwards . She was damaged in an air raid by American aircraft from the carrier USS Enterprise on 1 February 1942 and forced to return to Sasebo for repairs . Tokiwa returned to Truk on 14 July , and , on 19 August , was assigned to the Japanese task force sent to reoccupy Makin Atoll after the Makin Raid .
On 1 May 1943 , the ship was reassigned to the Ōminato Guard District and departed Truk on 26 May in a convoy to Yokosuka that was unsuccessfully attacked by USS Salmon ( SS @-@ 182 ) on 3 June . Tokiwa was reassigned to the 18th Escort Squadron of the 7th Fleet on 20 January 1944 . Tokiwa laid thousands of mines in the waters off Okinawa in June 1944 and Yakushima in February 1945 . Ironically , Tokiwa was herself mined on 14 April 1945 , approximately 78 miles ( 126 km ) off Hesaki , Kyūshū suffering moderate damage . She was later damaged again by mines laid by USAAF B @-@ 29 Superfortress bombers on 3 June 1945 . At some point during the war , her armament was augmented with approximately ten 25 mm Type 96 AA guns in single mounts and 80 depth charges . In addition she was fitted with Type 3 , Mark 1 , Model 3 and Type 2 , Mark 2 , Model 1 air search radars .
While at Ōminato in Mutsu Bay in northern Japan at 41 @.@ 20 ° N 141 @.@ 60 ° E / 41 @.@ 20 ; 141 @.@ 60 , Tokiwa was severely damaged by a direct bomb hit and four near misses in an air attack on 9 August 1945 by United States Navy aircraft from Task Force 38 , and was beached by her crew . On 30 November 1945 Tokiwa was removed from the navy list . After the end of World War II , the wreck was refloated on 5 April 1947 , towed to Hakodate , Hokkaidō , and scrapped from August – October 1947 .
= Russian battleship Imperatritsa Mariya =
Imperatritsa Mariya ( Russian : Императрица Мария : Empress Maria ) was one of three Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class dreadnoughts built for the Imperial Russian Navy , lead ship of her class . Construction began before World War I and she served with the Black Sea Fleet during the war . She covered older pre @-@ dreadnought battleships as they bombarded Ottoman facilities in 1915 and engaged the Ottoman light cruiser Midilli , ( formerly the German SMS Breslau ) several times without inflicting anything more serious than splinter damage . Imperatritsa Mariya was sunk at anchor in Sevastopol by a magazine explosion in late 1916 , killing 228 crewmen . She was subsequently raised , but her condition was very poor . She was finally scrapped in 1926 .
= = Description = =
Imperatritsa Mariya was 168 meters ( 551 ft 2 in ) long at the waterline . She had a beam of 27 @.@ 43 meters ( 90 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 36 meters ( 27 ft 5 in ) . Her displacement was 23 @,@ 600 long tons ( 23 @,@ 979 t ) at load , 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 016 t ) more than her designed displacement of 22 @,@ 600 long tons ( 22 @,@ 963 t ) . She proved to be very bow @-@ heavy in service and tended to ship large amounts of water through her forward casemates . The ammunition for the forward 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns was reduced from 100 to 70 rounds each , while the 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) ammunition was reduced from 245 to 100 rounds per gun , in an attempt to compensate for her trim . This did not fully cure the problem , but Imperatritsa Mariya was lost before any other changes could be implemented .
The ship was fitted with four Parsons @-@ type steam turbines imported from John Brown & Company of the United Kingdom . They were designed for a total of 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but produced 33 @,@ 200 shp ( 24 @,@ 757 kW ) on her sea trials using steam produced by 20 mixed @-@ firing triangular Yarrow boilers with a working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 atm ( 1 @,@ 773 kPa ; 257 psi ) . Designed speed was 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Her maximum coal capacity was 1 @,@ 700 long tons ( 1 @,@ 727 t ) plus 500 long tons ( 510 t ) of fuel oil , which gave her a range of 1 @,@ 640 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 040 km ; 1 @,@ 890 mi ) at maximum speed . All of her electrical power was generated by three Curtis 360 @-@ kilowatt ( 480 hp ) main turbo generators and two 200 @-@ kilowatt ( 270 hp ) auxiliary units .
Her main armament consisted of a dozen 12 @-@ inch Obukhovskii Pattern 1907 guns mounted in four triple gun turrets distributed the length of the ship . Her secondary armament consisted of twenty 130 mm B7 Pattern 1913 guns mounted in casemates . They were arranged in two groups , six guns per side from the forward turret to the rear funnel and the remaining four were clustered around the rear turret . She was fitted with four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , one mounted on the roof of each turret . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were carried , two tubes on each broadside abaft the forward magazine .
= = Service = =
Imperatritsa Mariya , named after Tsarina Maria Feodorovna , mother of Tsar Nicholas II , was built by the Russud Shipyard at Nikolayev , Russian Empire . She was laid down on 30 October 1911 along with her sister ships Imperator Aleksander III and Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya , but this was merely a ceremonial event as the design had not yet been finalized nor the contract signed . She was launched on 19 October 1913 and arrived in Sevastopol on 13 July 1915 , where she completed her fitting out during the next few months and conducted sea trials . On 1 October she provided cover for the Black Sea Fleet 's pre @-@ dreadnoughts as they bombarded targets in Kozlu , Zonguldak and Karadeniz Ereğli . She did much the same when older battleships bombarded targets in Bulgaria on 20 – 22 October and then Varna itself on 27 October . The light cruiser Midilli narrowly escaped a running engagement with the Imperatritsa Mariya on 4 April 1916 as the battleship narrowly missed her several times before she could disengage . Three months later both Imperatritsa Mariya and Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya , alerted by intercepted radio transmissions , sortied from Sevastopol in an attempt to intercept the ex @-@ German battlecruiser Yavuz as she returned from a bombardment of the Russian port of Tuapse on 4 July . The Yavuz dodged north and avoided the Russians by paralleling the Bulgarian coastline back to the Bosphorus . The Midilli mined the harbor of Novorossiysk on 21 July , but the Russians , again alerted by radio intercepts , attempted to catch her on her return journey . Midilli was lured into range of Imperatritsa Mariya 's guns the next day when the cruiser pursued the Russian destroyer Schastlivy , but she managed to escape with only splinter damage .
On the morning of 20 October 1916 , a fire was discovered in the Imperatritsa Mariya 's forward powder magazine while at anchor in Sevastopol , but it exploded before any efforts could be made to fight the fire . Sailors led by Engineer @-@ Mechanic Midshipman Ignatyev , however , managed to flood the forward shell magazine before the explosion at the cost of their own lives . Their action probably prevented a catastrophic detonation and all of the other magazines were flooded as a precaution . About forty minutes after the first explosion , a second occurred in the vicinity of the torpedo compartment that destroyed the watertight integrity of the rest of the forward bulkheads . Imperatritsa Mariya began to sink by the bow and listed to starboard . She capsized a few minutes later , taking 228 sailors with her . The subsequent investigation determined that the explosion was probably the result of spontaneous combustion of the nitrocellulose @-@ based propellant as it decomposed .
Following a complex salvage operation , the ship was eventually refloated on 18 May 1918 and moved into Sevastopol 's Northern Dry Dock on 31 May , still upside down . The chaos of the Russian Revolution and Civil War , prevented further repair work , although her 130 mm guns were removed . By 1923 , the wooden blocks supporting her in place were rotting . She was floated out and grounded in shallow water in 1923 . She was approved for scrapping in June 1925 and officially stricken on 21 November 1925 , although the work did not begin until 1926 when she was refloated and moved back into the dry dock . Her gun turrets , which had fallen out of the ship when she capsized , were later salvaged . Two of them were used as the 30th Coast Defense Battery defending the city during the Siege of Sevastopol in World War II .
= Douglas XCG @-@ 17 =
The Douglas XCG @-@ 17 was an American assault glider , developed by the conversion of a C @-@ 47 Skytrain twin @-@ engine transport during World War II . Although the XCG @-@ 17 was successful in testing , the requirement for such a large glider had passed , and no further examples of the type were built ; one additional C @-@ 47 , however , was converted in the field to glider configuration briefly during 1946 for evaluation , but was quickly reconverted to powered configuration .
= = Design and development = =
With the introduction of the Douglas C @-@ 54 Skymaster four @-@ engined transport aircraft , the United States Army Air Forces , observing that conventional gliders then in service would be an inefficient use of the C @-@ 54 's power and capacity , determined that a requirement existed for a new , much larger assault glider . It was determined that the best solution to the requirement was the conversion of the Douglas C @-@ 47 Skytrain , already in large @-@ scale production , to meet the requirement . The C @-@ 47 could be converted to a glider configuration with minimal alteration to the airframe , and would provide the required capacity .
Trials conducted using a conventional , powered C @-@ 47 , first conducting ordinary deadstick landings , then being towed by another C @-@ 47 , indicated that the scheme was feasible . Therefore , a C @-@ 47 @-@ DL was taken in hand for conversion into a glider , which was given the designation XCG @-@ 17 . The aircraft , formerly a Northwest Airlines DC @-@ 3 that had been impressed into military service at the start of World War II , was modified by the removal of the aircraft 's engines ; the nacelles , containing the landing gear , remained in place , covered with aerodynamically profiled hemispherical domes for streamlining , containing fixed weight to compensate for the removal of the engines . Other equipment , no longer necessary with the conversion to an unpowered configuration , was also removed to save weight ; items removed included the aircraft 's wiring and bulkheads , along with the navigator 's and radio operator 's positions .
= = Operational history = =
The conversion , carried out at Clinton County Army Air Field , was completed on June 12 , 1944 , with the aircraft undergoing its initial flight test shortly thereafter . The flight testing of the XCG @-@ 17 proved that the aircraft was satisfactory ; compared with conventional gliders in service , the aircraft possessed lower stalling and higher towing speeds than conventional gliders , as well as gliding at a significantly shallower angle . Tow tests were conducted using a variety of aircraft ; the most commonly used configuration was a tandem tow by two C @-@ 47s , with the towing aircraft coupled in tandem and the leading aircraft detaching following takeoff . This configuration was dangerous for the " middle " C @-@ 47 , however , and it was determined that a single C @-@ 54 was the optimal tug aircraft .
The XCG @-@ 17 's cargo hold had a capacity of 15 @,@ 000 pounds ( 6 @,@ 800 kg ) ; alternatively , up to 40 fully equipped troops could be transported , these figures being significantly larger than conventional gliders ' capacity . The XCG @-@ 17 was also capable of carrying three jeeps in a single load , or alternatively two 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) howitzers . Regardless of the aircraft 's load , no ballast was required to maintain the aircraft 's center of gravity , a trait unique among American assault gliders .
Despite the satisfactory results in testing , however , the aircraft failed the Army 's requirement that it be capable of landing on unimproved fields ; in addition , by the time the evaluation of the XCG @-@ 17 was completed the need for such a large assault glider had passed . The primary role for the glider had been intended to increase the amount of supplies that could be carried to China over " The Hump " ; the war situation had , however , become more favorable and the added capacity an oversized glider would provide was no longer required . No further examples of the type were produced ; the prototype , its trials complete , was placed in storage , being ferried to Davis @-@ Monthan Air Force Base for disposal in August 1946 .
In August 1949 , the aircraft was sold to Advance Industries , its engines being reinstalled to return the aircraft to powered status in DC @-@ 3C configuration . Some sources , however , indicate that the XCG @-@ 17 was reconverted to C @-@ 47 configuration in 1946 . Following its restoration to powered status , the aircraft was transferred to Mexico , where it remained in civilian service until 1980 .
= = Field conversion = =
Although the XCG @-@ 17 failed to lead to any production of a C @-@ 47 derived glider type , a single C @-@ 47 was converted in the field to glider configuration by the Fifth Air Service Area Command , located at Nichols Field on Luzon in the Philippines , during January 1946 . Carried out in much the same manner as the XCG @-@ 17 , the conversion included octagonally shaped fairings over the engine mountings , with an auxiliary power unit from a B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber being installed .
Referred to as " XCG @-@ 47 " as well as " XCG @-@ 17 " , and named " Nez Perce " , the aircraft undertook its initial flight following conversion on June 17 , 1946 , towed by a C @-@ 54 . The flight tests of the field @-@ converted aircraft proved favorable , and an ambitious flight , towing the aircraft from Luzon to Tokyo in Japan , was planned . This flight was intended to prove the suitability of large gliders to act as an " aerial freight train " for regular transport .
The flight , conducted in late June 1946 , took 11 hours of flight time and included an overnight stay on Okinawa ; covering 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) , it concluded at Tachikawa Airfield near Tokyo . Despite the success of the flight , the " aerial freight train " concept did not catch on ; the aircraft had its engines re @-@ fitted in August 1946 and was returned to service as a normal C @-@ 47 .
= = Operators = =
= = = Military ( as C @-@ 47 , then XCG @-@ 17 ) = = =
United States
United States Army Air Forces
= = = Civilian ( as DC @-@ 3C ) = = =
Mexico
Petroleos Mexicanos
= = Specifications ( 41 @-@ 18496 ) = =
Data from
General characteristics
Crew : Two ( Pilot and copilot )
Capacity : 15 @,@ 000 pounds ( 6 @,@ 800 kg ) cargo or 40 troops
Length : 63 ft 9 in ( 19 @.@ 43 m )
Wingspan : 95 ft 6 in ( 29 @.@ 11 m )
Height : 17 ft ( 5 @.@ 2 m )
Wing area : 987 sq ft ( 91 @.@ 7 m2 )
Empty weight : 11 @,@ 001 lb ( 4 @,@ 990 kg )
Gross weight : 26 @,@ 000 lb ( 11 @,@ 793 kg )
Performance
Maximum speed : 290 mph ( 467 km / h ; 252 kn ) max towing speed
Cruising speed : 190 mph ; 165 kn ( 305 km / h ) gliding speed
Stall speed : 35 mph ( 30 kn ; 56 km / h )
Maximum glide ratio : 14 : 1
Wing loading : 26 @.@ 3 lb / sq ft ( 128 kg / m2 )
= Don Marostica =
Don Marostica ( born March 7 , 1948 ) is a real estate developer and former legislator in the U.S. state of Colorado , currently serving as director of the state 's Office of Economic Development and International Trade .
Raised in Colorado , Marostica is an Army veteran , former high school teacher , and most recently a prominent real estate developer in northern Colorado . After several years serving on the Loveland , Colorado city council , Marostica was elected to the Colorado House of Representatives in 2006 , represented House District 51 , which encompasses the city of Loveland .
Marostica , regarded as a moderate Republican , focused heavily on fiscal issues as a legislator , including transparency and loosening budgetary restrictions , and sat on the legislature 's Joint Budget Committee during the 2009 session . In July 2009 , Marostica resigned from the legislature to accept the post of economic development director in the cabinet of Democratic Gov. Bill Ritter , where he has focused on attracting and growing business in the state of Colorado during the ongoing recession .
= = Early career = =
Marostica was born in Sterling , Colorado and graduated from Roosevelt High School in Johnstown . He attended Colorado State University on football and wrestling scholarships , graduating in 1970 with a degree in physical science and geology . In 1975 , he earned a master 's degree in secondary school administration from the University of Northern Colorado
Have been commissioned through the ROTC program at Colorado State , Marostica served in the United States Army and the Colorado Army National Guard , leaving the service at the rank of captain in 1979 . After leaving the Army , Marostica taught and coached wrestling at Rocky Mountain High School in Fort Collins . Marostica currently resides in Loveland , Colorado with his wife , Carol .
Marostica entered the real estate industry in 1977 and is currently a partner in Loveland Commercial , LLC . In 1982 , during a downturn in the real estate market , Marostica declared bankruptcy and had judgements from creditors filed against him . He also had tax leins filed against him both in the early 1980s and in the mid @-@ 1990s , and has since paid all back taxes . Marostica became financially successful in real estate , and , together with other partners in Loveland Commercial , has donated extensively to local causes , including endowing a chair in the business department of Colorado State University . As a developer , Marostica specialized in commercial real estate , spearheading five Planned Unit Developments in Loveland and Milliken , Colorado .
Marostica was elected to the Loveland City Council in 2001 , serving for three years , including a span as mayor pro tem , before resigning in 2004 because of professional conflicts of interest . During his 2006 legislative campaign , he was criticized for , as a city council member , voting to award city money to his company for a development contract ; the city council had to authorize a special exception to its conflict of interest rules to approve the contract .
Marostica has served on over 60 boards and commissions in the Loveland area , with an emphasis on transportation @-@ related issues ( Loveland Transportation Finance Committee , Loveland East @-@ West Mobility Study Committee , Loveland Eisenhower Boulevard Alignment Analysis Committee , Fort Collins @-@ Loveland Airport Master Plan Update Committee ) . He has also served as the chair of the Board of Directors of the Poudre Valley Health System Foundation and the Medical Center of the Rockies Foundation , and on the bond oversight committee for the Thompson School District . He is also an avid motorcyclist and regularly participates in the Sturgis Motorcycle Rally and Ride to the Wall , a cross @-@ county ride ending at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial .
= = Legislative career = =
= = = 2006 election = = =
In seeking the 51st House district state house seat , representing Loveland , Marostica first faced a challenge from Kevan McNaught in the Republican primary . McNaught was endorsed by the Colorado Club for Growth , who criticized Marostica for his support of higher taxes and his use of eminent domain when he was a member the Loveland city council . Marostica edged out McNaught in the Republican primary by about 250 votes , or 5 % of voters . In contrast with McNaught 's conservative credentials , Marostica was considered by observers on both the left and the right to be a moderate Republican ; he supported Colorado 's 2005 Referendum C , a loosening of state spending restrictions under the state 's Taxpayer Bill of Rights .
In the general election , Marostica defeated Democrat Jodi Radke in the general election with 56 % of the vote . Marostica raised and spent roughly $ 350 @,@ 000 , of which $ 220 @,@ 000 — almost least two @-@ thirds of the money his campaign spent — was donated by Marostica himself , to win the contested primary and general elections .
= = = 2007 legislative session = = =
For the 2007 session of the Colorado General Assembly , Marostica was assigned to seats on the House Finance Committee and the House Transportation and Energy Committee , while expressing an interest in eventually serving on the powerful Joint Budget Committee . Following the legislative session , Marostica sat on the interim Transportation Legislation Review Committee .
Although a Republican serving in a legislature controlled by Democrats , Marostica was relatively successful at passing legislation . During his first session , Marostica sponsored bills to streamline the issuance of search warrants , to give volunteer reserve peace officers the same status as regular peace officers , and to require that powersports vehicles be sold only by licensed motor vehicle dealers . Marostica , an avid motorcyclist , was among the prominent opponents of a bill that would have required minors to wear motorcycle helmets while riding , even wearing his own motorcycle helmet to a committee hearing at which the bill was debated .
Marostica failed to win legislative approval what he described as his " most important " proposal — the " Taxpayer Transparency Act , " which would have required that government expenditures larger than $ 300 be reported on a searchable government website . Although supported by Republican House leadership , the bill died in committee ; however , Marostica saw his transparency proposal implemented in 2009 by an executive order of Gov. Bill Ritter .
= = = 2008 legislative session = = =
In the 2008 session of the Colorado General Assembly , Marostica sat on the House Health and Human Services Committee , the House Transportation and Energy Committee , and the Joint Capital Development Committee .
Marostica declared his " favorite bill " among those he sponsored during the session to be a measure to exempt owners from property tax on buildings leased to public universities , an idea Marostica attributed to a local developer . Marostica also sponsored legislation signed into law to allow statutory counties , cities , and towns to spend money on marketing in addition to advertising , in response to a lawsuit challenging the town of Estes Park 's ability to engage in marketing .
= = = 2008 election = = =
Marostica announced his bid for re @-@ election to the legislature in January 2008 ; Marostica 's campaign raised about five times as much money as that of Democratic opponent Kenneth Bennett , bringing in over $ 80 @,@ 000 by mid @-@ October , of which $ 10 @,@ 000 was contributed by Marostica personally ; His re @-@ election bid was endorsed by the Denver Post , Marostica ultimately won with 58 percent of the vote .
In the contested 2008 Republican presidential primaries , Marostica supported former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani , helping to organize a November 2007 fundraiser for Giuliani 's campaign that was reported to net over $ 60 @,@ 000 . After John McCain secured the Republican nomination , Marostica supported the McCain @-@ Palin ticket , including kicking off a Sarah Palin rally in Loveland in October .
= = = 2009 legislative session = = =
For the 2009 legislative session , Marostica was named to a seat on the legislature 's Joint Budget Committee , and a seat on the House Appropriations Committee as the ranking Republican member . During hearings before the beginning of the legislative session , Marostica supported withdrawing all state funding from public research universities , a move opposed by university leaders , but which was discussed more seriously after poor economic forecasts . Marostica also helped to lead an effort to allow the state to tap the financial reserves of Pinnacol Assurance , a quasi @-@ governmental worker 's compensation insurer , in order to balance the state budget . Following the legislative session , Marostica served on Colorado 's Long @-@ Term Fiscal Stability Commission , a panel created by legislation during the 2009 General Assembly to consider changes to constitutional constraints on the state budget .
In February , Marostica was the only Republican who announced plans to support legislation to repeal Colorado 's Arveschoug @-@ Bird limit , which capped the growth of general fund expenditures at 6 percent per year . Marostica faced pressure from prominent Republicans , including Independence Institute President Jon Caldara and former state treasurer Mark Hillman , to drop his support ; in response , he referred to Hillman and Caldera as " has @-@ beens " and " losers , " earning him additional criticism from House Republicans ; Marostica later promised to apologize to Hillman and Caldera . Marostica was the prime sponsor of the bill in the House , where , after surviving an attempted Republican filibuster in the Senate , it was ratified , and later signed into law . Marostica also broke with other Republicans as the only member of his party to vote in support of a failed effort to repeal Colorado 's death penalty ; the proposal passed the Colorado House by one vote , but was defeated in the Senate .
Marostica also sponsored bills to allow golf carts , scooters , and small electric vehicles to travel on some public roads , to allow state veterans organizations to provide burial for unclaimed remains of Colorado military personnel , and to allow building inspectors from other municipalities to assess structural damage to properties , a proposal stemming from a May 2008 tornado in Windsor , Colorado. to enable increased state funding for online education , and to keep Colorado 's tobacco litigation settlement cash fund open for one additional year . Marostica announced plans to introduce legislation to expand the definition of cigar bars to increase the number of establishments exempt from Colorado 's indoor smoking ban , but withdrew the legislation after facing opposition from Democrats ; that same week , he denounced as " inappropriate and offensive " a British National Health Service flyer distributed by a lobbyist linking smoking to erectile dysfunction , calling for an ethics investigation into the flyer .
= = Director of Economic Development = =
In July 2009 , Democratic governor Bill Ritter named Marostica , a Republican , to the post of executive director of the Colorado Office of Economic Development and International Trade , replacing Don Elliman , who Ritter had tapped as Colorado 's chief operating officer . Marostica resigned his House seat to take the position , and handed control of his development company to his partner and son in order to avoid conflicts of interest , Marostica named opening Asian markets to Colorado exports as a priority for his time in the new position , in addition to encouraging new venture capital investment and retaining existing major employers despite the late @-@ 2000s recession . Marostica was replaced in the House by small business owner Brian DelGrosso , and on the legislature 's Joint Budget Committee by the more conservative Rep. Kent Lambert .
During Marostica 's first months in the position , he helped lead Colorado 's effort to keep Frontier Airlines jobs in Denver following its merger with Republic Airways ; ultimately , Frontier moved several hundred jobs , and Frontier 's headquarters , to Wisconsin and Indiana , which offered greater tax and econonmic incentives . When legislators proposed eliminating business tax credits in late 2009 to help balance the states budget , Marostica publicly defended many of those credits , but he did support limited cuts to tax credits in Governor Ritter 's proposed 2010 – 2011 budget .
In late 2009 , Marostica was also involved in attracting a wind turbine parts supplier to Colorado , announcing a renewed emphasis on natural gas development on Colorado 's Western Slope , and pushing to speed the permitting process for oil and gas operations . In 2010 , Marostica pushed for additional incentives for the " creative industry , " including arts , media , and film , in Colorado .
= Boletus edulis =
Boletus edulis ( English : cep , porcino or porcini ) is a basidiomycete fungus , and the type species of the genus Boletus . Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere across Europe , Asia , and North America , it does not occur naturally in the Southern Hemisphere , although it has been introduced to southern Africa , Australia , and New Zealand . Several closely related European mushrooms formerly thought to be varieties or forms of B. edulis have been shown using molecular phylogenetic analysis to be distinct species , and others previously classed as separate species are conspecific with this species . The western North American species commonly known as the California king bolete ( Boletus edulis var. grandedulis ) is a large , darker @-@ coloured variant first formally identified in 2007 .
The fungus grows in deciduous and coniferous forests and tree plantations , forming symbiotic ectomycorrhizal associations with living trees by enveloping the tree 's underground roots with sheaths of fungal tissue . The fungus produces spore @-@ bearing fruit bodies above ground in summer and autumn . The fruit body has a large brown cap which on occasion can reach 35 cm ( 14 in ) in diameter and 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) in weight . Like other boletes , it has tubes extending downward from the underside of the cap , rather than gills ; spores escape at maturity through the tube openings , or pores . The pore surface of the B. edulis fruit body is whitish when young , but ages to a greenish @-@ yellow . The stout stipe , or stem , is white or yellowish in colour , up to 25 cm ( 10 in ) tall and 10 cm ( 4 in ) thick , and partially covered with a raised network pattern , or reticulations .
Prized as an ingredient in various foods , B. edulis is an edible mushroom held in high regard in many cuisines , and is commonly prepared and eaten in soups , pasta , or risotto . The mushroom is low in fat and digestible carbohydrates , and high in protein , vitamins , minerals and dietary fibre . Although it is sold commercially , it is very difficult to cultivate . Available fresh in autumn in Central , Southern and Northern Europe , it is most often dried , packaged and distributed worldwide . Keeping its flavour after drying , it is then reconstituted and used in cooking . B. edulis is one of the few fungi sold pickled . The fungus also produces a variety of organic compounds with a diverse spectrum of biological activity , including the steroid derivative ergosterol , a sugar binding protein , antiviral compounds , antioxidants , and phytochelatins , which give the organism resistance to toxic heavy metals .
= = Taxonomy = =
Boletus edulis was first described in 1782 by the French botanist Pierre Bulliard and still bears its original name . The starting date of fungal taxonomy had been set as January 1 , 1821 , to coincide with the date of the works of the ' father of mycology ' , Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries , which meant the name required sanction by Fries ( indicated in the name by a colon ) to be considered valid , as Bulliard 's work preceded this date . It was thus written Boletus edulis Bull . : Fr . A 1987 revision of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature set the starting date at May 1 , 1753 , the date of publication of Linnaeus ' work , the Species Plantarum . Hence , the name no longer requires the ratification of Fries ' authority . Early alternate names include Boletus solidus by English naturalist James Sowerby in 1809 , and Gray 's Leccinum edule . Gray 's transfer of the species to Leccinum was later determined to be inconsistent with the rules of botanical nomenclature , and he apparently was unfamiliar with the earlier works of Fries when he published his arrangement of bolete species .
B. edulis is the type species of the genus Boletus . In Rolf Singer 's classification of the Agaricales mushrooms , it is also the type species of section Boletus , a grouping of about 30 related boletes united by several characteristics : a mild @-@ tasting , white flesh that does not change colour when exposed to air ; a smooth to distinctly raised , netted pattern over at least the uppermost portion of the stem ; a yellow @-@ brown or olive @-@ brown spore print ; white tubes that later become yellowish then greenish , which initially appear to be stuffed with cotton ; and cystidia that are not strongly coloured . Molecular analysis published in 1997 established that the bolete mushrooms are all derived from a common ancestor , and established the Boletales as an order separate from the Agaricales .
The generic name is derived from the Latin term bōlētus " mushroom " , which was borrowed in turn from the Ancient Greek βωλίτης , " terrestrial fungus " . Ultimately , this last word derives from bōlos / βῶλος " lump " , " clod " , and , metaphorically , "
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0 tide water glaciers - one on the east arm of the bay and all others on the west arm reach shorelines and calved ) ( literal meaning : " breaking off " ) to produce icebergs . Seven of these glaciers are reported to be active tidewater glaciers , which depict the calving phenomenon , which means that they break into icebergs and fall into the sea with thundering noise raising large waves . The McBride Glacier is the only tidewater glacier in the eastern arm at a distance of 40 nautical miles ( 74 km ) from Bartlett Cove . Of the other glaciers on the western arm , Johns Hopkins Glacier is at the farthest end – 63 nautical miles ( 117 km ) from the entrance to the bay while the Margerie Glacier is about 55 nautical miles ( 102 km ) away .
The National Park Service manages a total of 607 @,@ 099 acres ( 245 @,@ 684 ha ) of marine waters of the Glacier Bay . It covers a coastline of 1 @,@ 180 square miles ( 3 @,@ 100 km2 ) including some reach of the coast outside the Bay . Glacier Bay Basin as such has a coast line of 760 square miles ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) including all islands ; the coast line without counting islands accounts for statute 563 miles ( 906 km ) . The deepest point in the bay is 1 @,@ 410 feet ( 430 m ) below sea level with the diurnal tides occurring every 6 hours , with a tide range of − 5 to 18 feet ( − 1 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 5 m ) ( upper limit of the range is reported to be 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) .
According to the recorded findings , most glaciers are retreating except the Johns Hopkins Glacier , which is advancing and the Margerie Glacier which is stable . The glacier thinning or retreating process is attributed to lesser incidence of snowfall on the hills , raising temperatures in the winter season followed by decrease in cloud cover and precipitation during the summer season .
Post Little Ice Age Rebound in the Glacier Bay Basin has been studied by researchers of the Geophysical Institute , University of Alaska Fairbanks , Alaska in association with National Park and Preserve Service , under a National Science Foundation grant using GPS geodesy combined with studies of raised shorelines and tide gauges . The studies have established that the fastest rates of glacier rebound in the world are now taking place in the Glacier Bay region . The studies have also reported that " these adjustments to LIA loading and unloading are producing significant stresses on the earth ’ s crust which can affect seismicity and regional tectonics . The rising land also is continually changing the geomorphic texture of shoreline throughout the Park and causing changes in hydrologic patterns , erosion , and sedimentation . All these changes have a direct impact on the ecosystems of the Park . "
Glacier Bay can be approached only by boats or ships and partly by hiking along three trails ( 10 miles ( 16 km ) ) and by kayaking along 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) ) of shore line . The nearest road head and airport are in the small town of Gustavus , which is known as the southern gateway to the Glacier Bay . However , Gustavus as such is approachable only by air and sea . Juneau , the capital of Alaska , is about 60 miles ( 97 km ) ) . The approximate distance between Anchorage and Juneau is 567 miles ( 912 km ) } .
The advancing and retreating characteristics of the glaciers in the Glacier Bay are explained in simple terms as a steady state of snow getting converted into ice on the hills . Ice , as a lens of water on the base of bedrock , slides by gravity downwards . The good moraine of rock and rubble insulates it from water erosion . As a result , during freezing temperatures that exists all the year , the glacier advances . When the insulation and erosion effect of the hills gets reduced erosion sets in and along with rising temperatures the glaciers start retreating . Another unpredictable phenomenon that is observed in many glaciers in the Glacier Bay is that of calving . Calving is a process in which blocks of ice get detached or break off from the glacier , irrespective of weather conditions , all the year round , and crash into the sea with thundering noise creating a boiling like turbulence .
The Glacier Bay was closed for ships almost a decade after the 1899 earthquake ( magnitude 8 @.@ 4 on the Richter Scale ) . This was on account of the shattered ice blocks which filled the Bay consequent to the earthquake . Even though the Bay is in volcanic activity region of the Pacific " Rim of Fire " , active volcanoes have not been recorded within the Glacier Bay Basin . However , these two factors have been inferred to have effects on the environmental changes occurring in the Glacier Bay .
= = = Archeological findings = = =
Archaeological findings have been unearthed at two sites in the Glacier Bay , which links the region to Holocene period . On the Baranoff Island , a prehistoric finding dates occupation of the region between 3200 and 4600 BP . Another finding in the form of a house , microlithic tools and heavy wood working tools at Ground Hog Bay has been dated to about 2000 BP . This is stated to be " towards the end of the Hypsithermal ( thermal maximum climatic fluctuation ) and the beginning of the Little Ice Age " . Thus , it has been interpreted by comparison with similarly placed locations in the region , such as the southern coast of British Columbia , that the type of culture seen here is comparable to the culture that existed during historic times on the Northwest Coast . The potential for finding more such sites are stated to be high .
= = = Ethnographic aspects = = =
The Tlingits regard Glacier Bay as their sacred homeland . The National Park Service takes the view that " Glacier Bay National Park is the spiritual homeland of the Huna Tlingit , and Glacier Bay National Preserve is the homeland of the Ghunaaxhoo Kwaan unit of the Yakutat Tlingit Tribe " . The tribes ' oral history supports that they were pushed out and migrated south when the glacier advanced . They moved back to the area when the Glacier retreated in the 1880s . There are 60 odd proto @-@ historic or historic sites in the Glacier Bay , which are identified with Tlingit Indians or European Americans . They are an integral part of Northwest Coast people inferred to be belonging to Haida , Tlingit or Eyak clans . Their settlements existed even in the 1880s in Dry Bay , Excursion Inlet , Point Couverden and the Port Frederick area ( now known as Hoonah ) and Dundas Bay . A Tlingit cemetery of the period has also been located in the park area . Seasonal hunting , gathering and fishing was their way of life , woven around a central village , with shifting fishing and hunting camps . The food source of the natives was the rich Salmon fish resources of the area . A complex society evolved with rich artistic traditions . Tlingits claimed their fishing @-@ dependent lifestyle was helped during the National Monument years , which kept out commercial fishing . After the area became a National Park , their fishing and hunting activities were curtailed except for certain religious exemptions . However , the National Park administration is closely interacting with the Tlingits to foster their cultural heritage . They are allowed access to the park to " harvest berries , a variety of seafoods , and traditional use items such as spruce roots and mountain goat hair ( for weaving traditional blankets ) " . In addition the park is planning to establish a Tlingit longhouse near its main office , where Tlingit culture would be fully highlighted and also facilitate holding of cultural events .
= = = Climate = = =
The bay has a cool wet , coastal temperate rainforest climate . Three climatic zones have been discerned in the Glacier Bay ; the outer coast along the Gulf of Alaska , which records mild temperatures and higher precipitation . However , it experiences less snowfall , the upper Glacier Bay where it is much colder and heavy snowfall occurs , and the lower Glacier Bay , which experiences heavy rainfall throughout the year .
In the Bay as a whole , the summer temperatures vary between 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) ) and 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) , while the winter temperatures lie in the range of 20 to 30 ° F ( − 7 to − 1 ° C ) , with minimum going up to − 10 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) .
Annual precipitation is in the form of rainfall and snowfall . On an average , 228 days are recorded as precipitation days per year , and precipitation is in the range of 70 – 80 inches ( 180 – 200 cm ) including 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) of annual snowfall ; the highest recorded snowfall is of the order of 100 feet ( 30 m ) in the Fairweather Mountains .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The environment of Glacier Bay has been categorized under four main land ecosystems namely , the wet tundra , the coastal western hemlock / Sitka spruce forest , the alpine tundra , and the glaciers and ice fields ; within the Bay proper , further break up into three major marine ecosystems are marked namely , “ within in and around continental shelf , wave @-@ beaten coasts , and fjord estuaries . ”
Plants progressively moved in as the glacier retreated , so a 200 @-@ year @-@ old spruce and hemlock forest presently exists at the entrance , grading up to more primitive plants such as mosses and lichens at the head of the bay . Because of current local climate change some glaciers are now retreating at a rate of up to a quarter of a mile per year .
The retreat of the glaciers exposed land areas and as a result “ Plant communities and animal populations ranging from " pioneer species " in areas recently exposed by receding glaciers to climax communities in older coastal and alpine ecosystems ” have emerged .
Wild life
In general , wild life in Glacier Bay , has been identified under aqua fauna , avifauna and fauna ; 160 marine and estuarine fish species , 242 bird species and 41 species of mammals have been recorded .
Bears
Bears , both black and brown , are seen in Glacier Bay in the intertidal zone which they frequent for foraging . They are also seen “ scraping barnacles off of rocks and munching mussels . ” Invariably they are spotted wandering alone along the beaches of the Glacier Bay in search of salmon . The habitats of the black bears are generally the southern forested areas of the bay . However , the brown bears are mostly found in the northern , more recently glaciated zones of the Glacier Bay . Occasionally , black bears are sighted near the glaciers or near Gustavus town . Black bears with black dots and brown bears with brown dots have been seen over the last 10 years . Their travel routes have been identified as along the easy tracks such as along beaches , stream beds and river valleys . The most commonly identified locations for sighting bears in the Glacier Bay are : The Bartlett Cove , the Bartlett River , the Beardslee Islands and North and South Sandy Cove locations for black bears , while brown bears are seen to the north of Tidal Inlet in the west arm of glacier and north of Adams Inlet in the east arm . They are also seen swimming in the Bay , crossing from one bank to the other . Salmon are their favorite food , apart from bumblebees , sand fleas , bird eggs , birds , voles and marine mammal carcasses .
Whale
Humpback whales have been sighted in the lower region of Glacier Bay ; also in Sitakaday Narrows , Whidbey Passage and the waters around South Marble Island . For kayakers , Hugh Miller Inlet and the Beardslee Islands are good locations to see humpback whales from a safe distance of about a quarter mile . Other marine whales sighted are grey , minke , fin , and killer whales ( orcas ) .
Seals and porpoise
Harbor seals , northern fur seals , sea otters , harbor porpoises , Dall 's porpoises and Steller sea lions are also seen in Glacier Bay .
Other fauna
Land mammals sighted in Glacier Bay are : blue bears ( glacier ) , moose , Sitka black @-@ tailed deer , mountain goat , wolf , coyote , lynx , wolverine , marmots , land and river otters , weasels , ermine , mink , squirrels , beaver and red fox . Porcupines , voles , shrews , hares , and bats are also found .
Avifauna
200 species of birds have been recorded in the Bay . These include : the bald eagle , golden eagle , raven , northern hawk owl , sandhill crane , loon , Steller 's jay , murre , cormorant , puffin , murrelet , oyster catchers , herons , geese , ducks , ptarmigan , crow , osprey , blue grouse , woodpecker , pigeon guillemot , sparrow , sandpiper , plover , Arctic tern , kittiwake and gulls .
Fish
Fish species found in the bay are : Chinook , chum , sockeye , pink and coho salmon , halibut , trout , steelhead , Dolly Varden , lingcod , whitefish , blackfish , char and herring . As for shellfish , there are Dungeness crabs , scallops , shrimp and clams . Salmon are very important food of bears , particularly in the late summer and fall . In the southern part of the bay , there are streams which abound in salmon . They are also seen colonizing in the northern bay , consequent to the retreat of many glaciers and the streams emerging . These salmon food sources are expected to support more bear populations in the years ahead .
Vegetation
Plant recolonization and succession has occurred in Glacier Bay as a result of the retreat of the glacier bay in the last about 300 years . The succession , which occurred in the new wilderness of Glacier Bay was stated to be a raw landscape . A simile given is that “ It was like seeing an owl with no feathers ” . A vegetative wilderness has been created , which has resulted in the coastal forest . 333 Vascular plant species of individual taxa have been recorded in the Glacier Bay . Dense thickets of Sitka alder and devil 's club abound along the shoreline .
= = Landmarks = =
There are 50 odd glaciers identified in the Glacier Bay , which are both terrestrial and tidewater type . Some of the major inlets , glaciers and the mountains in the order of their location from the entry have been identified from the National Park Service Map . At the entry to the Bay there are ( as read from the map ) : The small Gustavus town and then the Visitor Center of the National Park Service and the Glacier Bay Lodge followed by several islands within the main channel . On the western side of the channel , the first inlet is the Muir Inlet which has several inlets and glaciers such as Adam ’ s Inlet , Casement Glacier , McBride Glacier , Riggs Glacier , Muir Glacier followed by the Wachusett Inlet . Coming out of the Muir inlet and entering and cruising toward the north along the main Bay , on the west shore are the Gelkie Inlet , Reid Glacier and Lamplugh Glacier fed by Brady Ice field and Brady Glacier , followed by Johns Hopkins Glacier , Margerie Glacier and the Great Pacific Glacier at the head of the Bay . The east shore line has the Queen Inlet with its Carroll Glacier , and the Rendu Inlet with its Rendu Glacier . The Fairweather Range of hills which feeds the Johns Hopkins and Margerie Glaciers form the western boundary of the Glacier Bay and the highest mountains seen here are the Mt . Fairweather ( 15 @,@ 300 feet ( 4 @,@ 700 m ) ) , Mt . Quincy Adams ( 13 @,@ 650 feet ( 4 @,@ 160 m ) ) , Mt . Salisbury ( 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) ) , Mt . Crillon ( 12 @,@ 276 feet ( 3 @,@ 742 m ) ) , Mt . Bertha ( 10 @,@ 204 feet ( 3 @,@ 110 m ) ) , Mt . Abbe ( 8 @,@ 750 feet ( 2 @,@ 670 m ) ) and Mt . Cooper ( 6 @,@ 780 feet ( 2 @,@ 070 m ) ) . The major island , opposite to the Johns Hopkins Inlet , is the Russel Island in the midst of the main channel .
= = = Muir Glacier = = =
The Muir Glacier was named after John Muir , the naturalist , who identified it in 1889 . The Muir Glacier was once a tide water glacier with a width of 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) , a length of 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , and a height of 265 feet ( 80 @.@ 8 m ) . It has now turned into terrestrial glacier ; it has receded and does not flow into the sea . Its retreat has been very rapid and well @-@ documented since its Little Ice Age maximum position at the mouth of Glacier Bay around 1780 . During its retreating stage which began in 1889 , calving was intense . The flow was at the rate of about 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) per year or about 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) per day until 1979 and as a result the glacier became terrestrial by 1993 . The flow was reported to be 0 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 15 m ) per day between 1999 and 2001 . The glacier is now only 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) in width , 150 feet ( 46 m ) in height , and extends for 13 miles ( 21 km ) . Morse Glacier is its tributary and is also retreating faster than the Muir . Further , during this process of retreat , glacial till left behind two large deltas extending to a width of about 1 @,@ 400 feet ( 430 m ) at the water edge during low tide .
= = = Reid Glacier = = =
The Reid Glacier was named by the members of the Harriman Alaska Expedition for Harry Fielding Reid ( 1859 – 1944 ) , professor of geology at Johns Hopkins University , who was well known for his studies of glacier flow and stratification in Alaska and the Alps . The glacier has its origin in Brady Icefield and has a flow rate of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) per day . At the water edge , its width is 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) , rises to a height of 150 feet ( 46 m ) and stretches to a length of 10 miles ( 16 km ) and flows into Bigourdan Fjord . In view of fast rate of retreat , this glacier has turned from tide water to terrestrial glacier , particularly on its eastern and western one third widths . Sediment deposits from the glacier have gradually filled the eastern and western margins at its inlet , as seen during low tides . The central one third of the glacier , however , touches water edge with a recorded depth of 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) of water , during high tide . The walls of the fjord of the glacier , however , also show marks of lateral deposits of the glaciers right up to rock faces .
= = = Lamplugh Glacier = = =
The Lamplugh Glacier was named by Lawrence Martin of the U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) around 1912 for the English geologist George William Lamplugh ( 1859 – 1926 ) , who visited the Glacier Bay in 1884 . The Glacier originates in the Brady Icefield to the east of Fairweather Range . The glacier has a width of about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) at the water face . Its rises to height of 150 – 160 feet ( 46 – 49 m ) with depth of 10 – 40 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 – 12 @.@ 2 m ) at the waterline . It stretches to over 16 miles ( 26 km ) . The ice flow rate from the glacier is estimated at 900 – 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 270 – 300 m ) per year and is noted to be receding in the central and eastern part of the ice face due to calving ; the western part is , however , seen mostly grounded except during the high tide range . In the central part , a subglacial stream has developed which is seen to shift its position laterally . This phenomenon is attributed to the deposition of fluvial sediment in the embayment . It forms a delta , as observed during low tide . It also results in water turning from brown to tan milky .
= = = Johns Hopkins Inlet = = =
The Johns Hopkins Inlet is a stunning 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) long fjord , which has several tide water glaciers . The Lamplugh Glacier is about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) away from the inlet and further inside is the Johns Hopkins Glacier , which is now the largest tidewater glacier in Glacier Bay and adjacent to it is the Gilman Glacier followed by the Hoonah Glacier further up . All these glaciers are tidewater glaciers . Ice blocks float in the inlet and it is quite hazardous for boating or kayaking ; both activities have to be done with great caution . Johns Hopkins Inlet is closed to boats in May and June in order to protect unweaned harbor seal pups .
= = = Johns Hopkins Glacier = = =
The Johns Hopkins Glacier rises from the Fairweather Range on the east slopes of Lituya Mountain and Mount Salisbury and has a westerly flow towards the head of Johns Hopkins Inlet , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) southwest of the terminus of Clark Glacier and 79 miles ( 127 km ) northwest of Hoonah . Its rock , ice and snow depict a variety of impressive colors such as grey , blue and white . It was named in 1893 by H.F. Reid after the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore , Maryland , which sponsored an expedition to this glacier . It is the only advancing tidewater glacier now ( its advance started in 1924 when Grand Pacific Glacier started receding towards Tarr Inlet ) and is combined with Gilman Glacier ( first got attached to Hopkins in the 1990s , broke off and rejoined several times and once again it appears joined since 2000 ) ; both are advancing as one single ice block , and at the waterfront , has a width of 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) with a depth of 250 feet ( 76 m ) , rises to a height of 250 feet ( 76 m ) and stretches to about 12 miles ( 19 km ) upstream . Submarine calving has also been recorded .
The Johns Hopkins Glacier , for example , cannot be approached any nearer than about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) by sea because of the volume of the ice blocks that break loose from its cliffs . Most visitors to the park come by cruise ship and thus view the glaciers from the water .
= = = Gilman Glacier = = =
Gilman Glacier got attached to Johns Hopkins Glacier sometime in 1990 . In the following decade , the two glaciers merged and de @-@ merged several times . However , in 2000 it was again attached to Johns Hopkins glacier and the two together are stated to be advancing along the 150 @-@ to @-@ 200 @-@ foot ( 46 to 61 m ) steep ice face .
= = = Tarr Inlet = = =
The Tarr Inlet at the head of the Glacier Bay is a scene of ice and snow , and " sits cater @-@ corner to Johns Hopkins Inlet " . This inlet provides excellent views of the Grand Pacific Glacier to its north and the Margerie Glacier to its west . The west shore line of this inlet is steep and rocky , extends to 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) up to a small stream where a beach has been formed . A further 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) along the channel , a glacier knob is seen in the center of the west shore of the inlet . A cove formation here provides for good camping grounds , where strong winds and ice flows are experienced . This location also provides a panoramic view of the Tarr Inlet . Two miles north of this location is the Margerie Glacier . Grand Pacific Glacier is located to the east side of the Margerie Glacier at the head of the Tarr Inlet where extensive gravel outwash is seen . From Grand Pacific , the Tarr Inlet continues for 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) with steep gravel shore line interspersed with minor streams separated by gravel outwash .
= = = Margerie Glacier = = =
The Margerie Glacier is a 21 miles ( 34 km ) long tide water glacier that begins on the south slope of Mount Root , at the Alaska @-@ Canada border in the Fairweather Range ( elevation above 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) ) , and flows southeast and northeast to Tarr Inlet , one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the terminus of Grand Pacific Glacier and 87 miles ( 140 km ) northwest of Hoonah . It was named for famed French geographer and geologist Emmanuel de Margerie ( 1862 – 1953 ) , who visited Glacier Bay in 1913 . Located at the deep end of the Glacier Bay , Margerie Glacier extends over a width of about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) and extends upstream for a length of 21 miles ( 34 km ) till its source on the southern slopes of the hill of Mount Root , at the Alaska @-@ Canada border . Mount Root ( elevation 12 @,@ 860 feet ( 3 @,@ 920 m ) ) , named Boundary Peak 165 , is a mountain in Alaska and British Columbia , is part of the Fairweather Range of the Saint Elias Mountains .
= = = Grand Pacific Glacier = = =
The Grand Pacific Glacier , at the head of the Tarr Inlet on the north , has a streaked face covered with gravel and stones ( more than 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) ) thick in many areas ) . Landslides and medial moraines cover much of eastern side of the glacier extending to about two @-@ thirds width of the ice face . It is not an active glacier . In the earlier 18th century , it was a one single block of ice at the Gulf of Alaska , when Captain Vancouver first saw it , which has receded to the present location that is 65 miles ( 105 km ) ) from the Glacier Bay inlet . At the present site , Grand Pacific Glacier has a width of 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) ) with a water depth of 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) ) and with an average height of 150 feet ( 46 m ) ) and stretches to 35 miles ( 56 km ) ) . It calves into the Tarr Inlet and its western two thirds part is formed by the tributary Ferris Glacier . Its flow rate is reported to be about 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) ) per year or about 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) ) per day . However , the eastern part of the Glacier is reportedly moving at the rate of about 15 – 180 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 – 54 @.@ 9 m ) ) per year . Margerie Glacier had merged with this glacier in 1992 . As the glacier started receding it got demerged from Margerie and only a small stream separates the two glaciers now .
= = = Fairweather Range = = =
The Fairweather Range is the unofficial name for a mountain range located in the U.S. state of Alaska and the Canadian province of British Columbia . It is the southernmost range of the Saint Elias Mountains . The northernmost section of the range is situated in Tatshenshini @-@ Alsek Provincial Park while the southernmost section resides in Glacier Bay National Park in the Hoonah @-@ Angoon Census Area . In between , it goes through the southeastern corner of Yakutat Borough . Peaks of this range include Mount Fairweather , the highest point in British Columbia and Mount Quincy Adams 4 @,@ 150 meters ( 13 @,@ 620 ft ) .
Between the bay and the coast , snow @-@ clad peaks of the Fairweather Range capture the moisture coming in off the Gulf of Alaska and , in turn , spawn the park ’ s largest glaciers . Mt . Fairweather is the tallest peak in the Fairweather Range and is very much unlike its name as it has a very harsh terrain .
Mt . Fairweather
The Mt . Fairweather ( officially gazetted as Fairweather Mountain in Canada but referred to as Mount Fairweather ) , is located 20 kilometers ( 12 mi ) east of the Pacific Ocean in the Glacier Bay region . While most of the mountain lies within the City and Borough of Yakutat , the summit is also in Tatshenshini @-@ Alsek Provincial Park , British Columbia ( Canada ) , making it the highest point in that province . It is also designated as Boundary Peak 164 or as US / Canada Boundary Point # 164 . The mountain was named on May 3 , 1778 by Captain James Cook , apparently for the unusually good weather encountered at the time . The name has been variously translated . It was called " Mt . Beautemps " by La Perouse ( 1786 , atlas ) , " Mte . Buen @-@ tiempo " by Galiano ( 1802 , map 3 ) , " Gor [ a ] -Khoroshy @-@ pogody " on Russian Hydrographic Dept . Chart 1378 in 1847 , and " G [ ora ] Fayerveder " by Captain Tebenkov ( 1852 , map 7 ) , Imperial Russian Navy . It was called " Schonwetterberg " by Constantin Grewink in 1850 and " Schonwetter Berg " by Justus Perthes in 1882 . Mt . Fairweather was first climbed in 1931 by Allen Carpé and Terris Moore .
= Spellingg Bee =
" Spellingg Bee " , also known as " The Spellingg Bee " , is the second episode of the first season of the American comedy @-@ drama detective television series Psych . It was written by series creator and co @-@ executive producer Steve Franks , and was directed by co @-@ executive producer and director Mel Damski during November and December 2005 . The episode originally aired on USA Network in the United States on July 14 , 2006 with a rating of TV @-@ PG . The installment features guest appearances by Kirsten Nelson , Alexander Calvert , Kyle Pejpar , and Jeremy Loheir , among others . It also features an appearance by sportscaster Bud Collins .
The series follows Shawn Spencer ( James Roday ) and his assistant Burton " Gus " Guster ( Dulé Hill ) , who operate a fake psychic detective agency , which is actually based on Shawn 's hyperobservant ability . In the episode , Shawn and Gus are watching a spelling bee on TV when the expected champion collapses suddenly . Suspecting a set @-@ up , they investigate the bee . While there , the spellmaster ( Alex Bruhanski ) suspiciously falls over a railing to his death , strengthening their beliefs in foul play . With help from Shawn 's father , Henry Spencer ( Corbin Bernsen ) they discover poison in the spellmaster 's meal , confirming their thoughts . Shawn realizes that the entire situation was created by a contestant and his father in order to cover up that they were cheating .
The installment was originally written to be the third episode of the season , but was moved up by the show 's producers to introduce the character Juliet O 'Hara earlier . Like most episodes of the series , it was filmed in and around the Canadian city of Vancouver . " Spellingg Bee " received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reception from television critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 4 @.@ 71 million people during its original broadcast , making up approximately 3 @.@ 35 million households . It received a 1 @.@ 5 rating / 5 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . Actor Dulé Hill was nominated for an award at the 13th NAMIC Vision Awards for his performance in the episode .
= = Plot = =
Shawn Spencer ( James Roday ) buys a newspaper and walks back into a restaurant to find his seat taken . The girl in his seat introduces herself as Juliet O 'Hara ( Maggie Lawson ) . Shawn realizes she 's a cop , and immediately after he does , she and several officers arrest a man at the bar . Later , Burton " Gus " Guster ( Dulé Hill ) is in the Psych office , watching the local spelling bee on TV . Shortly after Shawn enters the office , expected spelling bee champion Brandon Vu ( Issey Lamb ) collapses , to the shock of the audience . Shawn notices something wrong with Vu 's inhaler , and realizes that Vu was intentionally harmed . They receive a phone call from interim police chief Karen Vick ( Kirsten Nelson ) asking them to investigate the bee . They interview Vu at the hospital , who tells them that his inhaler was not working during the competition . They begin individual interviews with the competitors , but discover no leads . While they are waiting between interviews , spellmaster Cavanaugh ( Alex Bruhanski ) experiences chest pain and falls over a railing to his death , in front of Shawn and Gus . The police write off his death as a heart attack ; Shawn and Gus are skeptical , and break into Cavanaugh 's booth to investigate .
Gus finds Cavanaugh 's lunch , and believes that it is poisoned due to its unusual smell . Shawn takes it to his father , Henry Spencer ( Corbin Bernsen ) , to have it analyzed . Henry demands that in return , Shawn must build a dog house he promised to make in 1989 . Shawn agrees , and leaves . While riding back to the office , he is run off the road by a mysterious van . Shawn wakes up in the hospital , and after he gets out , Gus informs him that he discovered another fake inhaler . Shawn returns to Henry 's house to finish the dog house . Henry confirms that the lunch was poisoned , and Shawn returns to the bee . He disguises himself as the new spellmaster in order to enter the booth , and discovers that Cavanaugh had found out that Miklous Prochazka ( Richard Zeman ) was helping his son ( Alxander Calvert ) to cheat . Shawn discovers that the fake inhaler was being used to transfer electrical impulses to help Prochazka cheat . After the bee has finished , Shawn has a " psychic vision " where he reveals everything to the police , who arrest Miklous and his son .
= = Production = =
= = = Cast and crew = = =
" Spellingg Bee " was the first episode directed by co @-@ executive producer and director Mel Damski . The episode was the second installment written by co @-@ executive producer and creator Steve Franks , after the previous episode " Pilot " . Tracey Jeffery was the episode 's producer , John J. Sakmar and Jerry Lenhart were the consulting producers , and Mel Damski , Steve Franks , Kelly Kulchak , and Chris Henze were the associate producers . Erin Smith was the production manager . Tracy Hillman was the installment 's associate producer , and Michael McMurray was the director of photography , while Allan Lee and Anupam Nigam acted as the editors . David Crabtree , James Ilecic , Allan Lee , and Gordon Rempel were the script editors . The music for the episode was written by Adam Cohen and John Robert Wood . Assistant directors for the installment were Jack Hardy and Roger Russell .
The episode was originally planned to be the third installment of the season , but was moved up by the show 's producers in order to introduce the major character Juliet O 'Hara , played by Maggie Lawson . The scene introducing O 'Hara was filmed as part of the fourth episode , " Woman Seeking Dead Husband : Smokers Okay , No Pets " , but was added to the installment because of the need to bring in the character . It was also used for Lawson 's audition for the show . Kyle Pejpar and Jeremy Loheir were cast to play Young Shawn and Young Gus in the episode . The show 's casting directors brought in the actors because older versions of young Shawn and Gus were needed for the flashback scenes in the episode . Sportscaster Bud Collins guest starred in the episode . Collins wrote all of his dialogue , and designed his own wardrobe for the installment .
In addition , another guest star for the episode was Kirsten Nelson , who played interim police chief Karen Vick , a major reoccurring character who first premiered in the episode " Pilot " . Shortly before the installment was filmed , Kirsten Nelson gave birth to her daughter , which would later be portrayed in the episode " Shawn vs. the Red Phantom " . Other minor guests included Alex Bruhanski ( who played Spellmaster Cavanaugh ) , Issey Lamb ( who played Brandon Vu ) , Alexander Calvert ( who played Jiri Prochazka ) , Richard Zeman ( who played Miklous Prochazka ) , and Brendan Beiser ( who played the bee 's color commentator ) .
= = = Writing and filming = = =
The show is meant to take place in the Southern California city of Santa Barbara ; however , most of the series is filmed in Vancouver , British Columbia , and the surrounding communities . The majority of the scenes are filmed in the suburb community of White Rock , especially those including the ocean or coastline . Speaking about filming the show , Steve Franks stated that " I swear it 's San Clemente , CA . It couldn 't look more like it " . In order to make the sets appear as Santa Barbara , the show 's crew members installed many props stereotypical to Southern California , including fake palm trees , surfboards , and the California @-@ published newspaper , the Santa Maria Sun . The production crew had to truck in eight palm trees to each set during filming .
Several of the show 's filming sets were changed
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between episodes . The Psych office was expanded and refurnished , afterwards becoming the second largest stage for the show . The house for Henry Spencer was changed , in order to be closer to the ocean . The set for Chief Vick 's office was also changed , and was repainted to brighten the scenes shot in it . Much of the episode was filmed on a sound stage , while several other scenes were filmed in the basement of the facility . Much of the installment was written to take place in Santa Barbara 's Arlington Theater . Several of the episode 's scenes were written by Franks while filming the pilot episode .
In order to make the show seem more realistic , Franks and other writers talked to his father , a former Los Angeles police officer , and several psychics . Much of the episode 's content was improvised by the actors , and Roday included a pineapple in the episode , continuing the reoccurring theme on the show . James Roday talked to producers about including singing in the series ' second episode , but the idea was shut down because it was too soon in the show . In addition , Steve Franks considered writing one of the show 's early episodes to be about a psychic claiming Shawn was a fraud , but delayed writing the episode until later . The producers attempted to include themes against smoking and the issues of friendship . Franks also included a character named Mrs. Foote , a reference to his 1999 movie Big Daddy .
= = Release = =
The episode was originally broadcast in the United States on July 14 , 2006 , on USA Network as the second episode of the show 's first season . It aired at a 10 : 00 P.M. EST / PST time slot , following a new episode of the show Monk . The episode aired under a rating of TV @-@ PG , meaning that some of its content may not be appropriate for young children . The show 's previous installment , " Pilot " , was a special extended episode , running for approximately 66 minutes . " Spellingg Bee " was the first installment of the show to run for a normal length , approximately 43 minutes . The National Broadcasting Corporation ( NBC ) , parent company of Psych 's producer , Universal Cable Productions , rebroadcast several of the show 's episodes , due to struggling ratings for the network . The re @-@ airing of the episodes occurred on August 7 and August 14 of 2006 ; " Spellingg Bee " was shown at an 8 : 00 P.M. time slot , on August 7 .
" Spellingg Bee " , along with the fourteen other episodes from Psych 's first season were released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States and Canada on June 26 , 2007 . The set includes full audio commentaries for six episodes , including " Spellingg Bee " , deleted scenes for most episodes , blooper reals , audition tapes , character profiles , the international version of the episode " Pilot " , an " Inside the writers ' room " featurette , and other special features . The set is filmed in 1 @.@ 78 : 1 aspect ratio , with English subtitles available , and Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 Surround . The DVD set was released in the United Kingdom and other Region 2 countries on January 9 , 2008 , and was released in Australia on April 30 of the same year . The entire first season has also been released on the iTunes store for digital download , as well as independent downloads of each individual episode .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , in its original American broadcast , " Spellingg Bee " was viewed by a total of 4 @.@ 71 million people . Approximately 3 @.@ 35 million households were watching the installment during its initial broadcast . The episode earned a 1 @.@ 5 rating / 5 share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that on average 1 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned into the installment at any given moment , while 5 percent of households watching TV were tuned into it during the time slot . Approximately 1 @.@ 8 million people in 25 – 54 demographic also viewed the episode . The installment was the most watched basic cable program for its air date . " Spellingg Bee " was ranked eighth in total viewers in the week of July 10 – 16 , falling slightly behind its lead @-@ in program , Monk , which was viewed by 4 @.@ 89 million people . The installment 's ratings were a major drop from the show 's previous episode , " Pilot " , which was viewed by 6 @.@ 06 million people , and had a 1 @.@ 9 rating / 6 share . " Spellingg Bee " finished fourth in viewership for Psych 's first season , falling behind the pilot , " Weekend Warriors " ( 4 @.@ 76 million ) , and " 9 Lives " ( 4 @.@ 72 million ) .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Since airing , the episode has received mixed to positive reviews . In his review for IGN , contributor Colin Moriarty heavily criticized the episode , calling it " unintentionally lackluster " . While Moriarty considered Hill to portray Gus well , he considered Juliet O 'Hara and Carlton Lassiter 's characters " rather forgettable " and stated that " neither character has any traits that make them interesting in the least " . He considered the show to be " admittedly in a difficult spot " . Moriarty criticized the show 's police force , calling it " possibly miscast " . He called the episode " mildly entertaining and mildly boring " and that the show is " not looking too good " . The installment was given a rating of 6 , or " okay " , tying it for the lowest rated episode of the season , with the following episode , " Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " . In an article for The New York Times , journalist Bill Carter mentions that after just the two episodes , " USA Network seems to have found another drama hit with ' Psych ' " . The episode received a positive review from the online critic website Review Stream . The installment was considered to be good for several reasons . The reviewer stated that they " like how they introduce Lassiter ’ s new partner by having Shawn meet her in a coffee shop " instead of just " having her tagging along on the case and being introduced in the same boring fashion other shows rely on " when they replace a character early in the season . They also stated that the " case itself was also pretty interesting in that they were investigating sabotage at a spelling bee and potentially the murder of the spell master " . The reviewer summarized by saying that the installment " was a funny episode that I could definitely watch again " , and recommended viewing it .
In his review for TV Squad , writer Richard Keller gave the episode a mixed to positive review , calling the installment " pretty unique " , but that it also had its flaws . He enjoyed the fact that the episode revealed the relationship between Shawn and Henry , that it " reflects the relationship many of us have with our own fathers " . He also enjoyed the " fleshing out " of Gus 's character , that " we now see Gus as quite the brainiac " and " rather than saying nothing but ' No , Shawn ' ... Gus actually contributes quite a bit to this episode " . However , Keller also criticized parts of the episode , saying that he disliked the " whole fake psychic concept " . Keller also criticized Timothy Omundson 's character Carlton Lassiter , saying " he just doesn 't fit into the whole show " , and " Omundson 's makes Lassiter look like a cartoon character " . In a comment for TV Guide , the show was called " a diamond in the rough " , and writer Matt Roush called star James Roday " a delight " . The episode was included in Yahoo ! TV 's list of the nerdiest episodes of Psych . Reviewer Tucker Cummings said that " the wordplay in this episode great " and that " it gives you a great insight into how Gus and Shawn 's friendship has functioned ( or dysfunctioned ) over the years " . In addition , she said that the episode 's murder @-@ mystery plot " is actually really engrossing " when compared to later episodes of the show .
In a review of the Syfy channel series Eureka , Boston Globe critic Matthew Gilbert compared the series to Psych , describing both as having " light @-@ hearted dramedic tones " . A few days after the episode aired , Virginia Rohan of The Record called the show a " promising series " . Several critics compared the episode and show to the then @-@ new Lifetime network series Angela 's Eyes ; in his article for the Los Angeles Daily News , journalist David Kronke stated that " Lifetime 's new crime drama ' Angela 's Eyes ' is essentially the USA Network 's new series ' Psych ' inside out and played without laughs " . In an article for the Akron Beacon Journal , Angela 's Eyes main character Abigail Spencer was compared to Shawn Spencer , who was described as being " so good that people don 't believe what he can figure out " . Psych was also described as having " a much simpler premise " , but being more entertaining than Angela 's Eyes " .
The installment has been very positively received by the show 's cast and crew . Series creator Steve Franks was asked by iTunes in 2009 to select his twelve favorite episodes to be put on a special DVD release . The collection , titled Psych : Twelve Episodes That Will Make You Happy , contained four episodes from the first season , including " Spellingg Bee " . When describing the episode , Franks stated that " The Spellingg Bee has my one of my favorite scenes in the run of the show when Shawn takes over for the spellmaster and has to investigate a murder while making up words for the contestants to spell " . In 2013 , iTunes asked stars James Roday and Dulé Hill to select their 20 favorite episodes from the show . The DVD collection was titled Psych : James and Dule 's Top 20 , with " Spellingg Bee " was selected as # 14 on the collection , picked by Roday . Three other episodes from the first season were also selected .
= = = Accolades = = =
For his performance in portraying Burton " Gus " Guster in the episode , Dulé Hill was nominated to win the award for " Best Actor – Comedy " at the 13th Annual NAMIC Vision Awards . The awards are organized by the National Association for Multi @-@ ethnicity in Communications ( NAMIC ) , and are given for " outstanding achievements in original , multi @-@ ethnic cable programming " . Other nominees for the award were Carlos Mencia , Romany Malco , and Damon Wayans . Hill lost the award to Mencia , for received it for his performance in the Comedy Central program Mind of Mencia .
= Free Family Portrait Studio =
" Free Family Portrait Studio " is the twenty @-@ fourth episode and season finale of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 176th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC on May 10 , 2012 . " Free Family Portrait Studio " was written and directed by B. J. Novak , who also wrote and directed the season premiere " The List " . The episode guest stars Andy Buckley , Jack Coleman , Sendhil Ramamurthy , Jerry Minor , and Michael Schur .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) helps Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) go undercover and stage a coup , and a new opportunity arises for Robert California ( James Spader ) .
" Free Family Portrait Studio " received mixed reviews from critics , with many noting that the episode did not feel like a proper season finale . It was viewed by 4 @.@ 49 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 6 % share among adults between the age of 18 and 49 . The episode ranked third in its timeslot and was also the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) offers free family portraits in the office , and many members of the office take advantage of the opportunity , including Creed Bratton ( himself ) with his very elderly parents , Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) with his teenaged daughter Sasha , Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) with her teenaged son , Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) with Ravi ( Sendhil Ramamurthy ) , a desperate Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) trying to win back Kelly 's affection yet again , and Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) with a reluctant Jim ( John Krasinski ) and their children Cecelia and Philip . Senator Robert Lipton ( Jack Coleman ) later comes by with his and Angela Martin 's ( Angela Kinsey ) son Philip to also get a family portrait . Jim suspects that Dwight 's motive for giving away family portraits was to get revenge on Jim for a prank involving a fake Velcro suit , but Dwight 's real motive was to try to get some of Philip Lipton 's DNA to run a test to determine who Philip 's actual father is . Angela is very much against this idea and tries to ensure that Dwight does not get the opportunity . After taking the pictures , Robert notices that Philip 's diaper is full , so he goes to change him . After doing so Dwight goes into the bathroom to retrieve the diaper , but Angela chases after him as he makes a break for the hospital to run the DNA test . Dwight and Angela then take part in a high @-@ speed car chase until Dwight calls his cousin Mose ( Michael Schur ) to take her off his trail with a duplicate Trans Am . Angela later finds him in the waiting area , where he confirms he 's going to be there for the entire 72 @-@ hour waiting period for the DNA results . After she sits down , holding his hand , Dwight begins kissing her and Angela briefly demurs before passionately kissing him in return .
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) comes into the office , wearing shabby clothing , and walks straight into manager Nellie Bertram 's ( Catherine Tate ) office and pleads for a job . She eventually caves and makes him janitor for the day . Later , Andy says in a talking head interview that he has actually convinced former CFO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) to buy Dunder Mifflin from Sabre and then make him the regional manager yet again ; Andy is wearing the shabby clothing and making himself smell of alcohol in order to make everyone believe that he is doing poorly . Andy becomes very dependent on David arriving at the office until Andy calls him to say that he cannot make it until the next Friday . Andy then announces the plan and upon hearing this everyone assumes that Andy 's conversations with David are hallucinations because none of them have seen Andy talking with David . However , David surprisingly shows up to the office and assures everyone that he is indeed buying Dunder Mifflin from Sabre with the $ 20 million that he got from selling a toy @-@ vacuum invention to the United States Military . Upon hearing this news , Sabre CEO Robert California ( James Spader ) approaches David in an oddly excitable tone , introducing himself as " Bob Kazamakis " and takes him to the conference room to negotiate . Meanwhile , when Andy is reinstated as manager , Nellie begs him by reciting Shakespeare 's quality of mercy quote from The Merchant of Venice . Out of pity , Andy gives Nellie a new job as special projects manager . Robert later tells the office that he will be leaving for the next three years and going to " help " undereducated Eastern European high school gymnasts with matching funds of one million dollars , which he convinces David to donate , disgusting the rest of the office . He then exits the office once and for all by giving Andy a kiss , possibly as a symbol of his power being regained , puts his arm around Andy and says to the office , " It 's been a great year . "
Meanwhile , former warehouse workers and lottery winners Calvin ( Calvin Tenner ) and Hide ( Hidetoshi Imura ) approach Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) asking for their jobs back as they made a bad investment in an energy drink for Asian homosexuals . Darryl accepts them back and shows them around the warehouse and introduces them to new foreman Val ( Ameenah Kaplan ) . Val 's boyfriend , Brandon ( Jerry Minor ) , is also there with her and notices the blatant compliments that Darryl gives to Val . Brandon then tells Darryl off which he responds to by just simply walking away . Later , Darryl and his daughter , Jada , are taking pictures at the family portrait studio ; Val joins them and holds Darryl 's hand .
At the end of the episode , Robert Lipton walks out of the building with Philip and he notices Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) . Robert asks why Oscar did not call after the fundraiser and heavily hints at his attraction to Oscar , which Oscar has repeatedly suggested to be the case . Oscar appears taken aback , but flattered and tempted .
= = Production = =
" Free Family Portrait Studio " was written and directed by executive producer B. J. Novak , who also portrays Ryan Howard in the series , marking the last of his 15 writing and five directing credits for the series as Novak ended his day @-@ to @-@ day involvement with the series before Season 9 to work on " The Mindy Project " . The episode marks the eleventh appearance of Catherine Tate as Nellie Bertram and her eighth consecutive appearance . She first appeared in the seventh season finale , " Search Committee " as a guest star , but starting with " Tallahassee " she was added to the cast as a recurring character . The episode hinted at the possibility of her returning in the ninth season . She was initially the top choice to replace Steve Carell , but was unable to join the series at that time due to her commitment to the West End production of Much Ado About Nothing . The episode also featured the third consecutive appearance of the character David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) , former CFO of Dunder Mifflin , the seventh appearance of Jack Coleman as Angela 's husband , State Senator Robert Lipton , the second appearance of Sendhil Ramamurthy as Kelly 's boyfriend Ravi , having previously appeared in the episode " Angry Andy " , and the second appearance of former Saturday Night Live cast member Jerry Minor as Val 's boyfriend Brandon , having previously appeared in the episode " After Hours " . Former Office writer / producer Michael Schur appears as Dwight 's cousin Mose for the 10th time , and the first since the episode " Garden Party " earlier in the season . James Spader , who portrayed Robert California , made his final appearance for the eighth season .
The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Robert complimenting Jim and Pam 's marriage and admitting his desire to share in their love , which the two take as a metaphorical compliment , Jim receiving a text from Robert asking him if Pam and he are free at 10 the following Friday which causes the two to think that California literally wants to be a part of their relationship , Pam trying to reassure Jim that Robert 's odd behavior is a figment of their imagination , and Robert calling off the get @-@ together due to this resignation as CEO of Sabre . Jim , out of curiosity , asks him what he was planning , to which he replies " a three @-@ way " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Free Family Portrait Studio " originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 10 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by 4 @.@ 49 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 6 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 3 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode stayed even in the ratings from the previous episode , " Turf War " . The episode finished third in its time slot , being beaten by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 5 rating / 10 % share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode beat the Fox series Touch and The CW drama series The Secret Circle . Despite this , " Free Family Portrait Studio " was the highest @-@ rated NBC television episode of the night . 2 @.@ 20 million viewers saw the episode through DVR , bringing the viewing total to 6 @.@ 69 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Free Family Portrait Studio " received mixed reviews from critics . Myles McNutt from The A.V. Club wrote that " Free Family Portrait Studio " proved to be " a disheartening conclusion to the show ’ s worst season , offering little optimism to sustain our already dwindling enthusiasm over the summer months . " He continued to say that the season made him have little interest in " seeing anything further from Andy Bernard " . Despite this , he complimented the Dwight subplot due to its slight connection to real human emotions . He ultimately gave the episode a C + . HitFix reviewer Alan Sepinwall wrote that he hoped the new showrunner , following Paul Lieberstein , would undo the developments made in the finale , criticizing the season 's run of Andy Bernard as manager and Nellie Bertram 's character . He also wrote that he would only view the first handful of episodes , due to the new showrunner and the hope that the season would improve . Cindy White of IGN wrote that the episode " hit all the marks " as a season finale , and said she was happy that Sabre was finally gone from the series . She complimented the good writing and character moments , but criticized the possible return of Nellie and the handling of the Angela @-@ Dwight storyline over the season . She ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 , calling it " great " . Additionally , multiple critics criticized Andy 's over @-@ dramatization while trying to make a comeback to Dunder Mifflin .
= North Circular Road =
The North Circular Road ( officially the A406 and sometimes known as simply the North Circular ) is a 25 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 41 @.@ 4 km ) ring road around Central London in England . It runs from Chiswick in the west to Woolwich in the east , and connects the various suburbs in the area , including Ealing , Willesden , Wembley , Southgate , Tottenham , Woodford and Barking . Together with its counterpart , the South Circular Road , it forms a ring road through the Outer London suburbs . This ring road does not make a complete circuit of the city , being C @-@ shaped rather than a complete loop as the crossing of the River Thames in the east is made on the Woolwich Ferry .
The road was originally designed to connect local industrial communities together in addition to bypassing London , and was constructed in the 1920s and ' 30s . It received significant upgrades after the Second World War , and was at one point planned to be upgraded to motorway as part of the controversial and ultimately cancelled London Ringways scheme in the late 1960s . In the early 1990s , the road was extended to bypass Barking and meet the A13 north of Woolwich .
The road 's design varies from six lane dual carriageway to urban streets , the latter of which contribute to traffic congestion in London and are regularly featured on local traffic reports , particularly at Henlys Corner and Bounds Green in Northwest London . The uncertainty of development has caused urban decay and property blight along its route , and led to criticism over its poor pollution record . Several London Borough Councils have set up regeneration projects to improve the environment for communities surrounding the North Circular .
= = Route = =
The North Circular Road forms the northern part of a ring @-@ road around Central London . It has seen substantially more investment than its counterpart , the South Circular Road , and consequently runs on more purpose @-@ built road than urban streets , often coupled with demolition of existing houses and urban infrastructure . Although the route has alternative names at some points , it is generally referred to as the North Circular throughout for route planning purposes . The route is mostly grade @-@ separated dual carriageway from the A40 at Hanger Lane to the A13 in Beckton except for the Drury Way / Brentfield Road junction , the Golders Green Road / Brent Street junction , Henlys Corner and the section from Bounds Green to Green Lanes . In areas where improvements made slowest progress and upgrades are unlikely , the original names such as Gunnersbury Avenue and Bowes Road are used .
= = = Gunnersbury , Hanger Lane and Brent Cross = = =
The road begins in Gunnersbury at the Chiswick flyover ( junction 1 of the M4 ) , from which the South Circular Road ( A205 ) heads south over Kew Bridge . The first section runs along Gunnersbury Avenue through Gunnersbury Park to Ealing Common , where it becomes Hanger Lane . The road crosses the railway west of Paddington to the Hanger Lane gyratory system , a large roundabout on top of the Western Avenue ( the A40 ) with Hanger Lane tube station . This is one of the busiest junctions in London , incorporating 10 @,@ 000 vehicles an hour .
The A406 runs on purpose @-@ built road to the north of Hanger Lane Gyratory , and is referred to as " North Circular Road " on street signs . The road is a six @-@ lane dual carriageway that connects the industrial estates in the area , and passes beneath the main railway line from Euston Station , near Stonebridge Park . Beyond this , there is a junction with IKEA and the Neasden temple to the southeast , and the road runs across empty land past the Welsh Harp Reservoir . Beyond the reservoir , there is a large interchange with the Edgware Road ( A5 ) and junction 1 of the M1 motorway at Staples Corner , and a junction for the Brent Cross Shopping Centre at the Brent Cross Interchange ( joining the A41 from Finchley ) . This section of the North Circular was used for filming the car chasing sequences in Withnail And I.
Northeast of Brent Cross , at Henlys Corner , the North Circular briefly shares carriageways with the A1 which joins it from the left and leaves it to the right to head into Central London . The junction complex also serves a local road from Hampstead and pedestrian traffic , and consequently is a major bottleneck on the route . Transport for London have invested in the junction , including a special hands free crossing for the local Jewish community , who can then cross the road on the Sabbath . The road passes north of St Pancras and Islington Cemetery towards Friern Barnet and Muswell Hill . The road narrows to two lane single carriageway to pass under a railway bridge , and continues as Telford Road towards Bounds Green .
= = = Southgate , Woodford and Beckton = = =
Traffic on the North Circular Road must turn right from Telford Road into Bowes Road , which causes problems with heavy goods vehicles . The road continues past densely packed housing and business areas before widening at Green Lanes and assuming the North Circular Road name again . At Great Cambridge Interchange , its most northerly point , the A406 crosses Great Cambridge Road ( A10 ) . Angel Road railway station is partially located beneath the flyover at Angel Road , in an area marked for redevelopment known as Meridian Water . This leads onto the Lea Valley Viaduct that provides a safe crossing of the River Lea 's flood plain . The viaduct is part of the original construction and was one of the first of its kind to be build using reinforced concrete .
After the viaduct the road becomes Southend Road , passing north of Walthamstow , and immediately before the Crooked Billet junction , the former site of Walthamstow greyhound racing track . It continues eastward , cutting through a southern section of Epping Forest and meeting the Woodford New Road at Waterworks Corner , before an elevated junction with the M11 motorway and Southend Road heading to Gants Hill . The South Woodford to Barking Relief Road ( the section between the M11 and A13 ) opened in 1987 . Previously , the A406 extended along Southend Road and Woodford Avenue as far east as Gants Hill . The current route of the North Circular Road turns south , passing Eastern Avenue ( A12 ) on a flyover at the Redbridge roundabout . It passes Romford Road ( the historic Roman Road from London to Colchester ) to the west of Ilford and London Road , Barking , and ends at a roundabout with the A13 Newham Way / Alfred 's Way in Beckton . To reach the Woolwich Ferry , traffic must follow local roads to the ferry terminal . This leads across the River Thames , connecting with the eastern end of the South Circular Road on the other side of the river . The junction with the A13 has been built to enable the North Circular to be continued across the junction to the Thames Gateway Bridge if and when it is built .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Proposals for a route avoiding Central London had been in place since the early 20th century due to increasing levels of traffic . In 1910 , the London Traffic Division of the Board of Trade had built up schemes for new roads , including what became the North Circular Road , which was designed to skirt the extent of urban development along suburbs .
The North Circular Road was originally designed as an unemployment relief scheme following the First World War . Various manufacturing industries , including furniture production , had moved away from the East End in the early 20th century and started to be based in communities along the fringes of outer London development . As well as a general bypass of Central London , it would connect the communities of Edmonton , Tottenham and Walthamstow together and allow former munition factories to be reused for industrial purposes . Further west , industrial work increased around Wembley to cater for the 1924 British Empire Exhibition , while former military factories at Willesden , Hendon and Acton would also benefit from being connected by the North Circular Road . The overall route ran on cheap land that further works and factories could be built next to . Purpose @-@ built sections were designed to dual carriageway standards , including a 27 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) wide carriageway accompanied by 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) verges .
The original route ran from Chiswick to Southgate , and was open to traffic by the 1930s . Although it mostly ran on new @-@ build road , a section east of Southgate ran on existing streets . By the end of the decade , the area surrounding the Park Royal estate had become the largest industrial estate in the south of England , and the London Passenger Transport Board were receiving regular complaints about the excess traffic levels .
Due to laxer laws about building housing on major roads , as London suburbs developed , properties were allowed to be built on the North Circular Road . The original purpose @-@ built road had been designed with no speed limit , as was typically the case in the 1920s , but by 1951 a 30 mph speed limit was enforced along the route .
In 1946 , the North Circular Road became a trunk road , funded from a national budget set by the Ministry of Transport ( MOT ) rather than a local one .
= = = London Ringways = = =
After reviewing traffic conditions in 1961 , the Ministry of Transport planned to improve the North Circular Road to a higher capacity , grade separating as many junctions as possible , particularly those at important arterial routes . In the 1960s the Greater London Council developed the London Ringways Plan to construct a series of circular and radial motorways throughout London to ease traffic congestion in the central area . Under this plan the North Circular Road was to be improved to dual @-@ carriageway standard throughout the majority of its length by the late 1970s .
The Ringway projects were extremely unpopular and drew wide @-@ scale protests , which led to the cancellation of plans in 1972 , particularly after the Westway had opened in the face of wide scale protest two years earlier . In 1974 , the MOT scaled back plans to improve the North Circular Road , though by the end of the decade they had revised plans to improve the route to dual carriageway throughout without any property frontages . In 1979 , the Ministry of Transport planned to improve the Great Cambridge Road Roundabout with a £ 17 million scheme that would have demolished over 100 houses and shops . This was cancelled and replaced with a straightforward underpass in 1983 , costing £ 22 @.@ 3 million .
= = = South Woodford to Barking Relief Road = = =
The section of the North Circular south of Charlie Browns in South Woodford is the " South Woodford to Barking Relief Road " . Prior to its opening , the signposted North Circular route from Waterworks to the Woolwich Ferry was on local roads via Whipps Cross , Wanstead , Manor Park and Beckton . As well as delays for the ferry , traffic could also be held due to bridges with the Royal Albert and King George V Docks . The road was originally planned to be a continuation of the M11 , but the standard of road was dropped in design to a basic dual carriageway . It was proposed to be built in the 1980s concurrently with the controversial M11 link road .
= = = Henlys Corner and Bounds Green improvements = = =
The North Circular Road ceased to be a trunk road in 2000 , when control of all roads inside Greater London passed to Transport for London ( TfL ) . In 2004 , Mayor of London Ken Livingstone promised limited improvements to the road , but received criticism for not approving earlier plans for widening the often heavily congested road at critical sections . In 2009 , it was announced that major works between the Bounds Green Road and Green Lanes junctions would finally go ahead , having been proposed for over 90 years , and was completed the following year . The work improved the carriageway between these junctions , widening Telford Road to two lanes and improving all of the junctions along the route . Improvements were also made to walkways and cycle paths along this route . However , unlike elsewhere on the North Circular , the new junctions are not grade @-@ separated and have been designed with environmental concerns in mind . The opened scheme is a reduced specification from 1960s plans , which projected this section of the North Circular to be dual carriageway .
In April 2011 , after many years of proposals and delays , construction began on a major upgrade of the Henlys Corner interchange . An underpass was originally proposed but this was heavily criticised by local residents , and would have been very costly , and was subsequently scrapped . The upgrade scheme improved on the current junction by adding extra lanes and allowing easier left and right turns , speeding up queue times . Cycle paths and safer pedestrian crossings were included .
In July 2013 , a task force set up by the Mayor of London Boris Johnson proposed that long sections of the North Circular ( as well as the South Circular ) should be put underground in road tunnels , freeing up space on the surface to provide public space , extensive cycle routes , and better links to existing communities currently severed by the road .
= = Environment and safety = =
The North Circular Road has received regular criticism over its poor safety record and piecemeal improvement schemes due to a lack of funding since it opened to traffic . In 1989 , Michael Portillo , then a Member of Parliament for Enfield Southgate , complained that 367 houses were scheduled for demolition as part of improvements to the North Circular in his constituency . Friends of the Earth have complained about rising costs and delays to junction and safety improvements . In 2003 , environment cabinet member Terry Neville said that TfL 's proposed improvements for improving the North Circular were " a sham " and that the local council wanted a six @-@ lane motorway to properly solve congestion .
The uncertainty over the future of the North Circular Road has blighted properties on and near it , particularly around Bounds Green . Around 1972 , approximately 400 homes on the road were compulsory purchased by the Greater London Council in conjunction with widening schemes that were then cancelled . The properties have suffered from a lack of long @-@ term care . Since TfL took responsibility for the road , land for future schemes has been left dormant , resulting in urban decay with derelict properties . Compulsory purchased properties were let out to various short @-@ term tenants , which led to them housing prostitutes and migrant workers living in increasing squalor . Pedestrians have become too frightened to use underpasses along the road , particularly to access North Middlesex Hospital . Areas close to the road , such as the alleys behind properties on the Telford Road section , have suffered from fly tipping and anti @-@ social behaviour .
In 2011 , Enfield Borough Council proposed a North Circular Area Action Plan , which would regenerate the area immediately around Telford Road and Bowes Road , and encourage growth . This includes new pedestrian crossings and improved access to existing open spaces , including Arnos Park and Broomfield Park .
In 2002 , the North Circular was rated as Britain 's noisiest road by the UK Noise Association . In 2013 , the road was named in a BBC report as being the most polluted in London , including the highest surveyed levels of benzene and nitrogen dioxide . A report in the Sunday Times , referring to the North Circular , said " if you want to pull back the lid of your convertible and drink in the fresh air , look elsewhere " .
= = Junctions = =
The North Circular Road has a wide variety of styles and standards of junctions connecting to other roads . These range from the complex , grade @-@ separated design at Charlie Brown 's near Woodford , to at @-@ grade junctions with traffic lights . The original road contained entirely at @-@ grade junctions ; many of these were improved and grade separated during the late 1970s and early 1980s .
= = = Current junctions = = =
= = = Former junctions = = =
= = Cultural references = =
The North Circular Road is mentioned in the poet Louis MacNeice 's 1938 piece , Autumn Journey . In it , he describes the features along the road , including factories , prefabricated buildings , bungalows and petrol pumps " like intransigent gangs of idols " . Keith Moon played his first gig with the Who at a pub on the North Circular Road on 2 May 1964 .
The original Ace Cafe was based on the North Circular Road . Open 24 hours a day , it catered for late @-@ night party @-@ goers and boy racers . It was a popular place for cars to be hot @-@ wired and stolen , as drivers knew they could make a quick getaway . Regus founder Mark Dixon 's first business on returning to Britain after an extended time aboard was a hot @-@ dog stand on the North Circular Road , making his own buns . He grew the business into a full @-@ time bakery which he sold in 1989 for £ 800 @,@ 000 ( now £ 1 @,@ 790 @,@ 000 ) .
= Interstate 475 ( Michigan ) =
Interstate 475 ( I @-@ 475 ) is an Interstate Highway in the US state of Michigan . I @-@ 475 is a 16 @.@ 99 @-@ mile ( 27 @.@ 34 km ) bypass route that serves the downtown area of Flint while its parent , I @-@ 75 , passes through the west side of the city . I @-@ 475 starts southwest of Grand Blanc and runs through suburbs of Flint before passing through downtown . There it intersects I @-@ 69 and crosses the Flint River . The freeway turns westerly to connect back to I @-@ 75 north of Flint near Mount Morris .
This component freeway of the state trunkline highway system was planned in the 1950s and built in the 1970s . The trunkline was first named the Buick Freeway to honor David Dunbar Buick 's contributions to Flint 's early automotive industry as founder of Buick Motor Company . I @-@ 475 was renamed in 1981 the UAW Freeway , honoring the United Auto Workers , a labor union which was active in Flint . At the same time , the name of I @-@ 69 in Flint was changed from the " Chevrolet Freeway " to the " Chevrolet @-@ Buick Freeway " . Since 2001 , I @-@ 475 has borne both the UAW and Buick names officially .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 475 starts at a partial interchange with I @-@ 75 in Grand Blanc Township , southwest of Grand Blanc . From this start at exit 111 , the freeway proceeds northward through a suburban residential area next to a baseball field complex . As I @-@ 475 continues northward , it has an interchange with Hill Road near the Crestwood Memorial Gardens cemetery and several commercial properties . North of the Maple Road underpass , the freeway crosses into the suburb of Burton where it runs for about 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) before crossing into the city of Flint . The freeway then curves around to the northeast near Thread Lake , crossing over Saginaw Street . I @-@ 475 follows the western shore of the lake as it turns northward to run into downtown Flint .
South of the four @-@ level stack interchange with I @-@ 69 , I @-@ 475 crosses over a line of the Canadian National Railway . North of this interchange , the freeway runs more northwesterly as it skirts the eastern edge of downtown Flint . Near the campus of the University of Michigan @-@ Flint , I @-@ 475 curves to run parallel to the Flint River before crossing it next to an industrial area . There is an interchange complex on the northwest side of the river that provides access to Stewart Avenue and M @-@ 54 ( Dort Highway ) . I @-@ 475 then runs north and northwesterly parallel to a rail line operated by CSX Transportation . North of Carpenter Road , the freeway exits the city of Flint and enters Genesee Township . The Interstate turns to the east to cross into Mount Morris Township before meeting an interchange for Saginaw Street . There is one more interchange for Clio Road before I @-@ 475 terminates at a full interchange with I @-@ 75 's exit 125 .
I @-@ 475 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along I @-@ 475 were the 57 @,@ 400 vehicles daily north of the I @-@ 69 interchange in Flint ; the lowest counts were the 18 @,@ 637 vehicles per day west of the Clio Road interchange . As an Interstate Highway , I @-@ 475 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and
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dolphins " , one just beside the castle and the other on the far side of the water , each with two 12 @-@ pounder quick @-@ firing guns of their own , in turn supported by machine guns . The creation of these defences ultimately forced the nearby yacht club to move to the southern end of the spit .
= = = 1900 – 45 = = =
In the first years of the 20th century , Calshot Castle 's defensive role continued unchanged . The castle 's keep was redesigned in 1907 to allow it to house two of the castle 's quick @-@ firing guns on its roof . A new , lighter " ladder " boom across Southampton Water was installed in 1907 , but within two years this approach had been replaced by a plan to block Southampton Water with a boom made up of floating hulks . A 1910 plan proposed that the castle would be garrisoned in wartime by 10 officers and 154 men , 75 of whom would have to be housed nearby rather than in the fort itself ; additional naval personnel would also have been needed to man the support vessels for the boom . A Royal Naval Air Station was built alongside the castle in 1913 to house twelve experimental seaplanes which were intended to support the Royal Naval fleet operating along the Channel . Calshot was particularly suitable for seaplanes , as the surrounding waters and coastline were relatively quiet and calm .
The First World War broke out in 1914 , when military opinions on the utility of Calshot Castle had shifted considerably . The decision was taken to rely primarily on gun batteries at the two entrances to the Solent , rather than at Calshot and Southampton Water . At the start of conflict the boom was removed and replaced by anti @-@ submarine nets further up the coast ' two of Calshot 's guns were removed the following year to protect the new nets . The airbase was used for training purposes until 1916 , when it took on anti @-@ submarine patrols over the Channel , where the German raids had started to inflict critical damage . Almost 3 @,@ 500 hours were flown by aircraft from Calshot that year , with over 3 @,@ 500 being flown in 1917 and over 9 @,@ 000 in just three months of 1918 . Subordinate air stations were created in Bembridge , Newhaven , Polegate and Portland . A cabin was built on top of the keep to oversee air operations , the Castle Yacht Club was taken over for use as the officers ' mess and the air station spread out across Calshot Spit , including occupying the 1895 battery . Calshot 's remaining guns were removed and probably dispatched to the front line in France .
During the inter @-@ war years Calshot was taken over by the Royal Air Force , becoming RAF Calshot . It was used as the School for Naval Co @-@ operation and Aerial Navigation from 1918 onwards and began housing the Seaplane Training Squadron in 1931 . The 1895 battery was demolished to create additional space for the growing station , and a narrow @-@ gauge railway constructed along the spit . Parts of the castle moat were concreted over to provide parking for planes . Calshot twice hosted the Schneider Trophy air races over the Solent , the last two in the sequence of popular international events designed to encourage the development of new , high @-@ speed technology . The Empire Air Day events were also held at Calshot , attracting 1 @,@ 000 visitors in 1935 .
During the Second World War , Calshot Castle was initially defended by troops from the Hampshire Regiment , and a barge equipped with two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) Bofors gun . Air @-@ raid shelters were constructed in the castle 's moat , with five boats from the base taking part in the Dunkirk evacuation . The threat of German invasion increased , however , and the defences were expanded in 1940 , with two 12 @-@ pounder quick firing guns placed on the keep 's roof , supported by searchlights . Two additional subordinate batteries , Bungalow and Stonepoint , were built the following year on the other side of Southampton Water and further south @-@ west along the coast . The castle was not damaged during the war and by 1943 was placed on a " care and maintenance " basis , acting as a way station for passing aircraft .
= = = 1945 – 21st century = = =
After the war , Calshot returned to duty as an active air base , housing two squadrons of Sunderland flying boats which took part in the Berlin airlift of 1948 , before being passed across to Maintenance Command in 1953 . The Southampton Harbour Board built a coastguard lookout tower at the castle in 1952 , and the following year they began to construct a signal station tower on top of the keep , complete with radar and radio facilities , which opened in 1958 . By then , military seaplanes had become obsolete , and the RAF station was finally closed in 1961 .
Hampshire County Council leased the site from the Crown Estates in 1964 ; the castle itself passed into the guardianship of the state , and the hangars were used as an activity centre . A Royal National Lifeboat Institution station opened in 1971 alongside the castle , with a 130 @-@ foot ( 40 m ) -tall replacement coastguard tower constructed two years later .
English Heritage took over management of the castle in 1983 , and stripped back 20th @-@ century additions to present it as it might have appeared in 1914 , including demolishing the old signal station tower . The site remains open to visitors and received 5 @,@ 751 visitors in 2010 . The castle is protected under UK law as a grade 2 * listed building and as a scheduled monument . The air station 's former hangars are still used as a recreation centre by Hampshire County Council .
= = Architecture = =
Calshot Castle is a three @-@ storey , circular fortification , comprising a keep , gatehouse and curtain wall , predominantly constructed of ashlar Portland stone . When first built in the 16th century , it was designed to carry three tiers of artillery : two positioned on the second floor and the roof of the central keep , and the third in the outer curtain wall . Additional guns could have been placed on the roof of the gatehouse and on the first floor of the keep . Historic England considers it to form a " well preserved example " of the Device Forts .
The castle is surrounded by a water @-@ filled , 16 @-@ sided moat , 8 @.@ 8 metres ( 29 ft ) across , accessed over a 20th @-@ century bridge into the gatehouse , an 18th @-@ century design based on a simpler 16th @-@ century original . The gatehouse was altered in 1896 , with the addition of brick @-@ built ancillary buildings to the southern end . It was probably intended to provide additional living space for the garrison . The gatehouse leads into what was originally a 16 @-@ sided courtyard with 15 gun embrasures round the curtain wall . The wall was lowered to its current height in the 1770s and a concrete building to house searchlights , dating from 1896 , now stretches along the southern end of the castle .
In the centre of the castle is the keep , which has an external diameter of 16 metres ( 52 ft ) , an octagonal lower storey and circular walls on the upper levels . Originally this held accommodation for the captain and the garrison , but it was heavily redeveloped in the 19th and 20th centuries . Its exterior walls have eight recesses at ground level , originally used to store ammunition for the castle 's guns . The basement of the keep was redesigned in the 1890s , when electrical generators were installed , protected by a new , thicker , concrete ceiling . It may originally have been vaulted in stone in a similar style to nearby Hurst Castle .
The first floor of the keep has been restored to its early 20th @-@ century appearance as a barracks room . The second floor was redeveloped in the late 19th century to form another barracks room , with its ceiling incorporating additional early 20th @-@ century girders and concrete to support the gun battery above it . The roof of the keep has two 12 @-@ pounder gun mounts with their original gun @-@ lockers ; there is a 12 @-@ pounder gun on display originally used on a Royal Naval vessel . The keep 's roof would originally have been flat , with crenellations for artillery , but both the roof and crenellations were removed in the 1770s .
= Was willst du dich betrüben , BWV 107 =
Was willst du dich betrüben ( Why would you grieve ) , BWV 107 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . It was composed in Leipzig for the seventh Sunday after Trinity and first performed on 23 July 1724 . The chorale cantata is based on the words of Johann Heermann 's hymn in seven stanzas " Was willst du dich betrüben " ( 1630 ) .
Bach structured the cantata , the seventh work in his chorale cantata cycle , in seven movements : two framing choral movements , a recitative and an unusual sequence of four bipartite arias . He scored the work for three vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque chamber ensemble of a horn to reinforce the hymn tune in the outer movements , two transverse flutes , two oboes d 'amore , strings and continuo . It is the only known work from his chorale cantata cycle that kept the original words unchanged .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed the chorale cantata in Leipzig for the Seventh Sunday after Trinity . The prescribed readings for the Sunday are from the Epistle to the Romans , " I speak in human terms because of your human limitations ... the wages of sin is death ; but the gift of God is eternal life " ( Romans 6 : 19 – 23 ) , and from the Gospel of Mark , the feeding of the 4000 ( Mark 8 : 1 – 9 ) .
The cantata is based on Johann Heermann 's hymn in seven stanzas , " Was willst du dich betrüben " ( 1630 ) , which is focused on trust in God , even when facing adversaries including the devil . Trust in God is also a theme of the Gospel . Unusually for a chorale cantata of the second cycle , the text is not changed in the middle movements , but kept " per omnes versus " ( for all stanzas ) . The middle movements are , however , composed as a recitative and four arias . The treatment was decidedly old @-@ fashioned in Bach 's time . He had used it once much earlier in Christ lag in Todes Banden , BWV 4 ( 1707 ) , and then again later , as in Gelobet sei der Herr , mein Gott , BWV 129 ( 1726 ) , though it was not repeated during the second cycle . John Eliot Gardiner assumes that Bach imposed this restriction on himself , as he had done with the restriction to place the cantus firmus in soprano , alto , tenor and bass in the first four cantatas of the cycle . Gardiner comments on the " seventeenth @-@ century design " of composing the unchanged chorale text , compared to settings of Stölzel , Telemann and Graupner :
But only Bach is prepared to make life consistently difficult for himself , as here , for example , by choosing to incorporate verbatim all seven stanzas of a rather obscure chorale by Johann Heermann from 1630 . … Bach rises to the challenge : to overcome the limitations of being confined to a rigidly structured hymn without monotony or repetitiveness .
The chorales in Heermann 's 1630 publication Devoti musica cordis ( Music of a devoted heart ) , which also included " Herzliebster Jesu , was hast du verbrochen " , the first chorale in Bach 's St Matthew Passion , have been described as " the first in which the correct and elegant versification of Opitz was applied to religious subjects , … distinguished by great depth and tenderness of feeling , by an intense love of the Saviour , and earnest but not self @-@ conscious humility " .
Bach first performed the cantata , the seventh extant cantata of his second annual cycle , on 23 July 1724 .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in seven movements , beginning with a chorale fantasia and ending in a closing chorale , as usually in his chorale cantatas , but with an unusual sequence of only one recitative and four arias , setting the poetic hymn stanzas . He scored it for three vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ) ( B ) , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque chamber ensemble of corno da caccia ( Co ) to support the chorale tune in the outer movements , two flauti traversi ( Ft ) , two oboes d 'amore ( Oa ) , two violins ( Vl ) , two violas ( Va ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe , the keys are given for the Weimar version . The time signature is provided using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) .
= = Music = =
= = = 1 = = =
The opening chorus , " Was willst du dich betrüben " ( Why do you wish to trouble yourself ) , is a chorale fantasia , with the vocal part embedded in an independent concerto of the instruments . The cantus firmus on the melody of " Von Gott will ich nicht lassen " is in long notes , partly embellished , in the soprano and horn ; the lower voices are mostly set in homophony . The lines of the chorale are not rendered separately , but accenting the bar form ( Stollen – Stollen – Abgesang ) of the text , 1 and 2 are combined , 3 and 4 are combined , 5 is single and 6 to 8 are combined . The scoring is relatively rich in woodwinds .
= = = 2 = = =
The only recitative , " Denn Gott verlässet keinen , der sich auf ihn verläßt " ( For God abandons none who entrust themselves to Him ) , is accompanied by the oboes d 'amore , shows an extended melisma on the word " Freuden " ( joy ) and culminates in an arioso in the final line , with a melisma on " retten " ( rescue ) . The following four stanzas are composed as arias , not as the typical da capo arias , but mostly in two parts . Bach achieves variation by changing voice type , key and time signature . He also varies the mode , alternating major and minor keys , expresses different affekts , and he successfully " blurs " the bar form of the stanzas .
= = = 3 = = =
The first aria , " Auf ihn magst du es wagen " ( In Him you can dare all ) , depicts a " hunting scene " for bass and strings . Bach plays on the double meaning of the German word " erjagen " , which in the text has the sense " achieve by great exertion " , but he expresses the word 's literal meaning ( " to hunt " ) by an " outrageous hunting call trill " of the bass . This aria and those following are not da capo arias , but follow the bar form of the poem as bipartite structures .
= = = 4 = = =
The second aria , " Wenn auch gleich aus der Höllen " ( Even if , out of hell ) , for tenor and continuo begins with strong words on Satan as an enemy : " Wenn auch gleich aus der Höllen / der Satan wollte sich / dir selbst entgegenstellen / und toben wider dich " ( " Even if , out of hell , Satan wishes to set himself against you , and vent his rage on you " ) . Gardiner calls the music " a vivid pen @-@ portrait of Satan and his wiles , delivered with typically Lutheran relish " . The rhythm alternates between 6 / 8 and 3 / 4 one measure to the next , but the change is irregular and unpredictable . The bass line ( marked " organo e continuo " ) is " extravagantly animated and angular . Albert Schweitzer likens it to the contortions of a huge dragon " .
= = = 5 = = =
The third aria , " Er richt 's zu seinen Ehren " ( He arranges for your honor ) , for soprano and the two oboes d 'amore begins with an embellished version of the chorale tune , and the last line quotes the tune exactly on the words " was Gott will , das geschicht " ( " What God wants , that happens " ) .
= = = 6 = = =
The fourth aria , " Drum ich mich ihm ergebe " ( Therefore I devote myself to Him ) , is scored for tenor , the flutes in unison and muted violin . The melodic style is significantly different to the chorale melody , being song @-@ like .
= = = 7 = = =
The closing chorale , " Herr , gib , daß ich dein Ehre " ( Lord , grant that Your honor ) , is set in four parts for the voices , but embedded in a rich orchestral Siciliano concerto . The lines of the chorale are grouped as in the first stanza , again highlighting line 5 , " O Vater , Sohn und Geist " ( " Oh Father , Son and Spirit " ) as a miniature doxology .
= = Selected recordings = =
The table entries are excerpted from the list of recordings from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs are roughly marked as large by red background , orchestras playing period instruments in historically informed performances are marked green .
= My All =
" My All " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her sixth studio album , Butterfly ( 1997 ) . It was released as the album 's fifth single overall and second commercial single on April 21 , 1998 by Columbia Records . The song was written and produced by Carey and Walter Afanasieff . " My All " is built around Latin guitar chord melodies , and makes subtle use of Latin percussion throughout the first chorus , before taking on a more conventional contemporary R & B @-@ style beat . Carey was inspired to write the song and use Latin inspired melodies after her trip to Puerto Rico , where she was influenced by the culture . The song 's lyrics tell of a lonely woman declaring she would give " her all " to have just one more night with her estranged lover .
The music video for the song was released in March 1998 . It shows many scenes of Carey laying on a submerged vessel in a large body of water , while lamenting her lost lover . Towards the video 's climax , Carey and her love interest climb atop a lighthouse and caress each other under the night 's sky . " My All " was performed live on various occasions , including the 1998 World Music Awards and Blockbuster Entertainment Awards , Saturday Night Live , The Rosie O 'Donnell Show and various European television and music chart programs . The song was also part of Carey 's 1998 Butterfly World Tour , and was performed during many future tours and concerts . House music producer David Morales remixed the song , which was sung in live medley 's with the original .
" My All " was well received by contemporary music critics and charted strongly throughout various music markets . In the United States , the song became Carey 's thirteenth chart topper on the Billboard Hot 100 , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Throughout Europe , the song performed moderately , peaking at number four in the United Kingdom and in the top ten in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , France , Spain and Switzerland . In France , due to strong sales , the song was certified silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) .
= = Background = =
Carey began writing and composing themes for Butterfly by the end of 1996 . She considered this period in time a " redefining moment for herself , " where she began writing and recording the music she truly loved , Contemporary R & B and hip hop . Additionally , Carey began incorporating other genres of music into her song @-@ writing , assisting her in developing new ideas and melodies . Carey expressed how the mixed emotions she felt at that point in her life helped develop the song , as she would " pour herself and emotions into anything she was writing at the time . " In an interview with Fred Bronson , Carey expressed how her visit to Puerto Rico and the current emotions in her life inspired her to write " My All " :
I had gone to Puerto Rico and was influenced by Latin music at that moment . When I came back , the melody was in my head . It was at a melancholy point in my life and the song reflects the yearning that was going on inside of me . It was like being in a situation but you want to break free and you can 't , so your confined yet you 're releasing those emotion through the lyrics and the actual act of singing . Thats why think a lot of people felt very strongly about that song , because the emotion is clear when you listen to it .
Carey began to infuse her personality into her work , something that showed throughout various tracks . During her stay , she was influenced by the Latin culture , and began harmonizing and singing the music she heard there . When she arrived back to New York , she already had the melody developed , and soon began working on the song in San Francisco with Afanasieff .
= = Recording = =
Carey and Afanasieff had worked together since her debut release in 1990 . Together , they had written most of Carey 's biggest hits at the time , including " Hero " and " One Sweet Day . " " My All " would be the last time the two would collaborate , as he is absent from the writing credits in her follow @-@ up album , Rainbow ( 1999 ) . During the recording of the song , Carey and then husband Tommy Mottola were in the midst of their divorce . Afanasieff , who had developed relationships with the two of them , was caught in the middle . He spoke of the difficulties he had recording " My All " with Carey , as their relationship had already strained during the divorce . Afanasieff had been employed by Mottola and Columbia Records , and had worked extensively with Carey in the studio . In an interview with Fred Bronson , Afanasieff spoke in depth of the personal problems he experienced with Carey in 1997 :
I needed to maintain a very strong relationship with Tommy [ Mottola ] . During that period , the beginning of their end , I had to stay away more than normal from her because she was going through a rough time . She felt that shutting her relationship with Tommy was also a cleansing of who she was . She felt that part of what she was dropping was the shmaltzy pop singer ballad kind of stuff he was adamant about . I had to make my exit and say ' Mariah , you need to redefine yourself , that 's fine . I 'm here doing what I do and if and when you want to come back and do it again , I 'm here .
" My All " was written in Carey 's home @-@ studio in upstate New York , and was recorded in Afanasieff 's recording studio in San Francisco . After she presented him with the melody she had developed in Puerto Rico , he began playing chord changed on the piano , while Carey sang the tune and directed him . After they produced the chorus , Carey wrote the lyrics , while he added a drum groove to the basic melody . According to Afanasieff , " My All " had tapped into both their Latin backgrounds . While she hadn 't spent much time with her Venezuelan paternal grandfather , Carey said the music was " definitely subconsciously in me . " On the other hand , Afanasieff was born in Brazil , and had heard Russian and Brazilian music his whole life . In an interview with Fred Bronson , Afanasieff described the steps they took to record the song :
I remember being in the back part of the studio , and we were sitting there late at night and writing . I was strolling through some sounds and came upon a particular sound from a steel acoustic guitar . I played these really beautiful chord changes that eventually led to ' My All . ' She started singing and I started playing , and we came up with the basis for the song . I put a little drum groove down and it was one of the easier songs to write with her .
= = Composition = =
" My All " is a slow @-@ tempo ballad , that blends contemporary R & B beats and Latin guitar and chord melodies , making subtle use of Latin percussion in the first chorus . The song is described as having a " lush sound " and featured synthetic guitar arpeggios that were produced in the studio . " My All " was compared to Toni Braxton 's music style , described as " slink , slow @-@ jam R & B sounds . " The song is set in the signature common time , and is written in the key of G minor . It features a basic chord progression of A ♭ -F ♭ -1 . Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of B2 to the high note of F5 , with the piano and guitar pieces range from G ♭ 3 to G ♭ 5 . The track was very different than anything Carey had ever recorded , incorporating strong " Latin cultured background . " The instrumentation and vocal arrangement used in the song was compared to Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds ' productions , due to its " soft R & B coos and guitar melodies . "
= = Critical reception = =
" My All " garnered critical acclaim from contemporary music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic chose the song as one of the three " track choices " from the album . Larry Flick from Billboard praised the song , calling it an " anthemic gem . " Flick also described the song as " sparkling with a house flavor that 's mildly reminiscent of Toni Braxton 's landmark ' Un @-@ break My Heart ' . " While reviewing the album , Flick also reviewed the Morales remix , writing " Morales straddles the fence between underground aggression and pop @-@ radio fluff with deceptive ease , crafting a track anchored with a muscular bassline and embellished with vibrant synths . It 's 10 minutes of pure disco bliss . " David Browne from Entertainment Weekly praised the song 's instrumentation , noting " with its gently plucked guitars , is the best Babyface track Babyface never produced . "
= = Chart performance = =
Although " My All " was the fourth single released from Butterfly , it was only the second commercial worldwide release . The song debuted at number 2 behind Next 's Too Close and eventually became Carey 's 13th chart topper in the United States , placing her in fourth place for most number ones in the US . Also , it gave Carey the honor of having the most number ones for a female artist . It stayed atop the Hot 100 for one week , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over one million units . " My All " peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , and eighteen on the Adult Contemporary chart . It finished number seventeen on the Billboard end of year chart , and ninety @-@ nine on the end of decade chart . In Canada , the song entered the Canadian RPM Chart at number 89 during the week of May 18 , 1998 . In its fifth week , the song peaked at number 28 , spending 16 weeks in the chart before exiting the week of August 31 .
" My All " performed weakly in Australia , peaking at number 39 while spending only two weeks on the ARIA Top @-@ 40 . In Belgium ( Wallonia ) , it peaked at number nine , and spent 14 weeks on the Ultratop singles chart . The song performed well in France , peaking at number six and spending 24 weeks fluctuating in the French singles chart . " My All " was certified silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , denoting shipments of over 200 @,@ 000 units throughout France . The song performed moderately in Ireland , peaking at number 21 , and spending seven weeks on the Irish Singles Chart . In Norway and Sweden , it peaked at numbers 14 and 15 , respectively . The song charted well in Switzerland , spending 21 weeks in the top @-@ 100 , and peaking at number seven . In the United Kingdom , ' My All " debuted and peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart during the week of June 13 , 1998 . The song spent eight weeks fluctuating in the singles chart , until the week of August 1 , 1998 where it dropped outside the top @-@ 100 . Sales in the UK are estimated at 160 @,@ 000 units .
= = Remixes and other versions = =
" My All " features two remixes : the first is a contemporary R & B version titled , " My All / Stay Awhile " ( So So Def Remix ) . Carey re @-@ recorded her vocals for the song , while building it around a sample from the Loose Ends song " Stay a Little While , Child . " Carey 's vocal interpolation blends the first verse and chorus of " My All " with the verse and chorus of " Stay a Little While , Child . " It was produced by Jermaine Dupri and features raps from Lord Tariq and Peter Gunz . The single also features a version without any rap verses . The second remix is a dance version mixed by David Morales . The dance remix is known as the Classic Club Mix ; it was Carey 's first collaboration with Morales that did not feature entirely new vocals . Consequently , the song is fairly close to the original chord progressions of the album version , though some new vocals were added . The remix was performed live as a medley with the original during many of Carey 's live concert tours .
Carey recorded a Spanish version of " My All " titled , " Mi Todo . " Unlike with " Hero " ( 1993 ) and " Open Arms " ( 1995 ) , Carey recorded the Spanish version of the song in a different key from the original English version . The first line of the song had been mistranslated and was grammatically incorrect . Carey later mentioned on her website that she would no longer record Spanish versions of her songs until she could verify the correct lyrics and pronunciation . " Mi Todo " was remixed as well , however only being released as a promotional single in Mexico .
= = Music videos = =
" My All " and the " My All / Stay Awhile " ( So So Def Remix ) featured different music videos . The video for " My All " was shot entirely in black and white in Puerto Rico , and was directed by fashion photographer Herb Ritts . The video begins with Carey lying on an overturned vessel on a beach , staring into the night sky , lamenting her estranged lover . As the scenes progress , Carey 's love interest is seen atop a lighthouse in the middle of the ocean , searching for his lost companion . Further scenes show Carey laying on a large conch shell , wet and vulnerable . Soon after , she begins walking on a path of large white flowers , until she reaches the top of the lighthouse where she is rejoined with her lover . After the song 's second verse , Carey and the man begin caressing each other , and embracing atop the lighthouse . After they share an intimate moment , Carey is shown walking back on the trail of white flowers , smiling and happy . The scenes of Carey lying in the shell and in front of the flowers were inspired by Sandro Botticelli 's painting The Birth of Venus . According to author Chris Nickson , the snippets of Carey on the overturned vessel showed her vulnerability without her loved one , truly highlighting the yearning emphasized in the song .
A music video was also filmed for the So So Def remix . Directed by Diane Martel , it was shot in a grainy fashion to simulate a home video . The video features cameo appearances by Dupri , Tariq and Gunz . It begins with scenes of Carey and Dupri at a small in @-@ home gathering , lounging and enjoying each other 's company . As the video progresses , the other two featured hip @-@ hop musicians appear at the house , alongside various other guests . They begin to dance to music , while sipping on cocktails by the pool . As the video reaches its climax , scenes of Carey singing in an outdoor garden are shown , while the others join her on the pool deck .
= = Live performances = =
" My All " was performed on several live television appearances , as well as most of Carey 's tours following the song 's release . Carey first sang " My All " on The Rosie O 'Donnell Show in November 1997 , and was followed by an interview . The performance featured three female backup singers , and a Latin @-@ influenced percussionist and guitar player . Additionally , Carey performed the song at the 1998 World Music Awards , completing both the original and dance remix as a medley . The performance was via @-@ satellite from Carey 's tour at the time , which was broadcast onto a large screen . At the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards in 1998 , Carey sang the original version of the song , featuring a full orchestra and live backup vocals .
The song was performed on Saturday Night Live during the week of September 12 , 1997 , where Carey sang it back @-@ to @-@ back with " Butterfly " . Additionally , Carey was one of the five featured performers at the 1998 VH1 Divas , where she sang " My All " as well as the dance remix . The song was performed on the British music chart program , Top of the Pops , where a live medley of the original and dance versions were performed . " My All " was performed during Carey 's Butterfly World Tour in 1998 . For the performances in Japan , Carey featured a Latin guitarist and backing vocals . The guitarist was present during the song 's recital throughout the entire tour , replacing the orchestra used during her television appearances . For the shows , Carey wore a beige outfit , with varying hairstyles . Neither remix version was performed during the tour .
For her Rainbow World Tour ( 2000 ) Carey performed the original version of the song , once again featuring the orchestra and live female background vocals . 2 years later on December 7 , 2002 , Carey performed the original version of " My All " in front of a crowd of 50 @,@ 000 people , at the closing ceremony concert of the Mexican Teletón , which took place in the country 's Azteca Stadium . Since the Charmbracelet World Tour tour in 2004 , Carey has not performed the full version of the original , substituting it for the dance remix after the second verse . During the shows in the Adventures of Mimi tour , Carey donned a black bikini and matching cape , while featuring one male and two female background singers . On the Angels Advocate Tour ( 2010 ) , she performed the original and dance remix versions , wearing a red outfit while performing the song seated . Again , the original and dance remix was performed as a medley , featuring the same backup from the previous tour . After completing the song , Carey was whisked away by a shirtless male dancer , and carried off the stage for a costume change , as the back @-@ up continued into the dance version .
= = Cover versions = =
On February 25 , 2014 , Alisa Kozhikina , the representative of Russia to the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2014 won in the Grand Finals of Golos Deti , the Russian edition of The Voice , performing a Russian version of the song called " Vsyo " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Butterfly liner notes .
Mariah Carey – vocals , songwriting , co @-@ production
Walter Afanasieff – songwriting , co @-@ production
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Laura Robson =
Laura Robson ( born 21 January 1994 ) is a British tennis player and an Olympic Mixed Doubles Silver Medalist
She debuted on the International Tennis Federation ( ITF ) junior tour in 2007 , and a year later won the Wimbledon Junior Girls ' Championship at the age of 14 . As a junior she also twice reached the final of the girls ' singles tournament at the Australian Open , in 2009 and 2010 . She won her first professional tournament in November 2008 .
Robson was the first British woman since Samantha Smith at Wimbledon in 1998 to reach the fourth round of a Grand Slam tournament , doing so at the 2012 US Open and the 2013 Wimbledon Championships . She won a silver medal in the mixed doubles at the 2012 London Olympics playing with Andy Murray , with whom she also reached the 2010 Hopman Cup final . At the 2012 Guangzhou Women 's Open , Robson became the first British woman since Jo Durie in 1990 to reach a WTA main @-@ tour final , where she lost to Hsieh Su @-@ wei . Robson was named WTA Newcomer of the Year for 2012 and reached a career high singles ranking of world number 27 on 8 July 2013 .
Since then , Robson has suffered from various injuries which have caused a prolonged absence from the WTA tour . After losing in the first round of the 2013 HP Open on 7 October 2013 , she has played just 33 matches : two in 2014 , 11 in 2015 and 20 in 2016 , winning just eight of them . She dropped out of the world rankings in early 2015 , returning at 906 in July 2015 , and is currently ranked at 294 . She has a career @-@ high doubles ranking of number 82 and is currently ranked 305 .
= = Early life and junior career = =
Robson was born on 21 January 1994 in Melbourne , Australia , the third child of Australian parents Andrew , an oil executive with Royal Dutch Shell , and Kathy Robson , a sports coach and former professional basketball player . Robson and her family moved from Melbourne to Singapore when she was 18 months old , and then to the United Kingdom when she was six .
According to her parents , she began playing tennis " as soon as she could hold a tennis racquet " , and after being encouraged by them , she entered a junior tennis academy at age seven . She signed with management company Octagon when she was 10 , with Adidas at age 11 , and also signed a racquet deal with Wilson Sporting Goods .
After working with several coaches , including the head of the Lawn Tennis Association Carl Maes , she chose coach Martijn Bok in 2007 . Bok said later that although Robson " had trouble staying emotionally under control " , he " saw right away ... a lot of potential in Laura . " Robson also began training at the National Tennis Centre , under the guidance of Bok , Maes , and the head of women 's tennis at the centre , Nigel Sears , while taking school lessons at home .
Robson 's first tournament on the junior ITF tour was in May 2007 , where she went from the qualifying draw of the tournament to the quarterfinals . She reached the final of two other tournaments in 2007 , and won her first tournament in October . In the first half of 2008 , Robson reached the finals of three tournaments , but was also eliminated before the third round in three straight tournaments .
Robson competed in her first junior grand slam at the Wimbledon girls ' event , as an unseeded player . As the youngest player in the tournament , she beat first seed Melanie Oudin on her way to the finals , where she defeated third seed Noppawan Lertcheewakarn . Her victory made her the first British player to win the girls ' event since Annabel Croft in 1984 , and the British media described her as the " new darling " of British tennis , and the " Queen of Wimbledon " .
After a brief period on the main tour , Robson returned to junior competition but was knocked out in the second round of a tournament in December . In the same month she played her final junior tournament of 2008 , the Orange Bowl , where she had to retire in the third round with a stomach strain . At the end of the year , she was shortlisted for the BBC Young Sports Personality of the Year , but lost out to Paralympic swimmer Eleanor Simmonds .
After recovering from her injury , Robson entered the 2009 Australian Open junior tournament , where she was seeded fifth . In the semifinals she faced a replay of her Wimbledon final , against top seed Noppawan Lertcheewakarn , whom she beat in straight sets to reach her second Grand Slam junior final . Facing third seed Ksenia Pervak from Russia , Robson was defeated in straight sets . She later attributed her loss to Pervak 's greater consistency , and her coach Bok said that " everybody has to be patient " . After the tournament , Robson started to train with Gil Reyes , the former trainer of Andre Agassi . She was also named the MCC Young Sportswoman of the Year . She claimed the top ranking of ITF junior tour in April , despite not playing for two months because of shin splints .
At the 2009 French Open Robson was the top seed in the junior 's competition , but was defeated in round two by Sandra Zaniewska . Robson was the defending champion at 2009 Wimbledon Championships , but she fell in the second round to Quirine Lemoine .
Due to her focusing on her Senior career , Robson entered the 2009 US Open unseeded . In the first round , she beat Ons Jabeur of Tunisia . She then faced the 7th seed Lauren Embree of the United States and beat her in three sets . She went on to face the 12th seed , Tamaryn Hendler , who she defeated in straight sets . Robson then beat Lauren Davis in the quarterfinals . In her semifinal , she faced Yana Buchina of Russia . Due to rain delay , both quarter- and semifinals were played on the same day . Therefore , the semifinal followed the quarterfinal match . Despite starting strongly , Robson tired , losing the match in three sets .
At the junior singles at the 2010 Australian Open , Robson was unseeded and defeated Belinda Woolcock , Yulia Putintseva , and Cristina Dinu to reach the quarterfinals . In the last eight she easily overcame American Ester Goldfeld to move through to her fourth Junior Grand Slam semi @-@ final where she defeated Kristýna Plíšková of the Czech Republic . She was defeated by Kristýna 's twin sister Karolína Plíšková in the final . In the 2010 Wimbledon junior singles she reached the semifinals , losing to Sachie Ishizu of Japan .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2008 = = =
Following her victory at Wimbledon , Robson made her debut on the ITF senior tour at a $ 10 @,@ 000 tournament in Limoges , France . She won two matches to qualify for the main draw of the tournament , as well as her first round match , before having to retire with a shoulder injury in the second round against the second seed , Marina Melnikova .
Robson was then given a wildcard into the main draw of the $ 75 @,@ 000 ITF in Shrewsbury . After beating 2007 Wimbledon girls singles champion Urszula Radwańska and fourth seed Tzipi Obziler , Robson lost to second seed Maret Ani in three sets in the semifinals . She was given another wildcard into the $ 50 @,@ 000 tournament in Barnstaple , but was defeated in three sets in her first round match against the seventh seed Angelique Kerber , who later said that it was " unbelievable how she 's playing " .
Her first match on the WTA tour was courtesy of a wildcard into the 2008 Fortis Championships in Luxembourg City . She was drawn in the first round against world number 42 , Iveta Benešová , but lost . Returning to the ITF circuit , Robson entered as the fifth seed in the $ 10 @,@ 000 event held in Sunderland . After beating third seed Laura @-@ Ioana Andrei in the quarterfinals , she beat fellow Britons Tara Moore and Samantha Vickers in straight sets to win her first ITF title at the age of 14 years and 9 months .
= = = 2009 = = =
Robson returned to the junior tour for the first half of 2009 . On 9 June , Wimbledon announced that Robson received a wildcard for the Ladies ' Singles event at the 2009 Wimbledon Championships . She faced former World No. 5 and 2002 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Daniela Hantuchová in the first round but lost despite being a break up in the second set . She also entered into the doubles tournament with Georgie Stoop , progressing to the second round before losing to sixteenth seeds Svetlana Kuznetsova and Amélie Mauresmo . As well as Wimbledon , she competed in two ITF tournaments , one via a wildcard and the second via qualification , but lost in the first round of each .
In August 2009 , Robson received a wild card into the 2009 US Open qualifying tournament . She defeated Stéphanie Foretz of France in the first round in straight sets , and went on to beat Anikó Kapros of Hungary . In the final round , she lost to Eva Hrdinová , after leading 4 – 1 in the third set .
On 17 October , Robson entered the qualifying draw at the Luxembourg Open . In the first round of qualifying she defeated world number 180 Zuzana Ondrášková . In the second round of qualifying she defeated Julia Görges , the world number 79 . In the final round of qualifying she lost to Maria Elena Camerin . On 10 November , Robson beat Yuliya Beygelzimer in the first round of the Minsk ITF competition . She defeated Tetyana Arefyeva in the second round but was defeated in the quarter @-@ finals by Vitalia Diatchenko .
= = = 2010 = = =
Robson began 2010 playing with Andy Murray in the Hopman Cup , as part of Great Britain 's first team in the tournament since 1992 . She lost her opening match to Yaroslava Shvedova of Kazakhstan . Later in the day she won the mixed doubles match against Kazakhstan , partnering with Murray to secure a win . Robson was defeated by Germany 's Sabine Lisicki but won the mixed doubles against Germany . Robson and Murray defeated Russia to advance to the finals . Despite her first win of the tournament against world no . 26 María José Martínez Sánchez of Spain , Robson and Murray lost to Spain 's Martínez Sánchez and Tommy Robredo in a very close match .
Robson was granted a wild card in the qualifying draw for the women 's singles of the Australian Open . In her first match , she defeated Sophie Ferguson of Australia . In her second match she lost to Michaëlla Krajicek of the Netherlands . Robson , however , received a Wildcard into the main draw of the doubles , partnering Sally Peers . They defeated Craybas and Spears to set up a second round clash with the twelfth seeds Chuang Chia @-@ jung and Květa Peschke , who they beat in straight sets . Peers and Robson won their third round clash with Vera Dushevina of Russia and Anastasia Rodionova of Australia to advance to the quarter @-@ finals , before falling to the number 15 seeds , Maria Kirilenko and Agnieszka Radwańska .
After the Australian Open Robson did not play again until the start of April . In her third tournament back Robson made the semi @-@ final , losing to Edina Gallovits of the ITF event in Dothan after having to qualify for the main draw . Robson also played in the doubles and after reaching the quarterfinals she reached a career high of 102 for doubles . She followed this up with a quarterfinal appearance in Charlottesville losing to Anastasiya Yakimova .
She then qualified for the main draw of the Aegon Classic in Edgbaston after receiving a wildcard in qualification . She beat Nina Bratchikova and Vitalia Diatchenko . Robson then went on to win her first ever match on the WTA tour after her opponent Stefanie Vögele retired during the second set of their first round match . She lost to the third seed Yanina Wickmayer in the second round . She also received a wildcard for the UNICEF Open at Rosmalen but was beaten by Slovakian Dominika Cibulková in the first round .
She received a wild card for Wimbledon , and faced fourth seed Jelena Janković to whom she lost in two sets . Robson 's next senior level competition was an Aegon GB Pro @-@ Series event at Woking . Seeded seventh , her first senior seeding , she reached the quarter @-@ finals . Robson 's next competitive match did not come till the end of August 2010 , when she entered the qualifying tournament for the 2010 US Open . In the first round she shocked second seed Jelena Dokić . She beat Vesna Manasieva , but lost in the third round to Nuria Llagostera Vives .
On 21 September Robson announced that she was to split with her coach Martijn Bok , as Bok was unwilling to meet her more demanding 2011 tour schedule .
Robson next competed in the Toray Pan Pacific Open . She beat world number 57 Anastasija Sevastova in the first round of qualifying and reached the main draw by beating world number 100 Simona Halep . She was defeated in the first round of the main draw by the experienced 31 @-@ year @-@ old player Gréta Arn .
= = = 2011 = = =
For 2011 Robson hired a new coach , Frenchman Patrick Mouratoglou , and moved her working base to Paris . Her season was disrupted by injury at the 2011 Hopman Cup and she did not compete in a tournament until March 2011 ; her comeback was then delayed for a further month by an injury in her second competition . Returning again at the end of April 2011 , Robson 's best performance to date came at the $ 50 @,@ 000 tournament at Indian Harbor Beach , Florida , where she reached the semifinal . Robson split from Mouratoglou just before Wimbledon . Robson then won her first match at a Grand Slam as she defeated Angelique Kerber , but lost to Maria Sharapova in the second round .
At the US Open , Robson won her three qualifying matches to advance into the main draw . In the first round of the main draw , she was leading when her opponent , Ayumi Morita , retired from the match . She was then beaten by Anabel Medina Garrigues .
= = = 2012 : First WTA final , Olympic Mixed Doubles Silver Medalist = = =
Robson came through three rounds of qualifying at the 2012 Australian Open , beating Melanie Oudin , Anna Floris and Olga Savchuk to advance to the main draw for the first time . She lost to 13th seed Jelena Janković in the first round .
Robson was selected for the first time in her career to be a member of the GB Fed Cup Team to play in the Europe / Africa Group 1 match at Eilat , Israel , on 1 – 4 February 2012 . In the group stages she played doubles with Heather Watson , defeating pairs from Portugal , Netherlands and Israel in the group stages . Robson and Watson did not need to play the play @-@ off match against Austria as Anne Keothavong and Elena Baltacha won their singles rubbers , and the 2 – 0 lead qualified the team for a place in the World Group II promotion play @-@ off in April 2012 .
Robson lost in the third round of qualifying for the 2012 French Open at Roland Garros . However she got a place in the first round of the main draw as a lucky loser when Sílvia Soler Espinosa withdrew , but then lost her first round match to clay @-@ court specialist Anabel Medina Garrigues .
After a second round showing at the Aegon Classic in Birmingham ( lost to Marina Erakovic ) , Robson came through qualifying at the 2012 Aegon International . She reached the second round before losing to Ekaterina Makarova . However , the result helped Robson break into the top 100 for the first time in her career . In the first round of Wimbledon , Robson lost to Francesca Schiavone in three sets .
Immediately after Wimbledon , Robson entered the XXV Italiacom Open in Palermo where she reached her first ever WTA semifinal . After beating the world number 240 Valentyna Ivakhnenko for the loss of just one game in the first round , she shocked the number 2 seed and world number 27 , Roberta Vinci in straight sets to reach her first ever WTA quarter final . She continued her good form in the quarter final , where she emerged victorious against the world number 41 and number 5 seed Carla Suárez Navarro in three sets . However , her run came to an end when she lost in the semi finals to Barbora Záhlavová @-@ Strýcová in three sets . Robson then received a wild card to enter the main draw of the 2012 Swedish Open but lost her first match against Anabel Medina Garrigues .
She received a late place into the women 's singles at the 2012 Olympics due to the withdrawal of Croatian Petra Martić . In her first round match , she beat the world number 22 Lucie Šafářová in straight sets , setting up a second round encounter with Maria Sharapova . She lost to the Russian world number 3 in a tightly contested match . She also competed in the doubles competition with Heather Watson , losing in the first round to the German pairing of Angelique Kerber and Sabine Lisicki . She then received a wildcard entry into the mixed doubles with Andy Murray . They were drawn against Czech pair Lucie Hradecká and Radek Štěpánek in the first round and won in three sets . In the second round the pair beat the Australian duo of Lleyton Hewitt and Samantha Stosur , and reached the final by beating Germans Sabine Lisicki and Christopher Kas , where they were beaten by the Belarusian pair Victoria Azarenka and Max Mirnyi .
Robson had direct entry to the main draw of the 2012 US Open from her WTA ranking , where she defeated Samantha Crawford in the first round . In the second round she defeated former US Open Champion Kim Clijsters in Clijsters ' final singles match before her retirement . Robson consequently reached the third round of a Grand Slam tournament for the first time in her career and joined Serena Williams , Lindsay Davenport , Venus Williams , Amélie Mauresmo and Justine Henin as one of the only six people to beat Clijsters at the US Open championships , and the first player to beat her there since 2003 . She followed up her performance with her first victory over a top ten player , beating 9th seed Li Na in the third round in three sets . Robson became the first female British tennis player to reach this stage of a Grand Slam tournament since Samantha Smith reached the fourth round of Wimbledon 14 years previously , but she was defeated by defending champion Stosur , ending her best run at a Grand Slam tournament to date .
Robson 's next appearance was at the 2012 Guangzhou Open where she beat the then world number 22 Zheng Jie and the number three seed Sorana Cîrstea on the way to her first WTA tour final against Hsieh Su @-@ wei . This was the first WTA singles final for any British woman since Jo Durie in 1990 . Robson was eventually defeated having saved five championship points in the second set and despite taking a 3 – 0 lead in the third set . The result pushed her ranking inside the top 70 for the first time .
Robson qualified for the China Open and reached the second round but she lost to Lourdes Domínguez Lino in straight sets . At the HP Open in Japan , she was seeded 8th , the first time in her career she had been seeded at a WTA tournament . She reached the quarter @-@ finals before losing to Chang Kai @-@ chen in three sets , but the result ensured that she finished the year with a ranking of 53 .
In October , Robson was nominated for the Sports Journalists ' Association Sportswoman of the Year . In November , along with Heather Watson , won " Young Sportswoman of the Year " at the 2012 Sunday Times Sportswomen of the Year Awards . Robson was also nominated for WTA " Newcomer of the Year " and William Hill " Sportswoman of the Year " in November , winning the former award .
= = = 2013 : Career @-@ high ranking = = =
At the start of the year Robson had reached the top 50 for the first time in her career . She followed this with her first victory at the 2013 Australian Open with a convincing straight sets victory over Melanie Oudin . In the second round she played former Wimbledon champion , and fellow left @-@ hander , Petra Kvitová . Robson came back after losing the first set to beat Kvitová in a three @-@ hour match , to set up a third @-@ round meeting with Sloane Stephens . After stopping for several shoulder treatments , Robson was eventually beaten in two sets . After the Australian Open , Robson played six matches in Fed Cup competition that saw Great Britain earn a World Group II Play @-@ off spot against Argentina . Following this success she went on to lose two successive matches , losing to Daniela Hantuchová in Doha and to wildcard Yulia Putintseva in Dubai .
At Indian Wells Robson lost her first round match against Sofia Arvidsson in three sets . Her next tournament was at Miami . In the singles Robson reached the second round before losing to Alizé Cornet . In the Doubles Laura Robson was given a wildcard to play with Lisa Raymond . The pair reached the final , beating the World No. 1 pairing of Sara Errani and Roberta Vinci in straight sets in the semifinals , before losing to Nadia Petrova and Katarina Srebotnik .
Robson was seeded 16th at Charleston and reached the second round before losing to Eugenie Bouchard in three sets . At the BNP Paribas Katowice Open Robson was seeded 8th , but lost in the first round to Lourdes Domínguez Lino .
Robson represented Great Britain in the Fed Cup World Group Two play @-@ off against Argentina . After Johanna Konta lost her opening rubber to Paula Ormaechea , Robson easily won her first match over Florencia Molinero . Robson lost her second match against Paula Ormaechea in three sets .
After several first round defeats at the start to the European clay court season , Robson defeated world number 4 Agnieszka Radwańska in the second round of the 2013 Mutua Madrid Open . She subsequently lost to former World No. 1 Ana Ivanovic in the next round , having led 5 – 2 in the final set . Robson then made her debut at the Italian Open where she defeated Venus Williams in the first round but subsequently lost to her sister , World No. 1 and eventual champion Serena Williams in the second round . At the French Open Robson was beaten in the first round by former world number one Caroline Wozniacki in straight sets .
To begin the grass court season , Robson entered the Aegon Classic tournament in Birmingham where she was seeded 7th . Despite the seeding , she lost in straight sets to the eventual champion Daniela Hantuchová . She then participated in the 2013 Aegon International tournament ( i.e. Eastbourne ) . In the first round , she faced Yuliya Beygelzimer in which she won in straight sets . In the second round , she lost to Caroline Wozniacki in straight sets for the second time in a row .
In the first round of Wimbledon she was drawn against the number 10 seed Maria Kirilenko , whom she beat in straight sets . She beat World No. 117 , Mariana Duque , in the second round on Centre Court . In the third round , she came from a set down to beat Marina Erakovic to progress to the last 16 where she was beaten by Kaia Kanepi . Her performance pushed her up to 27 in the world , the first Briton in the top 30 since Jo Durie in 1987 .
Robson started her US Open Series campaign on 30 July 2013 at the Southern California Open in Carlsbad being drawn against Ayumi Morita , whom she beat having come back from a set down in two hours and 40 minutes . Laura moved into the 2nd round faced with the World No. 7 Petra Kvitová from Czech Republic but lost in straight sets putting an end to her Southern California Open .
To start the Canadian Open in Toronto , Robson was due to play Yanina Wickmayer from Belgium on 5 August 2013 in her opening match but had to pull out due to a wrist injury . The same injury also led to her pulling out of the tournament in Cincinnati , however her ranking of number 32 meant that she would be seeded at a Grand Slam tournament for the first time in her career , entering the US Open as the 30th seed .
At the US Open , Robson returned after intensive rehab on her wrist injury and began her campaign against Spain 's Lourdes Domínguez Lino , whom Robson had lost to twice previously . After winning a scrappy first set , Robson powered through the second at love . In the second round , Robson faced world number 75 Caroline Garcia of France , and won in two tight sets . Robson then fell in straight sets in the next round to Li Na in the same place they had played last year , where Robson had won . The fifth seed Li powered 11 aces to beat her 12 @-@ year younger opponent , Robson in straight sets . After a break of around three weeks , Robson returned to action at the Guangzhou Open , a tournament in which she was a finalist the previous year . She started strongly , with straight sets wins over qualifier Jovana Jakšić in the first round , and Zheng Saisai of China in the second round . She subsequently lost to another Chinese player in Zheng Jie , despite taking the first set 6 – 1 .
In October 2013 , it was announced that Miles Maclagan 's coaching partnership with Laura had ended and that she would be taking a couple of weeks out and starting the search for a new coach .
= = = 2014 – 15 : Wrist injury , extended absence = = =
Robson started her 2014 season at the Hobart International , where she had to retire in her first round match against Yanina Wickmayer due to a left wrist injury . Her wrist continued to affect her at the Australian Open , where Kirsten Flipkens defeated her in straight sets . After taking three @-@ months rest from the tour , Robson underwent surgery on her left wrist in April . The surgery forced her to miss the French Open , Wimbledon and the US Open , and although Robson initially hoped to be playing by the end of the season , she only started training in October , and did not play again in 2014 .
Robson did not enter the Australian Open in 2015 and subsequently left the WTA rankings , having not competed for 12 months . Robson planned to return at the $ 25 @,@ 000 ITF tournament at Surprise , Arizona , but delayed her return and did not enter another ITF event in February . She declined a wildcard into the qualifying event of the Miami Masters in March . Her agent Eisenbund stated that she had not suffered a setback , and was " closer and closer " to a return .
After an absence of a year and a half , Robson 's first competitive match was at the qualifying draw of the 2015 Aegon International in Eastbourne in June . She lost to top seed Daria Gavrilova in straight sets . Robson was granted a wildcard to compete at Wimbledon , but she was defeated in the first round by Evgeniya Rodina .
In July 2015 she played at a $ 50 @,@ 000 ITF event in Granby and won a tough three @-@ set match over second seed Naomi Osaka . However , she lost her next match to American qualifier Ellie Halbauer . Robson also reached the final in doubles partnering Erin Routliffe . In Gatineau , she retired from her first round match , generating fear that her wrist injury had returned , but Robson said that she had been hampered by a stomach strain she had suffered during practice .
= = = 2016 : Return to tennis = = =
After receiving some further surgery on her wrist at the end of 2015 , Laura Robson took some more time off from tennis and subsequently missed the Australian Open . Robson started off the year playing some American challenger events , with limited success . She made her return to WTA events by using her protected ranking to enter Indian Wells . Here she made a reasonable effort but ultimately lost to Magdaléna Rybáriková who subsequently went on to reach the quarter finals of the event . She also received a wildcard entry into the main draw of Miami and used her protected ranking to enter into the qualifying of Charleston but lost in the first round at both events .
Robson later won her first WTA match since her injury in 2013 , by beating Klára Koukalová 6 @-@ 2 6 @-@ 3 in the qualifying of Stuttgart . However , she lost her next match in qualifying to Océane Dodin in straight sets . She also claimed her first main draw WTA victory since 2013 in Rabat by defeating local wildcard Ghita Benhadi in straight sets . However , she later lost her next match to Tímea Babos .
Robson also used her protected ranking to enter premier clay events in Madrid and Rome , where she lost her first round matches to Victoria Azarenka and Christina McHale respectively . She did however put on a very promising display against Azarenka , but ultimately was unable to convert 8 out of 9 breakpoints , allowing Azarenka to clinch victory in straight sets .
= = Playing style = =
Robson plays left @-@ handed , with a two @-@ handed backhand . One of her strengths is her " dominant " serve . She has a strong game from the back of the court and is also noted for having an aggressive forehand return . However , she has been criticised for having " poor lateral movement " , as well as an inconsistent second serve , resulting in a considerable number of double faults . She has been praised for showing " extraordinary poise " , and having " the attitude and technique required of a leading player " . Commentator Simon Reed said that she " has every tool she needs " , and former Grand Slam champion Pat Cash called her " a special talent " who " seems to have all the attributes to progress " . Current WTA player Ana Ivanovic said that Robson " hits the ball really , really hard " , former top British player Samantha Smith said that " she doesn 't have any weaknesses at all " , and Serena Williams stated that Robson is an " all @-@ around good player " . Robson 's favourite surface to play on is grass and her favourite shot is her forehand down the line .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Olympic Games : 1 ( 0 – 1 ) = = =
= = = = Mixed doubles : 1 ( 0 – 1 ) = = = =
= = = Performance timelines = = =
= = = = Women 's singles = = = =
= = = Junior Grand Slam finals : 3 ( 1 – 2 ) = = =
= = = = Junior Singles = = = =
= Lactarius subdulcis =
Lactarius subdulcis , commonly known as the mild milkcap or beech milk cap , is an edible mushroom in the genus Lactarius . It is brown in colour , with a large number of gills and a particularly thin layer of flesh in the cap . Mycorrhizal , the mushroom is found from late summer to late autumn at the base of beech trees in small groups or individually , where it is one of the two most common species of fungi . Alternatively , it can be found in large groups in fields , sometimes with more than a hundred individual mushrooms . It is found in Europe , and , despite previous research to the contrary , is absent in North America . Although considered edible , it is not particularly useful as food due to its ivy @-@ like taste and the fact that more choice mushrooms will be easily found at the same time . L. subdulcis is known for its abundant , sweet @-@ tasting milk that , unlike the latex of some of its relatives , does not stain fabric yellow .
= = Taxonomy = =
Lactarius subdulcis was first described as Agaricus subdulcis by mycologist Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801 , before English mycologist Samuel Frederick Gray placed it in its current genus Lactarius in 1821 in his The Natural Arrangement of British Plants . The specific epithet is derived from Latin words sub " under " , and dulcis " sweet " , after the milk 's delayed sweet taste . As well as mild milk cap , beech milk cap is an alternate common name .
= = Description = =
Lactarius subdulcis has a convex cap of 3 – 7 cm ( 1 – 3 in ) across that later develops a depression . It sometimes has a small umbo , and in colour can be a reddish @-@ brown , rusty or dark @-@ cinnamon , later paling to buff , though darker in the middle . The cap can be fairly rigid to flexible , and smooth to slightly wrinkled . At first , the margin is incurved though it is sometimes slightly furrowed . The stem is 3 – 7 cm long and between 6 and 13 mm thick , and is generally cylindrical though can be club @-@ shaped . The stem is sometimes furrowed lengthwise , and is generally the same colour as the cap , though paler at the top . The flesh is pale and there is only a thin layer in the cap . The crowded gills are adnate to slightly decurrent , and can be white or pink in colour . It has white , plentiful milk that does not stain fabrics yellow , differentiating it from other species of Lactarius , such as L. decipiens . It has a faint , oily scent .
= = = Spores = = =
Lactarius subdulcis has cream spore print with a slight salmon tinge . The spores are oval , with largish warts of around 1 micrometre ( μm ) which are joined by a well @-@ developed network of mostly thin ridges . The spores measure 7 @.@ 5 – 11 μm by 6 @.@ 5 – 9 μm , and are amyloid or ellipsoid in shape .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Lactarius subdulcis is found in Europe ; it does not occur in North America , although a number of similar brownish @-@ orange species were formerly classified under this species .
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It is found in broad @-@ leaved woodland , especially on the floor at the base of beech trees . Along with L. vellereus , L. subdulcis is the most common fungi found on beech trees . The mushrooms can be found from late summer to late autumn , and are common . They are found individually , or in small groups . They can also be found in fields , generally appearing in large batches , with groups of over a hundred mushrooms not uncommon .
= = Edibility = =
Lactarius subdulcis has a mild taste with a slightly bitter after @-@ taste . Though considered edible after cooking , it is not recommended , as it has a taste reminiscent of ivy . There are a number of other mushrooms that appear at the same time and in the same areas as L. subdulcis that are preferable to it , including L. mitissimus , meaning that L. subdulcis is not particularly useful as a foodstuff . The milk is one of distinguishing features , having a sweet taste that turns bitter in the mouth , with L. subdulcis being considered a sweet milk mushroom .
= Murder ( The Office ) =
" Murder " is the tenth episode of the sixth season of the U.S. comedy series The Office and the show 's 110th episode overall . It was written by Daniel Chun and directed by Greg Daniels . It originally aired on NBC on November 12 , 2009 . The episode guest stars Andy Buckley as David Wallace , although he only appears via the phone .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , rumors spread that Dunder Mifflin is in financial trouble , so Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) tries to distract the office by having everyone play a murder mystery game called Belles , Bourbon , and Bullets . Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) uses the game as a way to ask out Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) , but fears he may have asked out Erin 's character , instead of Erin herself .
" Murder " was the first entry in the series written by Chun , and was his first script for the series . The episode also was the inception of two major story arcs , the first being the season @-@ long arc of Dunder Mifflin going out of business and its purchase by the printer company Sabre in the episode of the same name , and the second being the budding romance between Andy and Erin . The episode scored a 4 @.@ 2 / 10 rating share in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic , and was watched by 8 @.@ 046 million viewers . The episode received largely positive reviews from critics , with many highlighting its purposeful ridiculousness .
= = Plot = =
In the cold open , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) instructs the members of the office once a year on the various " changes " that various martial arts have experienced . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) pranks Dwight by asking him to demonstrate the moves on himself , because Jim reasons Dwight is the most worthy opponent for himself . Dwight ends up punching , blocking , and kicking his own attacks , and ultimately ends up punching himself in the groin , to the bemusement to the members of the office .
The members of the office learn that Dunder Mifflin is in financial trouble . In an attempt to get the worried staff under control , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) and Jim call a meeting to provide optimistic viewpoints , despite the steadily worsening news . In a moment of quick thinking , Michael pulls out a murder mystery party game called Belles , Bourbon , and Bullets and forces the rest of the staff to play along . The staff slowly warms up to the game . It is set in Savannah , Georgia , and everyone has to adopt a Southern accent . Thanks to Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) , and Phyllis Lapin @-@ Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) , the game becomes a hit . Everyone present starts to play along , except for Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) who tries to get updates on the situation from corporate and Creed Bratton ( Creed Bratton ) who shows up late to work and flees after being told he is a suspect in a murder . Jim , however , believes that the entire exercise is pointless .
Andy decides he needs to make a move on Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) before the day is out , as he may otherwise never see her again due to the possible impending closure of Dunder Mifflin . While in character , he asks Erin out for a weekend date , but becomes unsure if he really asked her out , or if he just simply asked out her murder mystery character , " Naughty Nelly . " He is worried that Erin only agreed because Naughty Nelly is a promiscuous character .
Just as the game seems to get interesting , Oscar returns and informs everyone that accounting has been notified to stop payments to vendors . This brings the staff out of the game and back to the reality of losing their jobs . Michael tries to win them back , but accidentally skips to the game 's conclusion , revealing that Phyllis 's character was the murderer . Although everyone else goes back to work even more stressed out , Michael refuses to give up , and continues playing the game with Dwight . After the game , Andy and Erin meet at the receptionist desk , where Erin asks him about their upcoming date . Andy tries to sound out whether the date is real or fictional by suggesting that they go to Savannah for their date . Erin remarks that Savannah is a long way away , but does so in character ; confused by this , Andy slips up and indicates that the " date " was just part of the game . Erin says she was also just playing , but appears humiliated as she walks away and later reveals to the camera crew she thought the date was real .
Michael tries to introduce another murder and other twists to the story to pull his staff back into the party . This infuriates Jim to his breaking point , and they hold a private talk in Michael 's office . Michael snaps at Jim and points out that he is doing this to keep the office calm . CFO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) finally returns the phone calls to Jim , and reveals that while nothing has been officially decided yet , Dunder Mifflin is expected to be insolvent by year @-@ end . Jim hides the news from the staff and nudges them back into the party . Jim finally realizes that Michael was doing this to help his co @-@ workers cope . At the end of the episode , Michael , Dwight , Andy , and Pam find themselves in a fake Mexican standoff lasting until 6 : 00 at night . Jim pulls Pam out so they can go home , and the others pretend to shoot each other to death .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Daniel Chun , and was his first script for the series . The episode also was the inception of two major story arcs , the first being the season @-@ long arc of Dunder Mifflin going out of business and its purchase by the printer company Sabre in the episode of the same name , and the second being the budding romance between Andy and Erin . According to series creator and episode director Greg Daniels , the episode explores the idea that Michael is positively motivated due to his subconscious ; although his antics seem nonsensical to many members of the office , in the end , his idea to take his coworkers ' minds off of the fiscal trouble proves to be the best choice . This was first explored in the third season episode " Grief Counseling " . Chun later explained in a Q & A with The Office fansite OfficeTally that " the episode was partly about Jim realizing that sometimes Michael isn 't crazy , he 's crazy like a fox " in that sometimes his underlying motives are clever .
Most of the names were based on " Southern puns " , and it took Chun a while to think of all the names . All of the props , cards , and box were designed by the series ' prop department . The producers tried to market the game as a real product , although that never came to fruition . Chun crafted the cold open after being inspired by the second season episode " The Fight " because he wanted to see more " Karate Dwight " . In the original version of the open , the scripted featured Dwight and Michael kicking each other in the groin . Jennifer Celotta , however , suggested that Dwight fight himself . The episode guest @-@ stars Andy Buckley , who plays David Wallace . Buckley appears only via the telephone , and recorded his lines in the annex of the set , to give the illusion that he was calling from a long ways away .
" Murder " was directed by Daniels . Daniels particularly enjoyed directing both the cold open , as well as the closing tag , likening both to " an action film " . In regards to the latter , he referred to it as a sequence that director Quentin Tarantino would have thought up , and noted the importance of having the camera appear in the middle of the Mexican standoff to reveal Fischer . Wilson , Helms , and Carell enjoyed filming the scene , and were particularly exuberant when it came time to fake @-@ kill each other . Several of the scenes , such as when Andy first asks Erin on a date , had to be re @-@ shot so that the cameras were in more discreet places . Daniels later referred to these shots as " spy shots " . Initially , after Michael announces that " there has been a murder " , the show was supposed to have cut to a commercial break . However , the producers realized that this was too misleading , as it would have implied that a real homicide had taken place .
The Season Six DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael berating and then apologizing to Erin , Michael making a racist remark about slavery while in character , various conference room scenes , and extended sequences of the members of the office playing the game in @-@ character .
= = Cultural references = =
Wallace alerts the office that the companies troubles have been published in the Wall Street Journal , but Michael and Erin mistake this to mean the " feelings journal " , Michael listens to " Lullaby " by Shawn Mullins to soothe himself ; Chun explained that the reason the song was chosen was because " Michael would probably have loved top 40 pop from the 90s . And I figured the song would have to be devoid of subtext . That 's why ' Lullabye ' felt like a fit . " When Jim lowers the volume on Michael 's computer , the tell @-@ tale " click " of a Mac computer comes out of the speakers . Daniels and Chun note that this was intentional , and they wanted that specific sound , even though Windows computers do not make that sound . Pam 's southern accent is compared to the fictional character Forrest Gump . After Andy successfully does a Savannah accent , Kevin asks him to do " the Swedish Chef " . Andy , not understanding the reference asks " what province " he is from , to which Kevin replies that " he lives on Sesame Street , dumbass . " Angela blames her character 's dabbling with the dark arts — she portrays a witch doctor in the game — with being exposed to the Harry Potter series .
= = Reception = =
" Murder " first aired on NBC on November 12 , 2009 . In its original American broadcast , the episode was viewed by an estimated 8 @.@ 046 million viewers and received a 4 @.@ 2 rating / 10 percent share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 2 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a slight increase in the ratings from the previous episode , " Double Date " .
" Murder " received generally positive reviews , with many complimenting the fact that the show was able to dabble in a ridiculous situation with over @-@ the @-@ top characters while , in the end , still having a point . Dan Phillips of IGN said that the episode was a " major step up " from the " disappointing " last two episodes , " Koi Pond " and " Double Date " . Phillips stated that the episode " struck a nice balance between unbound silliness and grounded drama , even if the silliness dominated at times . " Phillips praised the way that , when Michael stood up to Jim and argued that the office members needed the game to remain sane , " the character I love had returned after playing the part of moronic jerk for too much of this season . " Ultimately , he gave the episode an 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 score , denoting a " great " episode .
Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " and praised the way it both managed to touch upon Dunder Mifflin 's serious economic trouble , as well as allowed the actors and actresses — and Steve Carell in particular — to use " ridiculous accent [ s ] " and " crazy character [ s ] " . He also enjoyed the way that Andy and Erin 's subplot was developed , writing that " Andy becomes a deeper , more lovable character with each passing episode " and that " Erin has quickly become an appealing , engaging character . " He concluded that the episode was enjoyable because it " was silliness with a purpose " .
Alan Sepinwall praised Krasinski 's acting , noting that he got the chance to " nail a great dramatic moment " . He also felt that Dunder Mifflin 's crisis was an interesting development for the show , and put a new spin on the recurring theme of fiscal issues . Finally , he praised the Andy and Erin romancing , noting that it " allows the writers to push a similar scenario [ that had been used with Pam and Jim ] in a more overtly comic direction , while still getting some pathos out of it . " Gage Henry of Paste felt that the entry was a " great way to dust off last week ’ s " episode . He was pleased that it show @-@ cased Michael as the " all @-@ knowing father figure whose mysterious ways pan out in the end . "
= Caerphilly Castle =
Caerphilly Castle ( Welsh : Castell Caerffili ) is a medieval fortification in Caerphilly in South Wales . The castle was constructed by Gilbert de Clare in the 13th century as part of his campaign to conquer Glamorgan , and saw extensive fighting between Gilbert and his descendants and the native Welsh rulers . Surrounded by extensive artificial lakes – considered by historian Allen Brown to be " the most elaborate water defences in all Britain " – it occupies around 30 acres ( 12 ha ) and is the second largest castle in Britain . It is famous for having introduced concentric castle defences to Britain and for its large gatehouses .
Gilbert began work on the castle in 1268 following his occupation of the north of Glamorgan , with the majority of the construction occurring over the next three years at a considerable cost . The project was opposed by Gilbert 's Welsh rival Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , leading to the site being burnt in 1270 and taken over by royal officials in 1271 . Despite these interruptions , Gilbert successfully completed the castle and took control of the region . The core of Caerphilly Castle , including the castle 's luxurious accommodation , was built on what became a central island , surrounding by several artificial lakes , a design Gilbert probably derived from that at Kenilworth . The dams for these lakes were further fortified , and an island to the west provided additional protection . The concentric rings of walls inspired Edward I 's castles in North Wales , and proved what historian Norman Pounds has termed " a turning point in the history of the castle in Britain " .
The castle was attacked during the Madog ap Llywelyn revolt of 1294 , the Llywelyn Bren uprising in 1316 and during the overthrow of Edward II in 1326 – 27 . In the late 15th century , however , it fell into decline and by the 16th century the lakes had drained away and the walls were robbed of their stone . The Marquesses of Bute acquired the property in 1776 and under the third and fourth Marquesses extensive restoration took place . In 1950 the castle and grounds were given to the state and the water defences were re @-@ flooded . In the 21st century , the Welsh heritage agency Cadw manages the site as a tourist attraction .
= = History = =
= = = 13th century = = =
Caerphilly Castle was built in the second half of the 13th century , as part of the Anglo @-@ Norman expansion into South Wales . The Normans began to make incursions into Wales from the late 1060s onwards , pushing westwards from their bases in recently occupied England . Their advance was marked by the construction of castles and the creation of regional lordships . The task of subduing the region of Glamorgan was given to the earls of Gloucester in 1093 ; efforts continued throughout the 12th and early 13th centuries , accompanied by extensive fighting between the Anglo @-@ Norman lords and local Welsh rulers . The powerful de Clare family acquired the earldom in 1217 and continued to attempt to conquer the whole of the Glamorgan region .
In 1263 , Gilbert de Clare , also known as " Red Gilbert " because of the colour of his hair , inherited the family lands . Opposing him in Glamorgan was the native Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd . Llywelyn had taken advantage of the chaos of the civil war in England between Henry III and rebel barons during the 1260s to expand his power across the region . In 1265 Llywelyn allied himself with the baronial faction in England in exchange for being granted authority over the local Welsh magnates across all the territories in the region , including Glamorgan . De Clare believed his lands and power were under threat and allied himself with Henry III against the rebel barons and Llywelyn .
The baronial revolt was crushed between 1266 and 1267 , leaving de Clare free to advance north into Glamorgan from his main base in Cardiff . De Clare started to construct a castle at Caerphilly to control his new gains in 1268 . The castle lay in a basin of the Rhymney Valley , alongside the Rhymney River and at the heart of network of paths and roads , adjacent to a former Roman fort . Work began at a huge pace , with ditches cut to form the basic shape of the castle , temporary wooden palisades erected and extensive water defences created by damming a local stream . The walls and internal buildings were built at speed , forming the main part of the castle . The architect of the castle and the precise cost of the construction are unknown , but modern estimates suggest that it could have cost as much as castles such as Conwy or Caernarfon , perhaps as much as £ 19 @,@ 000 , a huge sum for the period .
Llywelyn responded by intervening with his own forces but outright conflict was prevented by the diplomatic efforts of Henry III . De Clare continued building work and in 1270 Llywelyn responded by attacking and burning the site , probably destroying the temporary defences and stores . De Clare began work again the following year , raising tensions and prompting Henry to send two bishops , Roger de Meyland and Godfrey Giffard , to take control of the site and arbitrate a solution to the dispute .
The bishops took possession of the castle later in 1271 and promised Llywelyn that building work would temporarily cease and that negotiations would begin the following summer . In February of the next year , however , de Clare 's men seized back the castle , threw out the bishops ' soldiers , and de Clare – protesting his innocence in these events – began work once again . Neither Henry nor Llywelyn could readily intervene and de Clare was able to lay claim to the whole of Glamorgan . Work on the castle continued , with additional water defences , towers and gatehouses added .
Llywelyn 's power declined over the next two decades . In 1276 Henry 's son , Edward I , invaded Wales following a dispute with the prince , breaking his power in South Wales , and in 1282 Edward 's second campaign resulted in Llwelyn 's death and the collapse of independent Welsh rule . Further defences were added to the walls until work stopped around 1290 . Local disputes remained . De Clare argued with Humphrey de Bohun , the earl of Hereford , in 1290 and the following year the case was brought before the king , resulting in the temporary royal seizure of Caerphilly .
In 1294 Madog ap Llywelyn rebelled against English rule , the first major insurrection since the 1282 campaign . The Welsh appear to have risen up over the introduction of taxation and Madog had considerable popular support . In Glamorgan , Morgan ap Maredudd led the local uprising ; Morgan had been dispossessed by de Clare in 1270 and saw this as a chance to regain his lands . Morgan attacked Caerphilly , burning half of the town , but failed to take the castle . In the spring of 1295 Edward pressed home a counter @-@ attack in North Wales , putting down the uprising and arresting Madog . De Clare attacked Morgan 's forces and retook the region between April and May , resulting in Morgan 's surrender . De Clare died at the end of 1295 , leaving Caerphilly Castle in a good condition , linked to the small town of Caerphilly which had emerged to the south of it and a large deer park in the nearby Aber Valley .
= = = 14th – 17th centuries = = =
Gilbert 's son , also called Gilbert de Clare , inherited the castle , but he died fighting at the battle of Bannockburn in 1314 while still quite young . The family 's lands were initially placed under the control of the Crown , but before any decision could be taken on the inheritance , a revolt broke out in Glamorgan . Anger over the actions of the royal administrators caused Llywelyn Bren to rise up in January 1316 , attacking Caerphilly Castle with a large force of men . The castle withstood the attack , but the town was destroyed and the rebellion spread . A royal army was despatched to deal with the situation , defeating Bren in a battle at Caerphilly Mountain and breaking the Welsh siege of the castle .
In 1317 Edward II settled the inheritance of Glamorgan and Caerphilly Castle on Eleanor de Clare , who had married the royal favourite , Hugh le Despenser . Hugh used his relationship with the king to expand his power across the region , taking over lands throughout South Wales . Hugh employed Master Thomas de la Bataile and William Hurley to expand the Great Hall at the castle , including richly carved windows and doors . In 1326 , however , Edward 's wife , Isabella of France , overthrew his government , forcing the king and Hugh to flee west . The pair stayed in Caerphilly Castle at the end of October and early November , before leaving to escape Isabella 's approaching forces , abandoning the extensive stores and £ 14 @,@ 000 held at the castle . William la Zouche besieged the castle with a force of 425 soldiers , cornering the constable , Sir John de Felton , Hugh 's son – also called Hugh – and the garrison of 130 men inside . Caerphilly held out until March 1327 , when the garrison surrendered on the condition that the younger Hugh was pardoned , his father having been already executed .
Tensions between the Welsh and the English persisted and spilled over in 1400 with the outbreak of the Glyndŵr Rising . It is uncertain what part the castle played in the conflict , but it seems to have survived intact . In 1416 , the castle passed through Isabel le Despenser in marriage to her first husband Richard de Beauchamp , the earl of Worcester , and then to her second husband , Richard Beauchamp , the earl of Warwick . Isabel and her second husband invested heavily in the castle , conducting repairs and making it suitable for use as their main residence in the region . The castle passed to Richard Neville in 1449 and to Jasper Tudor , the earl of Pembroke , in 1486 .
After 1486 , the castle went into decline , eclipsed by the more fashionable residence of Cardiff Castle ; once the sluice @-@ gates fell into disrepair , the water defences probably drained away . Antiquarian John Leland visited Caerphilly Castle around 1539 , and described it as having " waulles of a wonderful thiknes " , but beyond a tower used to hold prisoners it was in ruins and surrounded by marshland . Henry Herbert , the earl of Pembroke used the castle for his manorial court . In 1583 the castle was leased to Thomas Lewis , who stripped it of much of its stone to extend his house , causing extensive damage .
In 1642 the English Civil War broke out between the Royalist supporters of Charles I and those of Parliament . South Wales was predominantly Royalist in sympathy , and during the conflict , a sconce , or small fort , was built overlooking Caerphilly Castle to the north @-@ west , on the site of the old Roman fort . It is uncertain if this was built by Royalist forces or by the Parliamentary army that occupied the area during the final months of the war in March 1646 , but the fort 's guns would have dominated the interior of the castle . It is also uncertain whether or not Caerphilly Castle was deliberately slighted by Parliament to prevent its future use as a fortification . Although several towers had collapsed by the 18th century , possibly as a result of such an operation , it is probable that this deterioration was actually the result of subsidence damage caused when the water defences retreated , as there is no evidence of deliberate destruction having been ordered .
= = = 18th – 21st centuries = = =
The Marquesses of Bute acquired the castle in 1776 . John Stuart , the first marquess , took steps to protect the ruins . His great @-@ grandson John Crichton @-@ Stuart , the third marquess , was immensely rich as the result of the family 's holdings in the South Wales coalfields and was passionately interested in the medieval period . He had the site fully surveyed by the architect William Frame , and reroofed the great hall in the 1870s . The marquess began a process of buying back leasehold properties around the castle with the intent of clearing back the town houses that had been built up to the edge of the site .
The fourth marquess , John Crichton @-@ Stuart , was an enthusiastic restorer and builder and commissioned a major restoration project between 1928 and 1939 . The stonework was carefully repaired , with moulds made to recreate missing pieces . The Inner East Gatehouse was rebuilt , along with several of the other towers . The marquess carried out landscaping work , with the intent of eventually re @-@ flooding the lakes , and thanks to several decades of purchases was finally able to demolish the local houses encroaching on the view of the castle .
By 1947 , when John Crichton @-@ Stuart , the fifth marquess , inherited the castle , the Bute family had divested itself of most of its land in South Wales . John sold off the family 's remaining property interests and in 1950 he gave Caerphilly Castle to the state . The lakes were re @-@ flooded and the final stages of the restoration work were completed in the 1950s and 1960s . In the 21st century the castle is managed by the Welsh heritage agency Cadw as a tourist attraction . In 2006 , the castle saw 90 @,@ 914 visitors . It is protected as a scheduled monument and as a grade I listed building .
= = Architecture = =
Caerphilly Castle comprises a set of eastern defences , protected by the Outer East Moat and the North Lake , and fortifications on the Central Island and the Western Island , both protected by the South Lake . The site is around 30 acres ( 120 @,@ 000 m2 ) in size , making it the second largest in Britain . It is constructed on a natural gravel bank in the local river basin , and the castle walls are built from Pennant sandstone . The castle 's architecture is famous and historically significant . The castle introduced concentric castle defences to Britain , changing the future course of the country 's military architecture , and also incorporated a huge gatehouse . The castle also featured a sophisticated network of moats and dams , considered by historian Allen Brown to be " the most elaborate water defences in all Britain " .
The eastern defences were reached via the Outer Main Gatehouse , which featured circular towers resting on spurred , pyramidic bases , a design particular to South Wales castles . Originally the gatehouse would have been reached over a sequence of two drawbridges , linked by an intervening tower , since destroyed . To the north side of the gatehouse was the North Dam , protected by three substantial towers , and which may have supported the castle 's stables . Despite subsidence damage , the dam still holds back the North Lake . The South Dam was a massive structure , 152 metres ( 499 ft ) long , ending in a huge buttressed wall . The remains of the castle mill – originally powered by water from the dam – survive . Four replica siege engines have been placed on display . The dam ended in Felton 's Tower , a square fortification designed to protect the sluicegates regulating the water levels of the dam , and the South Gatehouse – also called Giffard 's Tower – originally accessed via a drawbridge , which led into the town .
Caerphilly 's water defences were almost certainly inspired by those at Kenilworth , where a similar set of artificial lakes and dams was created . Gilbert de Clare had fought at the siege of Kenilworth in 1266 and would have seen these at first hand . Caerphilly 's water defences provided particular protection against mining , which could otherwise undermine castle walls during the period , and are considered the most advanced of their kind in Britain .
The central island held Caerphilly 's inner defences , a roughly square design with a walled inner and middle ward , the inner ward protected by four turrets on each of the corners . The walls of the inner ward overlooked those of the middle ward , producing a concentric defence of two enclosed rings of walls ; in the medieval period , the walls of the middle ward would have been much higher than today , forming a more substantial defence . Caerphilly was the first concentric castle in Britain , pre @-@ dating Edward I 's famous programme of concentric castles by a few years . The design influenced the design of Edward 's later castles in North Wales , and historian Norman Pounds considers it " a turning point in the history of the castle in Britain " . Probable subsidence has caused the south @-@ east tower in the Inner Ward to lean outwards at an angle of 10 degrees .
Access to the central island occurred over a drawbridge , through a pair of gatehouses on the eastern side . Caerphilly Castle 's Inner East Gatehouse , based on the gatehouse built at Tonbridge in the 1250s , reinforced a trend in gatehouse design across England and Wales . Sometimes termed a keep @-@ gatehouse , the fortification had both exterior and interior defences , enabling it to be defended even if the perimeter of the castle was breached . Two huge towers flanked the gatehouse on either side of an entrance that was protected by portcullises and murder @-@ holes . The substantial size of the gatehouse allowed it to be used for accommodation as well as defence and it was comfortably equipped on a grand scale , probably for the use of the castle constable and his family . Another pair of gatehouses protected the west side .
Inside the inner ward was the castle 's Great Hall and accommodation . Caerphilly was built with fashionable , high @-@ status accommodation , similar to that built around the same time in Chepstow Castle . In the medieval period the Great Hall would have been subdivided with wooden screens , colourful decorations , with rich , detailed carving and warmed by a large , central fireplace . Some carved medieval corbels in the shape of male and female heads survive in the hall today , possibly depicting the royal court in the 1320s , including Edward II , Isabella of France , Hugh Despenser and Eleanor de Clare . To the east of the Great Hall was the castle chapel , positioned above the buttery and pantry . On the west side of the hall were the castle 's private apartments , two solar blocks with luxurious fittings .
Beyond the central island was the Western Island , probably reached by drawbridges . The island is called Y Weringaer or Caer y Werin in Welsh , meaning " the people 's fort " , and may have been used by the town of Caerphilly for protection during conflicts . On the north @-@ west side of the Western Island was the site of the former Roman fort , enclosing around 3 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) , and the remains of the 17th @-@ century civil @-@ war fortification built on the same location .
= = In popular culture = =
The long @-@ running British television show Doctor Who chose Caerphilly Castle as a filming location for several episodes , including The End of Time in 2009 . On that occasion , producers used the residential quarters of the East Gatehouse , Constable 's Hall and Broase Gallery for the filming of a dungeon in the fictional Broadfell Prison .
= Masterpiece ( Madonna song ) =
" Masterpiece " is a song by American singer Madonna for the soundtrack of the 2011 film W.E. The song was later included on her twelfth studio album MDNA ( 2012 ) . It served official radio release in the United Kingdom on April 2 , 2012 , to promote the album . Madonna composed the song alongside Julie Frost and Jimmy Harry , and produced it with William Orbit . " Masterpiece " is a midtempo pop ballad which is reminiscent of her works from the 1990s . The song garnered positive reviews from contemporary critics , who praised its lyrical content and Madonna 's vocal performance .
" Masterpiece " won the Best Original Song category at the 69th Golden Globe Awards , but was deemed ineligible for the similar category at the 84th Academy Awards . Its Golden Globe nomination sparked a red carpet rivalry between Madonna and singer Elton John . " Masterpiece " peaked at number one in Russia , while reaching the lower regions of the charts in the Czech Republic , Japan , South Korea and the United Kingdom . It was performed by Madonna on The MDNA Tour ( 2012 ) , where she was accompanied by Basque musicians Kalakan trio . The performance was considered a highlight of the tour .
= = Writing and development = =
" Masterpiece " was composed by Madonna , Julie Frost and Jimmy Harry and produced by Madonna and William Orbit . When Madonna was directing her film W.E. , her manager Guy Oseary persuaded the singer to compose a song for the soundtrack . Frost was living in Los Angeles at that time and was assessing her priorities in the music world , and wanted to collaborate with a number of artists , Madonna being the first . " She is an icon " , Frost said , " But most importantly she has some of the best Pop songs in the history of music ... so yeah it 's always a dream to work with people like her . " Orbit , who was working with Frost and Harry on an assignment , contacted them for collaborating with Madonna on " Masterpiece " . He had heard Frost 's initial composition of the song and knew that Madonna would love it . According to Frost the theme explained to them was about bittersweet love and the hardships felt being in a relationship . Madonna , Frost and Harry sat together with this idea and brainstormed and came up with the lyrics and the melody . Over time , Madonna changed the structure of the song and the final version was ready for recording . Madonna recalled :
" [ Guy Oseary ] harangued me for the entire time I was filming and editing my movie to write a song . And I said , ' Please , Guy , I 'm trying to focus on being a director and I want people to pay attention to the film and I don 't have time . ' So then I finished the film and I started making my record and somehow magically and miraculously the song emerged , ' Masterpiece , ' so thank you , Guy Oseary , for being so irritating . "
= = Recording and composition = =
" Masterpiece " is a midtempo pop ballad featuring basic recording and production by Orbit . It was recorded in two locations , 3 : 20 Studios , Los Angeles , California and MSR Studios , New York , New York . Madonna reflected on the recording sessions with Orbit : " We 've worked on stuff for so many years that we kind of finish each other 's sentences . He knows my taste and what I like . Magic happens when we get into a recording studio together . " Additional production came from Harry , who also played acoustic guitars , keyboards , vocoder and did the programming for the track . Demacio " Demo " Castellon mixed and engineered the song with help from Frank Filipetti , while Angie Teo did additional engineering and editing . Other personnel working on " Masterpiece " was Ron Taylor who did protools editing and further editing from Stephen " The Koz " Kozmeniuk .
In " Masterpiece " , Madonna sings about the pain of being in love with someone who is a great work of art , with the lyrics including " If you were the Mona Lisa , You 'd be hanging in the Louvre , Everyone would come to see you , You 'd be impossible to move . " Madonna said the song describes Wallis Simpson and is " about a woman who has fallen in love with this untouchable thing , this man that was raised to be king . One of the lines of the song ' it must be so hard to always be the chosen one . ' At the end of the day nothing is indestructible , no matter how high you might rise in the world you are still a human being . " Marc Schneider from Billboard described " Masterpiece " as a slowed @-@ down , moody ballad that showcases strong execution of vocals from Madonna . He described the production as " simple , direct and reminiscent of her sound in the 1990s " . The lyrics were described as emotional , and was comparable to the film 's love story , with the chorus as follows : " And I 'm right by your side , Like a thief in the night , I stand in front of a masterpiece . And I can 't tell you why it hurts so much to be in love with a masterpiece . ' Cause after all , nothing 's indestructible " .
= = Critical response = =
" Masterpiece " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Bradley
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referred to the city 's Inspector General . The program was overhauled in 2004 , and phased out in 2005 .
= = = = Daley patronage chief among officials convicted of fraud = = = =
On July 5 , 2006 , Robert Sorich , formally , director of the Mayor 's Office of Intergovernmental Affairs and , informally , Daley 's patronage chief , and Timothy McCarthy , Sorich 's aide , were each convicted on two counts of mail fraud connected to rigging blue @-@ collar city jobs and promotions . Sorich 's best friend , former Streets and Sanitation official Patrick Slattery was convicted of one count of mail fraud . A former Streets and Sanitation managing deputy commissioner was found guilty of lying to federal agents about political hiring . Sorich , McCarthy and Slattery lived in the Bridgeport neighborhood in 11th Ward , the Daley family 's home neighborhood and ward . " I 've never known them to be anything but hard working , and I feel for them at this difficult time , " Daley said . " It is fair criticism to say I should have exercised greater oversight to ensure that every worker the city hired , regardless of who recommended them , was qualified and that proper procedures were always followed , " Daley admitted a few days later . Weeks later , David Axelrod , a Democratic political consultant whose clients included Daley , defended patronage in an op @-@ ed in the Chicago Tribune .
= = = = Daley son concealed city contracting = = = =
Mayor Daley 's son Patrick R. Daley was an MBA student at the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business working as an unpaid intern at Cardinal Growth , a Chicago venture capital firm , when he profited from two Cardinal Growth ventures formed to win city contracts while concealing his role . Patrick 's cousin , and Mayor Daley 's nephew , is Robert G. Vanecko . In June 2003 , Patrick and Vanecko formed a Delaware company , MSS Investors LLC , and invested $ 65 @,@ 000 each . MSS Investors LLC in turn purchased a 5 % stake in Municipal Sewer Services , a Cardinal Growth venture . Patrick and Vanecko failed to disclosed their ownership stake in Municipal Sewer Services as required by city ethics ordinances . Brunt Brothers Transfer Inc. was one of the largest black @-@ owned contractors in the Hired Truck program . Municipal Sewer Services partnered with Brunt Brothers Transfer Inc. in their bid for City sewer @-@ inspection contracts . Five months after Patrick and Vanecko became owners , Municipal Sewer Services ' city contract was extended by $ 3 million , the first of two no @-@ bid contract extensions , totalled an additional 23 months and $ 4 million . Patrick and Vanecko cashed out their initial investment after about a year as the federal investigation into the Hired Truck program advanced . Patrick and Vanecko got a $ 13 @,@ 114 " tax distribution " in December 2004 . Patrick , then 29 and a recent University of Chicago MBA graduate , enlisted in the US Army . The day after the Mayor 's son 's and nephew 's hidden involvement in the city contract was disclosed by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Daley spoke at a Chicago police recruit graduation ceremony , then left for Fort Bragg , North Carolina to see his son deployed . Before departing , Mayor Daley read a statement to reporters , his voice cracking , fighting back tears ,
I did not know about [ Patrick 's ] involvement in this company . As an adult , he made that decision . It was a lapse in judgement for him to get involved with this company . I wish he hadn 't done it . I know the expectations for elected officials , their families , are very high — rightfully so — especially for me . ... Patrick is a very good son . I love him . Maggie and I are very proud of him . I hope you respect I have nothing more to say on this .
Mayor Daley also said he didn 't know if there were other city contracts involving the younger Daley . The city 's Inspector General and federal authorities began investigations in December 2007 . Patrick and Vanecko hired criminal defense attorneys . Municipal Sewer Services LLC folded in April 2008 . In January 2011 , Anthony Duffy , the president of Municipal Sewer Services , was charged with three counts of mail fraud in conjunction with minority @-@ contracting and Jesse Brunt and his company , Brunt Brothers Transfer Inc . , were indicted on three counts of mail fraud . Patrick and Vanecko were not charged .
In 2005 , Concourse Communications , another Cardinal Growth venture , signed a city contract for airport wi @-@ fi service at city @-@ owned O 'Hare and Midway airports . For years , the Daley administration maintained that Patrick had no financial stake in the deal . Concourse disclosed its investors to the city , as required , but Patrick was not reported . Patrick lined up investors for Concourse . On June 27 , 2006 , nine months after Concourse signed the contract , Concourse was sold at a 33 % profit to Boingo Wireless Inc. for $ 45 million . On June 30 , 2006 , Patrick received the first of five payments totalling $ 708 @,@ 999 . On December 3 , 2007 , shortly after Patrick received the last of those payments , Mayor Daley 's press secretary , Jacquelyn Heard said Patrick Daley " has no financial interest with the wi @-@ fi contract at O 'Hare . " The Chicago Sun @-@ Times editorialized , " ... the conflict of interest was blatant . "
= = = = Park Grill contracting scandal = = = =
In 2003 an operating company included over 80 investors , including some of Mayor Daley 's friends and neighbors won , under controversial circumstances , a lucrative contract to operate the Park Grill , the only restaurant in the new Millennium Park . In 2005 Daley criticized the deal , saying that the city wanted to renegotiate the pact . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times dubbed the Park Grill the " Clout Cafe " and included the contract award process in a year @-@ end review of 2005 Daley administration scandals . The contract was never renegotiated , and after Daley announced he would not seek a seventh term , the owners of the Park Grill sought to sell . Deposed in August , 2013 in Mayor Rahm Emanuel 's administration 's lawsuit to renegotiate the contract , former Mayor Daley responded " I don 't recall " 139 times .
= = = = Long @-@ term leases of public infrastructure = = = =
In January 2006 , Skyway Concession Company , a joint venture between the Australian Macquarie Infrastructure Group and Spanish Cintra Concesiones de Infraestructuras de Transporte S.A. , paid the City $ 1 @.@ 83 billion for rights to operate the Chicago Skyway and collect tolls for 99 years . The deal was the first of its kind in the U.S. In December 2006 , Morgan Stanley paid Chicago $ 563 million for a 99 @-@ year lease of the city 's parking garages . " I 'm the one who started talking about leasing public assets . No other city has done this in America , " Daley recalled in 2009 . Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning commentator George F. Will wrote of the deals in the Washington Post ,
Unfortunately , Daley 's theory — that it can be better to get a sum X immediately , rather than getting over many years a sum Y that is substantially larger than X — assumes something that cannot be assumed . It assumes that governments will prudently husband sudden surges of revenue from the lease or sale of assets .
= = = Sixth term ( 2007 – 2011 ) = = =
On February 6 , 2008 , the Chicago City Council approved , by a 41 – 6 vote , an increase in the city 's real estate transfer tax to fund the Chicago Transit Authority . Presiding over the meeting , Daley harshly chastized the dissenting aldermen . On March 15 , 2010 , Daley appointed two aldermen on the same day , bringing to 19 the number of alderman initially appointed by Daley .
= = = = More long @-@ term leases of public infrastructure = = = =
In September 2008 , Chicago accepted a $ 2 @.@ 52 billion bid on a 99 @-@ year lease of Midway International Airport to a group of private investors , but the deal fell through due to the collapse of credit markets during the 2008 – 2012 global recession . In 2008 , as Chicago struggled to close a growing budget deficit , the city agreed to a 75 @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 16 billion deal to lease its parking meter system to an operating company created by Morgan Stanley . Daley said the " agreement is very good news for the taxpayers of Chicago because it will provide more than $ 1 billion in net proceeds that can be used during this very difficult economy . " The agreement quadrupled rates , in the first year alone , while the hours which people have to pay for parking were broadened from 9 a.m. – 6 p.m. to 8 a.m. – 9 p.m. , and from Monday through Saturday to every day of the week . Additionally , the city agreed to compensate the new owners for loss of revenue any time any road with parking meters is closed by the city for anything from maintenance work to street festivals . In three years , the proceeds from the lease were all but spent .
= = = = Failed Olympic bid = = = =
In 2007 Daley entered into ten @-@ year contracts with the city 's labor unions to preclude labor unrest as Chicago launched a bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympic Games . For months in 2009 , Daley promoted the economic benefits of the proposal to the city and its corporate community . Many thought the games would be a capstone of Daley 's career . On October 2 , 2009 , in a major disappointment for Daley , Chicago was the first of four finalists to be eliminated during selection ceremonies in Copenhagen . According to a March 2011 report from the city 's Office of the Inspector General ,
By signing a 10 @-@ year ( contract ) with the Teamsters ( and with over 30 other unions representing city employees ) , the current administration and City Council unduly hamstrung not only the current management of city government , but the next six years of management as well , a period that extends well beyond the elected terms of the incoming administration and City Council .
= = = = Gun control = = = =
" If it was up to me , no one except law enforcement officers would own a handgun . But I understand that 's impractical , " Daley told attendees at a conference of gun control advocates in Washington , D.C. in 1998 , during his third term . Daley was a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition , an organization formed in 2006 and co @-@ chaired by New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg and Boston Mayor Thomas Menino . On January 17 , 2006 , during Daley 's fifth term , at a joint press conference with Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich calling for a statewide ban on semi @-@ automatic assault weapons , Daley said , " If we are really to make the progress that we want , we have to keep the most dangerous weapons that are right here off of our streets . "
The US Supreme Court took up McDonald v. Chicago , 561 U.S. 3025 , 130 S.Ct. 3020 ( 2010 ) , which challenged handgun bans in the Chicago and in the neighboring suburb of Oak Park . In May 2010 , Daley held a press conference to address gun control and a pending possible adverse decision in McDonald v. Chicago . After Mick Dumke , a reporter for the Chicago Reader , questioned the effectiveness of the city 's handgun ban , Daley picked up a rifle with a bayonet from a display table of confiscated weapons and told him , " If I put this up your butt , you 'll find out how effective it is . Let me put a round up your , you know . " The remark was voted " the stoopidest thing that Mayor Richard Daley the Younger has ever said " in an online poll by the Chicago Tribune .
On June 28 , 2010 , the US Supreme Court held , in a 5 – 4 decision in McDonald v. Chicago , that the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution was incorporated under the Fourteenth Amendment , thus protecting the right of an individual to " keep and bear arms " from local governments , and all but declared Mayor Jane Byrne 's 1982 handgun ban unconstitutional . That afternoon , at a press conference concerning the gun ban , Daley said ,
" We 'll publicly propose a new ordinance very soon ... As a city we must continue to stand up ... and fight for a ban on assault weapons ... as well as a crackdown on gun shops ... We are a country of laws not a nation of guns . "
Daley called a special meeting of the city council for four days later , and the Council approved a gun control ordinance revised to include city firearms licences .
= = = = Daley budget deficits and fund draw @-@ downs = = = =
Daley came into office in a city with revenue @-@ generating assets , manageable debt and flush pension funds , but he left behind a city with a structural deficit that Mayor @-@ elect Rahm Emanuel estimated at $ 1 @.@ 2 billion when under @-@ funded pension funds were included . The Daley administration 's expenditures exceeded revenues by hundreds of millions of dollars a year . In August 2010 , Fitch Ratings downgraded the city 's bond credit rating , citing the administration 's use of reserve funds for general operating expenses and under @-@ funding of its pension funds , and noted that the city faced rising fixed operating costs yet lacked plans for new revenue . Wall Street analysts noted that the Daley administration began drawing on the city 's reserves as early as 2006 , before the 2008 – 2012 global recession . " While there had been sound economic growth in years prior to 2008 , there were still sizable fund balance drawdowns in both 2006 and 2007 , " Fitch wrote . The city 's budgets continued to increase even after the recession began , to more than $ 6 billion a year , and , when under @-@ funded city employee pension funds were included , the city 's annual deficit exceeded $ 1 billion . In January 2011 , Moody 's Investors Service downgraded to a " negative " outlook some of the revenue bonds issued for the $ 15 billion O 'Hare Modernization Program and related infrastructure projects , citing the city 's plan to postpone repayment of interest and principal on some construction bonds .
In his annual budget address in City Council Chambers on October 15 , 2008 , Daley proposed a 2009 budget totaling $ 5 @.@ 97 billion , including not filling 1 @,@ 350 vacancies on the 38 @,@ 000 employee city payroll and $ 150 million in new revenue from a then @-@ obscure parking meter lease deal to help erase a $ 469 million budget shortfall . The Daley administration employed an in @-@ house staff of more than 50 public relations officers across City departments at a cost of $ 4 @.@ 7 million , and millions more on seven private public relations firms . " It 's worth it " , Daley said . On the first day of City Council hearings on Daley 's 2009 budget proposal , several aldermen questioned the administration 's public relations spending . On November 4 , 2008 , Jacquelyn Heard , the mayor 's press secretary , said the city would halt spending on 10 public relations contracts that could have paid as much as $ 5 million each .
In his annual budget address on October 21 , 2009 , Daley projected a deficit for 2009 of more than $ 520 million . Daley proposed a 2010 budget totaling $ 6 @.@ 14 billion , including spending $ 370 million from the $ 1 @.@ 15 billion proceeds from the parking meter lease . In his annual budget address on October 13 , 2010 , Daley projected a deficit for 2010 of $ 655 million , the largest in city history . Daley proposed a 2011 budget totaling $ 6 @.@ 15 billion , including spending all but $ 76 million of what remained of the parking meter lease proceeds , and received a standing ovation from aldermen .
= = = = Daley declines to run for seventh term = = = =
Daley 's approval rating was at an all @-@ time low of 35 % by late 2009 . On September 7 , 2010 , Daley announced that he would not seek a seventh term . " I 've always believed that every person , especially public officials , must understand when it 's time to move on . For me , that time is now , " Daley said . On December 26 , 2010 , Daley surpassed his father as Chicago 's longest @-@ serving mayor . Daley chaired his final city council meeting on Wednesday morning , May 11 , 2011 and his term ended May 16 , 2011 . Daley was succeeded by Rahm Emanuel .
= = = Legacy = = =
Daley was supported by Chicago 's traditionally Republican business community . He came under criticism for focusing city resources on the development of businesses downtown , the North , Near South , and Near West Sides , while neglecting neighborhoods in the other areas of the city ; in particular the needs of low @-@ income residents . According to Chicago Tribune columnist Steve Chapman , " Daley lasted 22 years in office partly because he resolved to ingratiate himself with black Chicagoans . He appointed blacks to high positions , stressed his commitment to provide services to all neighborhoods , tore down public housing projects , and pushed reform of the minority @-@ dominated public schools . " Daley focused on Chicago as a tourist destination as opposed to a manufacturing base , improved and expanded parkland , added flower planters along many primary streets , and oversaw the creation of Millennium Park on what had previously been an abandoned train yard . He spearheaded the conversion of Navy Pier into a popular tourist destination . Daley supported immigration reform , and green building initiatives , for which he was presented with an Honor Award from the National Building Museum in 2009 as a " visionary in sustainability . " Chicago avoided some of the most severe economic contractions of other midwest Rust Belt cities such as Detroit and Cleveland .
= = Post @-@ mayoral career = =
Days after leaving office , the University of Chicago appointed Daley a " distinguished senior fellow " at the Harris School of Public Policy . The five @-@ year , part @-@ time appointment includes responsibility for coordinating a guest lecture series . Weeks after leaving office , Daley joined the international law firm Katten Muchin Rosenman LLP , one of the law firms to which he had awarded no @-@ bid legal work as mayor . Katten Muchin Rosenman LLP had negotiated the city 's much @-@ criticized long @-@ term lease of its parking meters , parking garages , and the Chicago Skyway . Daley joined an exclusive speakers bureau , the Harry Walker Agency , that pays tens of thousands of dollars an appearance . Daley joined the board of directors of The Coca @-@ Cola Company . Daley is a managing principal of Tur Partners LLC , an investment firm , where Daley 's son , Patrick Daley , is a principal . The National Law Journal included Daley in its 2013 list of " The 100 Most Influential Lawyers in America , " based on " his political connections — the best in Chicago . "
= = Publications = =
Daley , Richard M. ( 2013 @-@ 02 @-@ 13 ) . " US Must Side with Its Young Not Its Guns " . Financial Times . Retrieved 2013 @-@ 04 @-@ 29 .
= Long Range Desert Group =
The Long Range Desert Group ( LRDG ) was a reconnaissance and raiding unit of the British Army during the Second World War .
Originally called the Long Range Patrol ( LRP ) , the unit was founded in Egypt in June 1940 by Major Ralph A. Bagnold , acting under the direction of General Archibald Wavell . Bagnold was assisted by Captain Patrick Clayton and Captain William Shaw . At first the majority of the men were from New Zealand , but they were soon joined by Southern Rhodesian and British volunteers , whereupon new sub @-@ units were formed and the name was changed to the better @-@ known Long Range Desert Group ( LRDG ) . The LRDG never numbered more than 350 men , all of whom were volunteers .
The LRDG was formed specifically to carry out deep penetration , covert reconnaissance patrols and intelligence missions from behind Italian lines , although they sometimes engaged in combat operations . Because the LRDG were experts in desert navigation they were sometimes assigned to guide other units , including the Special Air Service and secret agents across the desert . During the Desert Campaign between December 1940 and April 1943 , the vehicles of the LRDG operated constantly behind the Axis lines , missing a total of only 15 days during the entire period . Possibly their most notable offensive action was during Operation Caravan , an attack on the town of Barce and its associated airfield , on the night of 13 September 1942 . However , their most vital role was the ' Road Watch ' , during which they clandestinely monitored traffic on the main road from Tripoli to Benghazi , transmitting the intelligence to British Army Headquarters .
With the surrender of the Axis forces in Tunisia in May 1943 , the LRDG changed roles and moved operations to the eastern Mediterranean , carrying out missions in the Greek islands , Italy and the Balkans . After the end of the war in Europe , the leaders of the LRDG made a request to the War Office for the unit to be transferred to the Far East to conduct operations against the Japanese Empire . The request was declined and the LRDG was disbanded in August 1945 .
= = Formation = =
Before the war , Major Ralph Bagnold learned how to maintain and operate vehicles , how to navigate , and how to communicate in the desert . On 23 June 1940 he met General Archibald Wavell , the commander of the Middle East Command in Alexandria and explained his concept for a group of men intended to undertake long @-@ range reconnaissance patrols to gather intelligence behind the Italian lines in Libya . General Wavell was familiar with desert warfare , having been a liaison officer with the Egyptian Expeditionary Force during the First World War , and he understood and endorsed Bagnold 's suggested concept . Wavell assisted in equipping the force .
The unit , initially known as the No.1 Long Range Patrol Unit ( LRP ) , was founded on 3 July 1940 . Bagnold wanted men who were energetic , innovative , self @-@ reliant , physically and mentally tough , and able to live and fight in seclusion in the Libyan desert . Bagnold felt that New Zealand farmers would possess these attributes and was given permission to approach the 2nd New Zealand Division for volunteers ; over half the division volunteered . Two officers and 85 other ranks including 18 administrative and technical personnel were eventually selected , coming mostly from the Divisional Cavalry Regiment and the 27th Machine @-@ Gun Battalion . Once the men had been recruited , they started training in desert survival techniques and desert driving and navigation , with additional training in radio communications and demolitions .
The LRP could initially form only three units , known as patrols , but a doubling of strength allowed the addition of a new Heavy Section . In November 1940 , the name of the LRP was changed to the " Long Range Desert Group " ( LRDG ) , and the New Zealanders were joined by volunteers from British and Southern Rhodesian regiments . The British volunteers , who came mostly from the Brigade of Guards and Yeomanry regiments , were incorporated into their own patrols . The original patrol unit consisted of two officers and 28 other ranks , equipped with a Canadian Military Pattern ( CMP ) Ford 15 Imperial hundredweight ( cwt ) truck and 10 Chevrolet 30 cwt trucks . In March 1941 new types of trucks were issued and the patrol units were split into half @-@ patrols of one officer and 15 – 18 men in five or six vehicles . Each patrol incorporated a medical orderly , a navigator , a radio operator and a vehicle mechanic , each of whom manned a truck equipped for their role .
= = Patrols = =
The Long Range Patrol comprised a 15 @-@ man headquarters with Bagnold in command . There were three sub @-@ units : ' R ' Patrol commanded by Captain Donald Gavin Steele , ' T ' Patrol commanded by Captain Patrick Clayton and ' W ' Patrol commanded by Captain Edward ' Teddy ' Cecil Mitford . ' T ' and ' W ' Patrols were combat units while ' R ' Patrol was intended to be a support unit .
In November 1940 , the LRP was reorganised and re @-@ designated the Long Range Desert Group . It was expanded to six Patrols : ' T ' , ' W ' and ' R ' Patrols were joined by ' G ' , ' S ' and ' Y ' Patrols . Each patrol was expected to belong to the same regimental group , but only the Brigade of Guards and the Yeomanry regiments formed their own Patrols , ' G ' and ' Y ' respectively . The men of ' G ' Patrol were drawn from the 3rd Battalion Coldstream Guards and the 2nd Battalion Scots Guards under command of Captain Michael Crichton @-@ Stuart . The ' Y ' Patrol men were drawn from the Nottinghamshire Yeomanry under command Captain P. J. D. McCraith , with additional men from the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers and the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders . In December 1940 , ' W ' Patrol was disbanded and its personnel used to bring ' R ' and ' T ' Patrols up to strength , while ' G ' Patrol took over their vehicles . By June 1941 the LRDG was re @-@ organised into two squadrons : the New Zealand and Rhodesian ' A ' Squadron with ' S ' , ' T ' and ' R ' Patrols , and ' B ' Squadron with ' G ' , ' H ' and ' Y ' Patrols . There was also a Headquarters Section along with signals , survey and light repair sections . A Heavy section , initially equipped with four 6 @-@ ton Marmon @-@ Herrington trucks , was used to provide logistical support by transporting supplies to bases and setting up hidden replenishment points at pre @-@ arranged locations . In addition there was an Air Section , using Waco ZGC @-@ 7 and YKC biplanes which transported key personnel , evacuated wounded and performed other liaison tasks .
In August 1941 an artillery unit was formed to attack Italian forts more effectively . Initially it used a QF 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzer carried on a 10 @-@ ton Mack NR 4 truck , with an accompanying light tank as an armoured observation post . However , these were handed over to the Free French at Kufra . The unit was then issued a 25 pounder portee . After successfully attacking and capturing the El Gtafia fort , the truck had to be abandoned and the experiment ended .
= = = Squadrons = = =
In October 1941 the LRDG was expanded to 10 patrols by the simple method of splitting the existing patrols into two @-@ half patrols ; the New Zealanders formed A Squadron comprising ' R1 ' , ' R2 ' , ' T1 ' , and ' T2 ' Patrols and the British and Rhodesians formed B Squadron comprising ' G1 ' , ' G2 ' , ' S1 ' , ' S2 ' , ' Y1 ' , and ' Y2 ' Patrols . The ' H ' Patrol had been disbanded in September 1941 after three months service .
These two squadrons were joined in December 1941 by the Indian Long Range Squadron , which had been formed by volunteers from the 2nd Lancers , 11th Cavalry and the 18th Cavalry , all part of the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade . The Indian Squadron was organized along ethnic and religious lines with the first two patrols originally known as ' J ' ( Jats ) and ' R ' ( Rajput ) Patrols . Their designations were changed to ' I1 ' and ' I2 ' to avoid confusion . In October 1942 two further Indian patrols were formed : ' M ' ( Muslim ) and ' S ' ( Sikh ) Patrols , which became the ' I3 ' and ' I4 ' Patrols . No. 1 Demolition Squadron , commanded by Major Vladimir ' Popski ' Peniakoff , was briefly attached to the LRDG from December 1942 .
The vehicles of each patrol adopted their own markings . The New Zealand ' R ' Patrol used a green Hei @-@ tiki with a red tongue painted on the right side of the bonnet of the vehicle and on the left they put a Māori place name beginning with the letter ' R ' ( for example , ' Rotowaro ' ) . The ' T ' Patrol vehicles had a black Kiwi over green ' grass ' and a Māori name starting with ' Te ' ( for example , ' Te Anau ' ) in the corresponding places . The ' W ' Patrol vehicles had a Māori name or word starting with ' W ' painted on their vehicles .
The British ' G ' Patrol vehicles carried no distinctive markings , although some vehicles had the Guards insignia . They took over ' W ' Patrol 's vehicles when that unit was disbanded . The ' Y ' Patrol vehicles were slightly different ; ' Y1 ' half @-@ patrol vehicles all had names of famous drinking establishments ( such as ' Cock O ’ The North ' ) and ' Y2 ' half @-@ patrol had names from the Three Musketeers books ( for example , ' Aramis ' ) on the left side of their vehicle bonnets . The Headquarters Section used a sequence of letters arranged in a square ( see photo of " Louise " ) . The Rhodesian ' S ' Patrol vehicles had names with a Rhodesian connection ( such as ' Salisbury ' ) painted on the left side of the vehicles ' bonnets . By 1943 the practice of naming replacement vehicles was dropped .
= = Equipment = =
= = = Vehicles = = =
The LRDG vehicles were mainly two wheel drive , chosen because they were lighter and used less fuel than four wheel drive . They were stripped of all non @-@ essentials , including doors , windscreens and roofs . They were fitted with a bigger radiator , a condenser system , built up leaf springs for the harsh terrain , wide , low pressure desert tyres , sand mats and channels , plus map containers and a sun compass devised by Bagnold . Wireless trucks had special compartments built into the bodywork to house wireless equipment . Initially the LRDG patrols were equipped with one Canadian Military Pattern ( CMP ) Ford 15 cwt F15 truck for the commander , while the rest of the patrol used up to 10 Chevrolet 30 cwt WB trucks . From March 1941 the 30 cwt Chevrolets were replaced by the CMP Ford 30 cwt F30 , although in some ways this was a retrograde step ; because they were four wheel drive and heavier than the Chevrolets , they used twice as much fuel , which in turn reduced the range of a patrol . From March 1942 the Fords were progressively replaced by 200 Canadian Chevrolet 1533 X2 30 cwts which had been specially ordered for the LRDG . From July 1942 Willys Jeeps began to be issued for the patrol commander and patrol sergeant .
= = = Weapons = = =
The patrol vehicles were initially armed with 11 Lewis machine guns , four Boys anti @-@ tank rifles and a Bofors 37 mm anti @-@ tank gun distributed amongst their vehicles . By December 1940 , the vehicle armaments had been improved and ' T ' Patrol , for example , had five .303 Vickers Medium Mk . I machine guns , five Lewis guns , four Boys anti @-@ tank guns and the Bofors 37 mm . Another Vickers gun used was the heavy Vickers .50 machine gun , which would be mounted at the rear of the vehicle . All of the unit 's vehicles were armed with at least one gun ; each vehicle was fitted with six to eight gun mountings , but normally only two or three of them would be in use .
Supplementing their army @-@ supplied weapons , the LRDG was equipped with surplus Royal Air Force ( RAF ) aircraft guns which were acquired for their high rate of fire . The most widely used of these was the Vickers K machine gun , which was sometimes used mounted in pairs . From mid @-@ 1941 the LRDG acquired .303 Browning Mk II 's from RAF stocks , also mounted in pairs , with a combined rate of fire of 2 @,@ 400 rounds per minute . When new vehicles were issued in March 1942 , several were converted to carry captured dual @-@ purpose 20 mm Breda Model 35s , which replaced the Bofors 37 mm , and each half @-@ patrol was equipped with one Breda " Gun truck " . In September 1942 the .50 Browning AN / M2 heavy machine gun began to replace both calibres of the Vickers machine guns and the Boys anti @-@ tank rifle .
The men of the LRDG carried the standard British Second World War small arms , the Short Magazine Lee – Enfield ( SMLE ) No.1 Mk III * being the primary rifle . Other small arms carried were Thompson submachine guns and .38 Enfield , Webley & Scott or .45 Colt 1911A1 pistols . Several types of hand grenade were used : the Mills bomb , No. 68 Anti @-@ tank and No. 69 's . Each truck was outfitted with a Lee – Enfield EY rifle attachment with a discharger cup able to fire the No. 36M Mills rifle grenade . The LRDG also laid land mines , the most common being the Mk 2 mine . Other explosives used are the Lewes bombs , a custom made weapon using Nobel 808 , were used to destroy aircraft and other targets , and sticky bombs used to destroy enemy vehicles .
Captured German and Italian small arms were utilised including the Beretta M 1934 , Luger P08 and Walther P38 pistols . The German MP40 submachine gun and MG34 , MG42 along with Italian Breda M37 and Breda M38 machine guns were all used .
= = = Communications = = =
In the LRP most of the radio operators were New Zealanders , but the LRDG radio operators were all from the Royal Corps of Signals . These men were skilled in communications and were able to maintain and repair their equipment without any outside help . On only three occasions did a broken radio prevent a patrol communicating with its headquarters . All LRDG patrols included one vehicle equipped with a Wireless Set No. 11 and a non @-@ military Philips model 635 receiver . The No. 11 Set had been designed for use in tanks , and had transmitter and receiver circuits ; the Royal Signals expected to use the No. 11 set to transmit and receive between 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) and 20 miles ( 32 km ) with the use of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) or 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) antennas . The LRDG used Morse code for all transmissions , and were able to transmit over great distances using either a dipole antenna system attached to a 6 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 @.@ 9 m ) rod antenna mounted on the truck which was adequate up to 500 miles ( 800 km ) , or for greater distances , a Windom dipole system slung between two 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) tall poles . The disadvantage of using the Windom system was that it took time to erect and work out the correct antenna length , so it could only be used in a relatively safe area . To power the No. 11 set extra batteries had to be carried by the radio vehicles . The Philips receiver was used to monitor Greenwich Mean Time ( GMT ) time checks which was vital for desert navigation .
While on the move the lead vehicles of the patrol commanders and sergeants flew a small flag . Because the LRP was organised on divisional cavalry lines the leaders carried green flags for ' A ' ( HQ ) Troop , black for ' B ' Troop , yellow for ' C ' Troop and red for ' D ' . When the LRDG was organised into 11 vehicle patrols this was simplified to a green flag displaying the patrol letter in white ; the later half @-@ patrols used a plain green flag on occasion . When it became necessary to change course from an intended route , or in the event of enemy action , patrol movements were controlled by a simple semaphore flag system using blue and white signal flags , or hand signals , depending on how widely dispersed the trucks were .
= = = Navigation = = =
All trucks of the LRDG were equipped with the Bagnold sun compass and some trucks were also equipped with a P8 Tank Compass . Each patrol had a navigator who always rode in the second truck in the formation . He was equipped with a theodolite and astronomical position tables with which to plot star sightings , and maps . Watches were used and adjusted each evening using the GMT time check . One major problem faced early on by the LRDG was a lack of accurate maps for Libya in particular . Patrols had to do their own surveys and make their own maps of each route they took . In July 1941 the Survey Section was formed to carry out this task .
= = History = =
The LRDG area of operations between 1940 – 1943 was the Libyan desert , which stretches about 930 miles ( 1 @,@ 500 km ) south from the Mediterranean to the Tibesti and the Jebel Uweinat mountains , and about 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) from the Nile valley in the east to the mountains of Tunisia and Algeria in the west . Paved roads were non @-@ existent and only small tracks and pathways crossed the area . The daytime temperatures could reach 60 ° C ( 140 ° F ) and at night drop below freezing . The only water in the area is found in a number of small oases , which is also where the only vegetation grows .
The first LRP patrol began during the Italian invasion of Egypt . ' W ' Patrol commanded by Captain Mitford set out on 15 September 1940 to carry out a reconnaissance of Kufra and Uweinat . Finding no trace of the Italians , they turned south and attacked fuel dumps , aircraft and an Italian convoy carrying supplies to Kufra . ' T ' Patrol , commanded by Captain Clayton , reconnoitred the main route between Kufra and Uweinat , then drove south to meet up with ' W ' Patrol ; both units returned to base , having captured two Italian trucks and official mail . The Italian response to these raids was to reduce their front line forces and increase the number of troops garrisoning the area from 2 @,@ 900 men in September to 5 @,@ 500 by November 1940 . On 27 December 1940 , ' G ' and ' T ' Patrols left Cairo and crossed the desert to northwest of Kufra . On arrival they met with representatives from the Free French forces in Chad , and on 11 January carried out a joint raid on the Italian fort at Murzuk . After two hours ' fighting the fort remained in Italian hands , but the adjoining airfield had been destroyed . The units then withdrew southwards towards the Free French post at Zouar .
On 31 January they were intercepted by the Compagnia Autosahariana di Cufra , an Italian unit similar to the LRDG , in the Gebel Sherif valley . The LRDG had one man killed and three men captured , including Major Clayton , and three trucks destroyed during the battle . The Italians losses were five killed and three wounded , and one truck was abandoned . Four members of the LRDG escaped by walking 200 miles ( 320 km ) to safety in ten days with no food and only a two gallon water can between them . The patrol arrived back in Egypt on 9 February ; it had covered about 4 @,@ 500 miles ( 7 @,@ 200 km ) , experiencing the loss of six trucks , four by enemy action and two by mechanical breakdowns . One vehicle with a broken rear axle had been towed about 900 miles ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) before it could be repaired . Total casualties were three dead and three captured . Major Clayton was awarded the Distinguished Service Order .
After Operation Compass ended with the Italians forced out of Cyrenaica it was decided to move the LRDG from Cairo to Kufra ( SE Libya ) . At the same time the LRDG was expanded with the addition of ' Y ' and ' S ' Patrols . When the German Afrika Korps under command of General Erwin Rommel counterattacked in April 1941 , the LRDG was ordered to reinforce the Kufra area . ' R ' Patrol were based at Taiserbo , ' S ' Patrol at Zighen , and the headquarters LRDG , ' T ' Patrol , and the Free French were at Kufra , under command of Bagnold . The detached ' G ' and ' Y ' Patrols were based at Siwa Oasis , under command of XIII Corps .
The LRDG air link was created during the occupation of Kufra by Major Guy Lenox Prendergast . Appreciating the value of aircraft for reconnaissance , liaison , evacuating wounded and flights to GHQ Cairo , he had two Waco aircraft fitted with long range fuel tanks . Prendergast flew one himself and Sergeant R. F. T. Barker flew the other . When Bagnold was appointed to the General Staff Cairo in August 1941 , Prendergast was given command of the LRDG .
The LRDG now began a series of patrols behind the Axis lines . Near the end of July ' T ' Patrol left for the desert to the south of the Gulf of Sirte . One ' T ' Patrol truck managed to observe the main coastal road , along which Axis traffic was passing . They were followed two or three weeks later by ' S ' Patrol , who carried out a similar reconnaissance between Jalo oasis and Agedabia . Both patrols returned safely to Kufra without being discovered . In August 1941 ' R ' Patrol relieved ' G ' and ' Y ' Patrols at Siwa and was joined by ' T ' Patrol in October .
= = = Eighth Army command = = =
In November 1941 the LRDG , now under command of the newly formed Eighth Army , moved from Kufra to Siwa ( central Libya ) . The patrols were given the task of watching the desert tracks south of Jebel Akhdar and report any signs of reinforcements and withdrawals . ' R1 ' Patrol was to pick up Captain David Stirling and 30 men who had parachuted behind the lines to raid airfields to the west of Tobruk . Only 21 men arrived at the rendezvous and were returned to the British lines , later becoming the nucleus of the Special Air Service ( SAS ) . One of the other roles assigned to the LRDG was to transport SAS units behind enemy lines ; this continued until the SAS were issued with their own transport in 1942 . In early November ' T2 ' Patrol took four British officers to the Gebel and was to return and collect them three weeks later . The officers were the advance land party of Operation Flipper which had planned to kill General Rommel .
On 24 November , in support of Operation Crusader , the LRDG were ordered to attack Axis rear areas . Already on patrol , ' Y1 ' and ' Y2 ' Patrols attacked targets in the Mechili , Derna and Gazala area . ' Y1 ' damaged fifteen vehicles in a transport park and ' Y2 ' captured a small fort and about 20 Italians . ' S2 ' and ' R2 ' Patrols attacked targets in the Benghazi , Barce and Marawa area , where they ambushed nine vehicles . ' G1 ' and ' G2 ' Patrols were assigned the main road near Agedabia where ' G1 ' made two attacks on road traffic and shot up a few vehicles . After the Axis forces withdrew from Cyrenaica the LRDG moved to a base at Jalo oasis , about 140 miles ( 230 km ) to the south @-@ south @-@ east of Ajdabiya .
The last operations of 1941 were in December , when the LRDG twice ferried the SAS to and from raids on Axis airfields , attacking the airfields at Sirte ( twice ) , El Agheila , Ajdabiya , Nofaliya and Tamit , and destroying 151 aircraft and 30 vehicles . During the second raid at Sirte , the SAS devised a new method of attacking parked aircraft . They drove the LRDG trucks between the rows of aircraft , which were then engaged by machine guns and hand grenades . Prior to this the procedure had been to quietly infiltrate an airfield and place Lewes bombs on aircraft and vehicles , leaving before the bombs exploded , but this attack was so successful that it became the preferred method for attacking airfields .
= = = Road watch = = =
When the LRDG was based at Siwa , they took part in what has since became known as the ' Road Watch ' along the Via Balbia ( the Tripoli to Benghazi road ) . Three patrols were engaged on road watch duties at any one time , with one watching the road for a week to 10 days , another would be en route to relieve them and the third was returning to Siwa after having been relieved . The site of the road watch was about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the Marble Arch monument . The road watch patrol would park about 2 miles away from the road and the trucks would be camouflaged using camouflage nets , any local foliage and sand . Before dawn each day two men would move into a well camouflaged position about 350 yards ( 320 m ) from the road . By day they would record the details of all vehicles and troop movements , and at night they would move to about 30 yards ( 27 m ) from the road and guess what type of vehicles were passing by their sound and outline . At daylight they were relieved by another pair of men who took over that day 's road watch . If tanks or a large number of troops were seen passing they would radio the LRDG headquarters at Siwa immediately so that by the time the enemy reached the front line , GHQ at Cairo would know they were coming . Once a patrol was relieved they would transmit details of all they had seen back to Siwa . The LRDG did not lose any men or vehicles when on the road watch , but they did have some close encounters . On 21 March ' R1 ' Patrol was surrounded by a convoy of 27 vehicles and about 200 men who stopped for the night between the watchers and their vehicles . While the road watch was ongoing , other patrols would be attacking targets along other stretches of the Tripoli to Benghazi road , by planting mines or attacking vehicles with machine gun fire . The road was kept under constant observation around the clock from 2 March to 21 July 1942 .
After the Battle of Gazala and the fall of Tobruk the LRDG were forced to withdraw from Siwa on 28 June . ' A ' Squadron withdrew to Cairo to resupply and then moved back to Kufra , while ' B ' Squadron moved to Faiyum .
= = = Barce = = =
With the Eighth Army now holding the El Alamein line , plans were submitted to attack the Axis supply lines and the ports of Benghazi and Tobruk . In September 1942 , British Commandos would attack Tobruk by land and sea ( Operation Agreement ) . The SAS would attack Benghazi ( Operation Bigamy ) and the Sudan Defence Force would capture Jalo oasis ( Operation Nicety ) . The LRDG would be used to guide the attacking forces to their targets and at the same time , a LRDG force would attack Barce ( Operation Caravan ) . The Barce force consisted of 17 vehicles and 47 men of ' G1 ' and ' T1 ' Patrols , which had to travel 1 @,@ 155 miles ( 1 @,@ 859 km ) to reach their target . On arrival ' T1 ' Patrol attacked the airfield and ' G1 ' the Barce barracks . The attack on the airfield destroyed 35 aircraft according to an Italian prisoner of war . Official Italian figures quote 16 aircraft destroyed and seven damaged .
On 30 September 1942 , the LRDG ceased to be under command of the Eighth Army and came under direct command of GHQ Middle East . The final LRDG operation in North Africa was in Tunisia during the Mareth Offensive when they guided the 2nd New Zealand Division around the Mareth Line in March 1943 .
= = = Post 1943 operations = = =
In May 1943 the LRDG was sent to Lebanon to retrain in mountain warfare . However , following the Italian armistice in 1943 , they were sent to Leros , one of the Dodecanese islands , to serve as normal infantry . They later took part in the Battle of Leros , where the commanding officer John Richard Easonsmith was killed and replaced by David Lloyd Owen . After the battle the last New Zealanders , two officers and approximately 46 men , were withdrawn from the LRDG and returned to their division .
In December 1943 , the LRDG re @-@ organised into two squadrons of eight patrols . Each patrol contained one officer and 10 other ranks . Major Moir Stormonth Darling was given command of the British Squadron and Major Kenneth Henry Lazarus the Rhodesian Squadron . Patrols were then parachuted north of Rome to obtain information about German troop movements , and also carried out raids on the Dalmatian Islands and Corfu .
In August 1944 , British Squadron patrols were parachuted into Yugoslavia . One patrol destroyed two 40 feet ( 12 m ) spans of a large railway bridge , which caused widespread disruption to the movement of German troops and supplies . The commanding officer Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Owen and a team of 36 men were parachuted into Albania in September 1944 . Their mission was to follow the German retreat and assist Albanian resistance groups in attacking them . In October 1944 , two British Squadron patrols were parachuted into the Florina area of Greece . Here they mined a road used by the retreating Germans , destroying three vehicles and blocking the road . Firing on the stranded convoy from an adjacent hillside , they directed RAF aircraft in to destroy the rest of the convoy .
After the end of the war in Europe , the leaders of the LRDG made a request to the War Office for the unit to be transferred to the Far East to conduct operations against the Japanese Empire . The request was declined and the LRDG was disbanded in August 1945 .
= = Legacy = =
The Long Range Desert Group was disbanded at the end of the Second World War . The only comparable British Army units today are the Mobility troops of the Special Air Service . Each of the regular army Special Air Service squadrons has a Mobility troop . Like the LRDG , they are specialists in using vehicles , trained in an advanced level of motor mechanics to fix any problem with their vehicles , and are experts in desert warfare .
The Long Range Desert Group are one of the Second World War units represented by the Special Air Service Association . Other wartime units represented include all the SAS regiments , the Special Raiding Squadron , the Special Boat Service ( Wartime ) , the Phantom Signal Squadron , the Raiding Support Regiment and the Greek Sacred Squadron .
The New Zealand Army erected a permanent memorial to the LRDG at the New Zealand Special Air Service barracks , in the Papakura Military Camp . On 7 August 2009 , two honour boards containing details of every New Zealand soldier who served in the LRDG were unveiled .
One of the LRDG 's Chevrolet WB trucks is displayed in the Imperial War Museum in London . It was presented to the museum by the LRDG Association , after being recovered from the Libyan desert in 1983 by David Lloyd Owen , by then a retired Major General and chairman of the Association . It is preserved in the condition in which it was discovered , rusted but largely intact .
= = Media appearances = =
Lost in Libya - In Search of the Long Range Desert Group ( 2009 )
In 2008 historians Brendan O 'Carroll ( New Zealand ) , Guno Goss ( Switzerland ) and Roberto Chiavetto ( Italy ) travelled to Libya to track down three LRDG trucks that had been abandoned in 1941 at Gebel Sherif , in Southern Libya , after the LRDG 's first encounter with their Italian equivalent , the Autosahariana . This 65 minute documentary traced their journey , and includes never before seen archival film of the LRDG in action . It was first aired on ANZAC day , 25 April 2009 on Television New Zealand .
= Music of Sesame Street =
Music has been a part of the children 's television show Sesame Street since its debut on PBS in 1969 . For the first time , music was used as a teaching tool on a TV program for children ; the songs written and performed on the show fulfilled specific purposes and supported its curriculum . The music on Sesame Street consisted of many styles and genres , but was consistent and recognizable so that it could be reproduced . The producers recorded and released dozens of albums of music ; many songs became " timeless classics " . In order to attract the best composers and lyricists , CTW allowed songwriters to retain the rights to the songs they wrote , which allowed them to earn lucrative profits . Sesame Street Book & Record , recorded in 1970 , went gold and won a Grammy .
Sesame Street 's songwriters included the show 's first music director Joe Raposo , Jeff Moss , and Christopher Cerf , and scriptwriters like Tony Geiss and Norman Stiles . Raposo and his musical team created a huge amount of music for the show , including dozens of unique songs per show . Raposo was inspired by the goals of Sesame Street , especially in the early days of the show 's production , and composed hundreds of curriculum @-@ inspired songs . Raposo won three Emmys and four Grammys for his work on the show . The " Sesame Street Theme " ( also called " Sunny Day " ) , which has been called " a " siren song for preschoolers " , was written by Raposo , director Jon Stone , and writer Bruce Hart . Raposo also wrote " Bein ' Green , " " Somebody Come and Play " and " C is for Cookie " . " Sing " became a hit for The Carpenters in 1973 . Moss wrote " I Love Trash " , which was included on the first album of Sesame Street songs , and " Rubber Duckie " , which was performed by the Boston Pops and hit # 11 on the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1971 , " I Don 't Want to Live on the Moon " and " People in Your Neighborhood " .
Artists like Barbra Streisand , Lena Horne , Dizzy Gillespie , Paul Simon , and Jose Feliciano have recorded Raposo 's Sesame Street songs . By 1991 , Sesame Street had been honored with eight Grammys .
= = Purpose = =
Sesame Street , from its earliest planning and development stages before its debut on PBS in 1969 , has used music as a teaching tool . The show 's creators recognized that children responded to commercial jingles , so they wanted to use their characteristics , which included repetition , clever visuals , brevity , and clarity , in what they presented to young viewers . For the first time in children 's television , the show 's songs fulfilled a specific purpose and supported its curriculum . The show 's creators understood that music and sound effects provided a direct means of teaching children basic skills , and that children learned more effectively when new material was accompanied by a song . Co @-@ creator Joan Ganz Cooney observed in her proposal for the new show , written in 1967 , that children had an " affinity for commercial jingles " , so many of the show 's songs were constructed like television ads . Critic Peter Hellman put it this way : " If [ children ] could recite Budweiser jingles from TV , why not give them a program that would teach the ABCs and simple number concepts ? "
The music on Sesame Street consisted of many styles and genres , but it retained its own distinctive sound , which was consistent and recognizable so that it could be reproduced . " There was no other sound like it on television " , Jon Stone , the show 's first director , said . Music was used to encourage children 's dual @-@ attention abilities by allowing them to attend to the show 's action even when not actively watching . In order to be effective , however , Gerald S. Lesser , who supervised research for Sesame Street , stated that because music and sound effects naturally evokes physical participation , they need to be carefully integrated with visual movement . As a result , the songwriters avoided pairing music with static visual presentations . Auditory cues in the form of music or sound effects signaled the entrance of a character or the end and beginning of a sequence .
The producers recorded and released its musical content early in the show 's history , to reinforce its curriculum lessons for children when they were not watching it , and for entertainment . Recording albums of the substantial amount of music written for the show , along with publishing books , was the first attempts to generate income and to fund the show and other projects of the Children 's Television Workshop ( the CTW , later renamed the Sesame Workshop ) , the organization that oversaw the production of Sesame Street .
Many of the songs written for the show have become what writer David Borgenicht called " timeless classics " In order to attract the best composers and lyricists , CTW allowed songwriters to retain the rights to the songs they wrote . For the first time in children 's television , the writers earned lucrative profits , which helped the show sustain public interest . Sesame Street Book & Record , recorded in 1970 , the first of dozens of albums made up of Sesame Street songs , was also the show 's first cast album . The album went gold and won a Grammy . The final track " Rubber Duckie " , written by Jeff Moss , was released as a single , appeared on the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 chart , and was nominated for a Grammy . The Boston Pops performed with the show 's cast in a television special that aired in 1971 .
= = Songs and songwriters = =
Sesame Street 's songwriters included the show 's first music director Joe Raposo , Jeff Moss , who Davis called a " gifted poet , composer , and lyricist " , and Christopher Cerf , who Gikow called " the go @-@ to guy on Sesame Street for classic rock and roll as well as song spoofs " . Scriptwriters like Tony Geiss , who wrote approximately 150 songs for the show , and Norman Stiles often also wrote their own lyrics to accompany their scripts .
Raposo was brought to Sesame Street by producer Tom Whedon , who was his friend and college roommate , and by Stone , who had worked with Raposo on other productions . Stone found Raposo 's music brilliant , melodic , and simple enough for children to recognize and sing with , but sophisticated . According to writer Michael Davis , Sesame Street 's signature sound grew out of sessions with a seven @-@ piece band consisting of a keyboardist , drummer , electric bass player , guitarist , trumpeter , a winds instrumentalist , and a percussionist . One of these musicians was drummer Danny Epstein , who became the show 's music coordinator in 1970 and performed for the show since its inception . Stone reported that a typical recording session with Raposo , which would often last three days , was " an on @-@ the @-@ fly , off @-@ the @-@ cuff experience " .
Raposo and his musical team created a huge amount of music in order to accompany 130 episodes a year , which often
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and the two Somersets — received Lycett Green and the other accusers . After hearing what they had to say , the prince dismissed all except Coventry and Williams , and called for Gordon @-@ Cumming , who told Edward that the accusation was " foul and abominable " ; the prince pointed out that " there are five accusers against you " . Gordon @-@ Cumming then withdrew while the royal party discussed what the next steps would be . He returned after half an hour to find just the two courtiers , who urged him to sign a document that they had drafted . Under pressure , and still denying the accusations , Gordon @-@ Cumming signed the document without knowing who else would sign it afterwards .
" In consideration of the promise made by the gentlemen whose names are subscribed to preserve my silence with reference to an accusation which has been made in regard to my conduct at baccarat on the nights of Monday and Tuesday the 8th and 9th at Tranby Croft , I will on my part solemnly undertake never to play cards again as long as I live . "
The courtiers took the document to Edward , who summoned the other members of the house ; he read the note to them and signed it , pointing out to everyone that the promise of secrecy was incumbent on all of them . He also added that Gordon @-@ Cumming was still protesting his innocence , despite signing a paper that " practically admitted his guilt " . The paper was then signed by the men present : the prince , Coventry , Williams , Wilson and his son , both Somersets , Lycett Green , Levett and Sassoon . Although the prince hoped that this would bring an end to the affair , Arthur Somerset pointed out that it would not remain secret . Edward asked him " not even when gentlemen have given their word not to divulge it ? " ; Somerset replied that " It is impossible , sir . Nothing in the world known to ten people was ever kept secret " .
On the advice of Williams , Gordon @-@ Cumming left Tranby Croft early the following morning , 11 September ; he left behind a letter to Mary Wilson apologising for his early departure , and one for Williams , again stating his innocence , but acknowledging that " it is essential to avoid an open row and the scandal arising therefrom . "
= = Developments : the path to the High Court = =
Once he was back in London Gordon @-@ Cumming received a response to the letter he had written to Williams . Signed by the prince , Coventry and Williams , the note advised him that " you must clearly understand that in the face of the overwhelming evidence against you , it is useless to attempt to deny the accusations " . Gordon @-@ Cumming wrote to Edward with a " final appeal to show how utterly it remains in your power to utterly damn , morally and physically , one who has ever been a loyal and devoted subject " : it went unanswered by prince and courtiers .
Instead of hunting big game abroad as he usually did over the winter months , Gordon @-@ Cumming remained in Britain , and spent time in London and at his Scottish estate . He was also seen in the presence of an American heiress , Florence Garner , and the two became engaged . On 27 December he received an anonymous message from Paris that read : " they are beginning to talk much here of ... your sad adventure ... They have talked too much in England . He sent the message to Williams and asked him to let the prince know the contents .
A fortnight later Gordon @-@ Cumming was informed by a lady acquaintance that the events at Tranby Croft were being discussed in London society ; he again wrote to Williams to inform him of developments and received an unsatisfactory response . Gordon @-@ Cumming then sent a telegram to the prince asking to meet and informing him that " information I have recently received to the effect that the whole story is the subject of comment at the Turf Club ... the promise of secrecy made has been broken by those concerned " . Although Edward acknowledged receipt of the message , he declined to meet . After the negative response from the prince , Gordon @-@ Cumming lost patience and decided to fight the situation . He released his fiancée from their engagement and then visited his solicitors , Wontner & Sons . Wontners had some knowledge of the law surrounding baccarat as they had previously been involved in the Jenks v. Turpin case .
On the advice of his solicitors Gordon @-@ Cumming obtained a written summary of events from Coventry and Williams , and informed his commanding officer , Colonel Stacey , of the situation . Stacey told Gordon @-@ Cumming that , according to Article 41 of the Queen 's Regulations , he should already have reported the matter . Gordon @-@ Cumming replied that because the prince had been involved , and because all present had been sworn to secrecy , he had been unable to fulfil the requirement of the Regulations . He then " placed his commission in Stacey 's hands pending the result of ... [ the ] action " .
As the matter involved the prince , Stacey consulted other officers in the regiment about what should be done , and found that opinion was divided between allowing Gordon @-@ Cumming to remain in the regiment while he defended himself , or removing him straight away . The Colonel @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Scots Guards , the prince 's younger brother , the Duke of Connaught , was also asked : according to Havers , Grayson and Shankland , the duke " insisted that Gordon @-@ Cumming must be crushed " . Stacey disagreed , and thought that the whole story needed to be brought out before such a decision was taken . He reported the situation to the Adjutant @-@ General to the Forces , General Sir Redvers Buller , and requested permission to let Gordon @-@ Cumming retire on half @-@ pay . Buller agreed to the request , but stated that if Gordon @-@ Cumming 's legal action failed , the permission would be reviewed . Stacey relayed the message to Gordon @-@ Cumming and told him that signing the note was an error : " Because you signed that document you will never put on a sword in the regiment . If you bring a successful action you will be allowed to retire : if you fail , you will be dismissed [ from ] the service " . The Duke of Connaught strongly disapproved of Buller 's decision , and he withdrew to Portsmouth , refusing to again be drawn on the affair , even after his brother requested further advice .
On 27 January Gordon @-@ Cumming made a final attempt to have the rumours scotched by instructing his solicitors to write to the two Lycett Greens , Stanley Wilson , Levett and Mary Wilson , to demand retraction of the accusation or face a writ for slander . On 6 February , with no withdrawal forthcoming , Gordon @-@ Cumming issued writs against the five , claiming £ 5 @,@ 000 against each of them .
On receipt of the writ the Wilsons consulted their solicitor George Lewis , who had also acted for the prince on previous occasions . Lewis briefed Sir Charles Russell to act as counsel for the defence , assisted by H. H. Asquith , the future Liberal Prime Minister . Wontner & Sons approached the Solicitor General , Sir Edward Clarke , to act as counsel on Gordon @-@ Cumming 's behalf . One of Lewis 's early concerns was to ensure Edward did not appear in court . If Gordon @-@ Cumming could be found guilty by a military tribunal , then the rationale for a court case would disappear . Lewis asked Coventry and Williams to raise the matter again with Buller , who rejected their entreaties . Buller explained his decision in a letter to the queen 's secretary , Sir Henry Ponsonby , writing that " I absolutely declined to take action against ... [ Gordon @-@ Cumming ] upon street rumours .
After Buller received a letter from Wontners confirming that civil action was taking place , he consulted the Judge Advocate General , who informed him that no military enquiry should take place while such a case was proceeding . Lewis then tried to persuade the Guards ' Club , of which Gordon @-@ Cumming was a member , to carry out an enquiry into the events , which would have negated much of the need for a trial . A vote of the members rejected the possibility , and the civil trial remained the outcome . The prince was furious with the Guards , and wrote to Ponsonby that " The decision of the Guards Club is a terrible blow to the Scots Guards ; and I feel most deeply for the officers who have the honour of their regiment so much at heart . "
Journalists drew their own conclusions from the manoeuvrings by the prince and his entourage , with the radical press quick to attack the attempts to avoid the scrutiny of a civil court . The Echo wrote that " The Baccarat Scandal is to be hushed up ... It is , no doubt , a very comfortable arrangement for all parties concerned " , while even The New York Times , normally sympathetic to Edward , foresaw political problems if the trial was prejudiced by such actions .
It was decided the case would be heard by the Lord Chief Justice , Lord Coleridge . His court at the Royal Courts of Justice , London , was converted to accommodate the case by raising the height of the bench and witness box and installing new seating . In May it was announced that the case would start on 1 June , and that entry to the court would be by ticket only .
= = Trial = =
The trial opened on 1 June 1891 . Ticket holders began queuing at 9 : 30 am , and the court was full half an hour before its 11 am start time . The prince sat on a red leather chair on a raised platform between the judge and the witness box ; his appearance was the first time since 1411 that an heir to the throne had appeared involuntarily in court . The Pall Mall Gazette stated that " the court presented an appearance which , save for the dignity of its own fittings and its rows of learned @-@ looking law books , might have been taken for a theatre at a fashionable matinée " , with society ladies watching proceedings with opera glasses or lorgnettes . The correspondent of The Manchester Guardian described the opening of the case as being " in the presence of a carefully selected and fashionable assembly " , while Clarke later wrote that " the court had a strange appearance . Lord Coleridge had appropriated half of the public gallery , and had given tickets to his friends " .
Clarke opened the case for the plaintiff , telling the jury that " It is a simple question , aye or no , did Sir William Gordon @-@ Cumming cheat at cards ? " After describing Gordon @-@ Cumming 's background and record , he explained the rules of baccarat , which he described as " the most unintelligent mode of losing your own money , or getting somebody else 's , I ever heard of " . Clarke also outlined Gordon @-@ Cumming 's coup de trois system of placing bets which , he explained , could have been mistaken by the inexperienced players as cheating , rather than a correct method of gambling . After his opening speech , Clarke then questioned Gordon @-@ Cumming , and his approach was to show that Gordon @-@ Cumming " was a man of honour who had been sacrificed to save the courtiers " .
After an adjournment for lunch Gordon @-@ Cumming returned to the witness box , where he was cross @-@ examined by Russell . During the session Russell provided a model of the table used and a photograph of the room , and questioned Gordon @-@ Cumming about the bets where cheating had been suspected . Russell also asked him about why he had signed the document agreeing not to play cards : Gordon @-@ Cumming stated that he had " lost my head ... on that occasion . If I had not lost my head I would not have signed that document " . Gordon @-@ Cumming 's cross @-@ examination ran into the second day , after which he was then re @-@ examined by Clarke ; his time in the witness box lasted until 1 pm . The Illustrated London News considered that " Gordon @-@ Cumming made an admirable witness ... leaning easily on the rail , his grey @-@ gloved left hand resting easily on the bare right , perfectly dressed , his tones equable , firm , neither over @-@ hurried nor over @-@ deliberate , cool , but not too cool " .
Gordon @-@ Cumming was replaced in the witness box by the prince . Examined by Clarke , he stated that he had not seen any cheating , and was ignorant of the accusations until he was told by Coventry and Williams . After 20 minutes of questions from both Clarke and Russell , the prince was free to depart . As the prince was leaving the witness box , a member of the jury put two questions to Edward : whether the heir had seen " nothing of the alleged malpractices of the plaintiff ? " , and " what was your Royal Highness 's opinion at the time as to the charges made against Sir William Gordon @-@ Cumming ? " To the first question the prince replied that he had not , although he explained that " it is not usual for a banker to see anything in dealing cards " ; to the second , he stated that " the charges appeared to be so unanimous that it was the proper course — no other course was open to me — than to believe them " . In comparison with Gordon @-@ Cumming 's performance in the witness box , Edward did not make a strong impression ; the reporter for The New York Times noticed " that the heir apparent was decidedly fidgety , that he kept changing his position , and that he did not seem able to keep his hands still ... Except to those near him , only two or three of his answers were fairly audible throughout the courtroom " . The Daily News agreed , and stated that the impression gained from the prince 's performance was unfavourable .
The court adjourned for lunch after Edward 's examination , and after the break Clarke called his last witness , Williams . Under Clarke 's questioning Williams confirmed that he had seen no actions by Gordon @-@ Cumming that he considered as unfair . After Clarke finished questioning Williams , Asquith cross @-@ examined the soldier for the remainder of the session ; after a brief re @-@ examination by Clarke , the day — and the case for the plaintiff — came to an end . The third day began with the opening speech for the defendants , after which Stanley Wilson took the stand for the remainder of the day , and on into the fourth day . Examined by Asquith , Stanley recounted seeing Gordon @-@ Cumming illicitly add counters to his stake twice on the first night and at least twice on the second night , although he could not remember the full details . When cross @-@ examined by Clarke he was not brow @-@ beaten by the lawyer 's questions , although Clarke made him appear " brash , conceited and callow " . Stanley was replaced in the witness box by Levett ; The Morning Advertiser considered that Levett " felt somewhat uncomfortable " appearing against Gordon @-@ Cumming , and reported that he had " described his position as an ' awkward ' one " . Despite his discomfort , Levett confirmed that on the first evening he had seen Gordon @-@ Cumming add counters after the hand had finished but before the stake had been paid . He was unsure of other details of the evening 's play , and had not witnessed anything on the second night .
Edward Lycett Green , described by Havers , Grayson and Shankland as " the emotional force behind the accusations " , was next in the witness box . Although Lycett Green had not played on the first night , Clarke considered him a potentially dangerous witness who was capable of giving vital evidence . Lycett Green stated that he had seen Gordon @-@ Cumming twice push counters over the chalk line when he should not have done so ; he had considered accusing Gordon @-@ Cumming at the time , but decided against it because he " did not like to make a scene before ladies " . At points in the examination by Asquith , Lycett Green contradicted the course of events outlined by Stanley Wilson — which Levett had also done — and on one point regarding a question the prince put to Levett ; his answer was " highly suspect " . Havers , Grayson and Shankland later wrote that " it is remarkable that he , the prime mover in the affair , seemed unable to say anything without qualifying it with some such remark as , ' I don 't exactly remember ' ... The hedging by the principal accuser certainly weakens the defendants ' case " . They also thought that " [ h ] is refusal to remember anything was obviously humbug , a deliberate policy " .
Lycett Green was followed into the witness box by his wife , and her testimony ran into the following day . Under questioning she confirmed that she had seldom played baccarat before ; although she had seen nothing untoward on the first night , she accepted her husband 's second @-@ hand version of events as the truth , but did not agree that as a result she had been watching Gordon @-@ Cumming . Although she " gave the most important part of her evidence with clarity and conviction " , and had impressed the public and press , according to Havers , Grayson and Shankland , she provided a different series of events to those outlined by other witnesses , although she stated that she thought she had seen Gordon @-@ Cumming illicitly add to his stake .
After Mrs Lycett Green had finished her testimony on the fifth day , her place was taken by Mrs Wilson . On examination by Russell , Mrs Wilson stated that she thought she saw Gordon @-@ Cumming cheat twice by adding additional counters to his stake . When Clarke cross @-@ examined her , he asked if anyone had placed a stake of £ 15 . Mrs Wilson stated that only her husband had placed such an amount , but Wilson had not played on either night as he disliked both the game and high @-@ stakes gambling . Havers , Grayson and Shankland consider it " rather shocking really , considering that she had sworn to tell the truth , ... to find her coming out with this ... lie spoken , apparently , with the complete self @-@ assurance that the other members of her family had shown " .
The final witness called for the defence was Coventry . He was one of the non @-@ playing members of the party who had witnessed no cheating , understood little about gambling and , as a non @-@ soldier , knew nothing of Article 41 of the Queen 's Regulations . When cross @-@ examined by Clarke , Coventry confirmed that as far as he was aware , the witnesses had all decided to watch Gordon @-@ Cumming 's play on the second night , despite their claims to the contrary .
As the defence closed , the Daily Chronicle considered " the obvious doubts which tainted the accusations of the defendants ... they and the Prince 's flunkeys all contradicted each other on material points " . Russell 's summing up for the defence took the remainder of the day and the court adjourned until the following Monday , when he continued . He referred to a possible thirteen acts of cheating that the defendants were alleged to have seen , and that " we have five persons who believe he cheated , swearing unmistakably they saw him cheat , and telling you how they saw him cheat " .
Once Russell had completed his speech for the defendants , Clarke gave his reply , which the Daily Chronicle considered to be " a very brilliant , powerful , wily and courageous effort " . Clarke pointed to the many inaccuracies in both the written statement prepared by Coventry and Williams , and in the memories of all concerned . He went on to outline that there had been celebrations at the races — the prince 's horse had won on the first day , and the St Leger had been run on the second — combined with the full hospitality of the Wilsons to consider : according to the court reporter for The Times , Clarke " alluded to the profuse hospitalities of Tranby Croft , not with any idea of suggesting drunkenness , but as indicating that the guests might not be in a state for accurate observation " . He also drew the jury 's attention to the gaps in the defendants ' memories , where they were so precise about some of their observations , but could not remember other , key , details . Clarke lampooned some of the involved parties , referring to Lycett Green as " a Master of Hounds who hunts four days a week " , while Stanley Wilson was a spoiled wastrel from a rich family who lacked initiative and drive . Above all , Clarke indicated , the defendants — with the exception of Stanley Wilson — saw what they had been told to expect : " the eye saw what it expected or sought to see ... there was only one witness who saw Sir William Gordon @-@ Cumming cheat without expecting it — young Mr. [ Stanley ] Wilson . The others were all told there had been cheating , and expected to see it " . At the end of his reply , Clarke 's speech was greeted by applause amongst those in the galleries . The British lawyer Heber Hart later wrote that Clarke 's speech was " probably the most conspicuous example of the moral courage and independence of the Bar that has occurred in modern times " , while Clarke considered it to be " one of the best speeches I ever made . "
The following day , 9 June , Coleridge began his four @-@ hour summing up . His summary was a response to Clarke 's , and he went through on a point @-@ by @-@ point basis to discredit the solicitor general 's speech , although in places his description " was directly contrary to the evidence " . Tomes relates that " many opined that the judge 's summing @-@ up had been unacceptably biased " ; Havers , Grayson and Shankland call Coleridge 's speech " biased " , while The National Observer considered it " a melancholy and flagrant violation of the best traditions of the English bench . " Some sections of the press , however , were more sympathetic ; The Pall Mall Gazette thought the summing up to be justified , while The Daily Telegraph thought Coleridge 's summary to have been " nobly comprehensive and eloquent ... he fulfilled his duty perfectly , displaying nothing but impartial desire for the truth " .
The jury deliberated for only 13 minutes before finding in favour of the defendants ; their decision was greeted by prolonged hissing from some members of the galleries . According to the historian Christopher Hibbert " the demonstrations in court were an accurate reflection of the feelings of the people outside " . The historian Philip Magnus @-@ Allcroft later wrote that " a storm of obloquy broke over the head of the Prince of Wales . It would be difficult to exaggerate the momentary unpopularity of the Prince " , and he was booed at Ascot that month .
= = Aftermath = =
Gordon @-@ Cumming was dismissed from the army on 10 June 1891 , the day after the case closed , and he resigned his membership of his four London clubs : the Carlton , Guards ' , Marlborough and Turf . Although he offered to break his engagement for a second time , he married his American heiress fiancée the same day ; she had stood by him throughout the scandal and the couple went on to have five children together . He retired to his Scottish estate and his property in Dawlish , Devon . He never re @-@ entered society and the prince " declined to meet anyone who henceforth acknowledged the Scottish baronet " . The leader in The Times stated that " He is ... condemned by the verdict of the jury to social extinction . His brilliant record is wiped out and he must , so to speak , begin life again . Such is the inexorable social rule ... He has committed a mortal offence . Society can know him no more . " None of Gordon @-@ Cumming 's close friends spoke to him again , although some relented after Edward 's death in 1910 ; Gordon @-@ Cumming remained bitter about the events until his death in 1930 . Clarke retained his faith in his client and , in his 1918 memoirs , wrote that " I believe the verdict was wrong , and that Sir William Gordon @-@ Cumming was innocent " .
Following the trial the prince changed his behaviour to some extent , and although he continued to gamble , he did so in a more discreet manner ; he stopped playing baccarat altogether , taking up whist instead . While he was unpopular at the end of the case , Ridley considers that the matter " probably did little serious damage to ... [ the prince 's ] standing " ; Havers , Grayson and Shankland agree , and write that by 1896 , when the prince 's horse Persimmon won the Epsom Derby , the prince " had never been more popular " . Matthew observes that it was only when one of the prince 's own circle of confidantes brought him to court that the newspapers would " seriously harr [ y ] him ... the British in the 1890s had no general wish to see their future monarch fail " .
The scandal and court case have been the subject of factual and fictional publications . Most biographies of Edward VII contain some details of the scandal , but the first book to cover it in detail did not appear until 1932 . This was Teignmouth Shore 's The Baccarat Case , published in the Notable British Trials series and incorporating a full transcript of the case . In 1977 Havers , Grayson and Shankland wrote The Royal Baccarat Scandal , which was subsequently dramatised in a play of the same name by Royce Ryton ; the play was first produced at the Chichester Festival Theatre . Ryton 's work was also broadcast in December 1991 as a two @-@ hour drama on BBC Radio 4 . In 2000 George MacDonald Fraser placed his fictional antihero , Harry Flashman , into the scandal in the short story " The Subtleties of Baccarat " , one of the three stories in Flashman and the Tiger .
= WrestleMania XI =
WrestleMania XI was the eleventh annual WrestleMania pay @-@ per @-@ view event held by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) at the Hartford Civic Center in Hartford , Connecticut on April 2 , 1995 .
The main event was a match between NFL linebacker Lawrence Taylor , who faced Bam Bam Bigelow as the result of an argument that took place between the two at the 1995 Royal Rumble . Taylor won the match , which led to Bigelow being kicked out of Ted DiBiase 's Million Dollar Corporation . Shawn Michaels faced WWF World Heavyweight Champion Diesel in a title match but was unable to win the championship . Jeff Jarrett retained his WWF Intercontinental Championship against Razor Ramon . Owen Hart and his mystery partner , Yokozuna , challenged The Smoking Gunns for the WWF Tag Team Championship and won the title belts .
The match between Taylor and Bigelow brought the WWF mainstream press coverage . The reactions to the match were mixed ; some people thought that Taylor performed surprisingly well for a non @-@ wrestler . Others thought that the WWF pushing a football player to defeat a wrestler made professional wrestling look bad . Reviews of the event as a whole have also been mixed , and the event has been called both the worst WrestleMania of all time and the event that saved the WWF .
= = Production = =
Special Olympian Kathy Huey sang a rendition of " America the Beautiful " during the event , replacing the advertised Fishbone band . Prior to Lawrence Taylor 's match against Bam Bam Bigelow , Salt @-@ n @-@ Pepa sang Whatta Man . Several other celebrities also had roles at WrestleMania . Nicholas Turturro , one of the stars of NYPD Blue , conducted interviews and served as a guest ring announcer . Jonathan Taylor Thomas of Home Improvement was a guest timekeeper for the match between Diesel and Shawn Michaels .
On September 30 , 1995 , a one @-@ hour special including the Diesel vs. Shawn Michaels match and the Lawrence Taylor vs. Bam Bam Bigelow match was broadcast on the FOX Network . At the WrestleMania weekend , the WWF also held its Fan Fest , a promotional event during which wrestlers interacted with fans and signed autographs .
The WWF released the event on VHS in North America in 1995 . The VHS version was then re @-@ released on March 2 , 1999 . The event was also released on DVD in North America as part of the WrestleMania Complete Anthology boxed set on November 1 , 2005 . In the United Kingdom , the event was released on VHS on July 10 , 1995 . Packaged together with WrestleMania XII , it was then released on DVD in the United Kingdom as part of the WWE Tagged Classics line on August 7 , 2006 .
= = Background = =
The most heavily promoted feud going into the event was between Bam Bam Bigelow and Lawrence Taylor . At Royal Rumble 1995 , Bigelow teamed with Tatanka in the final round of a tournament for the WWF Tag Team Championship . Bigelow was pinned at the end of the match , which led to the crowd heckling him . He responded by pushing NFL player Lawrence Taylor , who was sitting at ringside . Bigelow refused to apologize and instead challenged Taylor to a wrestling match . Taylor agreed and trained with WWF World Heavyweight Champion Diesel to prepare for the match . The storyline between Bigelow and Taylor brought the WWF much mainstream exposure , as the match was discussed by several news outlets .
The other main event at WrestleMania was a match for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship between Diesel and Shawn Michaels . Diesel had originally entered the WWF as Michaels 's bodyguard but later began wrestling and forming a tag team with Michaels . The pair held the WWF Tag Team Championship together in 1994 . At Survivor Series 1994 , however , Michaels accidentally kicked Diesel in the face . This led to an argument during which Diesel dissolved the tag team and vacated the championship . Three days later , Diesel defeated Bob Backlund to become the new WWF Champion . At Royal Rumble 1995 , Michaels won the battle royal main event , which earned him a match against Diesel for the title belt at WrestleMania .
The WWF Intercontinental Championship was also defended at WrestleMania . Jeff Jarrett , the champion , had been feuding with Razor Ramon , the challenger , for several months . At Royal Rumble 1995 , Jarrett was accompanied by The Roadie , who interfered on Jarrett 's behalf and helped Jarrett win the championship . To even the sides in the rematch at WrestleMania , Ramon was accompanied by his friend , the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid .
In a match for the WWF Tag Team Championship , The Smoking Gunns defended their title . Their opponents were Owen Hart and a mystery partner . Hart refused to tell anyone the name of his partner , which left the Gunns uncertain who they would be facing and led to much speculation about the identity of the mystery partner .
Bret Hart faced Bob Backlund in an " I Quit " match at WrestleMania . The feud began the previous summer , when Hart defended the WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Backlund . Backlund mistakenly thought he won the match and began celebrating , but Hart pinned him to retain the title . After the match , Backlund turned heel by attacking Hart . This led to a title match at Survivor Series 1994 , in which Backlund won the title from Hart . Although Backlund soon lost the belt , the feud continued and Backlund attacked Hart during Hart 's match at Royal Rumble 1995 .
Also at Royal Rumble 1995 , The Undertaker faced Irwin R. Schyster as part of The Undertaker 's feud with Ted DiBiase 's Million Dollar Corporation . During the match , King Kong Bundy , another Corporation member , interfered and enabled the Corporation to steal The Undertaker 's urn , which was said to be the source of his power .
= = Event = =
In the opening match , The Allied Powers ( Davey Boy Smith and Lex Luger ) faced the Blu Brothers ( Eli and Jacob ) . Smith started out on the offensive , but Jacob gained control with a running bulldog throw . The Blus capitalized on the fact that they are identical twins by switching places while the referee was not looking . Luger came into the match near the end and performed a running forearm smash on Eli . Jacob tried to throw Luger with a powerbomb , but Luger tagged in Smith , who performed a sunset flip to pin Jacob and win the match .
The second match pitted Razor Ramon , with the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid in his corner , against WWF Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett , who had The Roadie in his corner . Ramon took control at the beginning of the match by using power moves against Jarrett . Jarrett tried to leave the match , but the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid forced him back into the ring . Jarrett took advantage of one of Ramon 's mistakes to gain the advantage . He applied a sleeper hold on Ramon , who used his strength advantage to escape the move . After Ramon threw Jarrett , the Kid attempted to interfere but was kicked by Jarrett . Ramon jumped off the ropes to attack Jarrett , but Jarrett avoided the move and applied a figure four leglock on Ramon . Ramon reversed the move to place the pressure on Jarrett 's legs . He then threw Jarrett to the mat with a suplex from the second rope and prepared to execute the Razor 's Edge , his finishing move . The Roadie entered the ring and attacked Ramon , prompting the referee to disqualify Jarrett ; because titles cannot change hands on a disqualification , Jarrett retained his championship .
In the next match , The Undertaker faced King Kong Bundy . Ted DiBiase was at ringside holding the urn that his wrestlers had stolen from The Undertaker . Larry Young , a legit American League umpire , was the special referee for the match . Young 's storyline was as an out @-@ of @-@ work sports official because of the recently ended MLB Players Association strike and a lockout of the Major League Umpires Association umpires ( which led to the eventual dissolution of the MLUA in 2000 ; prior to the new union , umpires were split by league ) . The Undertaker took control at the beginning of the match by jumping off the top rope and hitting Bundy . He then performed several clothesline attacks on Bundy . Bundy responded with a clothesline that knocked The Undertaker out of the ring . Seeing DiBiase close , The Undertaker took back his urn . After The Undertaker returned to the ring , DiBiase called Kama , another Corporation member , to the ring . Kama stole the urn , and Bundy attacked The Undertaker in order to let Kama escape backstage . Bundy picked The Undertaker up and powerslammed him to the mat . He then performed an Avalanche splash to squish The Undertaker against the corner of the ring . The Undertaker was unharmed , however , and performed a powerslam and a clothesline on Bundy before pinning him to win the match .
The Smoking Gunns defended their WWF Tag Team Championship in the next match against Owen Hart and his mystery partner , who was revealed to be Yokozuna . The Gunns worked together to control the match at the beginning , but Yokozuna gained control by performing a leg drop on Billy Gunn . Hart attempted to perform a dropkick from the top rope but accidentally hit Yokozuna . The Gunns briefly took control until Yokozuna performed a belly to belly suplex and landed on Billy . He then performed a Banzai Drop , jumping from the second rope and sitting on Billy 's chest . Hart tagged in and considered performing the Sharpshooter submission hold ; instead , he pinned Billy Gunn to win the title belts for his team .
The next match , an " I Quit " match , took place between Bret Hart and Bob Backlund , with Roddy Piper as the guest referee . It was explained that , in order to win the match , a wrestler must force his opponent to say " I quit " into a microphone held by Piper . Hart attempted to perform the Sharpshooter early in the match ; when Backlund blocked it , Hart executed a figure four leglock instead . Backlund escaped the hold and began trying to injure Hart 's arm with an armbar hold . Hart then tried to attack Backlund in the corner of the ring , but Backlund moved and Hart hit his shoulder against the ring post . Backlund tried to perform the crossface chickenwing , his signature submission hold . Hart blocked him and performed the same hold on Backlund instead . Backlund made an unintelligible sound into the microphone , and Piper determined that he had submitted . As a result , the win was awarded to Bret Hart .
In the next match , which was for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship , challenger Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring by Jenny McCarthy and Diesel , the champion , was escorted by Pamela Anderson . Michaels relied on his quickness in the opening stages , while Diesel used his strength advantage against Michaels . Diesel threw Michaels out of the ring and onto the arena floor , but Michaels later performed a clothesline that knocked Diesel out of the ring . Michaels capitalized on his advantage by performing several aerial moves , including a flying crossbody , flying bulldog throw , and a diving elbow drop . He was unable to pin Diesel , however , so he performed a sleeper hold to wear Diesel down . They brawled outside the ring , after which Michaels performed a superkick , his finishing move , but Sid , Michaels 's bodyguard , had the referee distracted and unable to count the pinfall . Diesel recovered and controlled the remainder of the match with power moves before throwing Michaels to the mat with a Jackknife powerbomb and getting the pinfall victory .
The final bout of the event was the main event match between Bam Bam Bigelow and Lawrence Taylor . Bigelow was accompanied by the members of DiBiase 's Million Dollar Corporation : King Kong Bundy , Tatanka , Irwin R. Schyster , Kama , and Nikolai Volkoff . To prevent the Corporation members from interfering , Taylor brought several football players : Ken Norton Jr . , Chris Spielman , Rickey Jackson , Carl Banks , Reggie White , and Steve McMichael . Taylor gained the advantage early and performed a clothesline that knocked Bigelow out of the ring . Once he returned to the ring , Bigelow took control of the match by kicking Taylor repeatedly and performing a Boston crab submission hold to hurt Taylor 's back . Taylor got out of the hold and threw Bigelow with a suplex . Bigelow recovered and performed several headbutts on Taylor before executing a moonsault flip to knock Taylor down to the mat . Taylor began to take control of the match again , but Bigelow kicked him in the back of the head and then performed a headbutt from the top rope . Bigelow was unable to pin Taylor , however . Taylor climbed to the second rope , jumped off , and used his forearm to hit Bigelow . He then covered Bigelow to win the match .
= = Reception = =
The event was attended by 15 @,@ 000 fans , who paid a total of $ 750 @,@ 000 in admission fees . This was down from the previous year 's attendance of 18 @,@ 065 , but the decline could be attributed to the smaller size of the venue for WrestleMania XI . The attendance figure was also lower than the following year 's figure of 18 @,@ 852 fans at WrestleMania XII . The pay @-@ per @-@ view buyrate for WrestleMania XI was 1 @.@ 3 , which was lower than the 1 @.@ 68 buyrate for WrestleMania X but higher than the 1 @.@ 2 buyrate for WrestleMania XII .
Writing for 411mania , columnist Dustin James rated the event as the seventeenth best of the first twenty @-@ three WrestleManias . He stated that the event did not have any truly amazing matches but that Lawrence Taylor put on a solid performance . John Powell of SLAM ! Wrestling rated the event as the worst WrestleMania of all time . The specific concerns he mentioned in his review are Diesel 's championship reign and WWF allowing a football player to defeat a wrestler in what he describes as a " sham of a match " . In contrast , Pro Wrestling Illustrated columnist Dave Rosenbaum stated that WrestleMania " saved " the WWF in its feud with rival World Championship Wrestling . He argued that Taylor " looked like a pro " and contributed to an " incredible " match . He also observed that the tag team matches helped rejuvenate an area of wrestling that had been suffering in the WWF and that the match between Michaels and Diesel was a candidate for match of the year .
= = Aftermath = =
Shortly after WrestleMania , Diesel offered Shawn Michaels a rematch . Michaels blamed Sid for the loss and informed him that he would not be needed during the match . Sid got angry and attacked Michaels until Diesel saved him . Diesel and Michaels became allies once again , and they teamed up to win the WWF Tag Team Championship later that year . Diesel feuded with Sid and defeated him at the In Your House 1 and In Your House 2 pay @-@ per @-@ view events . The animosity lingered between Michaels and Sid , but they did not face each other to settle the feud until the September 11 , 1995 episode of Monday Night Raw .
Bam Bam Bigelow was embarrassed after losing to Lawrence Taylor . To redeem himself , he challenged Diesel to a match for the WWF Championship . During the match , Tatanka turned on Bigelow and caused him to get pinned . Bigelow was kicked out of the Million Dollar Corporation and attacked by DiBiase 's wrestlers . Diesel saved Bigelow from the attack , which led to a friendship being formed between the two . Bigelow defeated Tatanka in a dark match at In Your House 2 . At King of the Ring 1995 , Sid , DiBiase 's latest addition to the Corporation , teamed with Tatanka in a loss to the team of Diesel and Bigelow .
Razor Ramon and the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid were scheduled to face Jeff Jarrett and The Roadie at In Your House 1 the month after WrestleMania . The Kid sustained a legit injury , however , and was unable to compete . As a result , Ramon wrestled a two @-@ on @-@ one handicap match against Jarrett and The Roadie instead . Ramon won the bout , but the feud continued . At In Your House 2 , The Roadie faced the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid and defeated him . Ramon and Jarrett wrestled several times , and Ramon regained the Intercontinental Championship on May 19 , 1995 . He held the belt for three days before dropping it back to Jarrett .
After WrestleMania , Kama melted down The Undertaker 's urn and made it into a necklace . The Undertaker defeated Kama in dark matches at both In Your House 1 and In Your House 2 . He then won a casket match against Kama at SummerSlam 1995 to end the feud .
The Smoking Gunns were given a rematch for the WWF Tag Team Championship at In Your House 1 . Hart pinned Bart Gunn to retain the championship for his team . Hart and Yokozuna then moved on to face other competition , and the Gunns did not become serious contenders for the title again until late in 1995 , when they defeated Hart and Yokozuna to regain the championship .
= = Results = =
= Campus of University of the Philippines Los Baños =
The main campus of University of the Philippines at Los Baños ( UPLB ) is located in the towns of Los Baños and Bay in the province of Laguna , 64 km ( 40 mi ) southeast of Manila . The complex covers 5 @,@ 445 ha ( 13 @,@ 450 acres ) of land encompassing the entire Makiling Forest Reserve ( MFR ) and surrounding areas . Its land grants in the provinces of Laguna , Negros Occidental , and Quezon have a combined area of 9 @,@ 760 ha ( 24 @,@ 100 acres ) .
The campus contains over 300 buildings . Equipment and facilities are estimated to be worth ₱ 10 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 245 million ) according to UPLB 's financial statement for 2009 . The university manages eight student dormitories inside the campus , which housed 2 @,@ 170 of the 11 @,@ 980 students enrolled in 2008 .
As of 2007 , UPLB 's 12 libraries , collectively referred to as the University Library , hold a total of 346 @,@ 061 volumes . The University Library is a periodic recipient of publications from the United Nations agencies ( namely the UNFAO , UN @-@ HABITAT , and UNU ) and the World Bank . It is a contributor to the International Information System for Agricultural Services and Technology , to which it contributed almost 30 @,@ 000 titles between 1975 and 2010 .
= = History = =
The campus was established in 1909 on 72 @.@ 63 ha ( 179 @.@ 5 acres ) of abandoned farmland at the foot of Mount Makiling , purchased by the University of the Philippines ( UP ) Board of Regents to serve as the campus of the newly created UP College of Agriculture ( UPCA ) . Students helped clear the land , and the first classes were held in tents . Practical instruction was done at plantations on campus , such as those for corn , sugar cane and tobacco . Act 2730 of the Philippine Legislature in February 1918 authorized the appropriation of 379 ha ( 940 acres ) for the creation of an agricultural experiment station . At the same time , funding of ₱ 125 @,@ 000 ( US $ 2 @,@ 890 ) was used by the college to acquire 261 @.@ 76 ha ( 646 @.@ 8 acres ) for experimental farms and pasture .
Most of the early structures were demolished during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines ( 1941 – 1945 ) , but some still exist , including the Palma Bridge and Baker Memorial Hall ( both built during Dean Bienvenido M. Gonzalez 's term from 1927 to 1938 ) . All the student residences , 23 College of Agriculture buildings , 13 student dormitories and bungalows , and 22 faculty and employee houses were destroyed during the Second World War . The School of Forestry was also devastated . Only the agricultural engineering building was left undamaged .
Grants from USAID and Mutual Security Agency in the 1950s accelerated the development of the campus . The Graduate School building , the UPCA Library ( now College of Arts and Sciences building ) , and the Women 's Dormitory ( now the Math Building ) were built as a result . Meanwhile , grants from the United States Economic Cooperation Agency ( worth US $ 239 @,@ 552 ) , the International Cooperation Administration ( ICA ) ( worth US $ 175 @,@ 000 ) , and ICA @-@ National Economic Council allowed the construction of the Forest Products Laboratory ( claimed by Centennial Panorama : Pictorial History of UPLB to be the " largest and best equipped in the eastern hemisphere " at the time it was constructed ) in 1954 , the Agricultural Credit and Cooperatives Institute in 1957 , and further construction of school and dormitory buildings in the School of Forestry campus in the 1960s .
Aside from international assistance , five @-@ year development programs during the terms of Dean Domingo Lantican ( 1958 – 1971 ) of the School of Forestry , and Dean Dioscoro Umali ( 1959 – 1970 ) of the College of Agriculture were also instrumental in developing the campus . During the implementation of these programs , the administration buildings of the College of Agriculture and the College of Development Communication as well as staff houses and roads were built .
Since 2008 efforts have been put into renovation and beautification of existing structures to repair damage from Typhoon Xangsane in 2006 and to promote the campus as a " walking museum " and ecotourism center . Construction of an 11 @,@ 000 @-@ seater convention center and cable cars connecting the lower and upper campuses have been proposed as part of the ecotourism plan . Beautification projects include paving of pathways and construction of lampposts . Some students criticized the program , arguing that the funds would have been better allocated for the renovation of classrooms , laboratories , and other academic facilities .
A memorandum issued by Chancellor Luis Rey I. Velasco in 2010 instructed UPLB to conserve energy to reduce operating costs . The plan calls for reduced use of electric appliances ( such as air conditioners , electric stoves and ovens ) , car pooling , and recycling .
= = Areas = =
= = = Upper campus = = =
The College of Forestry and Natural Resources , College of Public Affairs , ASEAN Center for Biodiversity , National Arts Center , Philippine High School for the Arts , the site of the National Jamboree of the Boy Scouts of the Philippines , and the Center for Philippine Raptors are in the upper campus . It includes the entire 4 @,@ 347 @-@ hectare ( 10 @,@ 740 @-@ acre ) Makiling Forest Reserve . It is also the site of the Bureau of Plant Industry @-@ Makiling Botanic Gardens , one of the oldest parts of the campus . The gardens are located where the tents used as classrooms were set up during the first four months of the university 's history .
The MFR serves as an outdoor laboratory to students , primarily of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources . ₱ 5 million ( US $ 156 @,@ 000 ) was designated for its conservation and development in 2011 . The MFR was created in 1910 under the Bureau of Forestry . Jurisdiction over MFR was transferred to UP in 1960 . The National Power Corporation acquired complete jurisdiction of the MFR in 1987 as part of the Philippines ' energy development program under President Corazon Aquino . The MFR was returned to UPLB three years later under the terms of Republic Act 6967 .
In 2008 Representative Del De Guzman of the 2nd district of Makati filed HB 1143 , which , if passed into law , would have transferred 57 @.@ 77 ha ( 142 @.@ 8 acres ) of the MFR to the jurisdiction of the Boy Scouts of the Philippines . The bill was strongly opposed by UPLB , citing possible mismanagement and deforestation of the site if placed under the BSP , among other reasons . The bill has been pending in the House Committee on Natural Resources since August 2007 .
= = = Lower campus = = =
The 1 @,@ 098 @-@ hectare ( 2 @,@ 710 @-@ acre ) lower campus , located at the foot of Mt . Makiling , is the location of most UPLB units and affiliated entities , including the International Rice Research Institute , World Agroforestry Centre , and the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture ( SEARCA ) .
The Molawin River , a tributary of Laguna de Bay , runs through the campus . Several bridges , such as the Palma Bridge ( named after UP President Rafael V. Palma ) , cross the river . A 1996 UPLB study found high concentrations of nitrates and phosphates in the river , believed to be from decaying garbage and domestic waste . There have been recent efforts to rehabilitate the river , such as planting Mussaenda and Hibiscus on its banks .
= = = Land grants = = =
UPLB has three major land grants provided by the government of the Philippines : the Laguna @-@ Quezon Land Grant , the La Carlota Land Grant , and the Laguna Land Grant .
The 5 @,@ 719 @-@ hectare ( 14 @,@ 130 @-@ acre ) Laguna @-@ Quezon Land Grant , acquired in February 1930 , is located in the towns of Real , Quezon , and Siniloan , Laguna . It covers some portions of the Sierra Madre mountain range , and hosts the university ’ s Citronella and lemongrass plantations . The 705 @-@ hectare ( 1 @,@ 740 @-@ acre ) La Carlota Land Grant is situated in Negros Occidental , a province in the Western Visayas region . Acquired in May 1964 , it houses the PCARRD @-@ DOST La Granja Agricultural Research Center , which serves as a research center for various upland crops . The 3 @,@ 336 @-@ hectare ( 8 @,@ 240 @-@ acre ) Laguna Land Grant , located in Paete , Laguna , is mostly undeveloped .
Numerous parties have expressed interest in developing the land grants . Proposed projects include construction of dams and tree farms for Moringa oleifera , pineapples and rubber . UPLB has not entertained the potential investors due to the " lack of a solid development plan . "
= = Buildings and landmarks = =
Many of the prominent buildings in the campus were designed by Leandro Locsin , a National Artist for Architecture who is known for his extensive use of concrete and simplistic designs .
The Dioscoro L. Umali Hall , an auditorium named after Dean Dioscoro L. Umali , was built during Umali 's US $ 6 @-@ million and ₱ 23 @-@ million ( US $ 533 @,@ 000 ) Five @-@ Year Development Program implemented in 1965 . Arkitekturang Filipino , a collaboration of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts and the United Architects of the Philippines , calls it a " clear example of his distinct architecture " , and notes its resemblance to the Nicanor Abelardo Hall at the Cultural Center of the Philippines . It houses the Sining Makiling art gallery .
The Main Library , with a floor area of 6 @,@ 336 m2 ( 68 @,@ 200 sq ft ) and a seating capacity of 510 , is the largest library in UPLB . It holds 195 @,@ 282 volumes , theses , and digital sources , and 1 @,@ 215 serial titles . It was originally built as the SEARCA library in 1974 . It was eventually transferred to the university as the successor of the University of the Philippines College of Agriculture Library . It is believed to be the largest agricultural library in Asia .
The Rizal Centenary Carillon , built in 1996 , is named after Philippine National Hero José Rizal . It has 37 bells ranging from F three octaves below middle C up to G above middle C , making it the second largest non @-@ traditional carillon in the Asia @-@ Pacific region in terms of number of bells . It is one of only two non @-@ traditional carillons in the Philippines .
The Student Union Building houses the offices of the Office of Student Affairs , University Food Service , University Student Council , and UPLB Perspective ( the official student publication of UPLB ) . The Student Union , along with the three aforementioned buildings , was designed by Locsin .
A replica of the Oblation and the Philippine Pegasus ( also referred to as the Pegaraw ; a winged tamaraw ) were sculpted by National Artist Napoleon Abueva . The original Oblation is a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 11 ft ) statue by Guillermo Tolentino , Abueva 's mentor , commissioned in 1935 by UP President Rafael Palma . The sculpture is based on the second stanza of Rizal 's Mi último adiós ( Spanish for My last farewell ) . A replica of the Oblation can be found on each of the major UP campuses , and has become the campuses ' identifying landmark .
= = Transportation and amenities = =
Public utility jeepneys are a popular means of transportation around the campus . Jeepney drivers are required to post kanan ( Tagalog for " right " ) or kaliwa ( Tagalog for " left " ) , in reference to their direction . Since August 2007 a new jeepney route has been in force . The new route prohibits access to the middle campus — which contains most of the university 's main buildings — to promote walking and to lessen noise and air pollution inside the campus . As this part of the campus was the destination of many passengers , jeepney drivers estimated the change would result in a loss of ₱ 200 – 300 ( US $ 5 – 7 ) and a 90 percent loss of passengers . Due to this , the implementation was met with protests , including a transport strike . A walkout was staged by around 500 students , citing the lack of community consultation before implementation of the plan . The mayor of Los Baños refused to interfere .
The campus is also served by the UP Los Baños railway station operated by Philippine National Railways , although currently no trains stop at the station .
Numerous congregations can be found near UPLB . These include the Catholic parishes of St. Therese of the Child Jesus and San Antonio de Padua , the UCCP Church Among the Palms , and Victory Los Baños . Other amenities include banks ( including LBP , Plantersbank , and PNB ) and malls , such as Robinsons Town Mall Los Baños . Security is provided by the University Police Force and the Community Support Brigade in addition to the police force of the local government . Medical services are provided by the University Health Service , a 30 @-@ bed hospital with specialized facilities , such as a diabetes clinic and a neonatal intensive @-@ care unit , in addition to its emergency and operating rooms . It is identified as a " Center of Quality " by PhilHealth .
= The Warped Ones =
The Warped Ones ( 狂熱の季節 , Kyōnetsu no kisetsu , aka Season of Heat , Wild Love @-@ Makers and The Weird Lovemakers ) is a 1960 Japanese Sun Tribe film directed by Koreyoshi Kurahara and starring Tamio Kawachi , Eiji Go , Yuko Chishiro and Noriko Matsumoto . It was produced and distributed by the Nikkatsu Company . The story concerns the young hoodlum Akira , his friends , their transgressions and specifically their revenge on the couple that got him sent to jail , a reporter and his fiancée . When the fiancée finds herself pregnant by Akira she enlists his help with her finance who has become distant since the attack .
Often compared by critics to Breathless ( 1960 ) and Rebel Without a Cause ( 1955 ) , it is a stylistic departure from studio norms , driven by its jazz score and employing filmic techniques described as being as energetic and frantic as its characters . It achieved success in Japan and was followed by Black Sun ( 1964 ) , featuring many of the same cast , crew and characters , with the addition of acclaimed drummer Max Roach to the soundtrack . Audubon Films released The Warped Ones in the United States in 1963 where it was marketed as a sexploitation film .
= = Plot = =
Criminal and jazz aficionado Akira ( Tamio Kawachi ) and his prostitute girlfriend Yuki ( Yuko Chishiro ) are arrested when they are spotted fleecing foreigners in a jazz club by a reporter named Kashiwagi ( Hiroyuki Nagato ) . In jail , Akira meets Masaru ( Eiji Go ) and on their release they and Yuki resume criminal activities . They spot Kashiwagi and his artist fiancée , Fumiko ( Noriko Matsumoto ) , hit him with a stolen car and kidnap her . They take her to a remote beach where Akira rapes her while Masaru and Yuki fornicate in the ocean .
Soon after , the three rent an apartment with money earned from fencing the stolen car . Masaru and Yuki commit to starting a family , while he joins a yakuza gang , to the derision of Akira . Fumiko tracks Akira down and informs him that she is pregnant . Kashiwagi has become distant and haughty and she pleads with Akira for help . Akira arranges for Yuki to seduce Kashiwagi so that the couple might again be on equal terms . Masaru is killed by a rival yakuza . Yuki discovers that she too is pregnant but without Masaru 's support she resolves to get an abortion and resume her prostitution career . Akira and Yuki meet Kashiwagi and Fumiko by chance at an abortion clinic where Akira reveals that each woman was impregnated by the other man , to the amusement of the former couple and befuddlement of the latter .
= = Production = =
The Nikkatsu Company made three popular Sun Tribe films in 1956 , a genre based on a contemporary youth subculture whose interests revolved around beach life , jazz music and their progressive attitudes towards sex . The films met with moral public outcries and a fourth production was shut down at the behest of Eirin ( The Motion Picture Code of Ethics Committee ) . However , the genre later experienced a resurgence which included The Warped Ones . The film marked director Koreyoshi Kurahara 's first collaboration with screenwriter Nobuo Yamada . They reused a many elements of Kurahara 's earlier Sun Tribe film The Time of Youth ( 1959 ) , including abortion , a near fatality via an opened gas cock and a criminal act near water , an explosion beside a stream in the former and the rape on the beach in the latter .
Nikkatsu was promoting lead actor Tamio Kawachi as one of its Bad Boy Trio , along with Akira Kobayashi and Tadao Sawamoto . Kurahara asked him to think of his character as a " hungry lion roaring at the sun . " He turned in what writer Mark Schilling described as his most unusual , and one of his best , performances of the period . Supporting actress Noriko Matsumoto came to the film as a relative unknown . Hiroyuki Nagato had starred in The Time of Youth . Eiji Go was the younger brother of future Diamond Line star Joe Shishido . The film was completed on August 18 , 1960 .
= = Style = =
As writer Mark Schilling put it , " the soundtrack drives the action , " and composer Toshirō Mayuzumi 's jazz score moves swiftly . Cinematographer Yoshi Mamiya and editor Akira Suzuki employed swish @-@ pans , freeze frames and jump cuts , alternating between carefully composed shots and seemingly recklessly hand @-@ held camera work . The titular youths of the film too move violently and speak in grunts , screams , whistles and sound effects , Akira frequently greeting women with , " Wanna get laid ? " or Masura 's scat , " At @-@ tatatatatataaaaa ! " They are portrayed as amoral , impulsive narcissists and hedonists , pickpocketing and stealing cars with equal nonchalance . The antihero , Akira , described as possessing the " face @-@ rubbing mannerisms of [ Marlon ] Brando and the tortured swagger of James Dean , " varies between the sadistic and the indifferent — save when in a jazz @-@ induced fervor — and reaches extremes largely unseen in the contemporaneous cinema of the West . The film 's subject matter is sensationalistic and it contains much incident in its short run time . The overall style is matched to the characters ' verve and the story 's frantic pace .
While not portraying Akira sympathetically , the film does offer a socio @-@ political view on the origins and inevitability of such criminal types in society . The tenements in which the youths reside are depicted as inhospitable and sterile . Lacking education , proper role models and moral codes , critic Bryan Hartzheim posited , crime and base pleasures are their most open recourse . They seem aware of the injustices in their environments and rail against society at large . However , Akira is illustrated as being capable of innocent pleasure , particularly in one fleeting scene in which he and his black friend Gil ( Chico Rolands ) , whom he views as a fellow outcast , frolic in the ocean .
= = Reception = =
The Warped Ones was originally released in Japan by the Nikkatsu Company on September 3 , 1960 . The film was successful in Japan , although not so much so that Tamio Kawachi was ever elevated to major star status and after his " Bad Boy " period he was mainly relegated to second lead and supporting parts . In July 1961 , Arthur Davis ' newly formed , American , foreign film distribution company Kanji Pictures announced it had acquired ten Nikkatsu films for North and South American markets and parts of Europe . The films included The Warped Ones , Shohei Imamura 's Pigs and Battleships ( 1961 ) and Kon Ichikawa 's The Burmese Harp ( 1956 ) and were to be distributed by Kanji or sold to other distribution companies . An English @-@ dubbed version of The Warped Ones was then released in the United States on December 18 , 1963 , by Radley Metzger 's sexploitation @-@ centric Audubon Films , initially as the The Weird Lovemakers , then The Warped Ones became the more common title . It was marketed as an American film , and misleadingly implied to contain sexually explicit material , in order to appeal to a wider audience .
The original film resurfaced some four decades later at the 2005 Udine Far East Film Festival in the No Borders , No Limits : Nikkatsu Action Cinema retrospective . Mark Schilling curated the retrospective in order to expose international audiences to 1960s Nikkatsu Action films which , aside from the films of Seijun Suzuki , remained predominately unseen outside Japan . Schilling originally titled the film Season of Heat — a literal translation of the Japanese title — but it was retitled The Warped Ones for subsequent incarnations of the retrospective , which included runs in Austin and New York . It also appeared in a 12 @-@ film retrospective of Koreyoshi Kurahara 's Nikkatsu films at the 2008 Tokyo Filmex International Film Festival in Japan . It was screened with English subtitles .
Critics have most often compared the film to landmark youth films Breathless ( also 1960 ) — released in France five months earlier — directed by Jean @-@ Luc Godard and Nicholas Ray 's Rebel Without a Cause ( 1955 ) , although , Bryan Hartzheim found it takes its youths more seriously and with less sympathy . He stated , " [ The Warped Ones takes ] a wrecking ball to what can be considered the indulgencies of the [ youth film ] genre , an exhibition of the horrors of uninhibited youth taken to its carnal extremes and matched by a visual accompaniment akin to the abstract and improvised style of a Miles Davis score . " Tim Lucas of Video Watchdog magazine called the film " an important rediscovery on many fronts ... one of the great jazz films , and possibly the best illustration the cinema has ever given us of the jazz buff . It 's the only film I 've ever seen that makes jazz seem scarier than the darkest heavy metal , that makes jazz seem dangerous . " For TokyoScope : The Japanese Cult Film Companion , Alvin Lu commended the score as " stunning " and Kawachi 's performance as " ferocious , the very incarnation of the kind of social chaos that could be engendered by too much exposure to jazz , Coke , and hot dogs . " The Boston Globe 's Wesley Morris wrote , " [ Koreyoshi ] Kurahara takes the movie to extremes of behavior and style , merging the two until the form seems as violently unstable as the characters . He makes a wave that in Europe was called ' French ' and ' new . ' But with all due respect to Jean @-@ Luc Godard , this is breathless - and more interesting , too . " Morris further qualified that while Breathless may appeal to contemporary viewers academically , The Warped Ones retains a spontaneous , documentary feel . Schilling discerned the film , " Among [ Kurahara 's ] boldest departures from studio convention . "
Reviewer Peter Martin confided , " The Warped Ones baffled and mystified me , but I liked it very much . " J.R. Jones , for The Reader 's Guide to Arts & Entertainment , found the film " actually celebrates the values it 's supposed to be condemning , " but recommended it for its kineticism and action . TV Guide and Allmovie did not recommended it , both gave it one star in their respective four and five star rating systems .
= = Legacy = =
The success of the film lead Koreyoshi Kurahara and Nobuo Yamada to write and direct a couple more original scripts , where Kurahara was primarily known for his adaptations of novels . This included the follow @-@ up Black Sun ( 1964 ) which again featured Tamio Kawachi , who reprised his role from The Warped Ones , as did several of the other actors , and a lot of jazz music . In it , Kawachi 's Akira shelters a black G.I. , Gil , played by Chico Rolands , who goes A.W.O.L.
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after killing a white man in a bar fight . The film explores the two men 's friendship and race relations . It was also the first reversal on rashamen @-@ themed films , post @-@ war , often American @-@ Japanese co @-@ productions focusing on friendships or romances between a Japanese and an American . Rashamen films were intended as to promote goodwill between the two nations but were generally less well received in Japan , seen as unrealistic or patronizing . Film historian Tadao Sato described Black Sun as the first film of this sort where Japanese pity Americans instead of the reverse as Akira 's preconceptions of black Americans are undone . Mark Schilling characterized Kawachi as bringing an " explosive energy " to the film and Roland a " piping screech of fear and desperation . " Acclaimed American jazz musician Max Roach contributed to the score .
Alvin Lu found The Warped Ones to be a prime example of the Sun Tribe genre and placed it among those films whose outlook made way for the Japanese pink film . In the film Tim Lucas noted antecedents and a possible influence to " the most hellbent characters " in the films of acclaimed director Quentin Tarantino 's films and specifically to Stanley Kubrick 's iconic A Clockwork Orange ( 1971 ) . Lucas drew comparisons between The Warped Ones ' main character Akira and A Clockwork Orange 's Alex DeLarge , including their respective obsessions with hard jazz and the music of Ludwig van Beethoven , the former with a framed copy of Ornette Coleman 's album The Shape of Jazz to Come next to his bed , the latter an engraving of Beethoven . Also , scenes of the former 's verbal deconstructions by a group of art students versus the latter 's by the government . Akira 's attacks on abstract art and DeLarge 's on pop art – lined homes . Finally , the character 's regular hangouts , both painted with black walls , the former 's adorned with portraits of jazz legends , the latter 's with advertisements for " Vellocet " and " Drencrom " — the fictional drugs DeLarge and his gang use to invigorate themselves before their criminal acts . Lucas concluded , " Kubrick simply had to have seen it . "
Two American music groups took their name from The Warped Ones ' alternate sexploitation title , The Weird Lovemakers . The now defunct Tucson punk band The Weird Lovemakers assumed the name in 1994 and held it until their disbandment in 2000 . The Oakland , California – based electropop band The Lovemakers planned to use the same name on their inception in 2002 but dropped the " Weird " upon their discovery of the former band having taken the name .
= = Home video = =
In North America , an abridged , dubbed , VHS version of the film is available from Something Weird Video under the moniker The Weird Lovemakers . In 2007 , a DVD @-@ R version was also made available . A DVD for The Warped Ones will be released by the Criterion Collection on August 23 , 2011 as part of their " The Warped World of Koreyoshi Kurahara " compilation .
= = Soundtrack = =
On February 23 , 2007 , the Japanese label Think ! Records reissued the soundtrack on Compact Disc as a part of its Cine Jazz series , which featured 1960s Nikkatsu Action film scores . It is part of a two disc set , the first contains music from Toshirō Mayuzumi 's score for Black Sun ( 1964 ) and the second from his score for The Warped Ones . The first disc features American jazz musicians Max Roach on drums , Clifford Jordan on tenor saxophone , Ronnie Mathews on piano , Eddie Kahn on bass and vocals by Abbey Lincoln . The second disc features the Nikkatsu Jazz Group
= = = Track listing = = =
= Apolo Ohno =
Apolo Anton Ohno ( / əˈpɒloʊ ˈæntɒn ˈoʊnoʊ / ; born May 22 , 1982 ) is a retired American short track speed skating competitor and an eight @-@ time medalist ( two gold , two silver , four bronze ) in the Winter Olympics .
Raised by his father , Ohno began training full @-@ time in 1996 . He has been the face of short track in the United States since winning his medals at the 2002 Winter Olympics . At the age of 14 , he became the youngest U.S. national champion in 1997 and was the reigning champion from 2001 – 2009 , winning the title a total of 12 times . In December 1999 , he became the youngest skater to win a World Cup event title , and became the first American to win a World Cup overall title in 2001 , which he won again in 2003 and 2005 . He won his first overall World Championship title at the 2008 championships .
Ohno 's accolades and accomplishments include being the United States Olympic Committee 's Male Athlete of the Month in October 2003 and March 2008 , the U.S. Speedskating 's Athlete of the Year for 2003 , and was a 2002 , 2003 and 2006 finalist for the Sullivan Award , which recognizes the best amateur athlete in the United States . Since gaining recognition through his sport , Ohno has worked as a motivational speaker , philanthropist , started a nutritional supplement business called 8 Zone , and in 2007 , competed on and won the reality TV show Dancing with the Stars . Ohno later became host of a revival of Minute to Win It on Game Show Network and served as a commentator for NBC 's coverage of the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi .
= = Early life = =
Ohno was born in Seattle , Washington , to a Japanese @-@ born father , Yuki Ohno ( 大野 幸 , Ōno Yuki ) and a European American mother , Jerrie Lee . He attended Saghalie Middle School in Federal Way . Ohno 's parents divorced when he was an infant , and he was raised in Seattle by his father . He has had little contact with his biological mother and as of 2002 had expressed no interest in knowing her or his older half @-@ brother . Ohno 's father , a hair stylist and owner of the salon Yuki 's Diffusion , often worked 12 @-@ hour shifts , and with no family in the United States , found it hard to balance career and family . His father chose to name his son Apolo after the Greek words apo , which means to " steer away from " and lo , which means " look out ; here he comes . "
When Ohno was very young , his father meticulously researched childcare providers to care for his son during his long work hours . As he grew older , his father became concerned his son would become a latchkey kid , so he got his son involved with competitive swimming and quad @-@ speed roller skating at age 6 . He later switched from the instruction of Benton Redford , a National Champion , to a team in Federal Way , WA called Pattisons Team Extreme and became a national inline speedskating champion and record holder himself . His father used Inline Speedskating to fill his spare time . Ohno 's days were spent with morning swimming practices , followed by schooling , and finally skating practices in the afternoon .
When Ohno was 12 , he won the Washington state championship in the breaststroke but preferred inline speed skating over swimming . He has stated that by the time he turned 13 years of age he attended parties with older teenagers if he did not have competitions on the weekends . His father has stated that it was a struggle balancing his son 's desire for independence while helping him reach his potential as a young athlete .
= = Career = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
When he was 12 years old , Ohno became interested in short track speed skating after seeing the sport during the 1994 Olympics in Lillehammer . His father capitalized on this interest by driving him to short track competitions throughout the northwest United States and Canada , and Ohno won several competitions in his age divisions . His father wanted to encourage Ohno to develop his skills and , although Ohno was underage , he got him admitted to the Lake Placid Olympic Training Center in 1996 to train full @-@ time for short track . At 13 years of age , Ohno was the youngest skater admitted to the center .
At first , Ohno 's commitment at Lake Placid was low until his teammates nicknamed him " Chunky " , which motivated him to train harder . In January , he failed to make the 1997 U.S. Junior World Team . Ohno adjusted his training and made a comeback winning the 1997 U.S. Senior Championships overall title , taking a gold medal in the 1500 m , a silver in the 300 m , and came in fourth in the 500 m races . At the age of 14 , he became the youngest person to win the title . Ohno then relocated to the Colorado Springs Olympic Training Center to begin training with the senior level skaters , despite being only 14 years old .
However , Ohno would struggle at the 1997 World Championships in Nagano , Japan , finishing 19th overall . After this disappointing defeat at his first appearance at a world championships , Ohno returned home to Seattle . He did not train from April to August 1997 , so he gained weight and was ill @-@ prepared for the 1998 Nagano Winter Olympics . As a result , he finished last in the Olympic trials and did not qualify for the Olympic team . Because of his losses at the World Championships and his failure to qualify for the Olympic team , Ohno recommitted himself to the sport and returned to junior @-@ level skating at Lake Placid , rather than at Colorado Springs .
At the 1999 World Junior Championships , Ohno won first overall , placing first in the 1000 m and 1500 m , and winning silver in the 500 m . He won his second senior U.S. national championship in 1999 . He finished fourth overall at the 1999 World Championships and earned a silver medal in the 500 m . At the 2000 U.S. Championships , Ohno was unable to defend his title and finished third overall . At the 2000 World Championships , Ohno finished ninth overall . In the 2000 – 2001 season , Ohno won his first World Cup overall title , regained his National title , and finished second overall in the World Championships , losing to Chinese skater Li Jiajun .
= = = 2002 Winter Olympics = = =
= = = = Qualification race controversy = = = =
In December 2001 , during the U.S. Short Track Speed Skating 2002 Olympic Trials , speed skater Shani Davis was racing for a position on the short track team . Ohno and fellow skater Rusty Smith had already earned slots on the six @-@ man team due to points earned from earlier races . In order for Davis to qualify , he had to place first in the final race — the 1000 m — by overcoming stronger skaters Ohno , Smith , and Ron Biondo . Since Ohno had been dominant in the meet to this point by winning every race he entered , a win by Davis seemed to be unlikely .
Though Ohno , Smith and Biondo were heavily favored to win the 1000 m , the race ended with Ohno finishing third , Smith second , and Davis at the top of the podium . Prior to crossing the finish line , Ohno started celebrating for Davis and Smith . Davis ' first @-@ place finish earned enough points to move past Tommy O 'Hare in the final point standings and to qualify for sixth place . By finishing second , Smith earned the opportunity to skate individually in the 1000 m . The victory celebration was short @-@ lived as rumors began that Ohno and Smith , both good friends of Davis , intentionally threw the race so Davis would win .
After returning to Colorado Springs , O 'Hare , who did not skate in the 1000 m , filed a formal complaint . The complaint was founded on Ohno 's seemingly deliberate attempt to stop Biondo from being able to pass Smith . Because of that blocking move on Biondo , Smith finished in second place and Davis finished first . For three days , Ohno , Smith , and Davis stood before an arbitration panel of the United States Olympic Committee . During the hearing , Davis was never accused of being at fault and Smith made the statement : " Any allegation that there was a fix , conspiracy or understanding between Apolo and me , or anyone else , to let Shani win the race is completely false . Shani is a great athlete , skated a great race , and deserves to be on the team . " The final verdict was that O 'Hare 's claims went unproven , all three were absolved of guilt , and the claim was dismissed . After the dismissal , Ohno stated , " I am thrilled that the arbitration process has officially vindicated me ... As I 've said since the moment of these accusations , they were untrue and I did nothing wrong " .
= = = = Games = = = =
At the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City , Utah , Ohno emerged as the face of short @-@ track speed skating among American fans . He was a medalist in two events but there was controversy associated with the results .
After a disqualification in the 500 m race , he was leading the skaters in the 1000 m race . During a turn around the final corner , Ohno , Ahn Hyun Soo , Li Jiajun and Mathieu Turcotte all fell in a series of collisions . The last man standing was Steven Bradbury from Australia , who was trailing behind at the time , and skated through to win the gold medal , becoming the first person from the southern hemisphere to win a gold medal at a Winter Olympics . Ohno quickly got to his feet and crossed the finish line to win silver with Turcotte winning the bronze . Ohno , coincidentally was wearing skates , made by Bradbury 's own boot company , Revolutionary Boot Company . Bradbury had given them to Ohno , expecting for Ohno to win wearing them . Rather than the other way around .
In the 1500 m final race , with one lap remaining and currently in second place , Ohno attempted to make a pass on the leader Kim Dong @-@ Sung , who then drifted to the inside and as a result , Ohno raised his arms to signal he was blocked . Kim finished first ahead of Ohno but was diqualified for impeding , awarding the gold medal to Ohno . Fourth @-@ place finisher of the race , Fabio Carta of Italy , showed his disagreement with the disqualification decision saying it was " absurd that the Korean was disqualified " . China 's Jiajun Li , who moved from bronze to silver , remained neutral saying : " I respect the decision of the referee , I 'm not going to say any more " . Steven Bradbury , the 1000 m gold @-@ medal winner , also shared his views : " Whether Dong @-@ Sung moved across enough to be called for cross @-@ tracking , I don 't know , he obviously moved across a bit . It 's the judge 's interpretation . A lot of people will say it was right and a lot of people will say it 's wrong . I 've seen moves like that before that were not called . But I 've seen them called too " .
The South Korean team immediately protested the decision of the chief official of the race , but their protests were denied by the International Skating Union ( ISU ) . The Korean team then appealed to the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) and the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) . The IOC refused to see the case , stating , " This is a matter for the ISU to decide on . At this time , the IOC has received no proposal and taken no action " . The CAS sided with the officials of the race as " there is no provision in the short @-@ track rule book for overturning a judgment call by the referee " after the Korean team asked to have a video replay be used to determine whether or not there was a rule violation .
The disqualification upset South Korean supporters , many of whom directed their anger at Ohno and the International Olympic Committee . A large number of e @-@ mails protesting the race results crashed the Olympic Committee 's email server , and thousands of accusatory letters , many of which contained death threats , were sent to Ohno and the committee . Ohno shared his thoughts on the Koreans ' hostile reaction by saying , " I was really bothered by it . I grew up around many Asian cultures , Korean one of them . A lot of my best friends were Korean growing up . I just didn 't understand . Later on I realized that was built up by certain people and that was directed at me , negative energy from other things , not even resulting around the sport , but around politics , using me to stand on the pedestal as the anti @-@ American sentiment " . Earlier the same year , President George Bush had named North Korea as one of three members of the Axis of Evil , which had upset some South Koreans ; directing their anger at Ohno was a less direct way of voicing anger against Bush 's decision . The controversy continued at the 2002 FIFA World Cup , held jointly in South Korea and Japan several months after the Olympics . When the South Korean football ( soccer ) team scored a goal against the U.S. team , Korean players Ahn Jung @-@ Hwan and Lee Chun @-@ Soo made an exaggerated move imitating the move Ohno had made during the speed skating event to indicate the other athlete had drifted into his lane .
= = = After Salt Lake = = =
Ohno continued to perform well in the sport after the 2002 Winter Games . He declined to participate in a 2003 World Cup short @-@ track event in Korea for security reasons . Despite the absence , he successfully defended his World Cup title during the 2003 season . He continued his dominance by winning the World Cup title again in the 2004 – 2005 season .
At the first event of the 2005 World Cup event in China , Ohno severely sprained his ankle and withdrew from the event . At the second event in South Korea , an estimated 100 riot police stood guard at Incheon International Airport to prevent harm from happening to Ohno . Their concern stemmed from a possible lingering negative reaction from the 2002 Olympic Games disqualification controversy .
Ohno won two gold medals , as well as the overall title at the meet despite suffering from a severe stomach illness , and was surprised when the Korean crowd cheered his victories , saying , " I was really happy with the crowd 's reaction . It was pretty positive right from the time we landed . I was really happy it wasn 't ( hostile ) . Everything went really smooth . We were happy . " He was unable to defend his World Cup title from the previous three seasons , finishing third in the 2005 – 2006 overall standings . At the 2005 World Championships , he finished second overall , winning the 1000 m and 3000 m races .
= = = 2006 Winter Olympics = = =
In the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin , Italy , Ohno stumbled during a semifinal heat in the 1500 m . Finishing fifth , he was unable to defend his 2002 gold medal in the event . Ohno was able to win the bronze medal in the 1000 m , with Korean skaters Ahn Hyun Soo and Lee Ho @-@ suk finishing before him .
After two false starts from other skaters , Ohno won gold in the 500 m when he took the lead with an explosive start and held it until the finish . Despite criticism that he appeared to move before the start , a violation of the rules , the race start was validated by the officials . Afterward , Ohno said , " I was in the moment at the time . I thought I timed the start just perfect . The starter had been pretty quick all day , so that 's why there were so many false starts at the beginning . But that was really good for me . "
On the same day as his 500 m gold win , he earned a bronze medal in the men 's 5000 m relay , with an inside pass on Italian skater Nicola Rodigari on the final leg to put the United States in third position . Later , during the medals ceremony for the event , the winning South Korean team and the Americans embraced , followed by a group picture featuring the medalists .
= = = Post @-@ Olympic hiatus and return = = =
Taking a year off from competitive skating when the 2006 Winter Olympics ended , Ohno returned to win his eighth national title , placing first in every event during the U.S. Championships held from February 23 – 25 , 2007 . On April 26 , 2007 , he was inducted into the Asian Hall of Fame , an award which honors achievements of Asian Americans .
From March 9 – 11 , 2007 , he competed at the 2007 World Championships held in Milan , Italy , winning gold in the 1500 m due to the disqualification of Song Kyung @-@ Taek , who had blocked a passing attempt made by Ohno . He won bronze in the 1000 m , 3000 m , and the 5000 m relay with teammates , Jordan Malone , Travis Jayner , and Ryan Bedford . Because of his wins , he became the overall bronze medalist , behind silver medalist Charles Hamelin and Ahn Hyun Soo , who became the first man to become a five @-@ time World Champion .
On December 24 , 2007 , in Kearns , Utah , Ohno won his ninth national title , finishing first in the 1000 m and the 1500 m . He also finished first in the 500 m , but was disqualified for crosstracking . In the 3000 m , he finished second . At the 2008 World Championships in Gangneung , South Korea , Ohno won his first overall title , placing first place in the 500 m , second in the 1000 m , and third place in the 3000 m . He defeated South Koreans Lee Ho @-@ Suk , silver medalist and Song Kyung @-@ Taek who finished third in points . In 2009 , he won his 10th national title and qualified for the world team . Unable to defend his championship , he finished fifth in the overall rankings at the 2009 World Championships in Vienna , Austria , placing second at the 1000 m , and winning gold with the 5000 m relay team .
= = = 2010 Winter Olympics = = =
In preparation for the 2010 Winter Olympics , Ohno lost over 9 kilograms ( 20 pounds ) of weight from when he appeared at the 2002 Winter Games . He went down to a 65 @.@ 7 kg ( 145 lb ) bodyframe and a 2 @.@ 5 % Body fat percentage enduring a 5 @-@ month 3 @-@ a @-@ day training program combined with a strict nutritional program . As a result , he could lift double the weight he could before the training . With respect to his training regimen , Ohno said : " Come these Games , there 's no one who 's going to be fitter than me . There 's just no way . Whether I can put it together on the ice or not and feel good , that 's a different story . But I know , from a physical training standpoint , nobody 's even close ... I 've never prepared like this in my life — for anything . I want to leave nothing on the table . "
= = = = Trials = = = =
During the U.S. Olympic Trials held September 8 – 12 , 2009 , in Marquette , Michigan , Ohno won the overall meet title and defended his national title . He won the finals during the 500 m , 1000 m , and 1500 m races . However , during the 1000 m time trial , Ohno came in second to J. R. Celski despite skating a personal best of 1 : 24 @.@ 500 to Celski 's personal best of 1 : 23 @.@ 981 . Celski , who finished second overall and was leading in points after the first two nights of the trials , was injured during a crash in the semifinals of the 1000 m race when his right skate sliced into his left leg ; he did not skate in the 1000 m finals . Ohno had a narrow victory in the 500 m , beating out the silver place finisher Jeff Simon by only .039 of a second . Ohno , Celski , Jordan Malone , Travis Jayner , and Simon Cho were the top five finishers at the trials . Afterwards , Ohno said of the nominated team : " This is the strongest team we 've ever had . I feel really good about how we will do in the next Olympics . "
= = = = Games = = = =
In the 1500 m final , Ohno placed second after two Korean skaters , Lee Ho @-@ Suk and Sung Si @-@ Bak , made contact and crashed into the wall during the final turn of the final lap . He was in fourth place leading into the crash , and as a result , moved into second place , earning the silver . Fellow American skater J. R. Celski finished with the bronze medal . The gold medal went to South Korea 's Lee Jung @-@ Su . This win allowed Ohno , with six career medals , to tie Bonnie Blair for most medals won by a U.S. Winter Olympian .
Heading into the 1000 m final , Ohno had won the overall silver medal for the 1000 m during the 2009 – 10 World Cup by competing in three of the four competitions during the season . During the finals of the 1000 m , Ohno finished in third place , making a comeback from a slip with less than three laps remaining . With the bronze medal win , he became the most decorated American athlete ever at the Winter Games with seven career medals . Bonnie Blair , the former record holder , said she was happy for his accomplishment , adding : " It 's a great feat for him , U.S. speedskating , and the United States of America . We hope that more kids will see his accomplishments and want to try our great sport that has been so good to us and taught us so much about what it takes to be successful in life . "
In the 500 m final , Ohno finished the race in second place behind Canada 's Charles Hamelin . However , he was disqualified after impeding François @-@ Louis Tremblay of Canada around the final turn . The silver medal went to Sung Si @-@ Bak , with Tremblay taking the bronze .
The 5000 m relay team for the United States finished with the bronze medal . The team , consisting of J. R. Celski , Simon Cho , Travis Jayner , Jordan Malone , and Ohno , were in the fourth position for the majority of the race . With a strong push from Celski with two laps to go , Ohno as the anchor leg was able to pass the Chinese team for third place ; Canada won the gold and South Korea took silver . This bronze medal was the eighth Olympic medal of his career .
= = Personal life = =
In the United States , Ohno is credited with popularizing and being the face of his sport . He said it is amazing being a role model to younger skaters . Growing up , he did not have that influence within his sport , but looked up to other athletes outside his sport , such as Muhammad Ali , Joe Frazier , and Lance Armstrong . Training for short track has been the main focus of Ohno 's life , but he has been able to work on other endeavors . He studied business at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs . Believing in healthy eating habits , Ohno worked with his training coach John Schaeffer during preparations for the 2010 Winter Games to develop a nutritional supplement business called 8 Zone . The supplements consist of eight @-@ hour segments where a dose is administered . He hopes this business will be able to be a sponsor for future Olympic Games .
After the 2010 Winter Games , he created the Apolo Anton Ohno Foundation and partnered with the Century Council 's Ask , Listen , Learn Program to discourage underage drinking of alcohol and to promote a healthy lifestyle . Furthering his goal of promoting healthier food choices and working with the endorsement of the Washington State Potato Commission , he will be working on a cookbook with top Seattle chefs in 2010 .
He has an interest in pursuing a career in the entertainment world . He participated and won the fourth season of the U.S. reality show Dancing with the Stars . He returned for the 15th Season which features all @-@ star celebrities . Ohno 's interests in fashion led him to be a guest judge on the fashion reality show Project Runway in 2008 , and to an endorsement deal with Omega , the maker of luxury watches , in 2010 . Omega President Stephen Urquhart said , " We are very proud to support Apolo here in Vancouver and congratulate him on his outstanding performance . He is poised to make history of his own here and we are thrilled that he is part of the Omega family " . He also appeared on Minute to Win It as the host of the GSN revival in 2013 since he is a fan of the show .
Ohno has an interest in being a philanthropist . He participated in GAP 's campaign to fight the spread of HIV / AIDS in Africa by joining Product Red . Half of the proceeds went to The Global Fund to Fight AIDS , Tuberculosis and Malaria . Besides working with The Salvation Army and the Clothes off our Back Foundations , he used his fame to help raise funds for a Ronald McDonald House in Seattle after the 2002 Winter Games . He helped raise $ 20 @,@ 000 for Nikkei Concerns , a provider of care and services for Japanese elders living in the Pacific Northwest . Later that year , Ohno joined Senator Ted Kennedy in Washington , D.C. to show the importance of math and science education by helping launch the " Math Moves U Hippest Homework Happening " program , which gave students the opportunity to do math homework online with celebrities and athletes .
He has also volunteered with Special Olympics and taken part in Unified Sports , which brings together athletes with intellectual disabilities and without on the same team . Ohno currently serves as a Special Olympics Global Ambassador ahead of the 2015 World Summer Games taking place in Los Angeles , California .
Ohno dated fellow Olympian speedskater Allison Baver .
= = = Sponsorships = = =
Using his recognition and fame from his sport , he has accumulated a list of sponsors that include McDonald 's , General Electric , The Century Council , Vicks and Coca @-@ Cola . Ohno 's father , Yuki , said about sponsorships : " He 's not like a professional athlete who has a multi @-@ million @-@ dollar contract with a team ... He has to have sponsorships to pay the bills " . Capitalizing on Ohno 's fame , Alaska Airlines were his primary sponsor for the 2010 Winter Games and designed a Boeing 737 – 800 jet with his image on the side .
He was critical of the leaders of the U.S. Speedskating Organization when a donation of $ 250 @,@ 000 was raised by viewers of the Comedy Central show The Colbert Report for the organization after their largest commercial sponsor , the Dutch DSB Bank , declared bankruptcy and was unable to donate its $ 300 @,@ 000 in November 2009 . In an email to Time , he wrote it was " a bit embarrassing that our leadership couldn 't secure other sponsors three months before the Olympic Games " but credited the show 's host Stephen Colbert for " his willingness to help out our nation 's greatest athletes " . In return for The Colbert Report donation , long track and short track skaters had the " Colbert Nation " logo on their uniforms for World Cup events leading up to the 2010 Winter Games . Ohno did not wear the logo because Alaska Airlines was his primary sponsor for the 2010 Games . He was also part of Oreo 's Team DSRL sketch in 2011 .
= = Dancing with the Stars = =
= = = Season 4 – with Julianne Hough = = =
Ohno participated on the fourth season of the reality show , Dancing with the Stars . He was paired with dancing partner Julianne Hough , and both appeared on the show for the first time on March 19 , 2007 . Together , they received the competition 's first perfect score of 30 for their samba routine on April 16 , 2007 . The dancing duo became finalists in the competition , and went on to become the champions in May 2007 .
= = = Season 15 – with Karina Smirnoff = = =
In July 2012 , it was announced Ohno would return for the all @-@ star fifteenth season for a second chance to win the mirrorball trophy ; this time he was paired with Season 13 champion professional Karina Smirnoff . They were voted off during the ninth week of the competition .
* Note : Paula Abdul was guest @-@ judge during Week 4 , Opponents ' Choice Week .
During the Swing Marathon , the judges eliminated each pair until only one pair remained , earning 10 points . Apolo was the third eliminated and earned 6 points from the judges .
= = Other appearances = =
In 2012 , Ohno appeared as a guest star in the 17th episode of the 2nd season of Hawaii Five @-@ 0 , as a suspect . He also had a guest appearance on The Biggest Loser in Season 12 , Episode 9 and Season 15 , Episode 12 .
In 2013 , Ohno appeared as the character " Stone " in the Syfy Original Movie Tasmanian Devils , as well as the host of GSN 's Minute to Win It .
In 2015 , Ohno appeared as a live guest during the season finale of NBC 's live variety show Best Time Ever with Neil Patrick Harris .
In 2016 , Ohno appeared as a guest star on Hollywood Game Night hosted by Jane Lynch on NBC .
= = Apolo Ohno Invitational = =
In November 2014 Ohno sponsored a speedskating race in Salt Lake City , UT that featured the four top men and women skaters from the US , China , Canada and the Netherlands . It aired on NBCSN on 21 November 2014 at 10 : 00 pm EST .
= Bergen Air Transport =
Bergen Air Transport AS is an airline based at Bergen Airport , Flesland in Norway . In addition to charter aviation and an aviation workshop , it offers a scheduled service between Bergen and Notodden Airport , Tuven . The airline operates two Beechcraft B200 King Air aircraft and one Cessna Citation CJ2 . The airline was established in 1998 , offering seaplane charter flights using Cessna 421 aircraft . The service to Notodden started in 2000 ; a Cessna 441 was acquired in 2003 , and from 2006 the company has used two Beechcraft . The company is owned by Geir Hellsten and Håkon Lie @-@ Nielsen .
= = Operation = =
The airline operates two 12 @-@ seat Beechcraft King Air B200 aircraft , and one seven @-@ seat Cessna Citation CJ2 executive jet . It has its main operational base at Bergen Airport , Flesland , but also has facilities at Notodden Airport , Tuven . The company has ten pilots ; its main services are private charter and aviation @-@ mechanical services , but the company also operates a single scheduled service , with six weekly round trips between Bergen and Notodden . In 2011 , it had a revenue of NOK 31 @.@ 0 million and a NOK 0 @.@ 25 million profit .
= = History = =
Bergen Air Transport was founded in 1998 by Geir Hellsten and Håkon Lie @-@ Nielsen , and commenced operations the following year . Initial operations consisted of charter services , using a Cessna 421B . In 2000 , the company replaced this aircraft with a Cessna 421C , and started the scheduled route between Bergen and Notodden using the six @-@ seat aircraft . In 2000 , the company had eleven employees and NOK 2 @.@ 6 million in revenue . To begin with , it made four round trips per week , but in 2001 it chose to increase to five , after experiencing high cabin loads . It transported 1 @,@ 000 passengers in 2000 , and 1 @,@ 500 the following year . During the summer of 2002 , the company also attempted to fly from Notodden to Kristiansund Airport , Kvernberget , but was forced to give up due to lack of passengers .
A hangar was built at Bergen Airport in 2003 , and at the same time the airline was certified as a mechanical aviation workshop . The following year , the Cessna 421 was replaced with a Cessna 441 Conquest II . In 2006 , two Beechcraft King Air were bought , and the last Cessna sold . On 20 November 2003 , Notodden Airport was closed for all scheduled traffic by the Norwegian Civil Aviation Authority , due to a lack of safety requirements . Bergen Air Transport was forced to reroute all its aircraft to Skien Airport , Geiteryggen . Following an investment of NOK 500 @,@ 000 from the airline and NOK 1 @.@ 2 million from the municipality , which owns the airport , scheduled services commenced again . From 1 October 2004 , NOK 250 @,@ 000 was invested at Notodden Airport . Starting in October 2004 , the airline also introduced security control of all passengers at Notodden Airport . In 2005 , the company had a revenue of NOK 10 @.@ 3 million ; this increased to NOK 20 @.@ 1 million in 2006 , giving a profit of NOK 2 @.@ 8 million , when the airline transported 2 @,@ 841 passengers .
In September 2007 , the company bought a new hangar at Notodden , giving it ample space for expansion , and new arrival and departure facilities . At the same time , the airline bought its first jet , a Cessna Citation CJ2 . That year saw the airline transport 3441 passengers on 552 flights on the Bergen – Notodden route .
= The Tunnel ( TV series ) =
The Tunnel ( French : Tunnel ) is a British @-@ French crime drama television series , adapted from the 2011 Danish / Swedish crime series The Bridge ( Broen / Bron ) . The Tunnel began broadcast on 16 October 2013 on Sky Atlantic in the UK , and on 11 November 2013 on Canal + in France . The series stars Stephen Dillane and Clémence Poésy as British and French police detectives Karl Roebuck and Elise Wassermann , respectively . The plot follows the two detectives working together to find a serial killer who left the upper @-@ half body of a French politician and the lower @-@ half of a British prostitute in the Channel Tunnel , at the midpoint between France and the UK . They later learn that the killer — who comes to be nicknamed the " Truth Terrorist " — is on a moral crusade to highlight many social problems , terrorising both countries in the process . As the series progresses , the killer 's true intention is revealed .
The Anglo @-@ French adaption of The Bridge was announced as a joint project between Sky and Canal + in January 2013 . Ben Richards , the head writer of The Tunnel , worked with Hans Rosenfeldt , the creator of the original series . Due to the setting , the dialogue of the series is bilingual , a first for British and French television . With a budget of £ 15 million , filming took place between February and August 2013 , and was shot on location in Kent , England and northern France . It was produced with both British and French crew members . The premieres on both Sky Atlantic and Canal + received strong ratings for the respective channels , with an initial consolidated figure of almost 900 @,@ 000 in the UK , and 1 @.@ 3 million in France . Critical reception of the series has been generally positive , with Dillane and Poésy 's acting being praised , as well as the plot 's grittiness . The comparisons with The Bridge were also viewed favourably by some reviewers , though others criticised The Tunnel for being identical . The producers admit that the first episode is a copy of the original .
In February 2015 , Sky announced that a second series of the show was set to air in early 2016 . Titled The Tunnel : Sabotage , it would focus on the crash of an airliner into the English channel . Stephen Dillane and Clémence Poésy would return as Karl Roebuck and Elise Wasserman . Consisting of eight episodes , it debuted on Sky Atlantic on Tuesday 12 April 2016 , although the video trailer on the series homepage indicated that it would start on 5 April 2016 - the debut was put back a week following the Brussels terrorist attacks on 22 March . The complete second series was made available on 12 April , via Sky 's On Demand service . As of June 2016 , The Tunnel 's first season airs in the United States on public television .
= = Characters = =
Stephen Dillane plays Detective Chief Inspector Karl Roebuck of Northbourne Police ( a fictional counterpart to the real life Kent Police ) , an aging British detective used to getting his own way . Roebuck 's role parallels that of Martin Rohde ( played by Kim Bodnia ) , the Danish detective in The Bridge . Karl and Martin share some characteristics , but also differ in certain ways ; for instance , Karl is " more educated and a more troubled man . " Dillane was drawn to the political questions raised in the storyline , as well as the series ' " novelistic telling " .
Clémence Poésy plays Capitaine ( later Commander ) Elise Wassermann of the DCPJ , the French detective and Roebuck 's opposite . Wasserman 's role parallels that of Saga Norén ( played by Sofia Helin ) , the Swedish detective in The Bridge . Elise shares some characteristics with Saga , including driving a Porsche ( in Elise 's case , a Porsche 944 ) , picking up men from bars for casual sex , and exhibiting behaviour consistent with Asperger syndrome . The innate seriousness of the character was a trait that Poésy found " quite annoying " , but the actress came to appreciate Elise 's honesty . Both Dillane and Poésy opted not to view the Scandinavian original series , with the latter stating that it would allow her more freedom in interpreting the character . Poésy dubbed her English lines for the French broadcast .
The series includes several guest stars . Joseph Mawle plays a social worker named Stephen Beaumont , Tom Bateman appears as journalist Danny Hiller , and Tobi Bakare plays Chuks Akinade . Thibault de Montalembert plays Olivier Pujol , who is the head of the Calais police service , and Elise 's superior . Sigrid Bouaziz plays Cécile Cabrillac and Cédric Vieira plays Philippe Viot ; these characters are police officers who work with Elise . Mathieu Carrière and Jeanne Balibar play banker Alain Joubert , and his wife Charlotte , respectively . Merlin actress Angel Coulby stars as Laura Roebuck , Karl 's wife , while Jack Lowden plays Adam , his son . Keeley Hawes guest starred as Suze Harcourt , a care worker and drug addict , along with Liz Smith , who plays Harriet , an elderly woman under Harcourt 's care .
James Frain plays Kieran Ashton , a former colleague of Karl , who faked his suicide and became the Truth Terrorist , serving as the primary antagonist . The character is motivated by the loss of his identity and family , as well as betrayal from Karl by his affair with Kieran 's wife before her death . Frain believed that Kieran is the most disturbing character he has played . Portraying the character , the actor wanted to make his actions understandable , though not justifiable .
= = Cast = =
Stephen Dillane as Detective Chief Inspector Karl Roeb
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Clémence Poésy as Commander Elise Wassermann
Thibault de Montalembert as Olivier Pujol
Cédric Vieira as Phillipe Viot
Fanny Leurent as Julie
Angel Coulby as Laura Roebuck
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development and writing = = =
The Anglo @-@ French adaption of the Danish / Swedish series The Bridge was first announced by Sky in January 2013 . The ten @-@ part series was to be a co @-@ production between British broadcaster Sky and French broadcaster Canal + . Sky Atlantic Director Elaine Pyke commissioned the show with the intention of establishing the channel as a home for British dramas following the channel 's release of the drama series Hit & Miss and Falcón . Due to the setting of the series , it would be bilingual , with dialogue being spoken in English and French . This would make The Tunnel — the producers claim — the first series in British and French television to be bilingual .
Being a " 50 – 50 co @-@ production " between the British and French , the crew were a mix from both countries , and neither party has " final control " . The series employed both British and French writers and directors to collaborate on the series , with former Spooks writer Ben Richards leading the writing team . Multiple versions of the script were used , which were translated for both languages . Five directors were hired for the series , three of them British and the other two French . Dominik Moll is considered the head director , with the other directors being Hettie MacDonald , Thomas Vincent , Udayan Prasad , and Philip Martin . The series ' executive producers are Sky 's Anne Mensah ; Canal + ' s Fabrice De La Patellière ; Kudos ' Jane Featherstone , Karen Wilson , Manda Levin , and Ben Richards ; Shine France 's Nora Melhli ; and Filmlance 's Lars Blomgren . Ruth Kenley @-@ Letts is the series producer . On the British / French collaboration of the series , Jane Featherstone — the chief executive of the production company Kudos — stated : " We have had to work very collaboratively to make sure we are appealing to both nations . I honestly don 't know if we have got that right yet . The French like things to be slightly slower , we like them pacier . "
In developing the storyline of the series Featherstone said that " the team took what was wonderful from [ the original ] and then forgot about it , in the nicest possible way , and made their own show . " While working for the series Richards worked with Hans Rosenfeldt , the Swedish writer who created The Bridge . Many aspects of the first episode are virtual copies of the first episode of the Scandinavian series , including : the female lead " stripping unselfconsciously to her underwear in the office " , the male lead 's relationship with his teenage son and the " sleazy journalist [ being ] held captive in his own car with a ticking bomb " , the last of which was a sequence Richards wanted to repeat in the remake . However Richards said that as the series progressed and the drama unfolded the storylines would diverge from the original . Featherstone also noted there would be plenty of changes , saying that many had " seen both [ The Bridge and The Tunnel ] , who feel that they get satisfaction because the characters go on different journeys and the actors all bring a whole new level of interest in it . "
= = = Filming and locations = = =
The budget of the series is estimated to be £ 15 million . Filming began in February 2013 and concluded in August 2013 , with location shooting largely taken place in Kent and northern France . Filming in Kent was based in Discovery Park in Sandwich and was supported by the Kent Film Office . A former Pfizer facility was used as a number of sets , including the Calais police station and Elise 's apartment . The series was filmed throughout five districts : Canterbury , Dover , Shepway , Swale and Thanet . Several prominent locales were featured , including Folkestone Harbour ; The Turner Contemporary art gallery ; Westwood Cross shopping centre ; and the towns of Dover , Folkestone and Margate . Production also made use of the Kent Film Office 's legal powers to close certain roads for uninterrupted filming . An estimated £ 2 @.@ 5 million of the budget was spent on , among other services , accommodation , locations , parking and catering , providing a boost for the Kent economy . The filming in France was supported by the Nord @-@ Pas de Calais Film Commission and benefited from the Tax Rebate International . Shooting took place over 31 days across Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer , Calais and Dunkerque .
Some scenes of The Tunnel were also shot in the Channel Tunnel itself , which makes the series the first television drama production to do so . The producers spent " months of gentle negotiation " with Eurotunnel , the company that operates the tunnel , for permission to shoot scenes there . Eurotunnel allowed it . According to Moll , " The only thing they didn 't want was to see train passengers in danger or fires . " Moll also noted that they did not shoot in the actual midpoint of the tunnel , stating " once you are a few kilometres in , it all looks the same . "
Series two once again returned to Kent and France to film . The production filmed for 85 days in Kent between April and July 2015 with a further 50 days in the county for pre and post @-@ production , spending an estimated £ 1 @.@ 5 million .
The Kent filming locations include Euro Tunnel , Folkestone Harbour , Discovery Park , Deal including the Pier , Folkestone , Dover including the Port and Dover Castle , Westwood Industrial Estate Margate , Ramsgate , The Barn in Upstreet , St Martin ’ s Hospital , Knowlton Court plus many more .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
The Tunnel had a world premiere hosted at the international television market Mipcom in Cannes , France on 7 October 2013 . In the United Kingdom , Sky Atlantic premiered the series at 9pm on Wednesday , 16 October 2013 , and continued weekly until 18 December . The premiere episode was seen by an average of 362 @,@ 000 overnight viewers , considered strong ratings for the channel . With consolidated ratings taken into account , the first episode went up to 803 @,@ 000 viewers on Sky Atlantic , with an extra 90 @,@ 000 viewing from its catch @-@ up channel , Sky Atlantic + 1 . However , the second episode dropped a third of its overnight audience , leaving it with 236 @,@ 000 viewers . The finale was seen by 267 @,@ 000 overnight viewers . In France , the series premiered on Canal + on 8 : 55pm at Monday , 11 November 2013 . The first episode attracted 1 @.@ 3 million viewers , marking it as one of the highest rated original series premieres for the channel . The first series was viewed by an average audience of 1 @.@ 04 million viewers per episode .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Tunnel received generally positive reviews from television critics . Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy stated that while remakes are " often underwhelming " , The Tunnel was " gripping stuff " , and believed that viewers " should find plenty to enjoy " in The Tunnel . The performances of Dillane and Poésy were also lauded . Gerard Gilbert of The Independent was positive in his assessment of the series , stating " as an avid fan of The Bridge , I am happy to report that The Tunnel works well in its own right – it 's intelligently made , well cast and ambitiously cinematic " , adding that it had " succeeded in its high @-@ risk strategy of re @-@ working a near @-@ flawless Scandi @-@ drama in our Anglo @-@ French image . " Ellen E Jones , also of The Independent , said that Dillane and Poésy 's performances " stuck closely " to the original characterisation of the leads from the Scandinavian version . Of the execution , Jones stated " should you bother watching The Tunnel even if you 've already seen the original ? The early signs are good . The makers obviously have sense enough to preserve what was effective about the original , and invention enough to distinguish their work too . "
Harry Venning of The Stage believed that — plotwise — the collaboration between the British and French police forces and style were " all very effectively done , creepily atmospheric and splendidly gruesome " , but also stated that the best thing about the series was " the interplay between Stephen Dillane 's easygoing , laddish , rosbif detective inspector and his po @-@ faced , glacial but – wouldn 't you know it – extremely sexy Gallic counterpart , played by Clemence Poesy . " Metro reviewer Keith Watson — having rated the series four stars out of five — stated " the idea is great . But what 's surprising about The Tunnel ( Sky Atlantic ) is that it 's less a version of , more a faithful re @-@ make . "
The Guardian posted a number of reviews on its website . Julia Reaside deemed the series a " perfectly cast remake of Swedish @-@ Danish crime hit " , and stated that " this confirms Dillane as one of our very finest . Such control . Poésy is beautifully chilly and Joseph Mawle ( another cracker ) leads an asylum @-@ seeker subplot . It 's also really funny . " Writing about the finale , Reaside stated of Dillane 's performance : " If this were on a terrestrial channel , he 'd be up for all the awards . " On the Karl / Elise partnership , she stated : " I wasn 't sure about them as a pairing but was immediately convinced by their uncomfortable chemistry . " Andrew Anthony — having not enjoyed The Bridge — called The Tunnel an " attractive proposition " , adding that " there 's an engaging confidence to the slow revelation of the story . All in all , this looks good . " However , Sam Wollaston was more critical of the series , stating that — while the tone was " atmospheric , intriguing , gripping " and there were strong performances from the lead cast members — The Tunnel was " exactly the same as the ( recent ) original . " Wollaston felt that the only " obvious " difference was that , in the original series , there " was a bridge , this is a tunnel . However magnificent an engineering feat the Channel tunnel is , it can 't compete as a spectacular location with the Oresund Bridge . "
Gerard O 'Donovan of The Daily Telegraph was also mixed on the series , saying : " there was no sense that this was doing much different from other mainstream crime thrillers . Sticking too close to the original script meant a golden opportunity was missed to dig deeper into the attitudes and history that both connect and divide the UK and France " . However , he also wrote that he would be " happy to be persuaded otherwise if the action develops . "
= = = Home media and other releases = = =
The series was first released on DVD in France on 20 December 2013 , with special features including a making of feature and interviews featuring Moll and Poésy on a four @-@ disc set . A release in the United Kingdom followed on 13 January 2014 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc by publisher Acorn Media UK , and includes three discs , with special features including a making @-@ of feature , cast and crew interviews , and a picture gallery .
Starting on 1 February 2014 in the UK , the first episodes of The Tunnel — along with some other original Sky series — will be released for free on the video sharing website YouTube , in an attempt to attract more Sky subscribers .
= = Episodes = =
= = = Series 1 ( 2013 ) = = =
= = = Series 2 : Sabotage ( 2016 ) = = =
= Formation and evolution of the Solar System =
The formation of the Solar System began 4 @.@ 6 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud . Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center , forming the Sun , while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk out of which the planets , moons , asteroids , and other small Solar System bodies formed .
This model , known as the nebular hypothesis , was first developed in the 18th century by Emanuel Swedenborg , Immanuel Kant , and Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace . Its subsequent development has interwoven a variety of scientific disciplines including astronomy , physics , geology , and planetary science . Since the dawn of the space age in the 1950s and the discovery of extrasolar planets in the 1990s , the model has been both challenged and refined to account for new observations .
The Solar System has evolved considerably since its initial formation . Many moons have formed from circling discs of gas and dust around their parent planets , while other moons are thought to have formed independently and later been captured by their planets . Still others , such as Earth 's Moon , may be the result of giant collisions . Collisions between bodies have occurred continually up to the present day and have been central to the evolution of the Solar System . The positions of the planets often shifted due to gravitational interactions . This planetary migration is now thought to have been responsible for much of the Solar System 's early evolution .
In roughly 5 billion years , the Sun will cool and expand outward many times its current diameter ( becoming a red giant ) , before casting off its outer layers as a planetary nebula and leaving behind a stellar remnant known as a white dwarf . In the far distant future , the gravity of passing stars will gradually reduce the Sun 's retinue of planets . Some planets will be destroyed , others ejected into interstellar space . Ultimately , over the course of tens of billions of years , it is likely that the Sun will be left with none of the original bodies in orbit around it .
= = History = =
Ideas concerning the origin and fate of the world date from the earliest known writings ; however , for almost all of that time , there was no attempt to link such theories to the existence of a " Solar System " , simply because it was not generally thought that the Solar System , in the sense we now understand it , existed . The first step toward a theory of Solar System formation and evolution was the general acceptance of heliocentrism , which placed the Sun at the centre of the system and the Earth in orbit around it . This conception had gestated for millennia ( Aristarchus of Samos had suggested it as early as 250 BC ) , but was not widely accepted until the end of the 17th century . The first recorded use of the term " Solar System " dates from 1704 .
The current standard theory for Solar System formation , the nebular hypothesis , has fallen into and out of favour since its formulation by Emanuel Swedenborg , Immanuel Kant , and Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace in the 18th century . The most significant criticism of the hypothesis was its apparent inability to explain the Sun 's relative lack of angular momentum when compared to the planets . However , since the early 1980s studies of young stars have shown them to be surrounded by cool discs of dust and gas , exactly as the nebular hypothesis predicts , which has led to its re @-@ acceptance .
Understanding of how the Sun will continue to evolve required an understanding of the source of its power . Arthur Stanley Eddington 's confirmation of Albert Einstein 's theory of relativity led to his realisation that the Sun 's energy comes from nuclear fusion reactions in its core , fusing hydrogen into helium . In 1935 , Eddington went further and suggested that other elements also might form within stars . Fred Hoyle elaborated on this premise by arguing that evolved stars called red giants created many elements heavier than hydrogen and helium in their cores . When a red giant finally casts off its outer layers , these elements would then be recycled to form other star systems .
= = Formation = =
= = = Pre @-@ solar nebula = = =
The nebular hypothesis maintains that the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a fragment of a giant molecular cloud . The cloud itself had a size of about 20 parsec ( 65 light years ) , while the fragments were roughly 1 parsec ( three and a quarter light @-@ years ) across . The further collapse of the fragments led to the formation of dense cores 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 1 pc ( 2 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 AU ) in size . One of these collapsing fragments ( known as the pre @-@ solar nebula ) would form what became the Solar System . The composition of this region with a mass just over that of the Sun ( M ☉ ) was about the same as that of the Sun today , with hydrogen , along with helium and trace amounts of lithium produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis , forming about 98 % of its mass . The remaining 2 % of the mass consisted of heavier elements that were created by nucleosynthesis in earlier generations of stars . Late in the life of these stars , they ejected heavier elements into the interstellar medium .
The oldest inclusions found in meteorites , thought to trace the first solid material to form in the pre @-@ solar nebula , are 4568 @.@ 2 million years old , which is one definition of the age of the Solar System . Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short @-@ lived isotopes , such as iron @-@ 60 , that only form in exploding , short @-@ lived stars . This indicates that one or more supernovae occurred near the Sun while it was forming . A shock wave from a supernova may have triggered the formation of the Sun by creating regions of over @-@ density within the cloud , causing these regions to collapse . Because only massive , short @-@ lived stars produce supernovae , the Sun must have formed in a large star @-@ forming region that produced massive stars , possibly similar to the Orion Nebula . Studies of the structure of the Kuiper belt and of anomalous materials within it suggest that the Sun formed within a cluster of between 1 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 stars with a diameter of between 6 @.@ 5 and 19 @.@ 5 light @-@ years and a collective mass of 3 @,@ 000 M ☉ . This cluster began to break apart between 135 million and 535 million years after formation . Several simulations of our young Sun interacting with close @-@ passing stars over the first 100 million years of its life produce anomalous orbits observed in the outer Solar System , such as detached objects .
Because of the conservation of angular momentum , the nebula spun faster as it collapsed . As the material within the nebula condensed , the atoms within it began to collide with increasing frequency , converting their kinetic energy into heat . The centre , where most of the mass collected , became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc . Over about 100 @,@ 000 years , the competing forces of gravity , gas pressure , magnetic fields , and rotation caused the contracting nebula to flatten into a spinning protoplanetary disc with a diameter of ~ 200 AU and form a hot , dense protostar ( a star in which hydrogen fusion has not yet begun ) at the centre .
At this point in its evolution , the Sun is thought to have been a T Tauri star . Studies of T Tauri stars show that they are often accompanied by discs of pre @-@ planetary matter with masses of 0 @.@ 001 – 0 @.@ 1 M ☉ . These discs extend to several hundred AU — the Hubble Space Telescope has observed protoplanetary discs of up to 1000 AU in diameter in star @-@ forming regions such as the Orion Nebula — and are rather cool , reaching a surface temperature of only one thousand kelvin at their hottest . Within 50 million years , the temperature and pressure at the core of the Sun became so great that its hydrogen began to fuse , creating an internal source of energy that countered gravitational contraction until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved . This marked the Sun 's entry into the prime phase of its life , known as the main sequence . Main @-@ sequence stars derive energy from the fusion of hydrogen into helium in their cores . The Sun remains a main @-@ sequence star today .
= = = Formation of the planets = = =
The various planets are thought to have formed from the solar nebula , the disc @-@ shaped cloud of gas and dust left over from the Sun 's formation . The currently accepted method by which the planets formed is accretion , in which the planets began as dust grains in orbit around the central protostar . Through direct contact , these grains formed into clumps up to 200 metres in diameter , which in turn collided to form larger bodies ( planetesimals ) of ~ 10 kilometres ( km ) in size . These gradually increased through further collisions , growing at the rate of centimetres per year over the course of the next few million years .
The inner Solar System , the region of the Solar System inside 4 AU , was too warm for volatile molecules like water and methane to condense , so the planetesimals that formed there could only form from compounds with high melting points , such as metals ( like iron , nickel , and aluminium ) and rocky silicates . These rocky bodies would become the terrestrial planets ( Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars ) . These compounds are quite rare in the Universe , comprising only 0 @.@ 6 % of the mass of the nebula , so the terrestrial planets could not grow very large . The terrestrial embryos grew to about 0 @.@ 05 Earth masses ( M ⊕ ) and ceased accumulating matter about 100 @,@ 000 years after the formation of the Sun ; subsequent collisions and mergers between these planet @-@ sized bodies allowed terrestrial planets to grow to their present sizes ( see Terrestrial planets below ) .
When the terrestrial planets were forming , they remained immersed in a disk of gas and dust . The gas was partially supported by pressure and so did not orbit the Sun as rapidly as the planets . The resulting drag caused a transfer of angular momentum , and as a result the planets gradually migrated to new orbits . Models show that density and temperature variations in the disk governed this rate of migration , but the net trend was for the inner planets to migrate inward as the disk dissipated , leaving the planets in their current orbits .
The giant planets ( Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune ) formed further out , beyond the frost line , the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where the material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid . The ices that formed the Jovian planets were more abundant than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial planets , allowing the giant planets to grow massive enough to capture hydrogen and helium , the lightest and most abundant elements . Planetesimals beyond the frost line accumulated up to 4 M ⊕ within about 3 million years . Today , the four giant planets comprise just under 99 % of all the mass orbiting the Sun . Theorists believe it is no accident that Jupiter lies just beyond the frost line . Because the frost line accumulated large amounts of water via evaporation from infalling icy material , it created a region of lower pressure that increased the speed of orbiting dust particles and halted their motion toward the Sun . In effect , the frost line acted as a barrier that caused material to accumulate rapidly at ~ 5 AU from the Sun . This excess material coalesced into a large embryo ( or core ) on the order of 10 M ⊕ , which began to accumulate an envelope via accretion of gas from the surrounding disc at an ever increasing rate . Once the envelope mass became about equal to the solid core mass , growth proceeded very rapidly , reaching about 150 Earth masses ~ 105 years thereafter and finally topping out at 318 M ⊕ . Saturn may owe its substantially lower mass simply to having formed a few million years after Jupiter , when there was less gas available to consume .
T Tauri stars like the young Sun have far stronger stellar winds than more stable , older stars . Uranus and Neptune are thought to have formed after Jupiter and Saturn did , when the strong solar wind had blown away much of the disc material . As a result , the planets accumulated little hydrogen and helium — not more than 1 M ⊕ each . Uranus and Neptune are sometimes referred to as failed cores . The main problem with formation theories for these planets is the timescale of their formation . At the current locations it would have taken a hundred million years for their cores to accrete . This means that Uranus and Neptune probably formed closer to the Sun — near or even between Jupiter and Saturn — and later migrated or were ejected outward ( see Planetary migration below ) . Motion in the planetesimal era was not all inward toward the Sun ; the Stardust sample return from Comet Wild 2 has suggested that materials from the early formation of the Solar System migrated from the warmer inner Solar System to the region of the Kuiper belt .
After between three and ten million years , the young Sun 's solar wind would have cleared away all the gas and dust in the protoplanetary disc , blowing it into interstellar space , thus ending the growth of the planets .
= = Subsequent evolution = =
The planets were originally thought to have formed in or near their current orbits . However , this view underwent radical change during the late 20th and early 21st centuries . Currently , it is thought that the Solar System looked very different after its initial formation : several objects at least as massive as Mercury were present in the inner Solar System , the outer Solar System was much more compact than it is now , and the Kuiper belt was much closer to the Sun .
= = = Terrestrial planets = = =
At the end of the planetary formation epoch the inner Solar System was populated by 50 – 100 Moon- to Mars @-@ sized planetary embryos . Further growth was possible only because these bodies collided and merged , which took less than 100 million years . These objects would have gravitationally interacted with one another , tugging at each other 's orbits until they collided , growing larger until the four terrestrial planets we know today took shape . One such giant collision is thought to have formed the Moon ( see Moons below ) , while another removed the outer envelope of the young Mercury .
One unresolved issue with this model is that it cannot explain how the initial orbits of the proto @-@ terrestrial planets , which would have needed to be highly eccentric to collide , produced the remarkably stable and nearly circular orbits they have today . One hypothesis for this " eccentricity dumping " is that the terrestrials formed in a disc of gas still not expelled by the Sun . The " gravitational drag " of this residual gas would have eventually lowered the planets ' energy , smoothing out their orbits . However , such gas , if it existed , would have prevented the terrestrial planets ' orbits from becoming so eccentric in the first place . Another hypothesis is that gravitational drag occurred not between the planets and residual gas but between the planets and the remaining small bodies . As the large bodies moved through the crowd of smaller objects , the smaller objects , attracted by the larger planets ' gravity , formed a region of higher density , a " gravitational wake " , in the larger objects ' path . As they did so , the increased gravity of the wake slowed the larger objects down into more regular orbits .
= = = Asteroid belt = = =
The outer edge of the terrestrial region , between 2 and 4 AU from the Sun , is called the asteroid belt . The asteroid belt initially contained more than enough matter to form 2 – 3 Earth @-@ like planets , and , indeed , a large number of planetesimals formed there . As with the terrestrials , planetesimals in this region later coalesced and formed 20 – 30 Moon- to Mars @-@ sized planetary embryos ; however , the proximity of Jupiter meant that after this planet formed , 3 million years after the Sun , the region 's history changed dramatically . Orbital resonances with Jupiter and Saturn are particularly strong in the asteroid belt , and gravitational interactions with more massive embryos scattered many planetesimals into those resonances . Jupiter 's gravity increased the velocity of objects within these resonances , causing them to shatter upon collision with other bodies , rather than accrete .
As Jupiter migrated inward following its formation ( see Planetary migration below ) , resonances would have swept across the asteroid belt , dynamically exciting the region 's population and increasing their velocities relative to each other . The cumulative action of the resonances and the embryos either scattered the planetesimals away from the asteroid belt or excited their orbital inclinations and eccentricities . Some of those massive embryos too were ejected by Jupiter , while others may have migrated to the inner Solar System and played a role in the final accretion of the terrestrial planets . During this primary depletion period , the effects of the giant planets and planetary embryos left the asteroid belt with a total mass equivalent to less than 1 % that of the Earth , composed mainly of small planetesimals . This is still 10 – 20 times more than the current mass in the main belt , which is now about 1 / 2 @,@ 000 M ⊕ . A secondary depletion period that brought the asteroid belt down close to its present mass is thought to have followed when Jupiter and Saturn entered a temporary 2 : 1 orbital resonance ( see below ) .
The inner Solar System 's period of giant impacts probably played a role in the Earth acquiring its current water content ( ~ 6 × 1021 kg ) from the early asteroid belt . Water is too volatile to have been present at Earth 's formation and must have been subsequently delivered from outer , colder parts of the Solar System . The water was probably delivered by planetary embryos and small planetesimals thrown out of the asteroid belt by Jupiter . A population of main @-@ belt comets discovered in 2006 has been also suggested as a possible source for Earth 's water . In contrast , comets from the Kuiper belt or farther regions delivered not more than about 6 % of Earth 's water . The panspermia hypothesis holds that life itself may have been deposited on Earth in this way , although this idea is not widely accepted .
= = = Planetary migration = = =
According to the nebular hypothesis , the outer two planets are in the " wrong place " . Uranus and Neptune ( known as the " ice giants " ) exist in a region where the reduced density of the solar nebula and longer orbital times render their formation highly implausible . The two are instead thought to have formed in orbits near Jupiter and Saturn , where more material was available , and to have migrated outward to their current positions over hundreds of millions of years .
The migration of the outer planets is also necessary to account for the existence and properties of the Solar System 's outermost regions . Beyond Neptune , the Solar System continues into the Kuiper belt , the scattered disc , and the Oort cloud , three sparse populations of small icy bodies thought to be the points of origin for most observed comets . At their distance from the Sun , accretion was too slow to allow planets to form before the solar nebula dispersed , and thus the initial disc lacked enough mass density to consolidate into a planet . The Kuiper belt lies between 30 and 55 AU from the Sun , while the farther scattered disc extends to over 100 AU , and the distant Oort cloud begins at about 50 @,@ 000 AU . Originally , however , the Kuiper belt was much denser and closer to the Sun , with an outer edge at approximately 30 AU . Its inner edge would have been just beyond the orbits of Uranus and Neptune , which were in turn far closer to the Sun when they formed ( most likely in the range of 15 – 20 AU ) , and in opposite locations , with Uranus farther from the Sun than Neptune .
According to the so @-@ called Nice model , after the formation of the Solar System , the orbits of all the giant planets continued to change slowly , influenced by their interaction with the large number of remaining planetesimals . After 500 – 600 million years ( about 4 billion years ago ) Jupiter and Saturn fell into a 2 : 1 resonance : Saturn orbited the Sun once for every two Jupiter orbits . This resonance created a gravitational push against the outer planets , causing Neptune to surge past Uranus and plough into the ancient Kuiper belt . The planets scattered the majority of the small icy bodies inwards , while themselves moving outwards . These planetesimals then scattered off the next planet they encountered in a similar manner , moving the planets ' orbits outwards while they moved inwards . This process continued until the planetesimals interacted with Jupiter , whose immense gravity sent them into highly elliptical orbits or even ejected them outright from the Solar System . This caused Jupiter to move slightly inward . Those objects scattered by Jupiter into highly elliptical orbits formed the Oort cloud ; those objects scattered to a lesser degree by the migrating Neptune formed the current Kuiper belt and scattered disc . This scenario explains the Kuiper belt 's and scattered disc 's present low mass . Some of the scattered objects , including Pluto , became gravitationally tied to Neptune 's orbit , forcing them into mean @-@ motion resonances . Eventually , friction within the planetesimal disc made the orbits of Uranus and Neptune circular again .
In contrast to the outer planets , the inner planets are not thought to have migrated significantly over the age of the Solar System , because their orbits have remained stable following the period of giant impacts .
Another question is why Mars came out so small compared with Earth . A study by Southwest Research Institute , San Antonio , Texas , published June 6 , 2011 ( called the Grand Tack Hypothesis ) , proposes that Jupiter had migrated inward to 1 @.@ 5 AU . After Saturn formed , migrated inward , and established the 2 : 3 mean motion resonance with Jupiter , the study assumes that both planets migrated back to their present positions . Jupiter thus would have consumed much of the material that would have created a bigger Mars . The same simulations also reproduce the characteristics of the modern asteroid belt , with dry asteroids and water @-@ rich objects similar to comets . However , it is unclear whether conditions in the solar nebula would have allowed Jupiter and Saturn to move back to their current positions , and according to current estimates this possibility appears unlikely . Moreover , alternative explanations for the small mass of Mars exist .
= = = Late Heavy Bombardment and after = = =
Gravitational disruption from the outer planets ' migration would have sent large numbers of asteroids into the inner Solar System , severely depleting the original belt until it reached today 's extremely low mass . This event may have triggered the Late Heavy Bombardment that occurred approximately 4 billion years ago , 500 – 600 million years after the formation of the Solar System . This period of heavy bombardment lasted several hundred million years and is evident in the cratering still visible on geologically dead bodies of the inner Solar System such as the Moon and Mercury . The oldest known evidence for life on Earth dates to 3 @.@ 8 billion years ago — almost immediately after the end of the Late Heavy Bombardment .
Impacts are thought to be a regular ( if currently infrequent ) part of the evolution of the Solar System . That they continue to happen is evidenced by the collision of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994 , the 2009 Jupiter impact event , the Tunguska event , the Chelyabinsk meteor and the impact feature Meteor Crater in Arizona . The process of accretion , therefore , is not complete , and may still pose a threat to life on Earth .
Over the course of the Solar System 's evolution , comets were ejected out of the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets , and sent thousands of AU outward to form the Oort cloud , a spherical outer swarm of cometary nuclei at the farthest extent of the Sun 's gravitational pull . Eventually , after about 800 million years , the gravitational disruption caused by galactic tides , passing stars and giant molecular clouds began to deplete the cloud , sending comets into the inner Solar System . The evolution of the outer Solar System also appears to have been influenced by space weathering from the solar wind , micrometeorites , and the neutral components of the interstellar medium .
The evolution of the asteroid belt after Late Heavy Bombardment was mainly governed by collisions . Objects with large mass have enough gravity to retain any material ejected by a violent collision . In the asteroid belt this usually is not the case . As a result , many larger objects have been broken apart , and sometimes newer objects have been forged from the remnants in less violent collisions . Moons around some asteroids currently can only be explained as consolidations of material flung away from the parent object without enough energy to entirely escape its gravity .
= = Moons = =
Moons have come to exist around most planets and many other Solar System bodies . These natural satellites originated by one of three possible mechanisms :
Co @-@ formation from a circum @-@ planetary disc ( only in the cases of the giant planets ) ;
Formation from impact debris ( given a large enough impact at a shallow angle ) ; and
Capture of a passing object .
Jupiter and Saturn have several large moons , such as Io , Europa , Ganymede and Titan , which may have originated from discs around each giant planet in much the same way that the planets formed from the disc around the Sun . This origin is indicated by the large sizes of the moons and their proximity to the planet . These attributes are impossible to achieve via capture , while the gaseous nature of the primaries also make formation from collision debris unlikely . The outer moons of the giant planets tend to be small and have eccentric orbits with arbitrary inclinations . These are the characteristics expected of captured bodies . Most such moons orbit in the direction opposite the rotation of their primary . The largest irregular moon is Neptune 's moon Triton , which is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object .
Moons of solid Solar System bodies have been created by both collisions and capture . Mars 's two small moons , Deimos and Phobos , are thought to be captured asteroids . The Earth 's Moon is thought to have formed as a result of a single , large oblique collision . The impacting object probably had a mass comparable to that of Mars , and the impact probably occurred near the end of the period of giant impacts . The collision kicked into orbit some of the impactor 's mantle , which then coalesced into the Moon . The impact was probably the last in the series of mergers that formed the Earth . It has been further hypothesized that the Mars @-@ sized object may have formed at one of the stable Earth – Sun Lagrangian points ( either L4 or L5 ) and drifted from its position . The moons of trans @-@ Neptunian objects Pluto ( Charon ) and Orcus ( Vanth ) may also have formed by means of a large collision : the Pluto – Charon , Orcus – Vanth and Earth – Moon systems are unusual in the Solar System in that the satellite 's mass is at least 1 % that of the larger body .
= = Future = =
Astronomers estimate that the Solar System as we know it today will not change drastically until the Sun has fused almost all the hydrogen fuel in its core into helium , beginning its evolution from the main sequence of the Hertzsprung – Russell diagram and into its red @-@ giant phase . Even so , the Solar System will continue to evolve until then .
= = = Long @-@ term stability = = =
The Solar System is chaotic over million- and billion @-@ year timescales , with the orbits of the planets open to long @-@ term variations . One notable example of this chaos is the Neptune – Pluto system , which lies in a 3 : 2 orbital resonance . Although the resonance itself will remain stable , it becomes impossible to predict the position of Pluto with any degree of accuracy more than 10 – 20 million years ( the Lyapunov time ) into the future . Another example is Earth 's axial tilt , which , due to friction raised within Earth 's mantle by tidal interactions with the Moon ( see below ) , will be incomputable at some point between 1 @.@ 5 and 4 @.@ 5 billion years from now .
The outer planets ' orbits are chaotic over longer timescales , with a Lyapunov time in the range of 2 – 230 million years . In all cases this means that the position of a planet along its orbit ultimately becomes impossible to predict with any certainty ( so , for example , the timing of winter and summer become uncertain ) , but in some cases the orbits themselves may change dramatically . Such chaos manifests most strongly as changes in eccentricity , with some planets ' orbits becoming significantly more — or less — elliptical .
Ultimately , the Solar System is stable in that none of the planets are likely to collide with each other or be ejected from the system in the next few billion years . Beyond this , within five billion years or so Mars 's eccentricity may grow to around 0 @.@ 2 , such that it lies on an Earth @-@ crossing orbit , leading to a potential collision . In the same timescale , Mercury 's eccentricity may grow even further , and a close encounter with Venus could theoretically eject it from the Solar System altogether or send it on a collision course with Venus or Earth . This could happen within a billion years , according to numerical simulations in which Mercury 's orbit is perturbed .
= = = Moon – ring systems = = =
The evolution of moon systems is driven by tidal forces . A moon will raise a tidal bulge in the object it orbits ( the primary ) due to the differential gravitational force across diameter of the primary . If a moon is revolving in the same direction as the planet 's rotation and the planet is rotating faster than the orbital period of the moon , the bulge will constantly be pulled ahead of the moon . In this situation , angular momentum is transferred from the rotation of the primary to the revolution of the satellite . The moon gains energy and gradually spirals outward , while the primary rotates more slowly over time .
The Earth and its Moon are one example of this configuration . Today , the Moon is tidally locked to the Earth ; one of its revolutions around the Earth ( currently about 29 days ) is equal to one of its rotations about its axis , so it always shows one face to the Earth . The Moon will continue to recede from Earth , and Earth 's spin will continue to slow gradually . In about 50 billion years , if they survive the Sun 's expansion , the Earth and Moon will become tidally locked to each other ; each will be caught up in what is called a " spin – orbit resonance " in which the Moon will circle the Earth in about 47 days and both Moon and Earth will rotate around their axes in the same time , each only visible from one hemisphere of the other . Other examples are the Galilean moons of Jupiter ( as well as many of Jupiter 's smaller moons ) and most of the larger moons of Saturn .
A different scenario occurs when the moon is either revolving around the primary faster than the primary rotates , or is revolving in the direction opposite the planet 's rotation . In these cases , the tidal bulge lags behind the moon in its orbit . In the former case , the direction of angular momentum transfer is reversed , so the rotation of the primary speeds up while the satellite 's orbit shrinks . In the latter case , the angular momentum of the rotation and revolution have opposite signs , so transfer leads to decreases in the magnitude of each ( that cancel each other out ) . In both cases , tidal deceleration causes the moon to spiral in towards the primary until it either is torn apart by tidal stresses , potentially creating a planetary ring system , or crashes into the planet 's surface or atmosphere . Such a fate awaits the moons Phobos of Mars ( within 30 to 50 million years ) , Triton of Neptune ( in 3 @.@ 6 billion years ) , Metis and Adrastea of Jupiter , and at least 16 small satellites of Uranus and Neptune . Uranus 's Desdemona may even collide with one of its neighboring moons .
A third possibility is where the primary and moon are tidally locked to each other . In that case , the tidal bulge stays directly under the moon , there is no transfer of angular momentum , and the orbital period will not change . Pluto and Charon are an example of this type of configuration .
Prior to the 2004 arrival of the Cassini – Huygens spacecraft , the rings of Saturn were widely thought to be much younger than the Solar System and were not expected to survive beyond another 300 million years . Gravitational interactions with Saturn 's moons were expected to gradually sweep the rings ' outer edge toward the planet , with abrasion by meteorites and Saturn 's gravity eventually taking the rest , leaving Saturn unadorned . However , data from the Cassini mission led scientists to revise that early view . Observations revealed 10 km @-@ wide icy clumps of material that repeatedly break apart and reform , keeping the rings fresh . Saturn 's rings are far more massive than the rings of the other giant planets . This large mass is thought to have preserved Saturn 's rings since it first formed 4 @.@ 5 billion years ago , and is likely to preserve them for billions of years to come .
= = = The Sun and planetary environments = = =
In the long term , the greatest changes in the Solar System will come from changes in the Sun itself as it ages . As the Sun burns through its supply of hydrogen fuel , it gets hotter and burns the remaining fuel even faster . As a result , the Sun is growing brighter at a rate of ten percent every 1 @.@ 1 billion years . In one billion years ' time , as the Sun 's radiation output increases , its circumstellar habitable zone will move outwards , making the Earth 's surface too hot for liquid water to exist there naturally . At this point , all life on land will become extinct . Evaporation of water , a potent greenhouse gas , from the oceans ' surface could accelerate temperature increase , potentially ending all life on Earth even sooner . During this time , it is possible that as Mars 's surface temperature gradually rises , carbon dioxide and water currently frozen under the surface regolith will release into the atmosphere , creating a greenhouse effect that will heat the planet until it achieves conditions parallel to Earth today , providing a potential future abode for life . By 3 @.@ 5 billion years from now , Earth 's surface conditions will be similar to those of Venus today .
Around 5 @.@ 4 billion years from now , the core of the Sun will become hot enough to trigger hydrogen fusion in its surrounding shell . This will cause the outer layers of the star to expand greatly , and the star will enter a phase of its life in which it is called a red giant . Within 7 @.@ 5 billion years , the Sun will have expanded to a radius of 1 @.@ 2 AU — 256 times its current size . At the tip of the red giant branch , as a result of the vastly increased surface area , the Sun 's surface will be much cooler ( about 2600 K ) than now and its luminosity much higher — up to 2 @,@ 700 current solar luminosities . For part of its red giant life , the Sun will have a strong stellar wind that will carry away around 33 % of its mass . During these times , it is possible that Saturn 's moon Titan could achieve surface temperatures necessary to support life .
As the Sun expands , it will swallow the planets Mercury and Venus . Earth 's fate is less clear ; although the Sun will envelop Earth 's current orbit , the star 's loss of mass ( and thus weaker gravity ) will cause the planets ' orbits to move farther out . If it were only for this , Venus and Earth would probably escape incineration , but a 2008 study suggests that Earth will likely be swallowed up as a result of tidal interactions with the Sun 's weakly bound outer envelope .
Gradually , the hydrogen burning in the shell around the solar core will increase the mass of the core until it reaches about 45 % of the present solar mass . At this point the density and temperature will become so high that the fusion of helium into carbon will begin , leading to a helium flash ; the Sun will shrink from around 250 to 11 times its present ( main @-@ sequence ) radius . Consequently , its luminosity will decrease from around 3 @,@ 000 to 54 times its current level , and its surface temperature will increase to about 4770 K. The Sun will become a horizontal giant , burning helium in its core in a stable fashion much like it burns hydrogen today . The helium @-@ fusing stage will last only 100 million years . Eventually , it will have to again resort to the reserves of hydrogen and helium in its outer layers and will expand a second time , turning into what is known as an asymptotic giant . Here the luminosity of the Sun will increase again , reaching about 2 @,@ 090 present luminosities , and it will cool to about 3500 K. This phase lasts about 30 million years , after which , over the course of a further 100 @,@ 000 years , the Sun 's remaining outer layers will fall away , ejecting a vast stream of matter into space and forming a halo known ( misleadingly ) as a planetary nebula . The ejected material will contain the helium and carbon produced by the Sun 's nuclear reactions , continuing the enrichment of the interstellar medium with heavy elements for future generations of stars .
This is a relatively peaceful event , nothing akin to a supernova , which the Sun is too small to undergo as part of its evolution . Any observer present to witness this occurrence would see a massive increase in the speed of the solar wind , but not enough to destroy a planet completely . However , the star 's loss of mass could send the orbits of the surviving planets into chaos , causing some to collide , others to be ejected from the Solar System , and still others to be torn apart by tidal interactions . Afterwards , all that will remain of the Sun is a white dwarf , an extraordinarily dense object , 54 % its original mass but only the size of the Earth . Initially , this white dwarf may be 100 times as luminous as the Sun is now . It will consist entirely of degenerate carbon and oxygen , but will never reach temperatures hot enough to fuse these elements . Thus the white dwarf Sun will gradually cool , growing dimmer and dimmer .
As the Sun dies , its gravitational pull on the orbiting bodies such as planets , comets and asteroids will weaken due to its mass loss . All remaining planets ' orbits will expand ; if Venus , Earth , and Mars still exist , their orbits will lie roughly at 1 @.@ 4 AU ( 210 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) , 1 @.@ 9 AU ( 280 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) , and 2 @.@ 8 AU ( 420 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) . They and the other remaining planets will become dark , frigid hulks , completely devoid of any form of life . They will continue to orbit their star , their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun 's reduced gravity . Two billion years later , when the Sun has cooled to the 6000 – 8000K range , the carbon and oxygen in the Sun 's core will freeze , with over 90 % of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure . Eventually , after billions more years , the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether , becoming a black dwarf .
= = Galactic interaction = =
The Solar System travels alone through the Milky Way in a circular orbit approximately 30 @,@ 000 light years from the Galactic Centre . Its speed is about 220 km / s . The period required for the Solar System to complete one revolution around the Galactic Centre , the galactic year , is in the range of 220 – 250 million years . Since its formation , the Solar System has completed at least 20 such revolutions .
Various scientists have speculated that the Solar System 's path through the galaxy is a factor in the periodicity of mass extinctions observed in the Earth 's fossil record . One hypothesis supposes that vertical oscillations made by the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Centre cause it to regularly pass through the galactic plane . When the Sun 's orbit takes it outside the galactic disc , the influence of the galactic tide is weaker ; as it re @-@ enters the galactic disc , as it does every 20 – 25 million years , it comes under the influence of the far stronger " disc tides " , which , according to mathematical models , increase the flux of Oort cloud comets into the Solar System by a factor of 4 , leading to a massive increase in the likelihood of a devastating impact .
However , others argue that the Sun is currently close to the galactic plane , and yet the last great extinction event was 15 million years ago . Therefore , the Sun 's vertical position cannot alone explain such periodic extinctions , and that extinctions instead occur when the Sun passes through the galaxy 's spiral arms . Spiral arms are home not only to larger numbers of molecular clouds , whose gravity may distort the Oort cloud , but also to higher concentrations of bright blue giants , which live for relatively short periods and then explode violently as supernovae .
= = = Galactic collision and planetary disruption = = =
Although the vast majority of galaxies in the Universe are moving away from the Milky Way , the Andromeda Galaxy , the largest member of the Local Group of galaxies , is heading toward it at about 120 km / s . In 4 billion years , Andromeda and the Milky Way will collide , causing both to deform as tidal forces distort their outer arms into vast tidal tails . If this initial disruption occurs , astronomers calculate a 12 % chance that the Solar System will be pulled outward into the Milky Way 's tidal tail and a 3 % chance that it will become gravitationally bound to Andromeda and thus a part of that galaxy . After a further series of glancing blows , during which the likelihood of the Solar System 's ejection rises to 30 % , the galaxies ' supermassive black holes will merge . Eventually , in roughly 6 billion years , the Milky Way and Andromeda will complete their merger into a giant elliptical galaxy . During the merger , if there is enough gas , the increased gravity will force the gas to the centre of the forming elliptical galaxy . This may lead to a short period of intensive star formation called a starburst . In addition , the infalling gas will feed the newly formed black hole , transforming it into an active galactic nucleus . The force of these interactions will likely push the Solar System into the new galaxy 's outer halo , leaving it relatively unscathed by the radiation from these collisions .
It is a common misconception that this collision will disrupt the orbits of the planets in the Solar System . Although it is true that the gravity of passing stars can detach planets into interstellar space , distances between stars are so great that the likelihood of the Milky Way – Andromeda collision causing such disruption to any individual star system is negligible . Although the Solar System as a whole could be affected by these events , the Sun and planets are not expected to be disturbed .
However , over time , the cumulative probability of a chance encounter with a star increases , and disruption of the planets becomes all but inevitable . Assuming that the Big Crunch or Big Rip scenarios for the end of the Universe do not occur , calculations suggest that the gravity of passing stars will have completely stripped the dead Sun of its remaining planets within 1 quadrillion ( 1015 ) years . This point marks the end of the Solar System . Although the Sun and planets may survive , the Solar System , in any meaningful sense , will cease to exist .
= = Chronology = =
The time frame of the Solar System 's formation has been determined using radiometric dating . Scientists estimate that the Solar System is 4 @.@ 6 billion years old . The oldest known mineral grains on Earth are approximately 4 @.@ 4 billion years old . Rocks this old are rare , as Earth 's surface is constantly being reshaped by erosion , volcanism , and plate tectonics . To estimate the age of the Solar System , scientists use meteorites , which were formed during the early condensation of the solar nebula . Almost all meteorites ( see the Canyon Diablo meteorite ) are found to have an age of 4 @.@ 6 billion years , suggesting that the Solar System must be at least this old .
Studies of discs around other stars have also done much to establish a time frame for Solar System formation . Stars between one and three million years old have discs rich in gas , whereas discs around stars more than 10 million years old have little to no gas , suggesting that giant planets within them have ceased forming .
= = = Timeline of Solar System evolution = = =
Note : All dates and times in this chronology are approximate and should be taken as an order of magnitude indicator only .
= Hex Enduction Hour =
Hex Enduction Hour is the fourth studio album by the English post @-@ punk band the Fall . Released on 8 March 1982 , it builds on the low @-@ fidelity production values and caustic lyrical content of their earlier recordings . Fall frontman Mark E. Smith establishes an abrasive Northern aesthetic built in part from the 20th century literary traditions of kitchen sink and magic realism . Smith described it as an often satirical , but deliberate reaction to the contemporary music scene ; a stand against " bland bastards like Elvis Costello and Spandau Ballet ... [ and ] all that shit . "
Recording began during a 1981 three concert visit of Iceland , when Smith was inspired both by the otherworldliness of the landscape , its history and the enthusiasm of an audience unused to visiting rock groups . The Fall recorded " Hip Priest " , " Iceland " and non @-@ album single " Look , Know " at the Hljóðriti studio in Reykjavík , and the remaining tracks in a disused cinema in Hitchin , Hertfordshire on their return to England . The album was widely praised on release as fully capturing their aggressive live sound . The UK recordings and later promotion were funded by the independent record label Kamera following a bitter and protracted dispute between Smith and former label Rough Trade Records . Hex Enduction Hour was well received by critics , and sold well relative to its release on a small label , and earned The Fall their first UK Albums Chart placing at No. 71 . Today it is considered a hallmark of the post @-@ punk era .
= = Background and recording = =
By 1981 the Fall had released three critically acclaimed albums , but band leader Mark E Smith felt they were undervalued and poorly supported by their label Rough Trade Records , whom he regarded as " a bunch of well meaning but inept hippies " . He felt constrained by the label 's ethos and worried that the Fall were in danger of becoming " just another Rough Trade band " . Frustrated and believing his career was nearing its end , Smith made overtures to other labels , and found kindred adventurous spirits at heavy metal specialists Kamera records . He proposed that Kamera record the band 's final album , which he wanted to last exactly one hour . They had already recorded several songs at the Hljóðriti studio in Reykjavík during their 1981 visit . Hljóðriti had lava walls , which according to Smith have a sound as if they had played in an igloo , which critics agree was a large factor in giving the songs their otherworldly ambience .
Smith wanted to record the remaining album tracks in a relatively open space , eventually using a disused cinema in Hitchin . He had hoped that the ambience of such a space would begin to resemble their live sound . Kamera agreed to pay costs for the post Iceland recordings , which were mostly songs that appeared in their October 1981 UK tour . Smith was impressed by their openness and signed , relieved to be free of Rough Trade . The uncertainty around a label change , and Smith 's doubts over The Fall 's longevity , seep into and contribute to the album 's edgy and unsettled sound . Music critic John Doran described " Hex " as the work of a band with a gun pressed to their heads .
Hex Enduction Hour takes influence from the Velvet Underground 's " Sister Ray " , Captain Beefheart and the early 1970s Krautrock band Can . Smith has said that the title was intended to invoke witchcraft , but that the word Enduction was made up , a word he just liked the sound of . His vocals are higher in the mix than on previous Fall releases and were described in 1982 by Sounds as " emerg [ ing ] like a loudhailer from a fog of guitar scratch " . The songs were deliberately produced in a raw and low @-@ fi approach by Smith , Grant Showbiz and Richard Mazda in a sound described at the time as a " well produced noise " that was acceptable by Fall standards . Critic Mark Storace claimed that he " could have done a better job on a 4 @-@ track if I was pissed out of my head " . Smith responded by saying that " nowadays people just can 't just shut up if they don 't know what they 're talking about . " Elaborating on the purposely amateurish production values , Smith remarked that " it was all recorded in deliberately bad places ... deliberately simple sort of thing . Three songs were written at rehearsal and done the next time . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The album was their first to include Karl Burns and Paul Hanley in the band 's classic two @-@ drummer
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the USL Second Division 2 – 1 . On July 21 , 2009 , D.C. United hosted another lower tier team in their semifinal match at the SoccerPlex . This time they defeated the Rochester Rhinos of the USL First Division 2 – 1 . The match was tied 1 – 1 until the 82nd minute when Boyzzz Khumalo 's goal propelled D.C. into the cup final .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
= = = Venue selection = = =
Both Seattle Sounders FC and D.C. United submitted bids to U.S. Soccer to host the final . D.C. United 's bid included a proposal to host the match at RFK Stadium , their home stadium in Washington , D.C. with a capacity of 45 @,@ 596 . Sounders FC 's bid proposed to host the match at Qwest Field , their home stadium in Seattle , with a capacity of 32 @,@ 400 for soccer matches . The procedure for selecting the winning bid was kept private . When D.C. United 's bid was chosen , Sounders FC general manager Adrian Hanauer expressed skepticism that it had been better than the Seattle bid . He further noted that if Seattle had hosted the match , it likely would have sold out . This prompted a reply from D.C. United president Kevin Payne , who argued that D.C. United had won the bidding process fairly , and said that he was offended by Hanauer 's comments . Following this public disagreement , D.C. United launched a marketing campaign to sell more match tickets , which included a new web site , WeWinTrophies.com , which chronicled the club 's history of titles as an original MLS franchise . The campaign also included an open letter in local newspapers stating that Sounders FC and its fans did not think D.C. deserved to host the match and declared D.C. fans as " the standard " for support in the league . Videos from local celebrities were posted on the team 's official blog urging fans to attend the final . Ticket discounts and special pricing on concessions for the match were also announced as part of the special marketing effort for the cup final .
= = = Analysis = = =
Prior to meeting in the U.S. Open Cup final , Sounders FC and D.C. United had met only once , on June 17 at Qwest Field in Seattle . In that meeting , Sounders FC squandered a 3 – 1 second half lead by allowing D.C. United to score two goals late in the match . It ended in a 3 – 3 tie .
Since 1996 , when MLS teams were first included in the tournament , the home team had won nine times and lost only twice in the final match . Commenting on what his team brings to the game , Sounders FC coach Sigi Schmid stated , " We bring a clean slate . We haven 't had any negative experiences in championship games , so we want to just build up a positive legacy for our team and we know we have a chance to make some history for our team . Every player knows that and that 's something we want to try and do . " D.C. United had previously won the U.S. Open Cup twice in 1996 and 2008 and this was their fourth appearance ever in the tournament final . D.C. United president Kevin Payne simply stated , " We want to win anything we enter . "
Sounders FC general manager Adrian Hanauer commented on his club 's desire to win the cup and a berth into the CONCACAF Champions League , " That 's one step towards our stated goal of competing in the world club championships , because the winner of the CONCACAF Champions League wins a spot in the World Club Championships . "
= = Match = =
The 2009 U.S. Open Cup Final was played on September 2 at RFK Stadium in Washington D.C. A total of 17 @,@ 329 fans attended the match , 38 % of the stadium 's available capacity . Approximately 200 Sounders FC fans sat together in the upper deck . Both the travel distance and the mid @-@ week scheduling made it difficult for Seattle fans to attend . Live television coverage was provided nationally by Fox Soccer Channel .
= = = First half = = =
Both clubs had used a mix of reserve players and starting ( first choice ) players in previous tournament matches , but for the final neither team used reserve players in their starting lineups . Seattle took the field in a 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 formation while D.C United was in a 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 3 formation . The match kicked off at 7 : 37 pm local time .
Five minutes into the match , D.C. United first @-@ year player Chris Pontius had the first chance of the evening as he pushed past Sounders FC defender Leonardo González to receive a diagonal pass from Clyde Simms . However , due to the difficult shooting angle , Pontius ' shot was wide of the far post . In the 10th minute , Sounders FC forward Fredy Montero had a close range shot on goal , but D.C. goalkeeper Josh Wicks parried the shot away . Seven minutes later , Christian Gomez had a goal scoring opportunity with a direct free kick from 28 yards ( 26 m ) , but his low kick curled just wide of the target . In the 18th minute , Seattle midfielder Sebastian Le Toux played a ball in to teammate Freddie Ljungberg , whose shot on goal was barely saved by Wicks , who kicked out a foot to block the shot . Just before halftime , Le Toux crossed to an unmarked Montero , whose direct header on goal was just in reach of Wicks , who again made the save to keep the score level , 0 – 0 . Seattle outshot D.C. 9 – 6 in the first half .
= = = Second half = = =
As the players took the field for the second half , D.C. coach Tom Soehn decided to replace Fred , who had been a non @-@ factor in the first half , with Santino Quaranta . In the 60th minute , Gomez , Pontius and Luciano Emilio combined inside Seattle 's 18 @-@ yard box for a United opportunity , but Pontius mishit the shot , which resulted in an easy save for Seattle 's goalkeeper , Kasey Keller . Seven minutes later , another failed D.C. United opportunity resulted in a Sounders FC counterattack , where Freddie Ljungberg 's shot was saved by Wicks . The rebound rolled in front of Fredy Montero , who dove feet first and kicked the ball into the goal , giving Sounders FC a 1 – 0 lead . Following the goal , frustrated D.C. United goalkeeper Josh Wicks stomped on Montero 's leg while he was still on the ground . After consulting with the fourth official , referee Alex Prus showed Wicks a red card for his behavior , dismissing him from the match . United 's backup goalkeeper , Milos Kocic , was substituted for Christian Gomez after the incident , and D.C. played with 10 men for the remainder of the match .
Despite being down a man , D.C. United controlled possession of the ball as the match progressed towards full @-@ time . Just four minutes before full @-@ time , Seattle 's Sebastian Le Toux pushed D.C. defender Dejan Jakovic off the ball , dribbled in towards goal , and then provided a centering pass to teammate Roger Levesque who scored , extending the Seattle lead to 2 – 0 . With time ticking away , United desperately threw every man forward and managed to narrow the scoring difference to one in the 89th minute when Simms kicked home a loose ball after a Quaranta free kick . During the five minutes of stoppage time , D.C. continued with repeated crosses and shots attempting to get an equalizer .
In the end , Sounders FC was able to withstand D.C. ' s late push for a 2 – 1 victory , becoming the second MLS expansion team in league history ( Chicago Fire was the first ) to win the U.S. Open Cup in their inaugural season . Players and coaches ran onto the field after the final whistle , jumped up and down together and hurried to a corner of the field to acknowledge the Sounders FC fans cheering in the upper deck .
= = = Match details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
Overall
= = Post match = =
In the post @-@ game press conference , Josh Wicks discussed his ejection , saying : " It was a mistake on my part and I 've got to learn my lesson . The fourth official made a call and the ref made the final decision . That was it . I 've got no excuses for it . Tremendously , very , very disappointing . " One month after the stomping incident , U.S. Soccer announced that Wicks would be suspended from the U.S. Open Cup tournament for five matches .
After the victory , many Sounders FC fans gathered at King County International Airport to greet the team as they returned to Seattle . The trophy was put on display at several events around Seattle in the weeks following Sounders FC 's victory . On September 19 , the cup was presented to Sounders FC fans to carry in the March to the Match prior to a Sounders FC league game at Qwest Field against Chivas USA .
By winning the U.S. Open Cup tournament , Sounders FC earned a berth in the preliminary round of the 2010 – 11 CONCACAF Champions League . Seattle also received the winner 's $ 100 @,@ 000 cash prize , while D.C. United received $ 50 @,@ 000 as the tournament runner @-@ up . Kevin Forrest , whose game @-@ winning goal against Colorado allowed Sounders FC to qualify for the tournament , received a share of the prize money and a medal , despite being released by the team before the final .
In January 2010 , the club 's success in the U.S. Open Cup tournament was listed among the many reasons the Washington State Senate passed a resolution honoring Sounders FC .
On October 5 , 2010 , Seattle returned to the final and defeated the Columbus Crew 2 – 1 to repeat as U.S. Open Cup champion . This time Sounders FC hosted the final at Qwest Field , drawing an attendance of 31 @,@ 311 which broke the 81 @-@ year @-@ old record for the event .
= Hurricane Madeline ( 1998 ) =
Hurricane Madeline was the final tropical cyclone of the 1998 Pacific hurricane season . Madeline originated from a tropical wave that emerged off the coast of Africa on September 25 , 1998 . The wave traversed the Atlantic Ocean and crossed over Central America on October 5 or 6 . Gradually , the system intensified and was classified as a tropical depression on October 16 , a tropical storm later that day , and a hurricane on October 17 . The storm reached peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) about 95 miles ( 150 km ) southwest of San Blas , Nayarit , and after 18 hours it subsequently began to weaken . Although Madeline never made landfall , numerous rainbands affected the Mexican coast causing no known damage or fatalities . The remnant moisture moved north and contributed to flooding in central Texas , which killed 31 people and caused $ 750 million ( 1998 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 25 , 1998 a tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa , producing intermittent concentrated clusters of convective activity . The wave traversed the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea before crossing Central America on October 5 or October 6 . After several days , convection increased , and Dvorak classifications initiated . Satellite imagery indicated that the system dissipated on October 11 , although an area of cloudiness persisted off the coast of Mexico . After four days , the system regenerated and under diffluent flow aloft , deep convection became more concentrated ; it is estimated that a tropical depression formed at 0000 UTC on October 16 , about 230 mi ( 370 km ) west @-@ southwest of Manzanillo , Mexico . Initially , due to disorganization , determining the forward movement of depression was difficult , although a few hours later it was estimated that the system was tracking to the north @-@ northwest . With favorable conditions aloft , the deep convection became more concentrated , and 12 hours after first developing , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Madeline about 170 miles ( 270 km ) southwest of Cabo Corrientes .
During the afternoon , convective cloud tops warmed slightly although the storm continued to intensify . Soon after , thunderstorm activity became limited as Madeline remained generally stationary in movement . An approaching mid @-@ level trough turned Madeline to the northeast . Banding features gradually improved in organization , and late on October 17 the storm attained hurricane status . However , satellite imagery indicated that convective activity was confined to the western portion of the storm , and at the same time an eye began to form . Early on October 18 , data from a Reconnaissance aircraft flight into the storm found a minimum central pressure of 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) , as the storm was drifting to the northeast at around 4 mph ( 6 @.@ 4 km / h ) near the western edge of a large @-@ scale east – west ridge axis . The apparent eye became cloud @-@ filled shortly thereafter , and a slight increase in temperature was discovered near the center . Despite this , upper @-@ level outflow was favorable , leading to predictions of slight intensification .
Shortly thereafter , Madeline attained peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) about 95 miles ( 150 km ) southwest of San Blas , Nayarit . The hurricane maintained peak winds for about 18 hours while curving again to the northwest . With evidence of southern wind shear , only a small area of deep thunderstorm activity existed on October 19 , and the system began to appear ill @-@ defined of satellite imagery . The hurricane quickly weakened into a tropical storm , and by later that day , the storm became void of convection due to strong wind shear . On October 19 , the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression , leaving just a swirl of low clouds midway between the southern tip of Baja California and mainland Mexico . By 0600 UTC on October 20 , the remnants of Madeline had completely dissipated .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In anticipation of Madeline , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for the Baja California Peninsula southward from La Paz , and a hurricane warning from San Patricio , Jalisco to El Dorado , Sinaloa , including the Islas Marías . The storm was initially forecast to move ashore near Mazatlán , prompting officials to close the city 's port . President Ernesto Zedillo advised potentially affected residents to stay indoors or seek refuge in shelters . Also , the threat of the hurricane canceled a fishing expedition in the Gulf of California due to rough surf . The expedition was to provide a new aquarium in downtown Denver , Colorado with about 8 @,@ 500 fish . Mexican authorities deployed 2 @,@ 000 soldiers in remote areas of the Pacific coast state of Sinaloa to prepare for the hurricane . Several thousand residents and tourists at the resorts of Puerto Vallarta and Mazatlan were put on standby to evacuate their homes . Authorities along the coast in the state of Nayarit went house to house , advising people about the oncoming storm . In addition , ships from Salina Cruz to Acapulco were advised to stay in port .
Although Madeline never crossed the coast , numerous rainbands affected the Mexican coast , dropping up to 9 @.@ 8 in ( 250 mm ) . Despite this , no damage or fatalities were reported in Mexico . After the storm had dissipated , the remnant plume of moisture contributed to severe flooding in central Texas . Rainfall in Texas reached 22 inches ( 560 mm ) in some locations . Thirty @-@ one people died due to the flooding , and damage totaled to $ 750 million ( 1998 USD ) . A total of 24 of the deaths were drownings , 22 of them were caused by driving vehicles into high water on a road flooded by the torrential downpours . There were 16 different incidents when these types of deaths occurred , four of them involving in multiple deaths . Three others died due to trauma , and one died from hypothermia after the person was submerged in the water . The greatest impact was in Southern Texas , which included the urban areas of San Antonio and Austin , and all of their surrounding suburbs . The counties with the most significant rainfall , damage , and fatalities were Travis County , Bexar County , Guadalupe County , Comal County , and Caldwell County . This area included both the cities of San Antonio and Austin . In a small area in Caldwell County , there was 29 inches ( 740 mm ) of rain estimated by the United States Geological Survey . This included the area of Lockhart , Texas , which was badly flooded by the storm due to its close proximity to the San Marcos River . Most of the county picked up an estimated 20 to 30 in ( 510 to 760 mm ) of rain , including San Marcos , Texas , New Braunfels , Texas , and Kyle , Texas . In all , portions of 60 counties in Texas were flooded and hundreds of people were forced to flee their homes .
Due to the flooding , twenty counties were declared federal disaster areas , clearing the way for assistance such as federal loans . Then @-@ president Bill Clinton promised aid to the victims of the storm and then @-@ governor George W. Bush took a tour of the devastated region with the Federal Emergency Management Agency director .
= You 'll See =
" You 'll See " is a song by American recording artist Madonna from her ballads compilation , Something to Remember ( 1995 ) . The album was released with the intention of toning down the image of Madonna , who was being heavily criticized at the time . The singer decided to work with producer David Foster , who co @-@ wrote and produced three songs with Madonna in September 1995 . " You 'll See " was released on October 30 , 1995 , by Maverick Records as the lead single from the album . An acoustic pop ballad , " You 'll See " features instrumentation from percussion , tremolo guitar and piano , while lyrically it speaks of independence after end of a love affair . The song received positive reception from contemporary critics , with reviewers praising Madonna 's vocals . The American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) honored it as the Most Performed Song , in their annual ASCAP Pop Awards for 1997 .
" You 'll See " was commercially successful , reaching the top five in Austria , Canada , Finland , Italy and the United Kingdom . The single also managed to peak at number six on the US Billboard Hot 100 making it Madonna 's 29th top @-@ ten single on the chart . An accompanying music video was directed by Michael Haussman , where the story line served as a sequel to Madonna 's previous music video for " Take a Bow " . An alternate Spanish version , written by Argentine singer @-@ songwriter Paz Martinez , also received a music video , and was included on the Latin American edition of Something to Remember . Madonna has performed the song live on the British television program Top of the Pops and on selected US shows of her 2001 Drowned World Tour . In 2009 , Scottish singer Susan Boyle included a cover of the song on her debut studio album I Dreamed a Dream .
= = Background and development = =
After a controversy @-@ fueled period , Madonna 's personal life had started to dominate over her musical career . " She knew it was time to make a change " as said by one anonymous member of her management team who claimed that she wanted to prove there was more to her than the constant media circus surrounding her . In November 1995 , Madonna released a compilation album , Something to Remember , featuring a selection of her ballads over a decade of her career and three new songs ; described as a " love letter from Madonna to her fans and music lovers alike " the compilation was targeted to emphasize the singer 's musical abilities , and away from the theatrics . On the album 's liner notes , Madonna further explained :
So much controversy has swirled around my career this past decade that very little attention ever gets paid to my music . The songs are all but forgotten . While I have no regrets regarding the choices I 've made artistically , I 've learned to appreciate the idea of doing things in a simpler way . So without a lot of fanfare , without any distractions , I present to you this collection of ballads . Some are old , some are new . All of them are from my heart .
For the new songs , Madonna worked with David Foster , a well @-@ known producer who had worked with the likes of Barbra Streisand , Al Jarreau and Earth , Wind & Fire . Foster initially did not expect Madonna would collaborate with him , as he believed that his music would not " really [ be ] hip enough for her " . The recording session with Foster resulted in two new songs to the final track list , " You 'll See " and " One More Chance " . Foster commented : " At the end of the day , the songs we did were not particularly impressive , though one of them , ' You 'll See ' , was really neat . Madonna had written a great lyric ( ' You think that I can 't live without your love / You 'll see ' ) and I thought my music was great " . The track was produced and arranged by Madonna and Foster , who worked on the song during the third weekend of September 1995 .
= = Recording and composition = =
Recording of the song was done in Brooklyn Studios and assisted by Ronnie Rivera . It was engineered and mixed by David Reitzas , who also produced the remix of " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " for Something to Remember . Simon Franglen provided synclavier programming for the song . Only three instruments were used for the song — acoustic guitar played by Dean Parks , electric guitar played by Michael Thompson and keyboard played by Foster . A Spanish version of the song , titled " Verás " , was recorded by Madonna at Gloria and Emilio Estefan 's studio in Miami . The song was translated into Spanish by Paz Martinez and was included as a bonus track on the Latin American editions of Something to Remember . " You 'll See " premiered on the radio forums of the official Warner Bros. Records ' website on October 18 , 1995 and was officially released as the album 's lead single on October 30 , 1995 .
Musically " You 'll See " is an acoustic pop ballad . It is set in the time signature of common time , having a tempo of 120 beats per minute . The song is played in the key of G Major , with a basic sequence of Em – D – Em as its chord progression during the first verse , while piano and guitar are used to play the background music . The sequence shifts to Em – C – D – G – C – F ♯ during the chorus . Madonna 's voice spans from G3 to C ♭ 5 . Throughout the chord changes progression to give Madonna 's vocals dominance in the song , and after a minute the percussion starts with a tremolo guitar added later . String synths and drums build the track further with the second verse seeing the singer harmonizing with herself . During the recording of the track , the singer used her vocal lessons for Evita ; she said " If you listen to those songs , you can hear how I was trying to absorb and utilize what I was learning for the recording [ of Evita ] . " Lyrically the song talks of independence after the end of a love affair stating that Madonna will go onto greater things . When asked if the track was about revenge , the singer replied " No , it 's about empowering yourself " . However , she also added that " there 's another side too which is — ' Don 't fuck with me , I don 't need anybody . I can do what I want ' , and ' You 'll See ' reflects that " .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , the song received generally positive feedback . According to Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker , " You 'll See " is just one of the " consumer enticements that just add to the allure " . J. Randy Taraborrelli , the author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , called the song , along with " One More Chance " , as one of " the most sombre songs [ Madonna ] has ever recorded . " Billboard 's Keith Caulfield opined that the track " showcased Madonna 's newly @-@ trained vocal abilities , which would prepare audiences for her lead role in the following year 's Evita " . AllMusic 's Jose F. Promis described the song as " an empowered , somewhat melodramatic , Latin @-@ tinged ballad that helped to even further cement Madonna as a constant on adult contemporary radio , which , in turn , further distanced her from her raunchier days earlier in the decade " . Promis also praised the Spanish version " Verás " ; " [ Madonna ] sings the Spanish lyrics surprisingly well " . Billboard critic Timothy White called it a " bittersweet serenade . " In another review from the publication , Larry Flick called it a " deliciously fruitful collaboration with ... Foster " . Flick further added in his review :
Foster 's flair for musical melodrama inspires Madonna to turn in what is easily her most assured and full @-@ bodied vocal performance to date . Amid a swirl of strings and Spanish guitars , she spews the song 's declaration of romantic independence with a theatrical verve that perfectly matches the stagey , potentially overpowering tone of Foster 's arrangement without flying over the heads of her youthful top 40 following . A stunning effort that could easily become the ' I Will Survive ' of this generation .
The Huffington Post ranked the song sixth on their list of " The 13 Most Underrated Madonna Songs " ; author Pandora Boxx wrote : " This song takes a sad break @-@ up and empowers it [ ... ] This is truly a hidden gem in the vast Madonna library " . Louis Virtel , from TheBacklot.com , placed " You 'll See " at number 48 of his list " The 100 Greatest Madonna Songs " . He wrote ; " Madonna 's declaration of independence over beautiful Spanish guitar @-@ playing is organic and inspired " . Writing for The Huffington Post , Matthew Jacobs gave the song a more negative review ; " it could be credited as a curtsy to Madonna 's impending Evita / Ray of Light comeback . Unfortunately , it also sounds like a dull displacement from a compilation of yearning ' 80s ballads " . Nevertheless , he placed " You 'll See " at number 69 of his list " The Definitive Ranking Of Madonna Singles " . The American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) honored it as the Most Performed Song , in their annual ASCAP Pop Awards for 1997 .
= = Chart performance = =
" You 'll See " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 8 the week of December 9 , 1995 . It became Madonna 's highest debuting single of her career , following " Erotica " ( number 13 in 1992 ) and " Rescue Me " ( number 15 in 1991 ) . The single reached a peak position of number six the following week , thus making Madonna the third act in history ( after Aretha Franklin and Marvin Gaye ) to have a hit peak at each position from one to ten on the chart . The track ranked at number 51 on the Billboard year end chart for 1996 . It was eventually certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on February 27 , 1996 , for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . The song also reached the top @-@ ten of the Adult Contemporary and Mainstream Top 40 charts . Billboard ranked it at number 28 on their list of " Madonna 's 40 Biggest Hits " on the Hot 100 . In Canada , the song debuted at number 97 on the RPM Top Singles chart , the week of November 6 , 1995 . After nine weeks , on January 15 , 1996 , it peaked at the second position of the chart . " You 'll See " also reached number three on the RPM Adult Contemporary chart .
In the United Kingdom , the song reached a peak of number 5 on the UK Singles Chart the week of November 4 , 1995 , and was present on the top 100 for a total of 14 weeks . According to the Official Charts Company , the single has sold over 305 @,@ 000 physical units as of October 2010 , and was certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . In Australia , " You 'll See " peaked at number 9 on the ARIA Singles Chart the week of February 18 , 1996 , staying on this position for two week and a total of eleven weeks on the chart . It also ranked at number 87 on the ARIA year @-@ end charts for 1995 , and was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 35 @,@ 000 copies of the single . In Italy , it reached the fifth position of the FIMI Singles Chart . On the year @-@ end Italian charts , it was ranked at number 21 . " You 'll See " reached a peak of number 2 in Finland , and also reached a peak of number 13 on the Irish Singles Chart . Across Europe , the song reached a peak of number eight on the European Hot 100 Singles chart on January 27 , 1995 .
= = Promotion and cover = =
The music video for " You 'll See " was directed by Michael Haussman , and premiered on November 7 , 1995 . The video became Madonna 's first sequel clip , as it followed the storyline of the singer 's previous video for " Take a Bow " , the second single from Bedtime Stories . The video for the latter had portrayed the singer being mistreated by her lover , played by Spanish Torero Emilio Muñoz . In the music video for " You 'll See " , Madonna walks out leaving him behind in despair . Also present are scenes of the singer riding a train and later on a plane , with Muñoz trying to catch up with her . The last frame of the video shows Madonna smiling hopefully for a better life . The video 's wardrobe was styled by noted fashion editor and stylist Lori Goldstein , who had previously worked with Madonna on " Take a Bow " . Another music video was created for the song 's Spanish version , " Verás " , which was released only in Latin America . This one intersperses scenes from the original video with footage of Madonna recording the Spanish version of the song . The music video for " You 'll See " was nominated for an MTV Video Music Award for Best Cinematography in 1996 . The Spanish version of the video won the MTV Latino award for Best Female Video .
On November 2 , 1995 , Madonna performed the song on British television program Top of the Pops . Six years later , Madonna performed " You 'll See " on some US shows of her Drowned World Tour . In his review of the show at New York City 's Madison Square Garden , Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani praised the " French @-@ techno / acoustic revamping of the powerful ' You 'll See ' " . The performance was not included on the tour 's live video album release , Drowned World Tour 2001 .
Scottish singer Susan Boyle covered the song for her debut album , I Dreamed a Dream ( 2009 ) . Reportedly , Boyle loved the song for years , and used to sing the ballad at auditions when she was cruelly turned away . At the end of the number Boyle , sometimes " reduced to tears " , would assert " You 'll see " . Reviewing the album for the New York Daily News , Jim Farber felt that Boyle 's voice sounded " remote and idealized " on the album , until " You 'll See " , where the characteristic " anger and vengeance " in her vocals " give her a harder character to chew on " . The cover was included on the first episode of Brazilian telenovela Ti Ti Ti ( 2010 ) . When Boyle started working on the musical I Dreamed a Dream which was based on her life , she had asked Madonna 's permission to use the song onstage , but Madonna denied usage of the track .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – songwriter , producer , arranger , vocals
David Foster – songwriter , producer , arranger , keyboards
Simon Franglen – synclavier programming
Suzie Katayama – cello
Dean Parks – acoustic guitar
David Reitzas – engineer , mixing
Ronnie Rivera – assistant
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Kii @-@ class battleship =
The Kii @-@ class battleship was a planned class of four fast battleships to be built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during the 1920s . Only two of the ships received names . They were intended to reinforce Japan 's " eight @-@ eight fleet " of eight battleships and eight battlecruisers after the United States announced a major naval construction program in 1919 . However , after the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922 , work on the ships was suspended ; one pair was cancelled in November 1923 and the other in April 1924 .
= = Design and background = =
By 1918 , the Navy had gained approval for an " eight @-@ six " fleet of eight battleships and six battlecruisers , all ships under eight years old . However , having four large battleships ( two each of the Nagato and Tosa classes ) and four Amagi @-@ class battlecruisers on order put an enormous financial strain on Japan , which was spending about a third of its national budget on the Navy . Despite this , the IJN gained approval of the " eight @-@ eight @-@ eight " plan in 1920 after American President Woodrow Wilson announced plans in 1919 to re @-@ initiate the 1916 plan for ten additional battleships and six battlecruisers . The Japanese response was to plan the construction of eight additional fast battleships in the Kii and the Number 13 classes .
Designed by Captain Yuzuru Hiraga , the Kii class was based largely on the preceding Amagi @-@ class battlecruisers , which were in turn based on a less @-@ armored Tosa @-@ class design . The only major difference between the Kiis and Amagis was their speed and armor — the Amagis were .25 knots ( 0 @.@ 46 km / h ; 0 @.@ 29 mph ) faster , and the Kiis had a thicker belt . Despite this lineage , the Kiis were classified as " fast battleships " by the Japanese , as they had decided to end the distinction between " battleship " and " battlecruiser . "
= = = Description = = =
The ships had a length of 234 @.@ 9 meters ( 770 ft 8 in ) between perpendiculars and 250 @.@ 1 meters ( 820 ft 6 in ) overall . They had a beam of 30 @.@ 8 meters ( 101 ft 1 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 7 meters ( 31 ft 10 in ) . The normal displacement of the battleships was 42 @,@ 600 metric tons ( 41 @,@ 900 long tons ) .
The class was intended to be equipped with four Gijutsu @-@ Hombu geared steam turbines , each of which drove one propeller shaft . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 131 @,@ 200 shaft horsepower ( 97 @,@ 800 kW ) , using steam provided by 19 Kampon oil @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers , to reach a maximum speed of 29 @.@ 75 knots ( 55 @.@ 10 km / h ; 34 @.@ 24 mph ) .
The primary armament of the Kii class was ten 45 @-@ caliber 41 @-@ centimeter guns in five twin @-@ gun turrets , two fore and three aft of the superstructure . This gun fired a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 790 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The secondary battery consisted of 16 single 50 @-@ caliber 14 @-@ centimeter guns was mounted in casemates in the superstructure . The manually operated guns had a maximum range of 19 @,@ 750 meters ( 21 @,@ 600 yd ) at an elevation of + 35 ° and fired at a rate up to 10 rounds per minute . The ships ' anti @-@ aircraft defenses consisted of four single 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ centimeter 10th Year Type anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted around the single funnel . Each of these guns had a maximum elevation of + 75 ° and a maximum rate of fire of 10 – 11 rounds per minute . They could fire a 20 @.@ 41 @-@ kilogram ( 45 @.@ 0 lb ) projectile with a muzzle velocity of 825 – 830 m / s ( 2 @,@ 710 – 2 @,@ 720 ft / s ) to a maximum height of 10 @,@ 000 meters ( 32 @,@ 808 ft ) . The Kii class was also fitted with eight 61 @-@ centimeter ( 24 in ) above @-@ water torpedo tubes , four on each broadside .
The ships would have been protected by a waterline belt of armor 293 millimeters ( 12 in ) thick , sloped 15 ° outwards at the top to increase its ability to resist penetration at short range . The belt armor was designed to be able to defeat 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells from a distance of 12 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 000 – 22 @,@ 000 yd ) . The main battery turrets and barbettes would have had between 280 – 229 millimeters ( 11 – 9 in ) of armor plating , and the conning tower would have had been protected by armor 356 millimeters ( 14 in ) thick . The decks would have been 120 millimeters ( 5 in ) thick . The Kii @-@ class battleships would have had a torpedo bulkhead 75 millimeters ( 3 in ) thick , which connected at the top to a
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@-@ standing dream of a gold medal . However , while attending the Opals training camp in Canberra , she announced her retirement saying her conditions were not improved enough and she needed an " absolute miracle " to get into shape .
= = Honours = =
Jackson was named the Australian International Player of the year in 1999 , 2000 and 2002 . In 2005 , she was inducted into the Australian Institute of Sport ' Best of the Best ' . In late 2011 , the Albury Sports Stadium was renamed the Lauren Jackson Sports Centre . A thousand people showed up at the renaming ceremony , at which Jackson was the guest of honour .
She was the flag bearer for Australia at the Summer 2012 London Olympic Games . On 8 June 2015 , she was appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia in the Queen 's Birthday Honours .
= North Star ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" North Star " is the sixty @-@ first episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the ninth episode of the third season . It first aired on November 12 , 2003 on UPN . The episode was written by David A. Goodman and directed by David Straiton .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , the crew of the Enterprise discover a lost colony of humans in the Delphic Expanse . The colony originated from a wagon train from the American Old West in the 1860s which was abducted as slave labor by an alien race called the Skagarans . The humans overthrew the Skagarans and now treat them as second class citizens .
Goodman wrote the episode after he was set a challenge by executive producer Rick Berman , and wrote in references to the 1940 film Santa Fe Trail and The Original Series episode " Spectre of the Gun " . The episode was mostly filmed on the Western town set nicknamed " Six Points Texas " at the Universal Studios lot . Critical response to the episode was mixed , but the ratings held steady from the previous episode with a 2 @.@ 6 / 4 % share .
= = Plot = =
Whilst in the Delphic Expanse , Enterprise discovers a planet inhabited by 6 @,@ 000 humans who are living in the fashion of the 1860s American frontier . Captain Archer , Commander Tucker and Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol beam @-@ down to the surface in period costume to investigate . They head into one of the numerous towns to observe the humans and aliens first @-@ hand , and while Tucker and T 'Pol acquire a horse , Archer stops Deputy Bennings from belittling a " Skag " waiter in the town 's tavern . After questioning Archer on his plans and intentions , Sheriff MacReady tells Bennings to keep a close eye on Archer .
Archer , wishing to learn more about the Skagarans , enters the house of a teacher named Bethany he had seen earlier . The two depart for " Skag Town " , the remnants of a 300 @-@ year @-@ old wrecked spacecraft , but the deputy notices them leave . They arrive and find Tucker and T 'Pol , who had arrived earlier . They then travel back to Enterprise to investigate some data logs found in the wreckage , while Archer stays behind . On Enterprise Ensign Sato discovers that the humans overthrew their Skagaran masters after being brought to the planet . Meanwhile Bennings and some men arrive and arrest Bethany for teaching the children , and she is later detained in prison . Archer helps her to escape , but she is shot in the process . Archer orders an emergency beam @-@ up in front of Bennings and other locals .
Doctor Phlox treats her injury and discovers that she is one @-@ quarter Skagaran . Meanwhile , back on the planet , Bennings hands in his deputy badge because MacReady orders him not to take any further action against the Skagarans . Archer returns in a shuttlepod along with T 'Pol and a security crew , led by Lieutenant Reed — all wearing their modern uniforms . Landing in the center of town , he informs the Sheriff that he is from Earth and will return to help them once their mission is over . Bennings then shoots MacReady , starting a firefight . In the chaos , Archer is also shot by Bennings , but finally overpowers him in a fistfight . Enterprise then departs , but not before returning Bethany to the surface , and providing her with a PADD to educate the local children about Earth 's recent history .
= = Production = =
" North Star " was the third episode of the season to be directed by David Straiton , while writer David A. Goodman had previously written the episodes " Judgment " and " Precious Cargo " . He also wrote the Star Trek themed Futurama episode " Where No Fan Has Gone Before " . Goodman explained after the episode that he was inspired by The Original Series episodes " A Piece of the Action " and " Patterns of Force " after executive producer Rick Berman set him the challenge of writing a " parallel Earth " story similar to those featured in TOS but would fit with Enterprise . These types of stories were featured in Gene Roddenberry 's original pitch for Star Trek to NBC , which was where humans had evolved societies on other planets similar to our own .
Goodman also added a reference to the TOS episode " Spectre of the Gun " with the naming of the character Cronin , but said that the character Kitty was named after a character in the 1940 film Santa Fe Trail rather than the radio / television series Gunsmoke . Goodman later described " North Star " as his favourite episode of the series . It was the third Western @-@ themed episode of Star Trek , after The Original Series 's " Spectre of the Gun " and The Next Generation 's " A Fistful of Datas " . This episode included a number of guest cast members . Emily Bergl appeared as Bethany in " North Star " , having previously appeared in the miniseries Taken , produced by the Sci Fi Channel . Glenn Morshower had previously appeared in episodes of The Next Generation and Voyager , and appeared once more in this episode as Sheriff MacReady . James Parks had also appeared in Voyager , and played Deputy Bennings in " North Star " .
It was the first episode to be filmed on location during season three , but the production only moved from the Paramount Studios lot to the Universal Studios backlot where the Western town set " Six Points Texas " was used . The shoot there started on the second day of filming over five days and utilized a number of sets including the main street , livery stable , saloon and schoolhouse . The sets have been used to film more movies than any other set in the world ; the livery stable in particular was used in the 1940 film My Little Chickadee . A shuttlepod set @-@ piece was brought from Paramount Studios and was used for filming scenes after it had landed , while in @-@ air shots were added with special effects after filming was completed .
Twelve horses were used , and due to safety considerations , in some scenes stunt doubles undertook the action scenes where main cast members were required to ride on horseback . The episode was heavy on the number of stunts , which were supervised by Vince Deadrick , Jr . Scenes using the standing sets at Paramount were filmed on the first and last days of shooting , which overlapped with the first day of shooting of the following episode , " Similitude " .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" North Star " was first aired on November 12 , 2003 on UPN . It received a 2 @.@ 6 / 4 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 4 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was the same as the ratings received by the previous episode entitled " Twilight " , but showed a loss of 200 @,@ 000 viewers overall . " North Star " received lower ratings than the following episode " Similitude " , which received a ratings share of 3 @.@ 0 / 5 % .
Michelle Erica Green watched the episode for TrekNation , saying that she was expecting something similar to The Original Series episode " Spectre of the Gun " but was pleased to find it was more similar to Voyager 's " The 37 's " . She said that , " because the episode is stylish and beautifully paced , the morality play doesn 't get too heavy @-@ handed or silly " , but felt that it was one @-@ sided because of the lack of information on the Skagarans . She summed up the " North Star " by describing it as a " fun , throw away " episode . Jamahl Epsicokhan on his website " Jammer 's Reviews " described it as a " shallow Trek adventure by the numbers " which was " all about setting and rarely about substance " . He gave it a score of two out of four . When Epsicokhan was summing up the whole of season three , " North Star " was described as one of the mediocre episodes in the season .
" North Star " was released as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The season was released on Blu @-@ ray in the United States on January 7 , 2014 .
= Michael A. Monsoor =
Michael Anthony Monsoor ( April 5 , 1981 – September 29 , 2006 ) was a United States Navy SEAL who was killed during the Iraq War and posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor . Monsoor enlisted in the United States Navy in 2001 and graduated from Basic Underwater Demolition / SEAL training in 2004 . After further training he was assigned to Delta Platoon , SEAL Team 3 .
Delta Platoon was sent to Iraq in April 2006 and assigned to train Iraqi Army soldiers in Ramadi . Over the next five months , Monsoor and his platoon frequently engaged in combat with insurgent forces . On September 29 , 2006 , an insurgent threw a grenade onto a rooftop where Monsoor and several other SEALs and Iraqi soldiers were positioned . Monsoor quickly smothered the grenade with his body , absorbing the resulting explosion and saving his comrades from serious injury or death . Monsoor died about 30 minutes later from serious wounds caused by the grenade explosion .
On March 31 , 2008 , the United States Department of Defense confirmed that Michael Monsoor would posthumously receive the Medal of Honor . U.S. President George W. Bush presented the medal to Monsoor 's parents on April 8 , 2008 . In October 2008 , Secretary of the Navy Donald C. Winter announced that DDG @-@ 1001 , the second ship in the Zumwalt @-@ class of guided missile destroyers , would be named Michael Monsoor in his honor .
= = Early life and education = =
Monsoor was born April 5 , 1981 , in Long Beach , California , the third of four children of Sally Ann ( Boyle ) and George Paul Monsoor . His father also served in the United States military as a Marine . His father is of Lebanese and Irish descent , and his mother has Irish ancestry . When he was a child , Monsoor was afflicted with asthma but strengthened his lungs by racing his siblings in the family 's swimming pool . He attended Dr. Walter C. Ralston Intermediate School and Garden Grove High School in Garden Grove , California and played tight @-@ end on the school 's football team , graduating in 1999 .
= = Career = =
= = = U.S. Navy SEALs = = =
Monsoor enlisted in the United States Navy on March 21 , 2001 , and attended Basic Training at Recruit Training Command Great Lakes , Illinois . Upon graduation from basic training , he attended Quartermaster " A " School , and then transferred to Naval Air Station Sigonella , Italy for a short period of time . He entered Basic Underwater Demolition / SEAL ( BUD / S ) training and graduated from Class 250 on September 2 , 2004 , as one of the top performers in his class . After BUD / S , he completed advanced SEAL training courses including parachute training at Basic Airborne School , cold weather combat training in Kodiak , Alaska , and six months of SEAL Qualification Training in Coronado , California , graduating in March 2005 . The following month , his rating changed from Quartermaster to Master @-@ at @-@ Arms , and he was assigned to Delta Platoon , SEAL Team 3 .
= = = = Iraq War = = = =
During Operation Kentucky Jumper , SEAL Team Three was sent to Ramadi , Iraq in April 2006 and assigned to train Iraqi Army soldiers . As a communicator and machine @-@ gunner on patrols , Monsoor carried 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) of gear in temperatures often exceeding 100 degrees . He took a lead position to protect the platoon from frontal assault and the team was frequently involved in engagements with insurgent fighters . During the first five months of deployment , the team reportedly killed 84 insurgents .
During an engagement on May 9 , 2006 , Monsoor ran into a street while under continuous insurgent gunfire to rescue an injured comrade . Monsoor was awarded the Silver Star for this action , and was also awarded the Bronze Star for his service in Iraq .
= = Death = =
On September 29 , 2006 , Monsoor 's platoon engaged four insurgents in a firefight , killing one and injuring another . Anticipating further attacks , Monsoor , three SEAL snipers and three Iraqi Army soldiers took up a rooftop position . Civilians aiding the insurgents blocked off the streets , and a nearby mosque broadcast a message for people to fight against the Americans and the Iraqi soldiers . Monsoor was protecting other SEALs , two of whom were 15 feet away from him . Monsoor 's position made him the only SEAL on the rooftop with quick access to an escape route .
A grenade was thrown onto the rooftop by an insurgent on the street below . The grenade hit Monsoor in the chest and fell onto the floor . Immediately , Monsoor yelled " Grenade ! " and jumped onto the grenade , covering it with his body . The grenade exploded seconds later and Monsoor 's body absorbed most of the force of the blast . Monsoor was severely wounded and although evacuated immediately , he died 30 minutes later . Two other SEALs next to him at the time were injured by the explosion but survived .
Monsoor died on September 29 , 2006 , in ar @-@ Ramadi , Iraq , and was described as a " quiet professional " and a " fun @-@ loving guy " by those who knew him . He is buried at Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery in San Diego .
= = = Funeral = = =
During the funeral , as the coffin was moving from the hearse to the grave site , Navy SEALs were lined up forming a column of twos on both sides of the pallbearers route , with the coffin moving up the center . As the coffin passed each SEAL , they slapped down the gold Trident each had removed from his own uniform and deeply embedded it into the wooden coffin . For nearly 30 minutes the slaps were audible from across the cemetery as nearly every SEAL on the West Coast repeated the act .
The display moved many attending the funeral , including President Bush , who spoke about the incident later during a speech stating : " The procession went on nearly half an hour , and when it was all over , the simple wooden coffin had become a gold @-@ plated memorial to a hero who will never be forgotten . ”
= = Awards and decorations = =
= = = Medal of Honor = = =
On March 31 , 2008 , the United States Department of Defense confirmed that Michael Monsoor would posthumously receive the Medal of Honor from the President of the United States , George W. Bush . Monsoor 's parents , Sally and George Monsoor , received the medal on his behalf at an April 8 , ceremony at the White House held by the President . Monsoor became the fourth American servicemember and second Navy SEAL — each killed in the line of duty — to receive the United States ' highest military award during the War on Terrorism .
= = = = Medal of Honor citation = = = =
" The President of the United States in the name of The Congress takes pride in presenting the MEDAL OF HONOR posthumously to
MASTER AT ARMS SECOND CLASS , SEA , AIR and LANDMICHAEL A. MONSOOR
UNITED STATES NAVY
For service as set forth in the following CITATION :
" For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving as Automatic Weapons Gunner for Naval Special Warfare Task Group Arabian Peninsula , in support of Operation IRAQI FREEDOM on 29 September 2006 . As a member of a combined SEAL and Iraqi Army sniper overwatch element , tasked with providing early warning and stand @-@ off protection from a rooftop in an insurgent @-@ held sector of Ar Ramadi , Iraq , Petty Officer Monsoor distinguished himself by his exceptional bravery in the face of grave danger . In the early morning , insurgents prepared to execute a coordinated attack by reconnoitering the area around the element 's position . Element snipers thwarted the enemy 's initial attempt by eliminating two insurgents . The enemy continued to assault the element , engaging them with a rocket @-@ propelled grenade and small arms fire . As enemy activity increased , Petty Officer Monsoor took position with his machine gun between two teammates on an outcropping of the roof . While the SEALs vigilantly watched for enemy activity , an insurgent threw a hand grenade from an unseen location , which bounced off Petty Officer Monsoor 's chest and landed in front of him . Although only he could have escaped the blast , Petty Officer Monsoor chose instead to protect his teammates . Instantly and without regard for his own safety , he threw himself onto the grenade to absorb the force of the explosion with his body , saving the lives of his two teammates . By his undaunted courage , fighting spirit , and unwavering devotion to duty in the face of certain death , Petty Officer Monsoor gallantly gave his life for his country , thereby reflecting great credit upon himself and upholding the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service . "
= = = = Silver Star citation = = = =
" For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity in action against the enemy as Platoon Machine Gunner in Sea , Air , Land Team THREE ( SEAL @-@ 3 ) , Naval Special Warfare Task Group Arabian Peninsula , Task Unit Ramadi , in support of Operation IRAQI FREEDOM on 9 May 2006 . Petty Officer Monsoor was the Platoon Machine Gunner of an overwatch element , providing security for an Iraqi Army Brigade during counter @-@ insurgency operations . While moving toward extraction , the Iraqi Army and Naval Special Warfare overwatch team received effective enemy automatic weapons fire resulting in one SEAL wounded in action . Immediately , Petty Officer Monsoor , with complete disregard for his own safety , exposed himself to heavy enemy fire in order to provide suppressive fire and fight his way to the wounded SEAL 's position . He continued to provide effective suppressive fire while simultaneously dragging the wounded SEAL to safety . Petty Officer Monsoor maintained suppressive fire as the wounded SEAL received tactical casualty treatment to his leg . He also helped load his wounded teammate into a High Mobility Multi @-@ Purpose Wheeled Vehicle for evacuation , then returned to combat . By his bold initiative , undaunted courage , and complete dedication to duty , Petty Officer Monsoor reflected great credit upon himself and upheld the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service . "
= = = = Bronze Star citation = = = =
" For heroic achievement in connection with combat operations against the enemy as Task Unit Ramadi , Iraq , Combat Advisor for Naval Special Warfare Task Group – Arabian Peninsula in Support of Operation IRAQI FREEDOM from April to September 2006 . On 11 different operations , Petty Officer Monsoor exposed himself to heavy enemy fire while shielding his teammates with suppressive fire . He aggressively stabilized each chaotic situation with focused determination and uncanny tactical awareness . Each time insurgents assaulted his team with small arms fire or rocket propelled grenades , he quickly assessed the situation , determined the best course of action to counter the enemy assaults , and implemented his plan to gain the best tactical advantage . His selfless , decisive , heroic actions resulted in 25 enemy killed and saved the lives of his teammates , other Coalition Forces and Iraqi Army soldiers . By his extraordinary guidance , zealous initiative , and total dedication to duty , Petty Officer Monsoor reflected great credit upon himself and upheld the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service . "
= = Legacy = =
In 2011 , the United States Department of Veterans Affairs honored Monsoor by naming one of the first three named streets at Miramar National Cemetery after him .
= = = USS Michael Monsoor ( DDG @-@ 1001 ) = = =
In October 2008 , United States Secretary of the Navy Donald C. Winter announced that the second ship in the Zumwalt @-@ class of destroyers would be named USS Michael Monsoor ( DDG @-@ 1001 ) in honor of Petty Officer Monsoor .
= = = U.S. Naval Sea Cadet Corps = = =
There is a U.S. Naval Sea Cadet Corps unit named the " Michael A. Monsoor Battalion " based in Camp Pendleton , California . The unit symbol is composed of Petty Officer Monsoor 's Medal of Honor , SEAL Trident , and Master @-@ at @-@ Arms shield . Everyone in the unit knows Petty Officer Michael A. Monsoor 's career history and shares it with all new cadets .
= Little Boy =
" Little Boy " was the codename for the type of atomic bomb dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 by the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress Enola Gay , piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets , Jr . , commander of the 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces . It was the first atomic bomb to be used in warfare . The Hiroshima bombing was the second artificial nuclear explosion in history , after the Trinity test , and the first uranium @-@ based detonation . It exploded with an energy of approximately 15 kilotons of TNT ( 63 TJ ) . The bomb caused significant destruction to the city of Hiroshima .
Little Boy was developed by Lieutenant Commander Francis Birch 's group of Captain William S. Parsons 's Ordnance ( O ) Division at the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II . Parsons flew on the Hiroshima mission as weaponeer . The Little Boy was a development of the unsuccessful Thin Man nuclear bomb . Like Thin Man , it was a gun @-@ type fission weapon , but derived its explosive power from the nuclear fission of uranium @-@ 235 . This was accomplished by shooting a hollow cylinder of enriched uranium ( the " bullet " ) onto a solid cylinder of the same material ( the " target " ) by means of a charge of nitrocellulose propellant powder . It contained 64 kg ( 141 lb ) of enriched uranium , of which less than a kilogram underwent nuclear fission . Its components were fabricated at three different plants so that no one would have a copy of the complete design .
After the war ended , it was not expected that the inefficient Little Boy design would ever again be required , and many plans and diagrams were destroyed , but by mid @-@ 1946 the Hanford Site reactors were suffering badly from the Wigner effect , so six Little Boy assemblies were produced at Sandia Base . The Navy Bureau of Ordnance built another 25 Little Boy assemblies in 1947 for use by the Lockheed P2V Neptune nuclear strike aircraft ( which could be launched from but not land on the Midway @-@ class aircraft carriers ) . All the Little Boy units were withdrawn from service by the end of January 1951 .
= = Naming = =
The names for all three atomic bomb design projects during World War II — Fat Man , Thin Man , and Little Boy — were created by Robert Serber , a former student of Los Alamos Laboratory director Robert Oppenheimer who worked on the Manhattan Project . According to Serber , he chose them based on their design shapes . The " Thin Man " was a long device , and its name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel and series of movies of the same name . The " Fat Man " was round and fat , and was named after Sydney Greenstreet 's " Kasper Gutman " character in The Maltese Falcon . Little Boy came last , and was named after Elisha Cook , Jr . ' s character in the same film , as referred to by Humphrey Bogart .
= = Development = =
Because uranium @-@ 235 was known to be fissionable , it was the first approach to bomb development pursued . As the first design developed ( as well as the first deployed for combat ) , it is sometimes known as the Mark I. The vast majority of the work came in the form of the isotope enrichment of the uranium necessary for the weapon , since uranium @-@ 235 makes up only 1 part in 140 of natural uranium . Enrichment was performed at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , where the electromagnetic separation plant , known as Y @-@ 12 , became fully operational in March 1944 . The first shipments of highly enriched uranium were sent to the Los Alamos Laboratory in June 1944 .
Most of the uranium necessary for the production of the bomb came from the Shinkolobwe mine and was made available thanks to the foresight of the CEO of the High Katanga Mining Union , Edgar Sengier , who had 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of uranium ore transported to a New York warehouse in 1939 . At least part of the 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 200 t ) of uranium ore and uranium oxide captured by the Alsos Mission in 1944 and 1945 was used in the bomb .
Little Boy was a simplification of Thin Man , the previous gun @-@ type fission weapon design . Thin Man , 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) long , was designed to use plutonium , so it was also more than capable of using enriched uranium . The Thin Man design was abandoned after experiments by Emilio G. Segrè and his P @-@ 5 Group at Los Alamos on the newly reactor @-@ produced plutonium from Oak Ridge and the Hanford site showed that it contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium @-@ 240 . This has a far higher spontaneous fission rate and radioactivity than the cyclotron @-@ produced plutonium on which the original measurements had been made , and its inclusion in reactor @-@ bred plutonium appeared unavoidable . This meant that the background fission rate of the plutonium was so high that it would be highly likely the plutonium would predetonate and blow itself apart in the initial forming of a critical mass .
In July 1944 , almost all research at Los Alamos was redirected to the implosion @-@ type plutonium weapon . Overall responsibility for the uranium gun @-@ type weapon was assigned to Captain William S. Parsons 's Ordnance ( O ) Division . All the design , development , and technical work at Los Alamos was consolidated under Lieutenant Commander Francis Birch 's group .
In contrast to the plutonium implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon and the plutonium gun @-@ type fission weapon , the uranium gun @-@ type weapon was straightforward if not trivial to design . The concept was pursued so that in case of a failure to develop a plutonium bomb , it would still be possible to use the gun principle . The gun @-@ type design henceforth had to work with enriched uranium only , and this allowed the Thin Man design to be greatly simplified . A high @-@ velocity gun was no longer required , and a simpler weapon could be substituted . The simplified weapon was short enough to fit into a B @-@ 29 bomb bay .
The design specifications were completed in February 1945 , and contracts were let to build the components . Three different plants were used so that no one would have a copy of the complete design . The gun and breech were made by the Naval Gun Factory in Washington , D.C. ; the target case and some other components were by the Naval Ordnance Plant in Center Line , Michigan ; and the tail fairing and mounting brackets by the Expert Tool and Die Company in Detroit , Michigan . The bomb , except for the uranium payload , was ready at the beginning of May 1945 . The uranium 235 projectile was completed on 15 June , and the target on 24 July . The target and bomb pre @-@ assemblies ( partly assembled bombs without the fissile components ) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard , California , on 16 July aboard the cruiser USS Indianapolis , arriving 26 July . The target inserts followed by air on 30 July .
Although all of its components had been tested , no full test of a gun @-@ type nuclear weapon occurred before the Little Boy was dropped over Hiroshima . The only test explosion of a nuclear weapon concept had been of an implosion @-@ type device employing plutonium as its fissile material , and took place on 16 July 1945 at the Trinity nuclear test . There were several reasons for not testing a Little Boy type of device . Primarily , there was little uranium @-@ 235 as compared with the relatively large amount of plutonium which , it was expected , could be produced by the Hanford Site reactors . Additionally , the weapon design was simple enough that it was only deemed necessary to do laboratory tests with the gun @-@ type assembly . Unlike the implosion design , which required sophisticated coordination of shaped explosive charges , the gun @-@ type design was considered almost certain to work .
The danger of accidental detonation made safety a concern . Little Boy incorporated basic safety mechanisms , but an accidental detonation could still occur . Tests were conducted to see whether a crash could drive the hollow " bullet " onto the " target " cylinder resulting in a massive release of radiation , or possibly nuclear detonation . These showed that this required an impact of 500 times that of gravity , which made it highly unlikely . There was still concern that a crash and a fire could trigger the explosives . If immersed in water , the uranium halves were subject to a neutron moderator effect . While this would not have caused an explosion , it could have created widespread radioactive contamination . For this reason , pilots were advised to crash on land rather than at sea .
= = Design = =
The Little Boy was 120 inches ( 300 cm ) in length , 28 inches ( 71 cm ) in diameter and weighed approximately 9 @,@ 700 pounds ( 4 @,@ 400 kg ) . The design used the gun method to explosively force a hollow sub @-@ critical mass of uranium @-@ 235 and a solid target cylinder together into a super @-@ critical mass , initiating a nuclear chain reaction . This was accomplished by shooting one piece of the uranium onto the other by means of four cylindrical silk bags of cordite . The bomb contained 64 kg ( 141 lb ) of enriched uranium . Most was enriched to 89 % but some was only 50 % uranium @-@ 235 , for an average enrichment of 80 % . Less than a kilogram of uranium underwent nuclear fission , and of this mass only 0 @.@ 6 g ( 0 @.@ 021 oz ) was transformed into several forms of energy , mostly kinetic energy , but also heat and radiation .
= = = Assembly details = = =
Inside the weapon , the uranium @-@ 235 material was divided into two parts , following the gun principle : the " projectile " and the " target " . The projectile was a hollow cylinder with 60 % of the total mass ( 38 @.@ 5 kg ( 85 lb ) ) . It consisted of a stack of 9 uranium rings , each 6 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 159 mm ) in diameter with a 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) bore in the center , and a total length of 7 inches ( 180 mm ) , pressed together into the front end of a thin @-@ walled projectile 16 @.@ 25 inches ( 413 mm ) long . Filling in the remainder of the space behind these rings in the projectile was a tungsten carbide disc with a steel back . At ignition , the projectile slug was pushed 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) along the 72 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 800 mm ) long , 6 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 170 mm ) smooth @-@ bore gun barrel . The slug " insert " was a 4 inches ( 100 mm ) cylinder , 7 inches ( 180 mm ) in length with a 1 inch ( 25 mm ) axial hole . The slug comprised 40 % of the total fissile mass ( 25 @.@ 6 kg or 56 lb ) . The insert was a stack of 6 washer @-@ like uranium discs somewhat thicker than the projectile rings that were slid over a 1 inch ( 25 mm ) rod . This rod then extended forward through the tungsten carbide tamper plug , impact @-@ absorbing anvil , and nose plug backstop eventually protruding out the front of the bomb casing . This entire target assembly was secured at both ends with locknuts .
When the hollow @-@ front projectile reached the target and slid over the target insert , the assembled super @-@ critical mass of uranium would be completely surrounded by a tamper and neutron reflector of tungsten carbide and steel , both materials having a combined mass of 2 @,@ 300 kg ( 5 @,@ 100 lb ) . Neutron initiators at the base of the projectile were activated by the impact .
= = = Counter @-@ intuitive design = = =
For the first fifty years after 1945 , every published description and drawing of the Little Boy mechanism assumed that a small , solid projectile was fired into the center of a larger , stationary target . However , critical mass considerations dictated that in Little Boy the larger , hollow piece would be the projectile . The assembled fissile core had more than two critical masses of uranium 235 . This required one of the two pieces to have more than one critical mass , with the larger piece avoiding criticality prior to assembly by means of shape and minimal contact with the neutron @-@ reflecting tungsten carbide tamper .
A hole in the center of the larger piece dispersed the mass and increased the surface area , allowing more fission neutrons to escape , thus preventing a premature chain reaction . But , for this larger , hollow piece to have minimal contact with the tamper , it must be the projectile , since only the projectile 's back end was in contact with the tamper prior to detonation . The rest of the tungsten carbide surrounded the sub @-@ critical mass target cylinder ( called the " insert " by the designers ) with air space between it and the insert . This arrangement packs the maximum amount of fissile material into a gun @-@ assembly design .
= = = Fuze system = = =
The bomb employed a fusing system that was designed to detonate the bomb at the most destructive altitude . Calculations showed that for the largest destructive effect , the bomb should explode at an altitude of 580 metres ( 1 @,@ 900 ft ) . The resultant fuze design was a three @-@ stage interlock system :
A timer ensured that the bomb would not explode until at least fifteen seconds after release , one @-@ quarter of the predicted fall time , to ensure safety of the aircraft . The timer was activated when the electrical pull @-@ out plugs connecting it to the airplane pulled loose as the bomb fell , switching it to internal ( 24V battery ) power and starting the timer . At the end of the 15 seconds , the radar altimeters were powered up and responsibility was passed to the barometric stage .
The purpose of the barometric stage was to delay activating the radar altimeter firing command circuit until near detonation altitude . A thin metallic membrane enclosing a vacuum chamber ( a similar design is still used today in old @-@ fashioned wall barometers ) gradually deformed as ambient air pressure increased during descent . The barometric fuze was not considered accurate enough to detonate the bomb at the precise ignition height , because air pressure varies with local conditions . When the bomb reached the design height for this stage ( reportedly 2 @,@ 000 metres , 6 @,@ 600 ft ) , the membrane closed a circuit , activating the radar altimeters . The barometric stage was added because of a worry that external radar signals might detonate the bomb too early .
Two or more redundant radar altimeters were used to reliably detect final altitude . When the altimeters sensed the correct height , the firing switch closed , igniting the three BuOrd Mk15 , Mod 1 Navy gun primers in the breech plug , which set off the charge consisting of four silk powder bags each containing two pounds of WM slotted @-@ tube cordite . This launched the uranium projectile towards the opposite end of the gun barrel at an eventual muzzle velocity of 300 metres per second ( 980 ft / s ) . Approximately 10 milliseconds later the chain reaction occurred , lasting less than 1 microsecond . The radar altimeters used were modified U.S. Army Air Corps APS @-@ 13 tail warning radars , nicknamed " Archie " , normally used to warn a fighter pilot of another plane approaching from behind .
= = Rehearsals = =
The Little Boy pre @-@ assemblies were designated L @-@ 1 , L @-@ 2 , L @-@ 3 , L @-@ 4 , L @-@ 5 , L @-@ 6 , L @-@ 7 , and L @-@ 11 . L @-@ 1 , L @-@ 2 , L @-@ 5 , and L @-@ 6 were expended in test drops . The first drop test was conducted with L @-@ 1 on 23 July 1945 . It was dropped over the sea near Tinian in order to test the radar altimeter by the B @-@ 29 later known as Big Stink , piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets , the commander of the 509th Composite Group . Two more drop tests over the sea were made on 24 and 25 July , using the L @-@ 2 and L @-@ 5 units in order to test all components . Tibbets was the pilot for both missions , but this time the bomber used was the one subsequently known as Jabit . L @-@ 6 was used as a dress rehearsal on 29 July . The B @-@ 29 Next Objective , piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney , flew to Iwo Jima , where emergency procedures for loading the bomb onto a standby aircraft were practiced . This rehearsal was repeated on 31 July , but this time L @-@ 6 was reloaded onto a different B @-@ 29 , Enola Gay , piloted by Tibbets , and the bomb was test dropped near Tinian . L @-@ 11 was the assembly used for the Hiroshima bomb .
= = Bombing of Hiroshima = =
Parsons , the Enola Gay 's weaponeer , was concerned about the possibility of an accidental detonation if the plane crashed in takeoff , so he decided not to load the four cordite powder bags into the gun breech until the aircraft was in flight . Parsons and his assistant , Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson , made their way into the bomb bay along the narrow catwalk on the port side . Jeppson held a flashlight while Parsons disconnected the primer wires , removed the breech plug , inserted the powder bags , replaced the breech plug , and reconnected the wires . Before climbing to altitude on approach to the target , Jeppson switched the three safety plugs between the electrical connectors of the internal battery and the firing mechanism from green to red . The bomb was then fully armed . Jeppson monitored the bomb 's circuits .
The bomb was dropped at approximately 08 : 15 ( JST ) 6 August 1945 . After falling for 44 @.@ 4 seconds , the time and barometric triggers started the firing mechanism . The detonation happened at an altitude of 1 @,@ 968 ± 50 feet ( 600 ± 15 m ) . It was less powerful than the Fat Man , which was dropped on Nagasaki , but the damage and the number of victims at Hiroshima were much higher , as Hiroshima was on flat terrain , while the hypocenter of Nagasaki lay in a small valley . According to figures published in 1945 , 66 @,@ 000 people were killed as a direct result of the Hiroshima blast , and 69 @,@ 000 were injured to varying degrees . Of those deaths , 20 @,@ 000 were members of the Imperial Japanese Army .
The exact measurement of the yield was problematic , since the weapon had never been tested . President Harry S. Truman officially announced that the yield was 20 kilotons of TNT ( 84 TJ ) . This was based on Parsons 's visual assessment that the blast was greater than what he had seen at the Trinity nuclear test . Since that had been estimated at 18 kilotons of TNT ( 75 TJ ) , speech writers rounded up to 20 kilotons . Further discussion was then suppressed , for fear of lessening the impact of the bomb on the Japanese . Data had been collected by Luis Alvarez , Harold Agnew , and Lawrence H. Johnston on the instrument plane , The Great Artiste , but this was not used to calculate the yield at the time .
After hostilities ended , a survey team from the Manhattan Project that included William Penney , Robert Serber , and George T. Reynolds was sent to Hiroshima to evaluate the effects of the blast . From evaluating the effects on objects and structures , Penney concluded that the yield was 12 ± 1 kilotons . Later calculations based on charring pointed to a yield of 13 to 14 kilotons . In 1953 , Frederick Reines calculated the yield as 13 kilotons . This figure became the official yield .
= = = Project Ichiban = = =
In 1962 , scientists at Los Alamos created a mockup of Little Boy known as " Project Ichiban " in order to answer some of the unanswered questions , but it failed to clear up all the issues . In 1982 , Los Alamos created a replica Little Boy from the original drawings and specifications . This was then tested with enriched uranium but in a safe configuration that would not cause a nuclear explosion . A hydraulic lift was used to move the projectile , and experiments were run to assess neutron emission . Based on this and the data from The Great Artiste , the yield was estimated at 16 @.@ 6 ± 0 @.@ 3 kilotons . After considering many estimation methods , a 1985 report concluded that the yield was 15 kilotons ± 20 % .
When 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) of uranium @-@ 235 undergoes complete fission , the yield is 8 kilotons . The 16 kiloton yield of the Little Boy bomb was therefore produced by the fission of no more than 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 91 kg ) of uranium @-@ 235 , out of the 141 pounds ( 64 kg ) in the pit . The remaining 139 pounds ( 63 kg ) , 98 @.@ 5 % of the total , contributed nothing to the energy yield .
= = Physical effects of the bomb = =
After being selected in April 1945 , Hiroshima was spared conventional bombing to serve as a pristine target , where the effects of a nuclear bomb on an undamaged city could be observed . While damage could be studied later , the energy yield of the untested Little Boy design could be determined only at the moment of detonation , using instruments dropped by parachute from a plane flying in formation with the one that dropped the bomb . Radio @-@ transmitted data from these instruments indicated a yield of about 15 kilotons .
Comparing this yield to the observed damage produced a rule of thumb called the 5 psi lethal area rule . Approximately 100 % of people inside the area where the shock wave carries an overpressure of 5 psi or greater would be killed . At Hiroshima , that area was 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) in diameter .
The damage came from three main effects : blast , fire , and radiation .
= = = Blast = = =
The blast from a nuclear bomb is the result of X @-@ ray @-@ heated air ( the fireball ) sending a shock wave or pressure wave in all directions , initially at a velocity greater than the speed of sound , analogous to thunder generated by lightning . Knowledge about urban blast destruction is based largely on studies of Little Boy at Hiroshima . Nagasaki buildings suffered similar damage at similar distances , but the Nagasaki bomb detonated 3 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) from the city center over hilly terrain that was partially bare of buildings .
In Hiroshima almost everything within 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 0 mi ) of the point directly under the explosion was completely destroyed , except for about 50 heavily reinforced , earthquake @-@ resistant concrete buildings , only the shells of which remained standing . Most were completely gutted , with their windows , doors , sashes , and frames ripped out . The perimeter of severe blast damage approximately followed the 5 psi ( 34 kPa ) contour at 1 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) .
Later test explosions of nuclear weapons with houses and other test structures nearby confirmed the 5 psi overpressure threshold . Ordinary urban buildings experiencing it will be crushed , toppled , or gutted by the force of air pressure . The picture at right shows the effects of a nuclear @-@ bomb @-@ generated 5 psi pressure wave on a test structure in Nevada in 1953 .
A major effect of this kind of structural damage was that it created fuel for fires that were started simultaneously throughout the severe destruction region .
= = = Fire = = =
The first effect of the explosion was blinding light , accompanied by radiant heat from the fireball . The Hiroshima fireball was 370 metres ( 1 @,@ 200 ft ) in diameter , with a surface temperature of 6 @,@ 000 ° C ( 10 @,@ 830 ° F ) . Near ground zero , everything flammable burst into flame . One famous , anonymous Hiroshima victim , sitting on stone steps 260 metres ( 850 ft ) from the hypocenter , left only a shadow , having absorbed the fireball heat that permanently bleached the surrounding stone . Simultaneous fires were started throughout the blast @-@ damaged area by fireball heat and by overturned stoves and furnaces , electrical shorts , etc . Twenty minutes after the detonation , these fires had merged into a firestorm , pulling in surface air from all directions to feed an inferno which consumed everything flammable .
The Hiroshima firestorm was roughly 3 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) in diameter , corresponding closely to the severe blast damage zone . ( See the USSBS map , right . ) Blast @-@ damaged buildings provided fuel for the fire . Structural lumber and furniture were splintered and scattered about . Debris @-@ choked roads obstructed fire fighters . Broken gas pipes fueled the fire , and broken water pipes rendered hydrants useless . At Nagasaki , the fires failed to merge into a single firestorm , and the fire @-@ damaged area was only one fourth as great as at Hiroshima , due in part to a southwest wind that pushed the fires away from the city .
As the map shows , the Hiroshima firestorm jumped natural firebreaks ( river channels ) , as well as prepared firebreaks . The spread of fire stopped only when it reached the edge of the blast @-@ damaged area , encountering less available fuel .
Accurate casualty figures are impossible to determine , because many victims were cremated by the firestorm , along with all record of their existence . The Manhattan Project report on Hiroshima estimated that 60 % of immediate deaths were caused by fire , but with the caveat that " many persons near the center of explosion suffered fatal injuries from more than one of the bomb effects . " In particular , many fire victims also received lethal doses of nuclear radiation .
= = = Radiation = = =
Local fallout is dust and ash from a bomb crater , contaminated with radioactive fission products . It falls to earth downwind of the crater and can produce , with radiation alone , a lethal area much larger than that from blast and fire . With an air burst , the fission products rise into the stratosphere , where they dissipate and become part of the global environment . Because Little Boy was an air burst 580 metres ( 1 @,@ 900 ft ) above the ground , there was no bomb crater and no local radioactive fallout .
However , a burst of intense neutron and gamma radiation came directly from the fireball . Its lethal radius was 1 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 8 mi ) , covering about half of the firestorm area . An estimated 30 % of immediate fatalities were people who received lethal doses of this direct radiation , but died in the firestorm before their radiation injuries would have become apparent . Over 6 @,@ 000 people survived the blast and fire , but died of radiation injuries . Among injured survivors , 30 % had radiation injuries from which they recovered , but with a lifelong increase in cancer risk . To date , no radiation @-@ related evidence of heritable diseases has been observed among the survivors ' children .
= = = Conventional weapon equivalent = = =
Although Little Boy exploded with the energy equivalent of 16 @,@ 000 tons of TNT , the Strategic Bombing Survey estimated that the same blast and fire effect could have been caused by only 2 @,@ 100 tons of conventional bombs : " 220 B @-@ 29s carrying 1 @,@ 200 tons of incendiary bombs , 400 tons of high @-@ explosive bombs , and 500 tons of anti @-@ personnel fragmentation bombs . " Since the target was spread across a two @-@ dimensional plane , the vertical component of a single spherical nuclear explosion was largely wasted . A cluster bomb pattern of smaller explosions would have been a more energy @-@ efficient match to the target .
= = Post @-@ war = =
When the war ended , it was not expected that the inefficient Little Boy design would ever again be required , and many plans and diagrams were destroyed . However , by mid @-@ 1946 the Hanford Site reactors were suffering badly from the Wigner effect . Faced with the prospect of no more plutonium for new cores and no more polonium for the initiators for the cores that had already been produced , Groves ordered that a number of Little Boys be prepared as an interim measure until a cure could be found . No Little Boy assemblies were available , and no comprehensive set of diagrams of the Little Boy could be found , although there were drawings of the various components , and stocks of spare parts .
At Sandia Base , three Army officers , Captains Albert Bethel , Richard Meyer and Bobbie Griffin attempted to re @-@ create the Little Boy . They were supervised by Harlow W. Russ , an expert on Little Boy who served with Project Alberta on Tinian , and was now leader of the Z @-@ 11 Group of the Los Alamos Laboratory 's Z Division at Sandia . Gradually , they managed to locate the correct drawings and parts , and figured out how they went together . Eventually , they built six Little Boy assemblies . Although the casings , barrels , and components were tested , no enriched uranium was supplied for the bombs . By early 1947 , the problem caused by the Wigner effect was on its way to solution , and the three officers were reassigned .
The Navy Bureau of Ordnance built 25 Little Boy assemblies in 1947 for use by the nuclear @-@ capable Lockheed P2V Neptune aircraft carrier aircraft ( which could be launched from but not land on the Midway @-@ class aircraft carriers ) . Components were produced by the Naval Ordnance Plants in Pocatello , Idaho , and Louisville , Kentucky . Enough fissionable material was available by 1948 to build ten projectiles and targets , although there were only enough initiators for six . All the Little Boy units were withdrawn from service by the end of January 1951 .
The Smithsonian Institution displays a Little Boy ; it was complete , except for enriched uranium , until 1986 . The Department of Energy took the weapon from the museum to remove its inner components , so the bombs could not be stolen and detonated with fissile material . The government returned the emptied casing to the Smithsonian in 1993 . Three other disarmed bombs are on display in the United States ; another is at the Imperial War Museum in London .
= Jab Tak Hai Jaan =
Jab Tak Hai Jaan ( English : As Long as I Live , literally " as long , or as far , as there is life " ) is a 2012 Indian
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Edmonton Eskimos . In 1974 , he became the only Australian @-@ born player to be inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . Dunderdale is credited with scoring the first penalty shot goal in ice hockey history .
= = Early life = =
Dunderdale was born in Benalla , Victoria , Australia , on 6 May 1887 . His parents were originally from England , but in 1904 , the Dunderdales resettled to Ottawa , Ontario . Tommy first played organised ice hockey at the age of 17 with his Waller Street School team . In 1905 he moved to Winnipeg , Manitoba and played the 1905 – 06 season with the amateur Winnipeg Ramblers .
= = Playing career = =
Dunderdale turned professional in 1906 – 07 season with the Winnipeg Strathconas . He played three seasons for the franchise , which was also known as the Winnipeg Maple Leafs and the Winnipeg Shamrocks , scoring on average more than two points per game , with the majority of the points being goals . In 1909 – 10 , Dunderdale moved east , and played with the Montreal Shamrocks , first with the Canadian Hockey Association , and later with the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) . That season , he appeared in 15 games overall , and scored 21 goals . He played the 1910 – 11 season for the Quebec Bulldogs of the NHA , finishing second on the team in scoring , with 13 goals , even though he played only nine out of 16 games , and receiving 25 penalty minutes .
Dunderdale went back west in the 1911 – 12 season , joining the Victoria Aristocrats of the newly formed Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) . He would spend the rest of his career playing in the west , having played only two seasons east of the Manitoba @-@ Ontario border . Scoring 24 goals in 16 games , Dunderdale received his first out of six First All @-@ Star team selections in the PCHA , as well as his first of four consecutive . In the next two seasons , Dunderdale recorded similar statistics to his first season in the PCHA , again scoring 24 goals in both seasons , and he was named to the First All @-@ Star team in both seasons . The 1912 – 13 season saw the Victoria Aristocrats challenge the Quebec Bulldogs for the Stanley Cup . Although the Aristocrats won the series , their challenge was not accepted by the Stanley Cup trustees . The 1914 – 15 season saw Dunderdale named to the First All @-@ Star team for his fourth consecutive time , as he scored 17 goals and assisted on 10 others , for 27 points in 17 games .
In the 1915 – 16 season , Dunderdale joined the Portland Rosebuds . In his first season with the Rosebuds , he dropped below a point per game for the first time in his career . The Rosebuds became the first American team to challenge for the Stanley Cup that year , losing a best @-@ of @-@ five series 3 – 2 to the Montreal Canadiens . Dunderdale played in all five games of the series , scoring two points . The following season , he scored 22 goals in 24 games , returning to his usual offensive output . However , he was more noted that season for his number of penalty minutes , setting a league record with 141 minutes . The 1917 – 18 season was his last in Portland , as he scored 14 goals in 18 games . Dunderdale left as their leading penalty minute getter , and as their second @-@ most prolific goal scorer , with 50 goals .
Dunderdale rejoined the Victoria Aristocrats in the 1918 – 19 season . After recording only nine points in 20 games in his first season back with the Aristocrats , he scored 26 goals in 22 games in the 1919 – 20 season , en route to his fifth First All @-@ Star team selection . Dunderdale played three more seasons for Victoria , which was renamed from the Aristocrats to the Cougars for the 1921 – 22 season , playing 75 games in total and scoring 41 points . He scored a bit under a point per game during the 1920 – 21 and the 1921 – 22 season , while in the 1922 – 23 season , his last with Victoria , he was limited to only two goals in 27 games . He was named for his sixth time to the First All @-@ Star Team in 1922 . Following the conclusion of the 1922 – 23 season , the PCHA folded . Dunderdale played another season in the West Coast Hockey League ( WCHL ) , splitting the 1923 – 24 season between the Saskatoon Crescents and the Edmonton Eskimos , scoring three points in 17 games overall .
Dunderdale is credited with scoring the first penalty shot goal in history . The first goal was scored on 12 December 1921 by Dunderdale on Hugh Lehman . The shot was taken from one of three dots painted on the ice 35 feet ( 11 m ) from the goal . Players had to skate to the dot and shoot the puck from the dot .
= = Legacy = =
Dunderdale retired at the end of the 1923 – 24 season . He retired as the PCHA 's leading goal scorer , with 194 goals in total . He was a six @-@ time PCHA First Team All @-@ Star , and led the league in goals in three seasons , and in points in two . He was noted as being an excellent stickhandler and a fast skater . After retiring from playing , he coached and managed teams in Edmonton , Los Angeles , and Winnipeg . He died on 15 December 1960 , and became the only Australian @-@ born player to be inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame , in 1974 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= Dal Lake =
Dal Lake is a lake in Srinagar , the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir . The urban lake , which is the second largest in the state , is integral to tourism and recreation in Kashmir and is named the " Jewel in the crown of Kashmir " or " Srinagar 's Jewel " . The lake is also an important source for commercial operations in fishing and water plant harvesting .
The shore line of the lake , is about 15 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 6 mi ) , is encompassed by a boulevard lined with Mughal era gardens , parks , houseboats and hotels . Scenic views of the lake can be witnessed from the shore line Mughal gardens , such as Shalimar Bagh and Nishat Bagh built during the reign of Mughal Emperor Jahangir and from houseboats cruising along the lake in the colourful shikaras . During the winter season , the temperature sometimes reaches − 11 ° C ( 12 ° F ) , freezing the lake .
The lake covers an area of 18 square kilometres ( 6 @.@ 9 sq mi ) and is part of a natural wetland which covers 21 @.@ 1 square kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 sq mi ) , including its floating gardens . The floating gardens , known as " Rad " in Kashmiri , blossom with lotus flowers during July and August . The wetland is divided by causeways into four basins ; Gagribal , Lokut Dal , Bod Dal and Nagin ( although Nagin is also considered as an independent lake ) . Lokut @-@ dal and Bod @-@ dal each have an island in the centre , known as Rup Lank ( or Char Chinari ) and Sona Lank respectively .
At present , the Dal Lake and its Mughal gardens , Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat Bagh on its periphery are undergoing intensive restoration measures to fully address the serious eutrophication problems experienced by the lake . Massive investments of approximately US $ 275 million ( ₹ 11 billion ) are being made by the Government of India to restore the lake to its original splendour .
= = History = =
Dal lake is mentioned as Mahasarit ( Sanskrti @-@ महासरित ् ) in ancient Sanskrit texts . Ancient history records mention that a village named Isabar to the east of Dal Lake was the residence of goddess Durga . This place was known as Sureshwari on the bank of the lake , which was sourced by a spring called the Satadhara .
During the Mughal period , the Mughal rulers of India designated Kashmir , Srinagar in particular , as their summer resort . They developed the precincts of the Dal lake in Srinagar with sprawling Mughal @-@ type gardens and pavilions as pleasure resorts to enjoy the salubrious cool climate . After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 , which led to the disintegration of the Mughal Empire , Pashtun tribes in the area around the lake and city increased , and the Durrani Empire ruled the city for several decades . In 1814 a significant part of the Kashmir valley , including Srinagar , was annexed by Raja Ranjit Singh to his kingdom , and the Sikhs grew in influence in the region for 27 years .
During the British Raj , the British also made Srinagar their capital during the summer months , attracted by the cool climate of the Kashmir valley , amidst the back drop of the majestic snow covered Himalayan ranges . The lake precincts experience temperatures in the range of 1 – 11 ° C ( 34 – 52 ° F ) during winter and 12 – 30 ° C ( 54 – 86 ° F ) during the summer season . The lake freezes when temperatures drop to about − 11 ° C ( 12 ° F ) during severe winter . Although the Dogra Maharaja of Kashmir restricted the building of houses in the valley , the British circumvented this rule by commissioning lavish houseboats to be built on the Dal Lake . The houseboats have been referred to as , " each one a little piece of England afloat on Dal Lake . "
After the independence of India , the Kashmiri Hanji people have built , owned and maintained these houseboats , cultivating floating gardens and producing commodities for the market , making them the centre of their livelihoods . The houseboats , closely associated with Dal Lake also provide accommodation in Srinagar . Following the Mughal and British rule , the place has earned the epithet , " Jewel in the crown of Kashmir " .
= = Physical properties = =
= = = Topography = = =
The lake is located within a catchment area covering 316 square kilometres ( 122 sq mi ) in the Zabarwan mountain valley , in the foothills of the Shankracharya hills , which surrounds it on three sides . The lake , which lies to the east and north of Srinagar city covers an area of 18 square kilometres ( 6 @.@ 9 sq mi ) , although including the floating gardens of lotus blooms , it is 21 @.@ 2 square kilometres ( 8 @.@ 2 sq mi ) ( an estimated figure of 22 – 24 square kilometres ( 8 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 3 sq mi ) is also mentioned ) . The main basin draining the lake is a complex of five interconnected basins with causeways ; the Nehru Park basin , the Nishat basin , the Hazratbal basin , the Nagin basin and the Barari Nambad basin . Navigational channels provide the transportation links to all the five basins .
The average elevation of the lake is 1 @,@ 583 metres ( 5 @,@ 194 ft ) . The depth of water varies from 6 metres ( 20 ft ) at its deepest in Nagin lake to 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , the shallowest at Gagribal . The depth ratio between the maximum and minimum depths varies with the season between 0 @.@ 29 and 0 @.@ 25 , which is interpreted as flat bed slope . The length of the lake is 7 @.@ 44 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 62 mi ) with a width of 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) . The lake has e basin hava shore length of 15 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 6 mi ) and roads run all along the periphery . Irreversible changes through urbanThe lake is located within a catchment area covering 316 square kilometres ( 122 sq mi ) in the Zabarwan mountain vaplaced further restrictions on the flow of the lake and as a result , marshy lands have emerged on the peripheral zones , notably in the foothill areas of the Shankaracharya and Zaharbwan hills . These marshy lands have since been reclaimed and converted into large residential complexes .
= = = Geology = = =
Multiple theories explaining the origin of this lake have been formulated . One version is that it is the remnants of a post @-@ glacial lake , which has undergone drastic changes in size over the years and the other theory is that it is of fluvial origin from an old flood spill channel or ox @-@ bows of the Jhelum River . The dendritic drainage pattern of the catchment signifies that its rock strata have low levels of porosity . Lithologically , a variety of rock types have been discerned namely , igneous , metamorphic and sedimentary . The Dachigam Telbal Nallah system is conjectured to follow two major lineaments . Discontinuous surfaces seen in the terrain are attributed to the angular and parallel drainage pattern . The water table cuts the hill slopes , which is evidenced by the occurrence of numerous springs in the valley . Seismic activity in the valley is recorded under Zone V of the Seismic Zoning Map of India , the most severe zone where frequent damaging earthquakes of intensity IX could be expected . In the year 2005 , Kashmir valley experienced one of the severe earthquakes measured at 7 @.@ 6 on the Richter 's scale , which resulted in deaths and the destruction of many properties , leaving many homeless .
= = = Hydrology = = =
The shallow , open @-@ drainage lake is fed by Dachigam @-@ Telbal Nallah ( with perennial flow ) , Dara Nallah ( ' Nallah ' means " stream " ) and many other small streams . The lake is classified as ' warm monomictic ' under the sub @-@ tropical lake category . Spring sources also contribute to the flow , although no specific data is available to quantify their contribution . To address this , water balance studies to analyse and assess the characteristics of flow have been conducted in order to approximate the discharge contributed by the springs in the lake bed . The complex land use pattern of the valley is reflected in the urbanised Srinagar in its north , with rice fields , orchards and gardens in the lower slopes , and barren hills beyond steep sloping hills . The flat topography also affects drainage conditions . It receives an average annual rainfall of 655 millimetres ( 25 @.@ 8 in ) in the catchment , but during the summer , snow melt from the higher ranges of the catchment results in large inflows into the lake . The maximum flood discharge of Telbal Nallah has been assessed as 141 @.@ 5 metres3 / s for a one in hundred return period ; the 1973 observed flood in Telbal Nallah has been estimated as 113 metres3 / s . The average annual flow , according to discharge measurements , has been estimated as 291 @.@ 9 million cubic metres , with Telbal Nalah accounting for 80 % of the total and 20 % contributed by other sources . The silt load has been estimated at 80 @,@ 000 tonnes per year with 70 % contribution from the Telabal nallah , with 36 @,@ 000 tonnes recorded as settling in the lake .
There are two outlets from the lake , namely the Dalgate and Amir Khan Nallah that connects the lakes of Nagin and Anchar Lake . Dalgate is controlled by a weir and lock system . The outflow from these two outlets has been estimated as 275 @.@ 6 million cubic metres .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The ecosystem of Dal Lake is ecologically rich in macrophytes , submerged macrophytes , floating macrophytes and phytoplankton . Macrophyte flora recorded in the lake 's aquatic and marshland environment consists of 117 species , belonging to 69 genera and 42 families . The lake is noted in particular for its Nelumbo nucifera ( lotus flowers ) which bloom in July and August . The prolific growth of Ceratophyllum demersum in the eutrophic zones has been reported , with Myriophyllum spicatum and Potemogetton lucens cited as dominant species . Other macrophytes discerned in different zones of the lake include Typho angustata , Phragmites australis , Myriophyllum , Sparganium evectum and Myriophyllum verticillatum , which contribute to the production of macrophites . The rooted variety of the floating leaf type consists of Neelambium nucifera , Nymphaea alba , N.Tertagonia , N.Candida , Nymphoides peltatum , Salvinia natans , Hydrocharis dubia , Nymphaea sp. and Potamogeton natans , all of which occupy 29 @.@ 2 % of the lake . Phytoplanktons include Navicula radiosa , Nitzschia accicularis , Fragilaria crotonensis , Diatoma elongatum , Scenedesmus bijuga , Pediastrum duplex , Tetraedron minimum , Microcystis aeruginosa and Merismopedia elegans .
Since 1934 , some important changes have been observed in the lake 's biota , including a reduction in the number of Chara species , and an increase in the area covered by Salvinia since 1937 . Analysis of the lake has also revealed the tendency for it to develop monospecific communities of submerged macrophytes such as Ceratophyllum and Myriophyllum .
One of the Char Chinars
Woody vegetation in the catchment of the lake consists of Melia , Ailanthus , Robinia , Daphne , Celtis , Rose , Ephedra , Pinus roxburghii , Pinus halepensis , Pinus gerardiana , Cupressus torulosa and Cupressus arizonica . The valley also has a rich cultivation of crops such as paddy , wheat and fodder .
Floating gardens , labelled the ' Rad ' in tye Kashmiri language are a special feature of the lake . They basically constitute of matted vegetation and earth , but are floating . These are detached from the bottom of the lake and drawn to a suitable place ( generally to the north west of the houseboats ' location ) and anchored . Given its rich nutrient properties , tomatoes , cucumbers and melons are grown with noteworthy results .
The faunal distribution consists of Zooplanktons , Benthos and Fish . Zooplankton found in the lake include Keratella cochlearis , K. serrulata , Polyactis vulgaris , Brachionus plicatilis , Monostyla bulla , Alona monocantha , Cyclops ladakanus and Mesocyclops leukarti . Benthos include Chironomus sp. and Tubifex sp. and fish include Cyprinus carpio specularis ( economically important ) , C. carpio communis , Schizothorax niger , S. esocinus , S. curviformis and Crossochelius latius . It is also reported that Cyprinus , introduced during early sixties , is dominant and that the indigenous species Schizothorax is showing a declining trend .
Fishing resources
The fishing industry on Dal Lake is the second largest industry in the region and is central to many of the people 's livelihoods who reside on the lake 's periphery . Dal lake 's commercial fisheries are particularly reliant on carp fish species , which were introduced into the lake in 1957 . As a result , carp constitutes 70 % of all the fish caught in the lake while the schizothonax constitutes 20 % and other species account for 10 % . Fishermen use a locally manufactured cast net which comprises six parts with a diameter of 6 metres . It is operated from a wooden fishing boat made out of deodar , typically 20ftx4ft in size . The gradual decline in quality of the lake water through pollution has resulted in lower fish stocks and the extinction of endemic varieties of fish . The causes for such deterioration have been identified and remedial actions have been initiated.The various fishing nets being used in Dal Lake are cast net ( Zaal / Duph ) , Long line ( Walruz ) , Gill net ( Pachi , Shaitan zaal ) , Rod and line ( Bislai ) , Scoop net ( Attha zaal ) ( Bhat et al . , 2008 )
The lake is warm monomictic ( mixing type ) and the pH value recorded has varied from a minimum of 7 @.@ 2 to a maximum of 8 @.@ 8 on the surface over a yearly period . The Dissolved oxygen [ mg l − 1 ] value has varied from a minimum of 1 @.@ 4 to a maximum of 12 @.@ 3 on the surface within a year . The Recorded maximum nitrogen concentration ( NH4 @-@ N [ micro l − 1 ] has been recorded as 1315 on the surface and 22 at the bottom of the lake . Phosphorus concentration expressed in Total @-@ P [ micro l − 1 ] has varied from a high of 577 to a low of 35 during the 12 months of the year . The lake water temperature has varied from a minimum of 3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) in January to 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) in June at the surface . Transparency , expressed as depth in metres , has varied from a maximum of 1 @.@ 95 metres ( 6 @.@ 4 ft ) in July to a minimum of 0 @.@ 53 metres ( 1 @.@ 7 ft ) in March , over the 12 months period .
Studies of the water quality of the lake in 1983 – 84 indicate a decline in quality since the 1965 – 66 analysis . Scientific research over the years also reveal that Telbal , Botkal , and sewage drains are responsible for a substantial influx of nitrogen and phosphorus into the lake . Quantitatively , fifteen drains and several other sources have released a total of 156 @.@ 62 tonnes ( 56 @.@ 36 tonnes by drains alone ) of phosphorus , and 241 @.@ 18 tonnes of inorganic nitrogen into the lake from a discharge of 11 @.@ 701 million cubic metres / year . Non @-@ point sources , such as seepage and diffused runoff , also add to this pollution and have been recorded as further adding 4 @.@ 5 tonnes of total phosphates and 18 @.@ 14 tonnes of nitrogen ( NO3 – N and NH4 – N ) to the lake . Based on the values mentioned above , it has been inferred that the water quality of the lake has deteriorated .
The major environmental problem facing the lake is eutrophication , which has required immediate remedial measures to combat it . Alarmingly , the size of the lake has shrunk from its original area of 22 square kilometres ( 8 @.@ 5 sq mi ) to the present area of 18 square kilometres ( 6 @.@ 9 sq mi ) , and there is a concerning rate of sediment deposition due to catchment area degradation . The water quality has also deteriorated due to intense pollution caused by the untreated sewage and solid waste that is fed into the lake from the peripheral areas and from the settlements and houseboats . Besides , some experts like Dr. A.A. Kazmi ( Associate Professor , IIT Roorkee and in charge of the Environmental Engineering Lab ) believe that deforestation in the catchment of Dal Lake and Telbal stream may have led to more nitrogen and phosphorus @-@ rich run @-@ off , further aiding eutrophication . Encroachments of water channels and consequent clogging has diminished the circulation and inflows into the lake , so with the building up of phosphates and nitrogen , this has led to extensive weed growth and consequences on the biodiversity of the lake .
= = = Public interest litigations and restoration works = = =
Identifying the above major issues as causes for the deterioration of the lake , a multidisciplinary team of experts have prepared a Detailed Project Report ( DPR ) , a responsible management plan entitled " Conservation and Management of Dal Lake " , which has the objective of achieving environment compatibility , cost effectiveness and sustainability , ecological improvement with minimum interventions and displacement and balancing the conflicts of interest . This plan is now under implementation with the financial assistance of the Government of India .
The serious nature of the environmental problems the lake has been experienced has been widely publicised and has been brought to the attention of the Supreme Court of India . Public Interest Litigations ( PILs ) have been filed in court demonstrating the environmental dangers posed to the lake by sewage , wastes and effluents . The PILs have sought injunctions of the court for setting up of an integrated ring sewage system encircling the Lake ; release of funds by the Government of India to undertake measures to check pollution and to inaugurate a High Powered Committee to monitor proper utilisation of the allotted funds . The committee is under obligation to post feedback of progression developments from time to time , directly to the Supreme Court . The PIL , filed in 2001 , has resulted in a number of directives from the court to the funding and implementing agencies and the case is continuing . Consequently , under the National Lake Conservation Plan of the Ministry of Environment and Forests of the Government of India , funds to the extent Rs 2987 @.@ 6 million were sanctioned in September 2005 for the conservation of the lake . The restoration and rehabilitation measures envisaged under the " Conservation and Management of Dal Lake " are under various stages of implementation with the funds allocated by the Government of India for the purpose . Some of the measures undertaken for rehabilitating the lake to bring it to its original eutrophication free status involved measures such as construction of siltation tanks , mechanical deweeding , regrouping of houseboats , deepening of outflow channel and removal of bunds and barricades , including some floating gardens . In addition , a moratorium has been imposed on new construction works close to the lakefront , including the building of new house boats . Resettlement plans for migrating the population from the lakefront have also evolved . The long @-@ term development plans also deal with the reafforestation of catchment area to reduce erosion movement and movement of silt and to regulate grazing by livestock . Recent reports indicate that , as of 2010 , 40 % of the measures have been implemented .
= = Uses and attractions = =
The lake is popular as a visitor attraction and a summer resort . Fisheries and the harvesting of food and fodder plants are also important on Dal Lake . Weeds from the lake are extracted and converted into compost for the gardens . It also serves as a flood lung of the Jhelum River . Swimming , boating , snow skiing ( particularly when the lake is frozen during the severe winter ) , and canoeing are amongst some of the water sports activities practised on the lake .
The lake has numerous sites and places of interest , many of which are important to the cultural heritage of Srinagar . Aside from the Shalimar Bagh and Nishat Bagh , some of the other places frequented by tourists are the Shankaracharya temple , the Hari Parbat , the Nagin Lake , the Chashme Shahi , the Hazratbal Shrine , and the Mazar @-@ e @-@ Shura cemetery containing the graves of famous Mughal @-@ era poets . Visitors and native alike also enjoy relaxing on the water in a houseboat or a shikara boat , often called " the Gondola of Kashmir " .
= = = Island of Char Chinar = = =
A famous landmark in Srinagar is an island on Dal Lake where four Chinar ( Platanus orientalis ) trees stand , named " Char Chinar " . Char in Hindi and Urdu means four .
= = = Nagin Lake = = =
Nagin Lake , though sometimes referred to as a separate lake , is actually part of Dal Lake , being linked through a causeway which permits only bikers and walkers to enter the lake precincts . The caseway carries the water supply pipeline to the Srinagar city in the east . The lake is bounded by the Shankaracharya hill ( Takht @-@ e @-@ Suleiman ) on the south and Hari Parbat on the west and is located at the foot of the Zabarwan hills . Willow and poplar trees flank the edges of the lake .
= = = Chashme Shahi = = =
Chashme Shahi , meaning " Royal Spring " , is a fresh water spring and garden known for its medicinal properties . Its source located above the Nehru Memorial Park . It is the smallest of all the Mughal gardens in Srinagar , measuring 108 metres ( 354 ft ) x 38 metres ( 125 ft ) and it has three terraces , an aqueduct , waterfalls and fountains . Ali Mardan Khan built the garden in 1632 , and is built in such a way that the spring water is the source of fountains . From the fountains , water flows along the floor of the pavilion and cascades to a lower terrace over a drop of 5 metres ( 16 ft ) along a polished black stone chute . A small shrine , known as the Chasma Sahibi , is located in the vicinity of the gardens and has a fresh water spring .
= = = Shankaracharya Temple = = =
The sacred Shankaracharya temple , also known as Jyeshteswara , occupies the top of the hills ( about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) above the surrounding Takht @-@ I @-@ Sulaiman plains in the south @-@ east of Srinagar . The site , initially named Gopadri , dates back to 250 BC as a Buddhist monument , probably built by Emperor Ashoka 's son Jhaloka . In the 7th century it was replaced by the present temple by King Lalitaditya . The philosopher Shankaracharya is documented as having stayed at this place when he visited Kashmir ten centuries ago to revive Sanātana Dharma .
Built on a high octagonal plinth ( 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high ) on solid rock and approached by a flight of steps with side walls that once bore inscriptions , the main surviving shrine consists of square building with a circular cell . It overlooks the Srinagar valley and can be approached by car . A modern ceiling covers the inner sanctum and a Persian inscription traces its origin to the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan . There is also a Shiva Linga coiled by a serpent , located in a basin inside the sanctum . The original ceiling was dome @-@ shaped and the current brick roof is said to be about a century old .
= = = Hari Parbat = = =
Hari Parbat , also known as the Mughal fort , is a hill fort on Sharika hill that provides panoramic views of the Srinagar city and the Dal Lake . It was first established by Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1590 . However , he only erected the outer wall of the fort and his plans to build a new capital called Naga Nagor within it did not materialise . The fort in its current state was built much later in 1808 under the reign of Shuja Shah Durrani . Within the fort 's precincts are temples , Muslim shrines , and a Sikh Gurudwara . The hill is the subject of many legends in Hindu mythology , and was said to have once been a large sea , inhabited by a demon known as Jalobhava and that the hill grew from a pebble .
= = = Hazratbal Shrine = = =
The Hazratbal Shrine ( Urdu : حضرت بل , literally : Majestic Place ) , also named Hazratbal , Assar @-@ e @-@ Sharief , or simply Dargah Sharif , is a Muslim shrine situated on the left bank of the Dal Lake and is considered to be Kashmir 's holiest Muslim shrine . It contains a relic believed by many Kashmiri Muslims to be the Moi @-@ e @-@ Muqqadas , a hair from the head of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . According to legend , the relic was first brought to India by Syed Abdullah , a descendant of Muhammad who left Medina and settled in Bijapur , near Hyderabad in 1635 . When Syed Abdullah died , his son , Syed Hamid , inherited the relic . Following the Mughal conquest of the region , Syed Hamid was stripped of his family estates . Finding himself unable to care for the relic , he gave it as the most precious gift to his close Mureed and a wealthy Kashmiri businessman , Khwaja Nur @-@ ud @-@ Din Ishbari .
= = = Mazar @-@ e @-@ Shura Cemetery = = =
Mazar @-@ e @-@ Shura ( Kashmiri : मज ़ ार @-@ ए @-@ शायरा , Urdu : مزارِ شُعاراء ; transliteration : Mazār @-@ i Shuʿārā , translation : The Cemetery of Poets ) is a cemetery on a small hill by the main road in Dalgate , an area of Srinagar , Jammu & Kashmir in India . Founded in the reign of the Mughul emperor Akbar the Great , it was built in a scenic location on the banks of the Dal Lake as a cemetery for eminent poets . Historical records show that there were at least five poets and men of letters buried in the cemetery : Shah Abu 'l @-@ Fatah , Haji Jan Muhammad Qudsi , Abu Talib Kalim Kashani , Muhammad Quli Salim Tehrani , and Tughra @-@ yi Mashhadi , all natives of Iran who emigrated to India and were associated with the Mughal court . Due to neglect , only three tombstones are currently visible , one of which bears an inscription that is only partially legible .
= = = Kashmir houseboat and shikara = = =
Houseboats and the Dal Lake are widely associated with Srinigar and are nicknamed " floating palaces " , built according to British customs . The houseboats are generally made from local cedar @-@ wood and measure 24 – 38 metres ( 79 – 125 ft ) in length and 3 – 6 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 – 19 @.@ 7 ft ) in width and are graded in a similar fashion to hotels according to level of comfort . Many of them have lavishly furnished rooms , with verandas and a terrace to serve as a sun @-@ deck or to serve evening cocktails . They are mainly moored along the western periphery of the lake , close to the lakeside boulevard in the vicinity of the Dal gate and on small islands in the lake . They are anchored individually , with interconnecting bridges providing access from one boat to the other . The kitchen @-@ boat is annexed to the main houseboat , which also serves as residence of the boatkeeper and his family .
Each houseboat has an exclusive shikara for ferrying guests to the shore . A shikara is small paddled taxi boat , often about 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) long ) and made of wood with a canopy and a spade shaped bottom . It is the cultural symbol of Kashmir and is used not only for ferrying visitors but is also used for the vending of fruits , vegetables and flowers and for the fishing and harvesting of aquatic vegetation . All gardens in the lake periphery and houseboats anchored in the lake are approachable through shikaras . The boats are often navigated by two boatmen dressed in " Phiron " ( traditional dress ) and carry ' Kangris ' or portable heaters on the boat . A shikara can seat about six people and have heavily cushioned seats and backrests to provide comfort in Mughul style . All houseboat owners provide shikara transport to their house guests free of charge . The shikara is also used to provide for other sightseeing locations in the valley , notably a cruise along the Jhelum River , offering scenic views of the Pir Panjal mountains and passing through the famous seven bridges and the backwaters en route .
= = Transport connections = =
Dal Lake lies in heart of the Srinagar city and is well connected by road and air links . The nearest airport , which connects with other major cities in the country , is about 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) away at Badgam . The nearest railway station is 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) away at Jammu . The National Highway NH1A connects the Kashmir valley with rest of the country . Shikaras provide a water taxi service available to see the sights in the Dal Lake and to approach the houseboats moored on the lake periphery .
= 36th Engineer Brigade ( United States ) =
The 36th Engineer Brigade is a combat engineer brigade of the United States Army based at Fort Hood , Texas . The brigade is a subordinate unit of III Corps .
The unit is responsible for providing command and control to subordinate Engineer units . The unit was formerly designated as the 36th Engineer Group , and before that as the 36th Engineer Regiment . The 36th is the only unit that has been organized in all three command structures that are commanded by a Colonel in the U.S. Army ; regiment , group , and brigade .
With a lineage that dates back to 1933 , the 36th Engineer Brigade saw action in the North African Campaign and the Italian Campaign , and it eventually participated it the invasion of mainland Europe . Trained in amphibious assault , the brigade saw its role change several times , from combat engineers to front line infantry . It would later serve in the Korean War , earning several unit decorations . Recently , it has seen tours of duty in both Iraq and Afghanistan .
= = Organization = =
The 36th Engineer Brigade is part of III Corps , and consists of a Headquarters and Headquarters Company , which is located at Fort Hood , Texas and three engineering battalions : 2nd Engineer Battalion , 20th Engineer Battalion , 62nd Engineer Battalion . Additionally , the 507th Firefighting Detachment and the 557th Firefighting Detachment are also assigned to the brigade .
The brigade was the first of the US Army 's Engineer Brigades to be converted to a modular design . This means that the Brigade can be deployed and sustain itself independently , without a division or corps level command supporting it . Additionally , the brigade 's design allows it to take command of additional units within a theatre of operations , allowing for greater versatility on the battlefield .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
The 36th Engineer Brigade was originally constituted on 1 October 1933 as the 36th Engineer Regiment and activated on 1 June 1941 at Plattsburgh Barracks , New York . During World War II the 36th Engineer Regiment consisted of nine combat engineer companies trained for amphibious assault and support operations . Because of this training , the unit ’ s distinctive insignia was designed with a seahorse on a red and white shield .
The brigade was deployed to the North African Campaign in 1942 , participating in Operation Torch , where it conducted its first amphibious assault , and earning the brigade its first campaign streamer for the battle around Algeria and French Morocco . It would continue supporting Allied units as they pushed Axis forces out of North Africa during the Tunisia Campaign .
The brigade would then participate in the Battle of Sicily , conducting its second amphibious landing along with the 7th Army . It would push on with the rest of the force , eventually forcing German and Italian forces off of the island . The Brigade followed in the quick invasion of mainland Italy soon after , with an amphibious assault in the Naples @-@ Foggia area , followed closely by another landing in support of Operation Shingle , near Anzio . For fifty days , during Operation Shingle , soldiers of the brigade held 7 miles ( 11 km ) of the front line and earned the distinction by the German army as “ The Little Seahorse Division ” .
The unit subsequently participated in the invasion of southern France in 1944 , code named Operation Dragoon , conducting its fifth and final amphibious assault of the war . It would support Allied units through three additional campaigns up until the end of the war ; the Rhineland Campaign , the Ardennes @-@ Alsace Campaign , and the Central Europe Campaign .
= = = Korean War = = =
On 15 February 1945 , the unit was redesignated as the 36th Engineer Combat Group , and following World War II it reorganized at Fort Lewis , Washington . The unit was broken up , its three battalions redesignated as the 2826th Combat Engineer Battalion , the 2827th Combat Engineer Battalion , and the 2828th Combat Engineer Battalion , respectively . They then assumed separate lineage , and the Regiment itself was inactivated on 30 November 1946 in Austria .
Reactivated on 5 May 1947 at Fort Lewis , Washington , the unit officially became the 36th Engineer Group on 10 April 1953 . During the Korean War , the 36th Engineer Combat Group consisted of four engineer battalions and four additional engineer companies , earning two Meritorious Unit Citations and the Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation . It served in the Korean theater from 1950 until 1954 , earning nine campaign streamers while supporting other army units in numerous engineering and construction projects , including rebuilding the Han river bridge just outside Seoul . During its assignment , the group was assigned to IX Corps of the Eighth United States Army . Projects that the group and its subordinate battalions completed included POW facilities , allied bases , and minefield clearing . Along with the rest of IX Corps , the group was forced back behind the Pusan Perimeter and remained stranded there until the Incheon Landings were conducted by X Corps . The group would follow IX Corps for the remainder of the Korean war .
After its withdrawal from Korea , the unit did not participate in any notable campaigns until its inactivation on 30 May 1972 at Fort Lewis . It was reactivated shortly after on 1 July 1973 as the 36th Engineer Group ( Construction ) at Fort Benning , Georgia . It would see no conflicts until the start of the Gulf War . In 1989 , it participated in " Exercise Camino De La Paz , " an unscheduled exercise conducted in the first half of 1989 on the Osa Peninsula of Costa Rica .
= = = Present day = = =
During the 1991 Gulf War , the 36th Engineer Group ( Construction ) fought in support of the 24th Infantry Division ’ s rapid attack to the Euphrates . The unit also deployed in support of peace enforcement missions during Operation Continue Hope in Somalia and Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti . Most recently , the 36th Engineer Group ( Construction ) has twice deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom , executing a wide variety of construction missions in support of combat operations , including the construction of enemy prisoner of war camps , theater convoy support centers , and soldier life support areas . Some of the soldiers from the unit were still in Iraq as late as October 2007 .
On 16 June 2006 , the unit was reorganized and redesignated the 36th Engineer Brigade. and reassigned to Fort Hood , Texas as the United States Army ’ s first modular engineer brigade headquarters . The brigade deployed to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in 2007 , holding a ceremony at III Corps Headquarters , casing its unit colors in preparation for its deployment on 28 February 2007 . The brigade supports operations conducted by the 82nd Airborne Division . It is part of Task Force Rugged , and among its duties are training Afghan citizens in skilled labor and other nationbuilding operations . Most of the brigade served in Afghanistan since February 2007 , while other elements of the unit served in Iraq . While in Afghanistan , the brigade headquarters were stationed at Forward Operating Base Sharana . It also began to undertake missions against Improvised Explosive Devices , a problem which had originated in Iraq but since became more of a threat in Afghanistan .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= Rajinikanth =
Shivaji Rao Gaekwad ( born 12 December 1950 ) , known by his mononymous stage name Rajinikanth , is an Indian film actor who works primarily in Tamil cinema . He began acting in plays while working in the Bangalore Transport Service as a bus conductor . In 1973 , he joined the Madras Film Institute to pursue a diploma in acting . Following his debut in K. Balachander 's Tamil drama Apoorva Raagangal ( 1975 ) , his acting career commenced with a brief phase of portraying antagonistic characters in Tamil films . After establishing himself as a lead actor in a number of commercially successful films , he began to be referred to as a " superstar " and has since continued to hold a matinée idol status in the popular culture of Tamil Nadu . His mannerisms and stylised delivery of dialogue in films contribute to his mass popularity and appeal .
After earning ₹ 26 crore ( equivalent to ₹ 55 crore or US $ 8 @.@ 2 million in 2016 ) for his role in Sivaji ( 2007 ) , he was the highest paid actor in Asia after Jackie Chan at the time . While working in other regional film industries of India , Rajinikanth has also appeared in the cinemas of other nations , including the the American film Bloodstone ( 1988 ) . As of 2014 , Rajinikanth has won six Tamil Nadu State Film Awards — four Best Actor Awards and two Special Awards for Best Actor — and a Filmfare Best Tamil Actor Award . In addition to acting , he has also worked as a producer and screenwriter . Apart from his film career , he is also a philanthropist , spiritualist , and serves as an influence in Dravidian politics .
The Government of India has honoured him with the Padma Bhushan in 2000 and the Padma Vibhushan in 2016 for his contributions to the arts . At the 45th International Film Festival of India ( 2014 ) , he was conferred with the " Centenary Award for Indian Film Personality of the Year " .
= = Early life = =
Rajinikanth was born on 12 December 1950 , in a Marathi family to his mother Ramabai , a housewife , and Ramoji Rao Gaekwad , a police constable , in Bangalore , Mysore State ( present day Karnataka ) . He was named Shivaji Rao Gaekwad after Chhatrapati Shivaji , a Maratha warrior King , and was brought up speaking Marathi at home and Kannada outside . Rajinikanth 's ancestors hailed from a village called Mavdi Kade Pathar , near Jejuri a part of the Purandar taluka of the present @-@ day Pune district , Maharashtra . He is the youngest of four siblings in a family consisting of two elder brothers , Satyanarayana Rao & Nageshwara Rao and a sister , Aswath Balubhai . After his father 's retirement from work in 1956 , the family moved to the suburb of Hanumantha nagar in Bangalore and built a house there . When he was nine years old , he lost his mother .
At the age of six , Rajinikanth was enrolled at the " Gavipuram Government Kannada Model Primary School " where he had his primary education . As a child , he was studious and " mischievous " with a great interest in cricket , football and basketball . It was during this time his brother enrolled him at the Ramakrishna Math , a Hindu monastery set up by Ramakrishna Mission . In the math , he was taught Vedas , tradition and history which eventually instilled a sense of spirituality in him . In addition to spiritual lessons , he also began acting in plays at the math . His aspiration towards theatre grew at the math and was once given an opportunity to enact the role of Ekalavya 's friend from the Hindu epic Mahabharata . His performance in the play received praise from the audience and Kannada poet D. R. Bendre in particular . After sixth grade , Rajinikanth was enrolled at the Acharya Pathasala Public School and studied there till completion of his pre @-@ university course . During his schooling at the Acharya Pathasala , he spent a lot of time acting in plays . In one such occasion , he performed the role of the villainous Duryodhana in the play Kurukshetra . At the age of 11 , Rajinikanth took the autograph of Kannada actor Rajkumar and he claimed in 2014 that it is the only autograph he has taken of someone in his life .
Upon completion of his school education , Rajinikanth continued to perform various jobs in the cities of Bangalore and Madras , including that of a coolie and carpenter , and finally ended up being recruited in the Bangalore Transport Service ( BTS ) as a bus conductor . He began to take part in stage plays after Kannada playwright Topi Muniappa offered him a chance to act in one of his mythological plays . During the time , he came across an advertisement issued by the newly formed Madras Film Institute which offered acting courses . Though his family was not fully supportive of his decision to join the institute , his friend and co @-@ worker Raj Bahadur motivated him to join the institute and financially supported him during this phase . During his stay at the institute , he was performing in a stage play and got noticed by Tamil film director K. Balachander . The director advised him to learn to speak Tamil , a recommendation that Rajinikanth quickly followed .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early career ( 1975 – 77 ) = = =
Rajinikanth began his film career through the Tamil film Apoorva Raagangal ( 1975 ) . Balachander gave Rajinikanth a relatively small role as an abusive husband of Srividya . The film was controversial upon release as it explored relationships between people with wide age differences . However , it received wide critical acclaim as it went on to win three National Film Awards including the award for the Best Tamil Feature at the following year ceremony . A review from The Hindu noted that , " Newcomer Rajinikanth is dignified and impressive " . He followed that with Katha Sangama ( 1976 ) , an experimental film made by Puttanna Kanagal in the new wave style . The film was a portmanteau of three short stories had Rajinikanth playing a small character in the last segment where he appears as a village ruffian who rapes a blind woman in the absence of her husband . His next release was Anthuleni Katha , a Telugu film directed by Balachander . A remake of his own Tamil film Aval Oru Thodar Kathai ( 1974 ) , had Rajinikanth playing a pivotal role for the first time in his career . In the subsequent films , he continued to perform a series of negative roles mostly as a womaniser . In Moondru Mudichu — the first film to feature him in a prominent role — he plays a character that " blithely row [ s ] away " when his friend drowns accidentally into the lake only to fulfill his desire to marry the former 's girlfriend . His style of flipping the cigarette made him popular among the audience . His final release of the year Baalu Jenu , yet again saw him performing a role which troubles the female lead . He followed that with similar roles in Avargal , and 16 Vayadhinile . In 1977 , he accepted his first @-@ ever lead role in the Telugu film Chilakamma Cheppindi . Though Rajinikanth always refers to K. Balachander as his mentor , it was S. P. Muthuraman who revamped his image . Muthuraman first experimented with him in a positive role in Bhuvana Oru Kelvikkuri ( 1977 ) , as a failed lover in the first half of the film and a protagonist in the second half . The success of the film brought the duo together for 24 more films till the 1990s . The year saw Rajinikanth playing supporting roles in majority of the films with few of them being " villainous " . In Gayathri he was cast as pornographer who secretly films his relationship with his wife without the knowledge of her , while in Galate Samsara he played the role of a married man who develops an affair with a cabaret dancer . All in all , he had 15 of his films released during the year , much higher than the previous years .
= = = Experimentation and breakthrough ( 1978 – 89 ) = = =
In 1978 , Rajinikanth went on to star in 20 different films across Tamil , Telugu , and Kannada . His first film of the year was P. Madhavan 's Shankar Salim Simon . Following that he was seen in the Kannada film Kiladi Kittu co @-@ starring Vishnuvardhan , who was then a leading actor in Kannada . His next release Annadammula Savaal saw him playing the second lead with Krishna . Rajinikanth had reprised his role in the Kannada original . He then played an important role in Aayiram Jenmangal which was touted to be a supernatural thriller . He then appeared as a prime antagonist in Maathu Tappada Maga , which happened to be his 25th release . Bairavi released in the same year was the first Tamil film to cast Rajinikanth as a main hero directed by M.Bhaskar. It was in this film he earned the sobriquet " Superstar " . S. Thanu who was one of the film 's distributor placed a cut @-@ out of Rajinikanth over a height of 35 feet ( 11 m ) . His next appearance Ilamai Oonjal Aadukirathu , a quadrangular love story made by C. V. Sridhar , saw him playing the role of a man who sacrifices his love for his friend , played by Kamal Haasan . The film 's success prompted Sridhar to remake the film in Telugu and thus ended up directing Vayasu Pilichindi where the original cast in the Tamil film was retained . His next film Vanakkatukuriya Kathaliye has an introductory song to mark his entry , a trend that would soon catch up with his later films . Mullum Malarum that released during the same period received critical acclaim . The film marked the directional debut of J. Mahendran , had the screenplay adapted from a novel of the same name published in Kalki . It eventually won the Filmfare Award for Best Tamil Film and Rajinikanth a special prize for Best Actor at the Tamil Nadu State Film Awards . Following this , he made a foray into Malayalam cinema through the fantasy film Allauddinum Albhutha Vilakkum which was based on a story from Arabian Nights . The same year , he acted in Dharma Yuddam , in which he played a mentally ill person taking revenge for his parents ' deaths . He then co @-@ starred with N. T. Rama Rao in Tiger . With the completion of Tiger , Rajinikanth had acted in 50 films over a period of four years and spanning across four languages . Some of the popular films that also released during this period are the youthful entertainer Ninaithale Inikkum , the Tamil – Kannada bilingual Priya , the Telugu film Amma Evarikkaina Amma and the melodrama Aarilirunthu Arubathu Varai . Priya , based on a detective novel by
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988 ) and Dharmathin Thalaivan ( 1988 ) . In 1988 , he made his only American film appearance in Bloodstone , directed by Dwight Little , in which he played an English @-@ speaking Indian taxi driver . Rajinikanth finished the decade with films including Rajadhi Raja , Siva , Raja Chinna Roja and Mappillai while also starring in a few Bollywood productions . Raja Chinna Roja was the first Indian film to feature live action and animation .
= = = Commercial stardom ( 1990 – 2001 ) = = =
By the 1990s , Rajinikanth established himself as a commercial entertainer . Almost all the films released during this period were highly successful at the box office .
He began the decade with a blockbuster in Panakkaran ( 1990 ) , which was a remake of Amitabh Bachchan 's 1981 film Laawaris . His next two Tamil films , the fantasy comedy Athisaya Piravi ( a remake of Chiranjeevi 's 1988 film Yamudiki Mogudu ) which also released in 1990 and the family drama Dharmadorai ( 1991 ) , did above @-@ average business at the box office . His stint with Bollywood continued since the past decade as he went on to star in more Hindi films . Hum released in 1991 saw him doing the second main lead with Amitabh Bachchan became an inspiration for Badsha . In 1991 , he worked with Mani Ratnam in Thalapathi , which was heavily inspired by the Mahabharata. in which he co @-@ starred with actor Mammooty ; the film dealt with the friendship between two unknown characters based on Karna and Duryodhana , respectively , and was set in a more contemporary milieu and was both critically acclaimed and successful upon release . He went on to appear in remakes of films from other languages , mostly from Hindi and Telugu . Annamalai , which released in 1992 , was yet another friendship centric film and was loosely based on the 1987 Bollywood film Khudgarz . Mannan , directed by P. Vasu and a remake of Kannada actor Rajkumar 's 1986 blockbuster Anuraga Aralithu , also released in 1992 and became a box @-@ office success . Rajinikanth wrote his first screenplay for the film Valli ( 1993 ) , in which he also made a special appearance . He also starred in the film Yejaman , in which he played the role of Vaanavaraayan , a village chieftain . His romantic @-@ comedy Veera ( 1994 ) was controversial for its climax but went on to become one of the highest @-@ grossing films in 1994 .
He joined hands with Suresh Krishna for Baasha ( 1995 ) , which emerged as an industry record , and is routinely touted by fans and critics alike as a major @-@ hit , as the film elevated him from being just another very popular actor to nearly a demigod status among the masses . He made a cameo in Peddarayudu for his friend Mohan Babu and also helped him in obtaining the remake rights . The same year , he acted in yet another gangster film , Aatank Hi Aatank with Aamir Khan which was also his last Hindi film in a major role till date . His film Muthu was another commercial success , directed by K. S. Ravikumar and produced by K. Balachander , and became the first Tamil film to be dubbed into Japanese , as Mutu : Odoru Maharaja . The film grossed a record US $ 1 @.@ 6 million in Japan in 1998 and was responsible for creating a large Japanese fan @-@ base for the actor . Muthu 's success in Japan led American news magazine Newsweek to comment in a 1999 article that Rajinikanth had " supplanted Leonardo DiCaprio as Japan 's trendiest heartthrob " . During a visit to Japan in 2006 , Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh acknowledged the success of Muthu in the country during a speech , justifying the positive relationship between the two nations . He also entered Bengali cinema through Bhagya Debata , which released at the end of 1995 . 1997 's Arunachalam was another commercial success . Rajinikanth released his last film of the millennium with Padayappa ( 1999 ) which went on to become a blockbuster success . It starred Ramya Krishnan and Soundarya , the former who was critically acclaimed for her performance . It was also the last , prominent role for veteran Tamil actor Sivaji Ganesan .
= = = Struggles , resurgence and acclaim ( 2002 – 10 ) = = =
After a brief gap , Rajinikanth starred in Baba in 2002 , for which he had also written the screenplay . Released with much fanfare and hype at the time , the film featured a story revolving around the reforming of a gangster , who is revealed to be the reincarnation of the Hindu saint Mahavatar Babaji , and fights against political corruption . It fell short of market expectations and the high bids reportedly translated to heavy losses for the distributors . Rajinikanth himself repaid the losses incurred by the distributors . The film was received with comments such as " the bloom was off the rose " and that " the gold does not glitter any more " . Pattali Makkal Katchi ( PMK ) leader S. Ramadoss condemned him for smoking and posing with beedis in the film . He was criticised for spoiling the Tamil youth by glorifying smoking and drinking . PMK volunteers attacked the theatres which screened the film and usurped film rolls and burnt it .
Two years later , Rajinikanth signed up for P. Vasu 's Chandramukhi ( 2005 ) , a remake of the Malayalam film Manichitrathazhu . Upon release the film was highly successful at the box @-@ office , and in 2007 it set the record of being the longest running Tamil film . Chandramukhi was also dubbed in Turkish and German as Der Geisterjäger and released in the respective nations . Following Chandramukhi 's release , it was reported that AVM Productions were set to produce a film directed by Shankar starring Rajinikanth — the largest collaboration yet for a Tamil film . The film was titled Sivaji and released in the summer of 2007 , following two years of filming and production . It became the first Tamil film to be charted as one of the " top @-@ ten best films " of the United Kingdom and South Africa box @-@ offices upon release . Rajinikanth received a salary of ₹ 26 crore ( equivalent to ₹ 55 crore or US $ 8 @.@ 2 million in 2016 ) , for his role in the film , which made him the second highest paid actor in Asia after Jackie Chan . During the production of Sivaji , Soundarya Rajinikanth announced her intention of producing a computer @-@ generated imagery film starring an animated version of her father titled Sultan : The Warrior . The film was set for release in 2008 , however it entered development hell and its development status would become unknown over the next few years .
He worked with P. Vasu again for Kuselan , remake of the Malayalam film Kadha Parayumbol which was made simultaneously in Telugu as Kathanayakudu , in which Rajinikanth played an extended cameo role as himself , a film star in the Indian cinema , and as a best friend to the film 's protagonist . According to Rajinikanth , the film somewhat narrated his early life . The film , however , performed poorly at box offices and led to many distributors incurring major losses . Rajinikanth also stated that he would work with Pyramid Saimira again to compensate for Kuselan .
Rajinikanth worked again with Shankar for the science fiction film , Enthiran . The film was released worldwide in 2010 as the most expensive Indian film ever made , ultimately becoming the second highest @-@ grossing film in India of its time . Rajinikanth was paid a remuneration of ₹ 45 crore ( equivalent to ₹ 71 crore or US $ 11 million in 2016 ) for the film . The film 's success lead to the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad to use the film as a case study to analyze the business of cinema and its success story in a post @-@ graduate elective management course called Contemporary Film Industry : A Business Perspective . The course would also study Muthu .
= = = Hospitalisation and return ( 2011 – present ) = = =
In January 2011 , Rajinikanth was slated to appear in Rana , a period film to be produced by Soundarya Rajinikanth and directed by K. S. Ravikumar , who would work with the actor for a third time . During the principal photography of the film on 29 April 2011 , he suffered a mild foodborne illness on the sets , which led to vomiting , dehydration , and exhaustion . He was treated at St. Isabel 's Hospital for a day before being discharged . Five days later , he was rushed to the same hospital again after suffering from breathlessness and fever . He was diagnosed with bronchitis and was kept at the hospital for a week , while also spending a few days in an intensive care unit . Several conflicting reports of discharge dates arose , as well as claims of Rajinikanth 's health deteriorating , which were continuously denied by Latha Rajinikanth . By this time , CNN @-@ IBN reported that " Rajinikanth dead " was one of the top trends on Twitter and most searched term on Google in India . Two days after his last discharge , Rajinikanth was admitted to the Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute on 16 May 2011 for recurring respiratory and gastrointestinal problems . The hospital maintained that Rajinikanth was in stable condition and showed positive response to treatment . It was widely reported that he required a kidney transplantation , which was later denied by Dhanush . On 21 May 2011 , Aishwarya Rajinikanth released a photo of her and Rajinikanth in his hospital ward , both posing with a thumbs signal , responding to fans ' negative reaction to news reports . The hospital restricted unauthorised visitors . Rajinikanth 's brother , Sathyanarayana Rao Gaikwad , reported that the cause of the sudden illness was due to stress from rapid weight @-@ loss and changes in diet , as well as withdrawal of alcohol consumption and smoking cessation . After addressing fans in a 4 @-@ minute digitally recorded voice message to the media , Rajinikanth , under the advice of Amitabh Bachchan , travelled from Chennai to Singapore with his family on 21 May 2011 , where he was to undergo further treatment for nephropathy at Mount Elizabeth Hospital . After spending over two weeks at the hospital , he was finally discharged on 15 June 2011 and continued to recuperate in Singapore , before returning to Chennai on 13 July 2011 .
Despite several failed attempts to restart Rana upon his return , Rajinikanth reprised his Enthiran character , Chitti , in the Bollywood science @-@ fiction film Ra.One ( 2011 ) in a guest appearance alongside Shah Rukh Khan and Kareena Kapoor . In November 2011 , it was decided that Rana would be shelved in favour of a new project with Rajinikanth , titled Kochadaiiyaan . The motion capture film , which is the first of its kind in India , was released in 2014 to positive reviews . Kochadaiiyaan , and the 3D release of Sivaji in 2012 , made Rajinikanth the first Indian actor to have appeared in four different forms of cinema : black @-@ and @-@ white , colour , 3D and motion capture . Following the completion of Kochadaiiyaan , Rajinikanth began work in Ravikumar 's next directorial venture , titled Lingaa alongside Anushka Shetty and Sonakshi Sinha . The film was released on 12 December 2014 , coinciding with his birthday , and received mixed reviews from critics . Rajinikanth 's next film was director Pa . Ranjith 's crime drama Kabali , produced by S. Thanu . The film was released in July 2016 . Rajinikanth is filming for 2 @.@ 0 , a spiritual successor to Enthiran , that is scheduled for release in 2017 .
= = Image and influence = =
= = = Culture = = =
Rajinikanth has often been referred to as the most popular film actor in South India by the media and audiences . In 2015 , a film about his fandom , For the Love of a Man , premiered at the 71st Venice International Film Festival .
His popularity has been attributed to " his uniquely styled dialogues and idiosyncrasies in films , as well as his political statements and philanthropy " . Many also cite reasons for Rajinikanth 's popularity as coming from his larger @-@ than @-@ life super @-@ hero appearance in many films , supported by gravity @-@ defying stunts and charismatic expressions , all while attempting to maintain modesty in real @-@ life . Almost every film of Rajinikanth has punchlines delivered by him in an inimitable style , and these punchlines often have a message or even to warn the film 's antagonists . These dialogues are usually fabricated to create new ones or even taken in a comical way , but do not fail to create a sense of entertainment among viewers . It is suggested by the media that actresses such as Gouthami and Nayanthara got their initial breakthrough after co @-@ starring with Rajinikanth very early in their careers , giving other aspiring actors the urge to work with him .
Rajinikanth is also the only Indian actor to be featured in the Central Board of Secondary Education ( CBSE ) syllabus , in a lesson titled From Bus Conductor to Superstar . After opening his first official Twitter account in 2014 , Rajinikanth received over 210 @,@ 000 followers within 24 @-@ hours , which according to The Economic Times was deemed by social media research firms as the fastest rate of followers for any Indian celebrity , as well as among the top @-@ 10 in the world .
Much like Chuck Norris facts , " Rajinikanth facts " or " Rajinikanth jokes " are widely circulated in text messages and memes over the Internet . These satirical jokes have also inspired several mobile applications for iOS and Android .
= = = Politics = = =
Critics , such as Cho Ramaswamy , have commented that Rajinikanth has the potential to be successful in Indian politics due to his popularity and fan base alone . In 1995 , Rajinikanth began supporting the Indian National Congress after meeting Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao . An opinion poll conducted by the magazine Kumudam predicted that Congress with Rajinikanth 's support might win up to 130 seats in Tamil Nadu Assembly . In 1996 , when the Congress Party decided to align with All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( AIADMK ) for the assembly election in Tamil Nadu , Rajinikanth changed loyalties and supported Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) -Tamil Maanila Congress ( TMC ) alliance . The TMC used a bicycle as their election symbol and used an image of Rajinikanth riding a bicycle from the film Annamalai in their posters . Rajinikanth said , " Even God cannot save Tamil Nadu if AIADMK returns to power . " Rajinikanth wholeheartedly supported the DMK and TMC alliance and asked the people of Tamil Nadu and his fans to vote for that alliance . This alliance had a complete victory in 1996 . Rajinikanth also supported the DMK @-@ TMC alliance in the parliamentary election held the same year . Later in 2004 , Rajinikanth said he would personally vote for the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) but would not extend his support to any front during the upcoming Indian general election . The party however failed to win any seats in Tamil Nadu in the Lok Sabha .
Fans of Rajinikanth in Tamil Nadu have continuously speculated his entry in politics , particularly to run for Chief Minister of the state . In 2008 , a few fans in Coimbatore launched a political party for Rajinikanth , in an attempt to pressure his entry . The party was named the " Desiya Dravadar Makkal Munnetra Kazhagam " , with a dedicated party flag and symbol . After learning about this , Rajinikanth submitted an open letter to the media , declaring that he had no connection with these events and requested fans not to indulge in such activities , warning that he would take legal action if they failed to adhere . He also mentioned that he was not interested in politics and thus was only committed to working in films . He added that nobody can force him to enter politics , just as no one can stop him from entering it .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
Rajinikanth married Latha Rangachari , a student of Ethiraj College for Women , who interviewed him for her college magazine . The marriage took place on 26 February 1981 , in Tirupati , Andhra Pradesh . The couple have two daughters named Aishwarya Rajinikanth and Soundarya Rajinikanth . Latha runs a school named " The Ashram " .
Aishwarya married actor Dhanush on 18 November 2004 and they have two sons , Yathra and Linga . His younger daughter , Soundarya , works in the Tamil film industry as a director , producer and graphic designer . She married industrialist Ashwin Ramkumar on 3 September 2010 and have a son Ved Krishna .
= = = Views = = =
Rajinikanth is a follower of Hinduism , spiritualism , and a strong believer of spirituality . He is also a practitioner of yoga and meditation . Rajinikanth has religiously visited major Hindu temples prior to the release of each of his films ; for instance he visited the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple before the release of Sivaji in 2007 and visited Sathya Sai Baba at Prasanthi Nilayam in Andhra Pradesh before the release of Kuselan the following year . He also occasionally leaves for pilgrimage to the Himalayas . He has often referred to Ramakrishna Paramahamsa , Swami Satchidananda , Ragavendra Swami , Mahavatar Babaji , and Ramana Maharishi as his favourite spiritual leaders ..
= = = Controversies = = =
In 2002 , Rajinikanth undertook a daylong fast to protest the Government of Karnataka 's decision to not release Kaveri River water into Tamil Nadu and announced that he would contribute ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) toward a plan to interlink Indian rivers . He met with Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and many experts to canvass support for the project . His hunger strike was independent of the Nadigar Sangam , who organised their own solidarity protest for the same cause . Film director Bharathi Raja lashed out against Rajinikanth , alleging him of dividing the film industry and saying that he was a " traitor who had a tacit understanding with the Karnataka government " .
In 2008 , Rajinikanth took part in a hunger strike organised by the Nadigar Sangam against Karnataka 's stance on the Hogenakkal Falls water dispute . In his speech , which was well received in Tamil Nadu , he warned leaders not to inflame the water project issue for political gains and requested that the issue should be resolved soon . He reprimanded politicians in Karnataka and urged them " to speak the truth " to the public . " They cannot be fooled and will not remain silent if you continue to act in such manner , " he stated . The speech led to Vatal Nagaraj , leader of the Kannada nationalist group Kannada Chaluvali Vatal Paksha , demanding an apology from Rajinikanth and threatening that he and his films would be boycotted from the state of Karnataka . The threats were echoed by other pro @-@ Kannada organisations , such as the Karnataka Rakshana Vedike . In a move to save the market of Tamil cinema in Karnataka and ensure welfare of Tamil Nadu @-@ based filmmakers , Rajinikanth apologised for his statements in a brief media appearance on TV9 Kannada . He later thanked the Kannada film industry for allowing the release of Kuselan and lifting the ban the industry had briefly imposed on it . This led to strong reactions from Nadigar Sangam members R. Sarathkumar , Sathyaraj and Radha Ravi , who called the apology a disgrace to Tamils and opined that his speech never provoked the sentiments of the Kannada people .
Rajinikanth 's support toward fellow actor Ajith Kumar , who in 2010 condemned the forceful inclusion of Tamil cinema personae in political affairs , broke into a controversy .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
According to Naman Ramachandran , the author of Rajinikanth : The Definitive Biography , most of Rajinikanth 's philanthropic activities went unpublicised because he did not want them to be so . Rajinikanth has given away half of his income to charities . In the 1980s , when superstitious beliefs prevented a majority of people from donating eyes , Rajinikanth took the case of campaigning in support of corneal transplantation via television and public speeches . In 2011 , Rajinikanth announced his support for the anti @-@ corruption movement led by Gandhian Anna Hazare and offered his marriage hall , the Raghavendra Kalyana Mandapam , in Chennai free of cost for the India Against Corruption members to hold their fast . Rajinikanth 's fan associations regularly organise blood donation and eye donation camps and distribute food during his birthday .
= = Awards and honours = =
Rajinikanth has received numerous awards for many of his films mostly in Tamil . He received his first Filmfare Award for Best Tamil Actor in 1984 for Nallavanuku Nallavan . Later he received Filmfare Award nominations for his performances in Sivaji ( 2007 ) and Enthiran ( 2010 ) . As of 2014 , Rajinikanth has received six Tamil Nadu State Film Awards for his performances in various films . He also received numerous awards from Cinema Express and Filmfans ' Association for his on @-@ screen performances and off @-@ screen contributions in writing and producing .
Rajinikanth received the Kalaimamani award in 1984 and the M. G. R. Award in 1989 , both from the Government of Tamil Nadu . In 1995 , the South Indian Film Artistes ' Association presented him with the Kalaichelvam Award . He was honoured with the Padma Bhushan ( 2000 ) and the Padma Vibhushan ( 2016 ) by the Government of India . He was selected as the Indian Entertainer of the Year for 2007 by NDTV , competing against the likes of Shahrukh Khan . The Government of Maharashtra honoured him with the Raj Kapoor Award the same year . He received the Chevalier Sivaji Ganesan Award for Excellence in Indian Cinema at the 4th Vijay Awards . Rajinikanth was also named one of the most influential persons in South Asia by Asiaweek . He was also named by Forbes India as the most influential Indian of the year 2010 . In 2011 , he was awarded the Entertainer of the Decade Award by NDTV for the year 2010 by the then Indian Minister for Home Affairs P. Chidambaram . In December 2013 , he was honoured by NDTV as one among the " 25 Greatest Global Living Legends " . In 2014 , he was presented with the " Centenary Award for Indian Film Personality of the Year " at the 45th International Film Festival of India held at Goa .
= USS West Gate ( ID @-@ 3216 ) =
USS West Gate ( ID @-@ 3216 ) was a cargo ship for the United States Navy during World War I. The ship was laid down as SS War Agate , but she was launched in January 1918 as SS West Gate instead .
SS West Gate was one of the steam @-@ powered West boats that were built for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) . They were steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort . She was the 3rd ship built by the Columbia River Shipbuilding Company in Portland , Oregon . She was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) of the United States Navy in April 1918 .
After experiencing engine trouble on her first attempt at a transatlantic crossing , West Gate was unsuccessfully attacked by two German submarines in early July 1918 while returning to port for repairs . After successfully completing her trip to France , she began her second transatlantic trip in early October . In the early morning hours of 7 October , West Gate 's steering gear jammed and American , another Navy cargo ship , collided with the West Gate , sinking her . Seven men lost their lives in the accident .
= = Design and construction = =
The ship was laid down at the Columbia River Shipbuilding Company of Portland , Oregon under the name War Agate as part of an order for the British Admiralty . Had she been sold to them , the War Agate would have been operated by the Cunard Line . However , the USSB commandeered and received title to all private shipbuilding projects in progress in mid @-@ 1917 , which included the still @-@ incomplete War Agate . The ship was renamed West Gate by the time of her launching on 27 January 1918 . She was one of the West ships , which were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the USSB for emergency use during the First World War . All of the West ships were given names that began with the word West , and West Gate was the 3rd of some 30 West ships built at Columbia River Shipbuilding .
West Gate was 5 @,@ 799 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 410 feet 1 inch ( 124 @.@ 99 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 m ) abeam . She had a steel hull that displaced 12 @,@ 185 t with a mean draft of 24 feet 1 inch ( 7 @.@ 34 m ) . Her hold was 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) deep . West Gate 's power plant consisted of a single steam turbine driving a single screw propeller which moved the ship at up to 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ) .
= = Career = =
After her April 1918 completion , West Gate was handed over to the United States Navy for use in the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) . She was commissioned at Norfolk , Virginia , as USS West Gate ( ID @-@ 3216 ) the same day with Lieutenant Commander Alexander Watson , USNRF , in command .
After making her way to New York , West Gate took on 6 @,@ 700 tons of cargo that included locomotives , steel rails , and other materiel for the United States Army and departed in a convoy for France on 28 June . The ship soon developed engine trouble and dropped out of the convoy to head to St. John 's , Newfoundland , for repairs . While headed to St. John 's in moderate seas under a cloudy sky , West Gate was attacked by two German submarines at 19 : 15 on 3 July . One U @-@ boat surfaced in front of the cargo ship , crossing to starboard . As West Gate quickly turned to port to evade the U @-@ boat , a second U @-@ boat surfaced one point to starboard . While West Gate 's radio operator sent out a preemptive SOS , her gunners opened fire on the two submarines . Though her gunners made hits on neither boat , both were bracketed with fire , quickly submerged , and apparently departed the scene . West Gate arrived at St. John 's at 18 : 00 on 7 July without any further contact with enemy vessels .
After four days of repairs , West Gate departed St. John 's for France and arrived at the Gironde estuary on 22 July . She shifted to Saint @-@ Nazaire three days later where she unloaded her cargo . West Gate departed on 21 August for Newport News , Virginia , where she arrived on 10 September . Later in the month , she headed to New York for major engine repairs .
= = Final voyage = =
After taking on 7 @,@ 187 long tons ( 7 @,@ 302 t ) of Army materiel , she departed for Bordeaux on 4 October in a convoy escorted by cruiser Denver . On the night of 6 / 7 October — noted in the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships as " particularly dark and rainy " — the ships were having trouble maintaining their stations in the convoy . West Gate was sailing in the first column to the starboard of the guide ship , Sagua .
At 02 : 28 on 7 October , while about 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ) south of Halifax , West Gate 's steering gear engine jammed , sending the ship veering sharply to the port . The crew put the ship 's engines at half speed to try to drop out of the convoy . Lieutenant Spencer , the chief engineer , and his assistant , Lieutenant ( j.g. ) Hillery , headed to the machinery spaces to see about effecting repairs . At 02 : 30 , men on the bridge sighted the red light from the oncoming American , which had been steaming behind and to the port of West Gate . Though the bridge ordered the engines raised to " full speed ahead " to avoid the collision , there was no time for the engines to respond before American 's bow cut into the starboard side of West Gate , near the poop deck .
West Gate 's engines were shut down while American backed out of the tangle . West Gate quickly began to settle and the order to abandon ship was issued . The chief engineer and his assistant , Spencer and Hillery , remained belowdecks long enough to extinguish the boilers and open safety valves to prevent the explosion of the boilers . They finished the task just before the aft bulkhead gave way to the inrushing seawater . Both arrived on deck in time to board lifeboat number 2 , which had been held as long as possible for men in the after part of the ship .
Chief Gunner 's Mate Michael B. Wallrath , who had assisted in lowering three lifeboats while he remained on board , jumped overboard after seeing to it that all the boats were away . Wallrath was pulled into lifeboat number 6 just before a wave capsized it and drowned two of its occupants . Lieutenant commander R. B. Vandervoort , USNRF , West Gate 's commanding officer , remained on board until he felt sure that the entire crew had departed the sinking ship . When he climbed up on the deckhouse to cut free a life raft and leave the ship , he discovered six men huddled on deck . Vandervoort was able to get the six on the life raft , but the suction caused by West Gate 's final plunge pulled him away and below the surface . After he managed to get back to the surface , he clung to floating wreckage for two hours until pulled aboard the very raft he had missed earlier . Vandervoort and the six men aboard the raft were rescued by one of American 's lifeboats at 06 : 00 , after some 3 ½ hours in the water .
A total of seven men from West Gate , two from lifeboat six and five others probably killed in the initial collision , lost their lives in the accident . The U.S. Navy awarded Chief Gunner 's Mate Wallrath a Letter of Commendation for his actions during the sinking of West Gate .
= Lauren Ebsary =
Lauren Kaye Ebsary ( born 15 March 1983 ) is an Australian cricketer . Primarily a batsman , she is a former member of the Australia national women 's cricket team .
Ebsary made her senior debut for South Australia in the Women 's National Cricket League ( WNCL ) during the 2000 – 01 season at the age of 18 . Although she played in every match in her first season , she was shielded from much of the action and made only six runs . Ebsary was selected in every match in her first three seasons , but in that time , scored only 136 runs at a batting average of 8 @.@ 50 and took 13 wickets from 24 matches . The following year , Ebsary raised her career average above 10 for the first time and was selected in the Australian Under @-@ 23 team . In 2004 – 05 she made more than 100 runs in a season for the first time , and the following year she made 149 runs at 29 @.@ 80 . In 2006 – 07 , she struggled and totalled only 101 runs at 14 @.@ 42 and took three wickets , and after the season she transferred to Western Australia . The change of state yielded dividends in the 2007 – 08 season , as she made 236 runs and took eight wickets , her highest aggregate of runs and wickets in one tournament .
At the start of the 2008 – 09 season , Ebsary gained selection to the Australian national team and made her One Day International ( ODI ) debut in the home series against India . She made 37 runs at 18 @.@ 50 , and after scoring 207 runs in the WNCL season , was retained in the national team . After making her ODI top @-@ score of 86 in the Rose Bowl series against New Zealand , she was selected for the 2009 World Cup , but was in and out of the team , making 106 runs at 35 @.@ 33 . In June 2009 , she played in all of Australia 's matches at the 2009 World Twenty20 and made her Test debut against England in a bilateral series after the World Twenty20 . Ebsary scored 211 runs during the 2009 – 10 WNCL season to retain her position in the national squad for the Rose Bowl series , but after a series of poor performances , she spent the latter half of the campaign watching from the sidelines .
= = Early years = =
Born in Snowtown , South Australia , Lauren Ebsary was one of four children — two boys and two girls — of Peter and Kaye Ebsary . While pursuing her secondary education at Snowtown Area School , attended a cricket coaching clinic organised by her school in 1996 . It was there that her talent was noticed by Australian Test player and development officer for the South Australian Cricket Association ( SACA ) Joanne Broadbent , who said that Ebsary " had a lot of potential from the start " . After Ebsary made her debut for Australia , Broadbent said " I ’ ve always believed Lauren had the capacity to represent her country . " Ebsary was initially a tall and gangly pace bowler who mixed testing deliveries with erratic ones , including many wides .
During her teenage years before she acquired a driver 's licence , Ebsary 's mother drove her to the state capital , Adelaide — more than 100 km away — to play for the Flinders University Cricket Club in SACA 's district women 's competition on weekends . Back in Snowtown , she practised against her father and one of her brothers .
= = Cricket career = =
= = = Junior selection = = =
In 1997 – 98 she attended the state under @-@ 17s trials and was successful in gaining selection at the age of 14 . Due to the lack of opportunities to females to play cricket at local youth level , she played her first competitive game at the national championships in Brisbane . In January 2000 , at the age of 16 , Ebsary was chosen for the South Australian team for the Under @-@ 19 interstate championships . Playing as a specialist batsman — she bowled a solitary wicketless over in six matches — she did not failed to pass five in her first five matches , before scoring an unbeaten 34 in the final match against Tasmania . Nevertheless , it was not a successful tournament , yielding 45 runs at a batting average of 9 @.@ 00 .
= = = Senior debut = = =
Despite the lack of success at youth interstate level , Ebsary was promoted into the senior South Australian team in the 2000 – 01 season at the age of 17 , playing in all of her state 's eight matches in the Women 's National Cricket League ( WNCL ) . She made her debut against reigning champions New South Wales , and after not batting , took one wicket for the loss of six runs ( 1 / 6 ) from two overs as South Australia lost by seven wickets . In the next match of the double @-@ header the next day , she took 0 / 15 from two overs and was run out for a duck in her maiden senior innings in a 22 @-@ run loss . During the season , Ebsary often batted at the bottom of the order in a specialist bowler 's position and thus rarely batted , but she hardly bowled , delivering only six overs in total in her first seven matches . In effect , she was shielded from taking on a meaningful workload and not trusted to contribute with either bat or ball . In the last match of the season , she was finally given a substantial opportunity against Queensland , taking 3 / 21 from seven overs , as South Australia proceeded to a six @-@ wicket victory . Nevertheless , in eight matches she scored only six runs at 2 @.@ 00 in three innings , and took five wickets at a bowling average of 9 @.@ 40 and an economy rate of 3 @.@ 61 . South Australia won only three matches and did not make the finals .
During the 2001 – 02 WNCL , Ebsary played in all eight matches , and was given more responsibility . This season , she batted in seven innings and bowled 51 of a maximum possible 80 overs . In the first match of the season , she took 3 / 29 from 10 overs against the titleholders New South Wales , and she scored 51 in the fifth match against Victoria . Ebsary did not have a significant impact in the other matches , never taking more than one wicket per match or reaching double figures with the bat . She ended the season with 67 runs at 9 @.@ 57 and six wickets at 30 @.@ 83 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 62 . South Australia won four of their eight matches and did not make the final .
Ebsary was 18 during the season and still eligible for the Under @-@ 19s and she represented her state during the tournament , which was held in the middle of a break in the WNCL . She scored 119 runs at 19 @.@ 83 and took nine wickets at 15 @.@ 55 with a best of 4 / 27 against the Australian Capital Territory . At the end of the season , Ebsary was chosen in the Australia Youth team to play New Zealand A and New Zealand . In four matches she took two wickets at 32 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 2 @.@ 66 but had no impact with the bat , scoring five runs at 1 @.@ 66 .
In the 2002 – 03 WNCL , Ebsary played in all eight matches , but was given less responsibility with the ball and had little success . She bowled only 23 overs and took two wickets at 34 @.@ 00 . She also had little effect with the bat , scoring 63 runs at 11 @.@ 50 with a best score of 18 . South Australia won five of their matches , narrowly missing the finals . Up to this point her batting average in 16 completed innings was 8 @.@ 37 .
At the start of the 2003 – 04 season , Ebsary was chosen in an Australian Under @-@ 23 team that played a two @-@ innings match against the touring England team . Ebsary scored nine not out and took 4 / 35 and 0 / 4 from a total of 20 overs . She was somewhat more successful in the WNCL than in previous years , bowling 28 overs and taking five wickets at 17 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 03 with a best of 2 / 19 in the last match of the season with Victoria . She scored 91 runs at 15 @.@ 16 , her highest season aggregate and average to date , with a best of 26 . This brought Ebsary 's career average above 10 for the first time . South Australia won four of their matches and another was washed out , failing to make the final . She played in three matches for Australia Youth against New Zealand A at the end of the season , scoring 29 runs at 29 @.@ 00 and taking three wickets at 16 @.@ 66 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 54 .
In 2004 – 05 , Ebsary scored more than 100 runs in a WNCL season for the first time . She scored 125 runs at 20 @.@ 83 , averaging more than 20 for the first time in a season . Her best score of 36 not out came in a ten @-@ wicket win over Western Australia , and in the other match against the state the preceding day , she scored 28 and took 2 / 26 in a 29 @-@ run win . Her best bowling performance came in the first match of the season as she took 3 / 32 and scored 25 in a six @-@ wicket win over Queensland . Ebsary ended the season with six wickets at 26 @.@ 83 . She bowled 37 overs and conceded 4 @.@ 35 runs per over .
In the 2005 – 06 WNCL season , Ebsary struggled to make an impact with the ball , taking four wickets at 43 @.@ 00 at the relatively high economy rate of 4 @.@ 91 . Her figures were flattered by a haul of 3 / 32 in the final match of the season against Western Australia , in which she also made 26 to help seal a three @-@ wicket win . Her batting continued to progress ; she scored 149 runs at 29 @.@ 80 , including a best of 43 against Victoria . South Australia won five of their eight matches , again missing the finals .
Ebsary had more difficult times in the 2006 – 07 WNCL season . She took only three wickets at 60 @.@ 33 and an economy rate of 5 @.@ 14 , the worst average and economy rate she had recorded for a WNCL season . She never took more than one wicket in any match . Her batting also regressed , making 101 runs at 14 @.@ 42 , more than half coming in a 51 against New South Wales in the last match of the season . This was Ebsary 's last season for her native state as she moved to Western Australia for the 2007 – 08 season .
= = = Move to Western Australia = = =
The transfer , in 2007 , coincided with an upturn in Ebsary 's career . After a slow start in the new WNCL season — Western Australia lost their first five matches — Ebsary became more productive . She scored 30 of 141 and took 1 / 16 in a low @-@ scoring win over New South Wales in the sixth match . In the last double @-@ header of the season , against Queensland , she made consecutive half @-@ centuries for the first time in her career . In the first match she made 72 before taking 4 / 46 to help secure a 104 @-@ run win , before scoring 62 the next day to lay the foundation for a five @-@ wicket win . Ebsary scored 236 runs at 29 @.@ 50 ; her previous best WNCL aggregate was 149 . However , she did have trouble in running between the wickets ; three of her eight dismissals were run outs . She took eight wickets at 33 @.@ 87 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 43 and had a workload more than 50 % heavier than in previous seasons . Ebsary was not as successful in the fledgling Twenty20 format ; in two matches for the season , her first in the most abbreviated form of cricket , she scored 33 runs at 16 @.@ 50 and conceded 51 runs at an economy rate of 7 @.@ 46 without taking a wicket . Ebsary later said " Looking back , the move to the West has been the best thing for my cricket ... After settling our line @-@ up , it gave me a chance to let loose at the top of the order and helped my confidence to be aggressive at the batting crease ... Under the leadership of Avril Fahey , the West Aussies were very welcoming and I found my groove at the top of the order . "
= = = International debut = = =
Ebsary was rewarded with international selection for the five @-@ match One Day International ODI series against India at the start of the 2008 – 09 Australian season . Nerve damage in her toe ruled Ebsary out of contention for the first match at Hurstville Oval , which the hosts won by eight wickets with more than 12 overs to spare . The next day , she was given her debut in the second match of the series , at the Sydney Cricket Ground . Ebsary made five not out as the hosts made 6 / 215 batting first . Ebsary came in at 6 / 194 with 14 balls remaining in the Australia innings . She took a single off each of the five balls she faced , rotating the strike as her partner Lisa Sthalekar completed an unbeaten century . In the seventh over of India 's reply , Ebsary 's throw from the boundary ran out Jaya Sharma as the opener attempted to take a third run , leaving the tourists at 2 / 9 .
Bowling in the middle of the innings , she then took 1 / 17 from five overs , her maiden wicket being Thirush Kamini caught behind by wicket @-@ keeper Jodie Fields for one run , leaving India at 5 / 71 in the 26th over . She then claimed two catches to complete the eighth and ninth wickets — those of tail @-@ enders Amita Sharma and Nooshin Al Khadeer — as Australia won by 86 runs . Ebsary went on to play in the last four matches of the series . She was promoted to the No. 4 position in the next match , but failed to capitalise on her opportunity , making a duck . She bowled five overs without taking a wicket in a 54 @-@ run win . She then made 32 from 43 balls as an opener , hitting six boundaries in the fourth ODI at Manuka Oval in Canberra , helping to set up a 118 @-@ run win . In the final match , she took 1 / 13
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from four overs , taking the wicket of leading Indian batsman Mithali Raj and was not required to bat in a seven @-@ wicket win . She ended her debut series with 37 runs at 18 @.@ 50 and two wickets at 34 @.@ 50 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 83 . Australia took the series 5 – 0 in a dominant display ; all their wins were by at least seven wickets or 54 runs .
In the WNCL , Ebsary went wicketless for the entire season for the first time , conceding 127 runs at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 70 . She remained productive with the bat , scoring 207 runs at 25 @.@ 87 , making 43 and 57 , her two highest scores of the season , in the double @-@ header against Victoria . Western Australia won three of eight matches and did not make the final . Ebsary made 34 and 25 in her two T20 matches for the season , but had no success with the ball , conceding a total of 36 runs from three overs without taking a wicket .
= = = ODI and T20 World Cups in 2009 = = =
Despite her inability to take a wicket in the WNCL , Ebsary was retained in the national team and in the next five months of international cricket , she did not bowl a ball . Ahead of the 2009 World Cup , the Australians headed to New Zealand for a Rose Bowl series , Ebsary was left out of the first two ODIs against New Zealand , but was recalled for the next two matches at Seddon Park in Hamilton . She scored 30 from 47 balls in the first match before making her ODI top @-@ score of 86 the next day . Batting at No. 3 , she struck nine boundaries and faced only 76 balls , scoring at faster than a run @-@ a @-@ ball . This helped set up Australia 's 4 / 307 and they went on to win by 44 runs , their second consecutive victory . The teams returned to Australia where Ebsary made her T20 international debut at the Sydney Cricket Ground . She did not bat or bowl in a rain @-@ affected Australian win .
In two warm @-@ up matches ahead of the World Cup in Australia , Ebsary made 18 and 8 against England and Sri Lanka respectively . Nevertheless , Ebsary was retained for the match against New Zealand , scoring one at No. 7 as Australia failed in their run @-@ chase . It was the start of a tournament in which Ebsary was moved around in the Australian team structure . Ebsary was dropped for the second match against South Africa , which Australia won , and recalled for the last group match against the West Indies . She made 15 from 28 balls at No. 5 , in a 47 @-@ run win to reach the next round . In the first Super Six match , Ebsary made 39 not out from 36 balls at No. 7 in the closing stages of the game , attempting to hold together the Australian lower @-@ order as they fell 16 runs short of India 's 5 / 234 . She was then promoted to No. 3 in the following match , making 51 from 71 balls against Pakistan after Leah Poulton and Shelley Nitschke had put on a century opening stand , as the Australians completed a 107 @-@ run win . Ebsary was left out of the final Super Six match against England , which Australia won , which was not enough for them to reach the final . She missed the third @-@ place playoff against India , which was lost . She ended with 106 runs at 35 @.@ 33 from her four matches .
Ebsary was selected for Australia 's team for the inaugural Women 's World Twenty20 held in England in 2009 . The Australians hosted New Zealand for a three @-@ match series in tropical Darwin at the beginning of June before the World Cup , and Ebsary made 17 @.@ 00 at 8 @.@ 50 in her three innings . She then made 13 in the team 's warm @-@ up match on English soil , against the hosts , but was nevertheless retained for all the matches . She made a duck as Australia lost their opening match against New Zealand , and was not required to bat in the win over the West Indies . Ebsary made 23 run out in the final group match as Australia defeated South Africa to reach the semi @-@ finals . There she scored eight not out before England overhauled Australia 's score to reach the final , which they won . She ended the tournament with 44 runs at 22 @.@ 00 .
= = = Test debut = = =
After the World Twenty20 ended in June 2009 , Ebsary stayed in England for a bilateral series against the hosts , who were the reigning world champions in both ODIs and T20s . She scored 24 not out as Australia upset England in the only T20 by 34 runs . She played in all of the five ODIs , and after making 23 , 38 and 40 , her form tapered away in the last two matches , making single @-@ figure scores to end with 112 runs at 22 @.@ 40 . Batting in a variety of positions from No. 5 to 8 , she scored quickly at a strike rate of 88 @.@ 18 . In the fourth match , she took 1 / 16 , the first time she had bowled in 19 international matches , removing Claire Taylor . England won all the matches except the last , which was washed out .
Ebsary made her Test debut against England in a one @-@ off match at County Road in Worcestershire . Australia batted first and Ebsary came to the crease at No. 9 with the total on 7 / 271 . She scored 3 from 15 balls before being trapped leg before wicket by Katherine Brunt , as Australia were dismissed for 309 . She then took 2 / 35 . She claimed her maiden Test wicket by having Taylor caught by Poulton for 10 and then had Jenny Gunn caught behind by Jodie Fields for 41 . This ended a 77 @-@ run partnership with Beth Morgan and left the hosts at 6 / 136 but they recovered to reach 268 , still enough for Australia to take a 41 @-@ run lead . Ebsary was then promoted to No. 4 and made 21 as Australia set the hosts a target of 273 before the match was drawn .
= = = 2009 @-@ 2010 season = = =
The WNCL was expanded in 2009 – 10 with the addition of the Australian Capital Territory , so ten round @-@ robin matches were scheduled , and Ebsary played in all , scoring 211 runs at 21 @.@ 10 . After being wicketless the previous season , she took seven wickets at 31 @.@ 28 , although opposition batsmen did attack her bowling , scoring 5 @.@ 17 runs per over . Her best batting and bowling performances came in the same match against her native state , taking 3 / 37 from nine overs to help dismiss them for 191 before scoring 48 to help secure a two @-@ wicket win . In the last two matches of the season , she scored 43 and 42 in consecutive wins over Queensland .
Ebsary had a successful time in the domestic T20s , now part of a full interstate tournament instead of a series of one @-@ off matches , scoring 137 runs at 22 @.@ 83 and taking four wickets at 26 @.@ 25 at an economy rate of 7 @.@ 50 . Her best score of 41 came in a win over Tasmania on 11 November 2009 . She also scored 29 and took 2 / 14 in a win over the Australian Capital Territory on 11 December 2009 .
Ebsary was retained for the Rose Bowl series against New Zealand and played in the first four ODIs in Australia in February 2010 . She made 31 runs at 15 @.@ 50 in the first two matches and , after Poulton had made a century in the fourth match , was dropped for the fifth and final match as the hosts took a clean sweep . The ODIs were followed by three T20 matches at Bellerive Oval in Hobart and two more in New Zealand . Ebsary played in the first four T20 games , scoring 39 runs at 9 @.@ 75 before being left out of the final match as New Zealand took a clean sweep . She was overlooked for the three ODIs in New Zealand , which the tourists swept .
= = = Post 2010 = = =
From October 2010 until November 2015 , Ebsary played domestic cricket in the South Australia Women 's team . She also played in the New Zealand Women 's One @-@ Day Competition in the 2013 / 14 season for the Wellington Women 's team .
Ebsary played in the Women 's Big Bash League in the 2015 / 2016 season for the Adelaide Strikers Women 's team .
= Agneta Matthes =
Agneta Wilhelmina Johanna van Marken @-@ Matthes ( 4 October 1847 – 5 October 1909 ) was a Dutch entrepreneur . She and her husband Jacques van Marken were involved in the manufacture of yeast throughout their lives , and were engaged in the cooperative movement , taking care of their workers . Matthes and Van Marken created living quarters for workers in her hometown , Delft in South Holland , named Agnetapark after her . These are considered a model for the cooperative development and construction of garden cities ( self @-@ contained communities ) for workers . Matthes founded and ran a Delft perfume factory , Maison Neuve , to take advantage of a by @-@ product from the yeast factory .
= = Life = =
= = = Family and childhood = = =
Agneta Wilhelmina Johanna Matthes was born on 4 October 1847 in Amsterdam in the Netherlands . Agneta Matthes was the daughter of Jan Willem Frederik Matthes , an insurance agent . She and her sister , Sara Elizabeth Marken @-@ Matthes ( 1849 – 1902 ) , grew up in upper middle @-@ class circumstances . Matthes was taught privately , and spent 1862 to 1864 in Utrecht in a boarding school . When she returned to Amsterdam , she studied piano and dance , and took art classes and religious instruction . Matthes ' sister Sara Elizabeth , who was affectionately known as Nora , married Zionist politician Arnold Kerdijk ( 1846 – 1907 ) , the founder of the Free @-@ thinking Democratic League , in 1876 . He was a Member of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands between 1877 and 1901 . Sara Elizabeth and Arnold lived at the Spoorsingel in Delft and had four children . Agneta maintained a close relationship with them , Nora called her first @-@ born daughter after her sister " Agneta " .
= = = Marriage = = =
In 1865 , Agneta met Jacob Cornelis van Marken , known as Jacques , who studied technology and sociology at the Polytechnical School of Delft , a precursor of the Delft University of Technology . During his studies he took a study tour to Austria @-@ Hungary and found a new method of producing yeast , which fascinated him . Later , when he heard a baker in Delft complain about the varying quality and poor availability of yeast in the Netherlands , he recalled the method which he learnt during his tour , and decided to produce industrial baker 's yeast of consistently high quality .
On 7 October 1869 the couple married just before the first yeast factory in the Netherlands , the Nederlandsche Gist & Spiritusfabriek NV , opened . The factory is now part of the multinational chemical company Koninklijke DSM . Jacques von Marten is regarded as one of the Dutch pioneers in the development of industrial food production because of his concept of factory production .
Their marriage was registered in the Delft population register on 10 November 1869 . Their first home was a modest apartment on a canal , but they moved frequently after that . As of 2012 , all of their homes are still standing and all are classified as historic buildings . Their last home , to which they moved on 3 June 1885 , was a villa in Agnetapark , Delft . When Matthes learnt that their marriage would be childless , she decided to dedicate her life to her husband 's business and career , and participated in the establishment and management operation . She accompanied her husband to the factory every day , having her own office . She also continued to have private lessons . In addition to administrative activities , their main interests were personnel policy issues . Matthes and van Marken maintained close contact with the employees of the factory and their families , which appealed to the couple 's sense of community ; they wanted to be part " of a larger whole " . Agneta Matthes shared her husband 's belief in progress , and they both promoted the personal development of their employees .
= = = Husband 's infidelity and children = = =
In 1886 , when Jacques van Marken was in France at a spa , Agneta Matthes found a letter from Mary Eringaard requesting the child support that he owed for their children , which led to Matthes discovering that her husband had begun a relationship with Eringaard in 1871 when she was aged 15 , and that he had four children by her . Matthes solved the financial problems discreetly . She did not tell van Markem that she knew about the affair till three years , but in 1889 , when Eringaard was 36 years old , two of her children died due to tuberculosis .
Van Marken and Matthes took care of the three surviving children , Cornelis , Clara , both adolescents , and Anna , a young child . Officially they were foster children , but it was an open secret ( officially secret but widely known ) in Dutch society that van Marken was their father . With the consent of Matthes , van Marken planned to adopt them , but his religious father vetoed the adoption . Jacob Cornelis Eringaard , the eldest illegitimate son of van Marken , later headed the Gist & Spiritusfabriek and pursued the social interests of his father and his wife . The youngest daughter , Anna Erry Eringaard , was married in 1932 to the diplomat and publisher Daniel Johannes von Balluseck ( 1895 – 1976 ) .
= = Activities and services = =
= = = Legal situation and sources of information = = =
Because legally , married women were required to have the approval of their husbands to do business , Agneta Matthes acted " for and on behalf " of her husband . Also because of this , extensive records of the business ventures and career of Jacques van Marken exist , while only a few sources mention the activities of Matthes . It is unclear , therefore , to what extent Agneta was responsible for ideas . She undoubtedly had operational control of the perfume factory , Maison Neuve . She undertook an empirical analysis of the housing needs of 48 working families , equipped Agnetapark significantly , and was influential at least during the early years in the management of her husband 's other companies , especially in matters of personnel .
= = = Start @-@ ups = = =
Matthes and van Marken , who was called a welfare engineer by his contemporaries , developed a premium wage system for his factory workers of the Nederlandsche Gist & Spiritusfabriek NV ( 1869 ) , under which all employees could receive bonuses of two to 20 percent of their salary in addition to their basic salary " for good work and because of zeal " . The company paid up to ten percent of its profits as a dividend to its employees . In 1880 , the engineer , Gerhard Knuttel , a grandnephew of van Marken , established a " Concerns van het Personeel " ( human resources management ) , the first such institution in the Netherlands . Due to van Marken 's health problems , François Gerard Waller , his nephew , was entrusted with the management of the factory in 1886 .
In 1873 , Agneta Matthes founded her own business , the Delft perfume factory , Maison Neuve , where her husband acted pro forma as owner because of the legal issues . The factory used the ethanol by @-@ product of the yeast production of Gist & Spiritusfabriek .
Agneta concentrated on the perfume factory in the following years , and collaborated with the Delft porcelain manufacturer De Koninklijke Porceleyne Fles , which created perfume bottles for her products . She participated in international exhibitions , where her perfume brand , PMN ( Parfumerie Maison Neuve ) , won several prizes and gained recognition for her company . She won the bronze medal of the 1878 on the Paris World 's Fair . In Australia , her perfumes won first prize at the international perfume fair . She sold the company in 1886 with profit .
In 1883 , the couple became interested in margarine , a young industry in the Netherlands at the time . With private capital and a legacy from Matthes ' mother , they founded the Nederlandsche Oliefabriek NV , and built a factory next to the yeast factory . In 1885 , they took over Delftse Lijm & Gelatinefabriek NV . Jacques van Marken officially acted as sole manager . To operate a purchasing cooperative in Agnetapark , they founded the Cooperative Winkelvereeniging in 1873 . In 1892 they also founded a printing company , which now is owned by the Koninklijke Drukkerij GJ Thieme . In all these companies , Matthes was instrumental in decision making , planning and organisation . The couple pursued the same personnel policy as in the Gist & Spiritusfabriek . In 1878 , they established the first works council of the Netherlands , called , " de Kern " ( the kernel ) . At the height of their success in 1885 , when they employed approximately 1 @,@ 250 employees , their companies were collectively known as , the Delftsche Nijverheid ( Delft Industry ) .
= = Factory journal = =
On 24 June 1882 , the first issue of an internal newspaper of the factory , called , Fabrieksbode ( " messenger of the factory " ) , was published . It was the first magazine of that kind in the world . Agneta helped her husband with other publications , such as his 1881 book , La question Ouvrière à la fabrique de Neerlandaise levure et d 'alcool . Essai de solution pratique ( The Labour Problem in the Dutch Yeast and Alcohol Factory . Attempt at a Practical Solution ) , and another in 1894 , L 'Organisation Sociale dans l 'industrie ( The Social System in the Industry ) , which was printed in two editions and translated into English and German . The full extent of Matthes ' participation is not known , but she was certainly in charge of the translations .
= = Social welfare = =
= = = Agnetapark = = =
In 1881 the couple began work on a housing quarter for their workers that followed the principles of the garden city movement . With financial support from Matthes ' mother , they purchased a 4 hectares ( 9 @.@ 9 acres ) plot of land for 16 @,@ 000 guilders. in Hof van Delft , then a rural , sparsely populated village well outside the Delft city limits . From 1882 to 1884 , the area was developed in the style of an English landscape garden , crisscrossed by streams , after the plans of landscape architect , Louis Paul Zocher , son of Jan David Zocher . Eugene Cowl , an architect , designed 48 row houses , other buildings , and a villa for Matthes and van Marken . The facility was named Agnetapark , after its founder . The residential park featured individual multi @-@ story apartments with private entrances , private bathrooms , and private garden areas . Matthes and van Marken established a corporation for the development of the settlement , and gave the park to its workers in 1870 as a cooperative , in order to prevent speculation .
To the great astonishment of the founders , the employees were not so happy as expected . The area was remote from urban infrastructure and lacked good transportation facilities . These disadvantages were offset by an improvement of community facilities in three buildings : De Gemeenschap ( the community ) , a large house with a kindergarten and an elementary school , which served as a gathering place and a dining room . Other features included a gymnasium , a billiards club , de Tent ( the tent ) – a music and event pavilion , and a grocery store , which later also sold clothes . The park had a playground , a bowling alley , a shooting range , and a boathouse with rowing boats for hire . A volunteer fire department , a brass band , and clubs for shooting , bowling , and cycling also were founded .
The employees , however , did not like living so close to their employers . They complained about the distance to the city and the transportation problems , and they criticised the rental rates and the reserves they had to make . After the deaths of Matthes and van Marken , however , the park gradually evolved into a desirable residential area . In 1931 the villa , Rust Roest , which had long been empty , was converted into a school . It was demolished in 1981 . Since 1989 , the park has been listed as Cultural heritage .
= = = Corporate citizenship = = =
In 1871 , van Marken was appointed secretary of the Vereeniging van het Volksonderwijs bevordering dead ( Association for the Advancement of Public Education ) , after which time Agneta Matthes regularly visited charity schools and was involved in the improvement of their situation .
During the winter of 1879 @-@ 1880 , extended periods of extreme cold affected the Netherlands . Permafrost and temperatures down to minus 16 degrees Celsius led to distress among the citizens of Delft . In response , Matthes founded the Vereeniging voor Armenzorg ( Association to care for the poor ) , helping regardless of religious or political beliefs . She prompted her husband to launch a Wintersnood @-@ Commissie , which was led by him , his brother @-@ in @-@ law Arnold Kerdijk , and CEO @-@ to @-@ be Gerard Knuttel .
In 1880 , the couple founded a health insurance scheme for bakers . This insurance was also the first step toward more regulated pensions . Insurance in case of accidents at work was established in 1884 .
= = Criticism = =
Van Marken was regarded as a " social entrepreneur " and a pioneer of his time regarding social issues , however , he was criticised for acting for his workers instead of letting them participate . Although she was not explicitly mentioned , Matthes also drew criticism . In 1906 , the journalist Frank van der Goes published van Marken 's obituary in Het Volk , the organ of the Social Democratic labour movement . Two critical articles were entitled , " Een levensleugen " ( A Delusion of a Life ) and imputed ulterior motives of van Marken 's undoubted social engagements . Van der Goes wrote that by providing care to his workers , van Marken had bribed their loyalty and wanted to exercise social control , while his staff was unduly dependent on him ; for example , they found difficulty changing jobs once they had moved into a house in Agnetapark .
Despite the disappointments regarding Agnetapark , it was an important model for the cooperative development and construction of garden cities for workers . The park is considered the first social housing scheme which cared about providing hygienic living conditions in a green environment for a high quality of life .
= Myrmecia nigriceps =
Myrmecia nigriceps , also known as the black @-@ headed bull ant , is a species of ant endemic to Australia . A member of the genus Myrmecia in the subfamily Myrmeciinae , it was first described by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr in 1862 . These ants are large , varying from 19 to 23 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 75 to 0 @.@ 91 in ) in length . However , colonies contain workers that are much smaller , usually half the size of normal workers . The queens are the largest while the males are the smallest , which can be easily identified due to their small mandibles .
Mainly nocturnal M. nigriceps is found in hot hilly areas and woodland , nesting underground in mounds . The ant 's diet consists of sweet liquids from flowering plants and invertebrate prey , which are fed to the carnivorous larvae . Spiders are known to eat these ants , and echidnas consume the larvae and pupae . Like other Myrmecia species , M. nigriceps ants possess a powerful and painful sting , and the venom is capable of inducing allergic reactions in sensitive people .
= = Taxonomy = =
First identified by Gustav Mayr in 1862 , Mayr provided the first description of M. nigriceps in his journal Myrmecologische Studien . The species was described under the binomial name Myrmecia nigriceps , based on syntype workers collected from Gayndah and Sydney . In 1907 , Swiss myrmecologist Auguste Forel treated M. nigriceps as a variant of M. vindex , but he eventually treated it as a synonym in 1910 . M. nigriceps was revived as a full species in 1933 by American entomologist William Morton Wheeler , on the basis that it is distributed throughout Australia and its average size is greater than M. vindex . Scottish born Australian entomologist John S. Clark published one synonym – Myrmecia fasciata , now considered a junior synonym . M. nigriceps is a member of the genus Myrmecia , a part of the primitive subfamily Myrmeciinae ; most ancestors of the genus are only found in fossils , with the exception of the dinosaur ant ( Nothomyrmecia macrops ) .
M. nigriceps is a member of the M. gulosa species group , which is the largest species group of the nine groups described . The specific name , nigriceps , is a combination of nigri , which derives from the Latin word nigra , meaning " black " , and ceps , which is derived from the Greek word cephalē , meaning " head " . This references the distinctive black head of the ant . With this said , M. nigriceps is commonly known as the black @-@ headed bull ant .
= = Description = =
The size of worker ants varies from 19 to 23 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 75 to 0 @.@ 91 in ) . However , colonies contain very small workers , usually less than half the size of normal sized workers . Despite this , it is not known if M. nigriceps is polymorphic , due to little differences in morphology between the workers in comparison to Formicinae ants and Pheidole , with soldiers having enormous heads . The queens are the largest , measuring around 24 to 26 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 94 to 1 @.@ 02 in ) , and males being around similar sizes to worker ants at 18 to 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 71 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) . The head and gaster are black , and the thorax , node , and postpetiole are either red or yellowish red , while the antennae and legs are either yellow or testaceous . The mandibles and clypeus are also yellow . The hair is short and yellow in colour , erect on the body and suberect on the legs . The pubescence ( short , fine , soft hair ) is white and abundant all over the postpetiole and gaster . The head is almost as broad as its total length , and the mandibles are longer than the head with 13 teeth present .
The queen is similar in appearance to the worker , but they are the largest members of the colony . The hair is more abundant , and the head is broader . The mandibles are shorter and broader , although they are still as long as the head . The wings are yellowish in colour and translucent in appearance . Males are the smallest members of the colony and can be easily identifiable by their perceptibly smaller mandibles . The hairs on males are the longest and most abundant among the worker and queen castes , with a long and broad head .
M. nigriceps is similar in appearance to M. vindex , but several morphological characters distinguish these two species from each other . For example , M. nigriceps is generally larger than M. vindex , and its head is either black or dark brown ; the head is broader and more rectangular in workers . The thorax and pedicel are noticeably darker and brownish red . The nests and behaviour , however , of both ants are similar to each other .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
M. nigriceps is distributed throughout Australia , but the ant is absent from areas in central Australia and the northern Australian coast . The range of M. nigriceps extends from Queensland and down into New South Wales , the Australian Capital Territory and Victoria . It is also found in South Australia and Western Australia . Colonies are found in deserts , coastal areas , plateaus , woodland , native vegetation , hot hilly areas covered with scrubby vegetation and in rehabilitated sites , at elevations ranging from 300 to 460 metres ( 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 ft ) .
M. nigriceps is a mound constructing species , although colonies can be found under logs . Workers decorate the nest with a variety of items , including lateritic pebbles and soil crumbs , in a similar fashion of meat ant ( Iridomyrmex purpureus ) nests . Other items used for nest decorating include small stones and plant material .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
M. nigriceps ants are crepuscular and nocturnal foragers , searching for food during the night . Workers are found foraging on Eucalyptus trees and is sympatric with many species . Adults are nectarivores , feeding on sweet liquids from plants and the larvae are carnivorous , feeding on captured invertebrates and other ants such as Camponotus workers and males . Cockroaches , such as Platyzosteria castanea and Platyzosteria ruficeps , can repel attacks by M. nigriceps by discharging a secretion that disorientates the attacking workers . Workers begin to forage one hour before sunset , with peak activity occurring during the twilight hours . These ants have excellent vision , having the largest eye lenses and photoreceptors than any other Myrmecia ant . These ants are capable of discriminating the distance and size of objects moving nearly a metre away , sensitive to motion and will rapidly charge towards any moving objects to attack it .
These ants are preyed on by the short @-@ beaked echidna ( Tachyglossus aculeatus ) , and by spiders in the genus Zenodorus , particularly Zenodorus metallescens . Blindsnakes are known to consume the larvae and pupae of these ants . Colonies are also a host for M. inquilina , a social parasite that lays its eggs inside the colony .
M. nigriceps is an extremely aggressive ant , and larger colonies may rival other colonies of a different Myrmecia species ( such as M. gulosa ) in terms of fierceness and pugnacity . While the mandibles cause little to no pain in humans , the ant is equipped with a painful and powerful sting that is found at the end of the gaster . Like other ants , the sting is not barbed , and workers are able to sting multiple times without injuring themselves . With a median lethal dose ( LD50 ) of 7.3mg / kg , the venom is relatively weak in comparison to other Myrmecia ants , whose LD50 is much lower . However , in a 2011 study , at least one patient had an allergic reaction to M. nigriceps venom . This study also concluded that many other Myrmecia species can cause anaphylaxis , as well as the Green @-@ head ant ( Rhytidoponera metallica ) . In the Starr sting pain scale , a scale which compares the overall pain of hymenopteran stings on a four @-@ point scale , the sting of M. nigriceps was ranked as two in pain , described as " painful " . M. nigriceps ants are able to enter colonies they do not reside in without being attacked ; this may be due to these ants failing to recognise foreigners , or the consequences of ignoring workers from other colonies is low .
Nuptial flight occurs after rain for several days , taking place between summer and mid @-@ autumn ( December to March ) . The males and virgin queens emerge from their nest , and unlike other species who mate on the ground or climb onto nearby trees or branches to fly off from , the reproductive alates will fly from the nest . Recorded nuptial flights usually took place on hilltops . M. nigriceps queens are not known to seal up their entrance during colony foundation , unlike other Myrmecia species such as M. regularis . Workers can live exceptionally long , with an average lifespan of 2 @.@ 2 years ; maximum longevity in workers varied from 2 @.@ 1 to 2 @.@ 4 years .
= SS John Burke =
SS John Burke ( MC hull number 609 ) was an American Liberty Ship built during World War II , one of the 2 @,@ 710 type ' EC2 @-@ S @-@ C1 ' ships that carried all kinds and types of dry cargo during the war . The ship was named for John Burke ( February 25 , 1859 – May 14 , 1937 ) , the 10th Governor of North Dakota . Burke was built at Kaiser Shipbuilding Company 's Oregon Shipbuilding yard in Portland , Oregon . Burke 's keel was laid November 20 , 1942 and the hull was launched on December 13 . After fitting @-@ out , Burke was delivered to the US Navy December 23 , just 33 days after construction began . The Navy placed Burke under charter to Northland Transportation Company in early 1944 .
On December 28 , 1944 , while transporting ammunition to Mindoro , Philippines , Burke was hit by a Japanese kamikaze aircraft , and disintegrated in a tremendous explosion . John Burke was one of three Liberty Ships and one of forty @-@ seven ships sunk by kamikaze attack during World War II .
= = Construction and design = =
John Burke was powered by two oil @-@ fired boilers and a single 2 @,@ 500 hp ( 1 @,@ 864 kW ) vertical type , triple @-@ expansion reciprocating steam engine . The machinery space ( dark blue in the picture ) was located at the middle of the ship ( see the color @-@ coded image ) . The single propeller was driven through a long propeller shaft that ran through a tunnel ( lower green area in the picture ) under the aft cargo holds . The propeller rotated at 76 rpm , giving a speed of about 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . There were two decks running the full length of the ship , with seven watertight bulkheads dividing the machinery space and five cargo holds ( light blue in the picture ) , three ahead of the machinery space and two aft . Crew accommodations were provided in a large three @-@ deck structure located in the middle of the ship ( medium blue in the picture ) directly above the machinery space , and in a small structure ( medium blue in the picture ) located at the stern . The bridge , radio room and Captain 's quarters were located on the top deck ( yellow in the picture ) of the three @-@ deck structure . The fuel for the boiler was carried in several tanks ( red in the picture ) located throughout the ship . Ship 's storage ( light green in the picture ) was located at the bow and above the machinery space . Gun crew quarters and the ship 's hospital were located in the stern structure . When the ship was armed , the gun ' tubs ' ( white in the picture ) were located at the bow , stern and above the bridge . These could be any mixture of 5 inches ( 130 mm ) , 4 inches ( 101 @.@ 60 mm ) , 3 inches ( 76 mm ) , 40 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 57 in ) , 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) and / or .5 inches ( 12 @.@ 70 mm ) caliber guns .
The ship 's steering was by a contrabalanced rudder ( black , at left in the picture ) , with its associated steering gear located in a compartment ( green in the picture ) above the rudder and below the aft structure . Steam @-@ powered generators provided electric power for radios , navigation equipment , refrigeration compressors , pumps , lighting , and degaussing . An evaporator produced fresh water for the boilers and for the crew . Large hatches above the cargo holds allowed steam winches and booms rigged to three centerline masts to quickly load or unload cargo .
= = History = =
Liberty ships were an expedient solution to a pressing problem , and it was never intended that they last more than five years . It is remarkable that two ( SS John W. Brown and SS Jeremiah O 'Brien ) have not only survived seventy plus years of service , but that they are in ' like @-@ new ' condition , and are open to the public as museums . The British needed a way to replace the ships lost to German U @-@ boats , but did not have the resources to build them . In 1939 they asked the United States to help solve the problem , bringing a ship design that they wanted built . The design was modified to fit American production methods , and five new shipyards were built to give the shipbuilding industry capacity . These ships were called Ocean ships with each ship 's name starting with Ocean .
The United States needed more ships as war approached . The ' Ocean ' design was revised and simplified to allow mass production . This new design was the basis for the Liberty ship . On December 7 , 1941 Japan attacked the military bases at Hawaii , Guam , and a few days later , the Philippines . Liberty ships carried weapons , ammunition , food , tools , hardware , vehicles , and other things for the war effort . They could also be equipped to carry a large number of troops by rigging bunks in the holds similar to those used by the armed guard . Liberty ships began taking troops and materials wherever they were needed , crossing both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans . Like other Liberty Ships , John Burke transported war materials between the United States and the rear areas of the Pacific War , often calling at Pearl Harbor , Australia , Guadalcanal , Hollandia and Manaus .
On what would be her final trip , Burke departed Seattle , Washington for Guam , where she spent several days loading munitions for the invasion force on the island of Mindoro . Burke then departed with the 100 @-@ ship " Uncle Plus 13 " convoy , bound for Leyte in the Philippines . The convoy arrived at Leyte the night of December 27 .
Japanese forces were alerted to the convoy 's arrival shortly before daybreak on December 28 . A flight of six Japanese kamikaze fighter / bombers was sent up from Cebu Island shortly after dawn . If the convoy was destroyed , the U.S. forces on Mindoro would be cut off from their supply line .
That morning Burke and the other ships in the Mindoro @-@ bound TG 77 @.@ 11 ( under the command of Captain George F. Mentz ) were at general quarters shortly after receiving the dawn weather report that reported that air cover would not launch until the poor weather cleared . The crews began their wait for the inevitable arrival of Japanese aircraft .
= = The attack = =
At about 0815 hrs , the first kamikaze appeared on the American ship 's radar , and orders were immediately given for the convoy to begin evasive maneuvering . Through holes in the clouds , the Japanese pilots sighted the large American force as it steamed through calm seas South of Cebu and Bohol Islands . Finding the convoy without air cover , a group of six Japanese planes began their attack . One of the pilots , flying an Aichi D3A " Val " , chose John Burke as his target . Diving through heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire , the Japanese pilot had no intention of pulling out of his steep dive . At 1020 , despite the damage to his aircraft , he crashed between Burke 's # 2 and # 3 cargo holds .
A brief flash of fire was visible to most of the ships in the convoy , and for several seconds , only smoke could be seen billowing from her hold . A few seconds later , a huge pillar of fire shot out of Burke 's cargo hold , followed by an immense cloud of white smoke . Within seconds all eyes were drawn to Burke where an enormous fireball erupted as her entire cargo of munitions detonated , instantly destroying the ship and killing her crew of 40 merchant marine sailors and 28 or 29 armed guards . For several seconds , Burke was not visible under an enormous mushroom cloud of smoke , fire and explosions . Several ships nearby were damaged by the force of the blast and flying fragments . The shock wave rocked the entire convoy , and several ships reported that they had been torpedoed . A US Army " FS " type ship just aft of Burke was severely damaged by the blast , sinking before it could be identified . As the cloud of smoke cleared , nearby ships closed on Burke 's former position to search for survivors . It was soon clear that Burke , and all 68 men aboard her , were gone .
The Combat Air Patrol arrived at 1213 after the weather cleared , providing air cover for the next three hours .
The Japanese attack that morning was just the beginning of a two @-@ day series of attacks on the convoy , costing several more ships and hundreds of lives . In spite of the near @-@ constant attacks , the force reached its destination at 0648 December 30 with much @-@ needed material for the Mindoro invasion .
Today , SS John Burke 's fragments lie 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 457 m ) below the surface , in the vicinity of 9 ° 1 ' 11 " N 123 ° 26 ' 50 " E , the location the ship was last seen , in the strait between Negros , Siquijor Islands and Dapitan , Zamboanga del Norte , Mindanao , Philippines .
= = Liberty Ship Resources = =
SS John W. Brown website
SS JEREMIAH O 'BRIEN website
}
= Still Into You =
" Still Into You " is a song by the American rock band Paramore . It was released on March 14 , 2013 , as the second single from their self @-@ titled fourth studio album , Paramore . Recorded in 2012 in Los Angeles , California , " Still Into You " is a departure from the sound of their previous single , " Now " , and incorporates a lighter pop rock sound , while being described as " sweet " and " sugary " .
The song received acclaim from music critics , who have praised the song and Hayley Williams ' vocals as " catchy " and " strong and effective " , as well as deeming it as one of the songs of the summer of 2013 . It is among their most commercially successful singles in the United States , becoming a top @-@ ten hit on the Mainstream Top 40 , ranking at number eight on Billboard 's Hot Rock Songs , and receiving double @-@ platinum certification in the United States .
= = Background = =
Paramore first performed " Still Into You " in Austin , Texas , as part of the South by Southwest festival . The song was then released as a single on March 14 , 2013 , and was uploaded to Fueled by Ramen 's YouTube channel , through a lyric video . The lyrical content finds Williams singing about her relationship with Chad Gilbert of New Found Glory fame and how her feelings seemingly have stayed the same since their first meeting .
In an interview with Spin , Williams stated " ' Still Into You ' is definitely a love song . It 's definitely happy . But to me anyway — and obviously I wrote it so maybe I 'm biased , but — it 's not a sappy love song . ... We 've never done that before , and honestly I don 't have a whole lot of experience writing love songs , or anyways lyrics that are like this . "
= = Composition = =
" Still Into You " has been described as a power pop , pop rock and new wave song with skeletal guitar lines similar to that of the artist Gotye , alternative dance glockenspiel and synths . It lacks a heavy guitar riff , which Paramore is typically known for , and is replaced by a back beat on the drums . James Montgomery at MTV compared the song to the new wave band The Cars , saying it could pass for one of their B @-@ sides .
= = Critical reception = =
" Still Into You " was acclaimed by music critics , who commended the song as fun and catchy , and praised Williams ' vocals . Marc Zanotti at Music Feeds called the song " a poppy , upbeat , sugary sweet number " . Scott Heisel of Alternative Press referred to it one of the best songs on Paramore , saying " There 's no question that this is still Paramore , only it 's better . The chorus hook will stay in your brain for days at a time , ... and when you throw in the band 's newfound embracing of electronics , you find yourself with what will ideally be one of the biggest hits of 2013 . " Maura Johnston from Popdust gave the song a 5 out of 5 , declaring " If there ’ s any justice in the world this ’ ll be a song of the summer , or at least of the late spring " . Joseph R. Atilano at Inquirer.net noted that " “ Still Into You ” is really directed to their youngest fans with its happy @-@ go @-@ lucky lyrics that are as cheerful as they can get and somewhat disarming in their simplicity " , considering it better than the previous single " Now " .
The song placed at number 95 on Rolling Stone magazine 's 100 Best Songs of 2013 list and number 19 on Billboard magazine 's 20 Best Songs of 2013 . Ed Masley at The Arizona Republic ranked it as the 10th best Paramore song , stating " " Still Into You " is a retro @-@ tastic hook explosion that somehow peaked at No. 83 on Billboard 's Hot 100 . "
= = Music video = =
The video was directed by Isaac Rentz . When shooting the music video , Jeremy Davis stated " I 've realized you can 't really consider it making a music video unless you get hurt , because every video , we end up in pain ... It 's awesome to do our own stunts ; we might as well be Jackie Chan . " Taylor York adds " A lot of people would hear the song and assume it would be about the story of people still being in love , but what was so appealing about Isaac 's treatment is that he wanted to capture what love feels like ... He had so many ideas , and it definitely jumped out at us . "
The official music video for " Still Into You " premiered on April 8 , 2013 on Fueled by Ramen 's YouTube channel . The music video features Paramore in a boat within a room filled with a balloons ; Williams on a bed surrounded by birthday cakes ; the trio riding around on bicycles ; Williams dancing with ballerinas ; and then all of Paramore are outside playing with Roman candles and sparkles with a fireworks show going on in the background .
= = Chart performance = =
The song has sold over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of December 2013 . It became one of Paramore 's most commercially successful singles to date in the United States , where it reached number 24 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and became their first top @-@ ten hit on the Mainstream Top 40 charts . It was included in Billboard 's year @-@ end charts , at number 100 on the Hot 100 songs of the year .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= Peter Jones ( missionary ) =
Peter Jones ( January 1 , 1802 – June 29 , 1856 ) was an Ojibwa Methodist minister , translator , chief and author from Burlington Heights , Upper Canada . His Ojibwa name was Kahkewāquonāby ( Gakiiwegwanebi in the Fiero spelling ) , which means " [ Sacred ] Waving Feathers " . In Mohawk , he was called Desagondensta , meaning " he stands people on their feet " . In his youth his band of Mississaugas had been on the verge of destruction . As a preacher and a chieftain , as a role model and as a liaison to governments , his leadership helped his people survive contact with Europeans .
Jones was raised by his mother Tuhbenahneequay in the traditional culture and religion of the Mississauga Ojibwas until the age of 14 . After that , he went to live with his father Augustus Jones , a Welsh @-@ born United Empire Loyalist . There he learnt the customs and language of the white Christian settlers of Upper Canada and was taught how to farm . Jones converted to Methodism at age 21 after attending a camp @-@ meeting with his half sister . Methodist leaders in Upper Canada recognised his potential as a bridge between the white and Indian communities and recruited him as a preacher . As a bilingual and bicultural preacher , he enabled the Methodists to make significant inroads with the Mississaugas and Iroquois of Upper Canada , both by translating hymns and biblical texts in Ojibwe and Mohawk and by preaching to Indians who did not understand English . Beyond his preaching to the Indians of Upper Canada , he was an excellent fundraiser for the Canadian Methodists , and toured the United States and Great Britain giving sermons and speeches . Jones drew audiences of thousands , filling many of the buildings he spoke in , but came to resent the role , believing the audiences came to see Kahkewāquonāby , the exotic Indian , not Peter Jones , the good Christian he had worked so hard to become .
Jones was also a political leader . In 1825 , he wrote to the Indian Department ; his letter was the first the department had ever received from an Indian . This brought him into contact with Superintendent of the Indian Department James Givins and influential Bishop John Strachan , with whom he arranged the funding and support of the Credit Mission . There he lived and worked as a preacher and community leader , leading the conversion of Mississaugas to a European lifestyle of agriculture and Christianity , which enabled them to compete with the white settlers of Upper Canada . He was elected a chief of the Mississaugas of the Credit Mission in 1829 and acted as a spokesman for the band when petitioning the colonial government and its departments . During his British tours , he had audiences with King William IV and Queen Victoria , directly petitioning the latter on the issue of title deeds for the Mississaugas of Upper Canada . During his life , Jones did manage to obtain some concessions from various provincial governments , such as having control over the trust funds for the Mississaugas of Credit turned over to their chiefs , but he was never able to secure title deeds for the Credit settlement . In 1847 , Jones led the band to relocate to New Credit on land donated by the Six Nations , who were able to furnish the Mississaugas with title deeds . The Mississaugas of New Credit have since been able to retain title to the land , where they remain . Jones ' health had been declining for several years before the move to New Credit , and he was unable to accompany them to an unconstructed settlement , retiring to a nearby estate outside of Brantford , Canada West , where he died in the summer of 1856 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Raised by his mother = = =
Jones was born on January 1 , 1802 in Burlington Heights , Upper Canada . His father was Augustus Jones , an American born surveyor of Welsh descent . His mother was Tuhbenahneequay , a Mississauga woman whose band inhabited the area . His father worked as a surveyor in the land the British planned to settle on ; as was common among the European men who worked far from European settlements , he adopted the Indian custom of polygamy . While at his Stoney Creek farm he lived with his legal wife , a Mohawk woman named Sarah Tekarihogan , and while away surveying he lived with Tuhbenahneequay . While both the Mississaugas and Mohawks approved of polygamy , the white Christian settlers did not , and Augustus Jones ended his relationship with Tuhbenahneequay in 1802 . Peter and his elder brother John were raised by Tuhbenahneequay in the Midewiwin religion , customs and lifestyle of their Mississauga ancestors , and learned to hunt and fish to support themselves .
He was named Kahkewāquonāby by his maternal grandfather , Chief Wahbanosay , during a dedicated feast . A son of Wahbanosay 's who had died at age seven had been given the same name . The name translates into English as " [ sacred ] waving feathers " and denotes feathers plucked from the eagle , which was sacred to the Mississaugas . This put him under the guardianship of the Mississauga 's animikii ( thunderbird ) manidoo , as the eagle represented this manidoo . His mother was of the Eagle totem and the name belonged to that totem . At the feast Kahkewāquonāby was given a club to denote the power of the thunder spirit , and a bunch of eagle feathers to denote its flight .
Around 1811 , Jones was adopted by Captain Jim , a Mississauga chief . Captain Jim 's own son , also named Kahkewāquonāby , had died , and he petitioned Tuhbenahneequay to adopt Jones . Tuhbenahneequay approved the adoption , and Jones was sent to the Credit River to live with Captain Jim as one of his own children . During a long episode of drunken frolicking by all the adult Indians in Captain Jim 's band , hunger and exposure to the cold crippled Jones , making him unable to stand . After two or three months of this , his mother received news of Jones ' condition , and travelled to the Credit River with her relative Shegwahmaig ( Zhigwameg , " Marshfish " ) . The two women carried Jones back to Stoney Creek , where he resumed living with his mother . His lameness subsided with time .
During the War of 1812 , Jones ' band of Mississaugas experienced a share of the War 's hardship . Jones ' grandmother Puhgashkish , old and crippled , had been left behind by the band when it was forced to flee the soldiers advancing on York . She was never seen again . The band lost the warrior White John to the fighting , and several more were injured . Although Jones was too young to act as a warrior , he and his brother John visited the site of the Battle of Stoney Creek the day after the fighting , viewing the effects of battle firsthand . The land the band hunted and fished upon was beset with an influx of Indian refugees exceeding in number the population of the band . Jones went on his first vision quest about this time ; his lack of visions caused him to question his faith in the Mississauga 's religion . His faith was also troubled by the death of chief Kineubenae ( Giniw @-@ bine , " Golden Eagle [ -like Partridge ] " ) . Golden Eagle was a respected elder of the band , who experienced a vision promising spirits would make him invincible to arrows and bullet . To renew the declining faith of his people , some of whom had begun to adopt the lifestyle of the white settlers , Golden Eagle arranged a demonstration of his spirit @-@ granted invulnerability . He was killed attempting to catch a bullet with a tin pot . Jones witnessed the event .
= = = Raised by his father = = =
In 1816 , known as the Year Without a Summer , severe climate abnormalities caused an abysmal harvest , and the Mississauga band at the head of Lake Ontario was disintegrating . In the preceding twenty years community leaders Head Chief Wabakinine , band spokesman Golden Eagle and Jones ' grandfather Wahbanosay had died , and no new leaders had effectively assumed their roles . Alcoholism among the band members was rising . Many members had abandoned the band , travelling west to the Thames River valley or Grand River valley which were more isolated from white settlers .
Augustus Jones had learned of the band 's troubles and ventured into the interior to bring Peter and John to live with him at his farm in Saltfleet Township , with their stepmother and halfsiblings . As he knew only a few words of English , Peter was enrolled in a one @-@ room school in Stoney Creek . With the help of the local teacher , George Hughes , Peter learned English . The next year , the family moved to Brantford , where Augustus took Peter out of school and began to instruct him in farming . Sarah Tekarihogan 's Iroquois tribe had settled in the Grand River valley in and around Brantford . Here Jones was inducted into the Iroquois tribe and given the Mohawk name " Desagondensta " , meaning " he stands people on their feet " . Jones was baptised Anglican by Reverend Ralph Leeming at the request of his father in 1820 , but internally he did not accept Christianity . Jones would later say that although the instruction he received in Christianity from his father , his stepmother and his old schoolteacher George Hughes had attracted him to the religion , the conduct of the white Christian settlers " drunk , quarreling , fighting and cheating the poor Indians , and acting as if there was no God " convinced him there could be no truth in their religion . He allowed himself to be baptised primarily to become a full member of the white society of Upper Canada , with all the privileges it entailed . Given the behaviour of others who had been baptised , Jones expected it to have no effect upon him . Jones worked with his father farming until the summer of 1822 , when he found employment as a brickmaker working for his brother @-@ in @-@ law Archibald Russell to raise money so he might resume his schooling . He attended school in Fairchild 's Creek during the winter of 1822 – 3 studying arithmetic and writing , hoping to obtain work as a clerk in the fur trade . In spring 1823 , Jones left the school , returning to his father 's farm that May
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= = Ministry = =
= = = Conversion = = =
Jones had been attracted to the Methodist faith because it advocated teetotalism and that the Indians must convert to the white settler lifestyle . In June 1823 , he attended a camp @-@ meeting of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Ancaster Township , along with his half @-@ sister Mary . The camp @-@ meeting touched Jones , who converted there to Christianity . At this time Reverend William Case saw the potential to convert the Mississauga Indians through Jones . Case soon assumed the role of a mentor to Jones as a missionary . As Jones was bilingual and bicultural , he could speak to and relate to the Mississaugas and the white Christian settlers in Upper Canada . Later that year , Reverend Alvin Torry set up a congregation centered around Jones and Chief Thomas Davis ( Tehowagherengaraghkwen ) composed entirely of Indian members . The pair encouraged converted Indians to settle around Davis ' home , which acquired the name " Davis ' Hamlet " or " Davisville " . Jones and Seth Crawford taught Sunday school for the growing community , which began building a chapel in the spring of 1824 . Many of Jones ' relatives were quickly converted and moved to Davis ' Hamlet , including his mother Tuhbenahneequay , her daughter Wechikiwekapawiqua and Chief Wageezhegome ( Wegiizhigomi , " Who Possesses the Day " ) , Wechikiwekapawiqua 's husband and Jones ' uncle Joseph Sawyer ( Nawahjegezhegwabe ( Nawajii @-@ giizhigwabi , " He who Rests Sitting upon the Sky " ) ) . Jones received his first official position in the church – exhorter – on March 1 , 1825 . In this role , he spoke at services after local preachers and assisted travelling preachers during their circuit rides . Church officials including Torry and Case recognised the need for a member fluent in Ojibwe who could translate hymns and bible passages , and present the Christian religion to the Indians in terms they could understand . Jones was put to work as a teacher at the Grand River mission . Around this time he began speaking to groups about Methodism . In 1824 , a few of his relatives came to see him speak and stayed at the Grand River mission so they could enroll their children in Jones ' day school . The Methodists of Upper Canada commissioned Jones , along with his brother John , to begin translating religious and instructive works in Ojibwe for use in the Methodists ' schools . In 1825 , over half his band had converted to Christianity , and Jones decided to devote his life to missionary work .
= = = Credit mission = = =
In 1825 , Jones wrote a letter to Indian Agent James Givins regarding the year 's delivery of gifts ( due from various land purchases ) to the Mississaugas . The letter was the first Givins had received that had been written by an Indian . Givins arranged a meeting with Jones during the second week of July . Jones arrived at the Humber River at the prescribed time , leading the approximately 50 Christian Indians , and his former adoptive father Captain Jim arrived leading the approximately 150 non @-@ Christian Indians . At this meeting , a further 50 of the approximately 200 Indians of Jones ' band were converted . Givins was accompanied by several members of Upper Canada 's aristocracy , including Bishop John Strachan . The Christian dress and style of Jones ' band of converts , including their singing of hymns , which had been translated into Ojibwe by Jones , created a favourable impression of the group with Strachan and the other political leaders present . Although Strachan , an Anglican , had strongly denounced the Methodists , he saw in Jones the opportunity to Christianize the Indians of Upper Canada . He hoped to convert Jones ( and thereby his followers ) to Anglicanism later . The Crown had previously agreed to build a village on the Credit River for the Mississaugas in 1820 , but nothing had been done . Strachan told Jones he would make good on this agreement , and after a short meeting , all of the Christian Indians agreed to accept it . Construction of the settlement , called the Credit Mission , was soon underway and Jones moved there in 1826 . By the summer of 1826 , with construction of the settlement well under way , the rest of the band had joined the Methodist church and settled at the Credit Mission . Among the last holdouts was Jones ' former adoptive father , Captain Jim , and his family . At about this time Methodist Reverend Egerton Ryerson was assigned to the Credit Mission , and Jones quickly struck up a friendship with him . Ryerson 's work at the camp freed Jones to begin taking lengthy missionary expeditions to other parts of Upper Canada . During the period 1825 – 27 , Jones undertook missionary missions to Quinte , Munceytown , Rice Lake and Lake Simcoe . He preached in the native language , a key factor to helping the Indians understand and accept Christianity ; small groups of Indians in these areas soon converted to Christianity .
Jones ' knowledge of English and ties to prominent settlers allowed him act as a spokesperson for the band . In 1825 , he and his brother John had travelled to York to petition the government to end salmon fishing on the Credit river by European settlers ; the petition would be granted in 1829 . In 1826 , they were back when the Indian Department failed to pay the full annuity due the band from an 1818 land concession , as the band had received only £ 472 of the £ 522 the treaty specified . In the settlement , Jones also worked to teach the residents farming practices , which few knew . Jones believed that the acceptance of Christianity by his people , and their conversion to an agricultural lifestyle , would be critical to their survival . By 1827 , each family had a 0 @.@ 25 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 000 m2 ) plot of their own , and a 30 @-@ acre ( 120 @,@ 000 m2 ) communal plot was farmed . The success of the settlement , and his success converting Indians to Christianity , gave Jones a good reputation in Upper Canada . His sermons while travelling were well attended , and various groups donated money and goods , such as a heating stove for the schoolhouse and a plough for the band . In 1827 , Jones was granted a trial preaching license as an itinerant preacher . By 1828 , the Methodists ' practice of teetotaling had made significant inroads with the Mississaugas ; at the annual distribution of presents from the King in 1828 , Jones reported seeing a single Indian drunk , while drunkenness had been widespread at the annual distribution as recently as 1826 .
In January 1828 , Bishop Strachan approached Jones and his brother John , offering to pay them more as Anglican missionaries than the Methodists could afford to , but both brothers declined the offer . At the same time , Strachan and various government officers applied pressure to the Indian communities to abandon Methodism for Anglicanism , refusing to assist the Rice Lake Indians with the construction of a settlement as they had done with the Credit and Bay of Quinte missions , even though the Rice Lake Indians offered to fund the construction from their land surrender annuities . Tension remained between the Upper Canada government and the province 's Indians , including the Jones brothers in particular , over their religious affiliation until Lieutenant Governor Peregrine was replaced in late 1828 with Sir John Colborne . Colborne looked far more favourably on the Methodists , but still hoped to replace the influence of American Methodists with British Wesleyans .
= = = Election as Chief = = =
In 1829 , the Mississaugas of the Credit Mission elected Jones one of their three chiefs , replacing the recently deceased John Cameron . His election was influenced by his mastery of English ; he was one of the few members of the band who could deal with missionaries and the provincial government . Jones continued his missionary work to other Indian bands of Upper Canada , converting many of the Mississaugas at Rice Lake and at the Muncey Mission , as well as Ojibwas around Lake Simcoe and the eastern shore of Lake Huron . Along with his brother John , Jones began translating the Bible into Ojibwa .
= = = First British tour = = =
Also in 1829 , Jones embarked on a tour of the northern United States with Reverend William Case and several Indian converts to raise money for the Methodist missions in Upper Canada . The tour raised £ 600 , thirty percent of the Methodist Church 's annual expenditures across British North America . After his return to Upper Canada , the year 's annual Methodist conference named Jones " A Missionary to the Indian Tribes " on Case 's urging . The 1830 conference gave him the same appointment . He was also ordained as a deacon then . Upper Canada 's Methodists were in desperate need of money by 1831 ; that spring the church had been unable to pay all the salaries owed . To raise money for the church , Jones travelled with George Ryerson to the United Kingdom that spring where he gave more than sixty sermons and one hundred speeches which raised more than £ 1000 . These sermons were also held with Jones in Indian attire , which combined with his Indian name created curiosity and filled the halls , with four or five thousand attendees at his sermon for the London Missionary Society 's anniversary . Jones met with a number of prominent Englishmen , including James Cowles Prichard , who treated him when he fell ill in June 1831 , as well as Methodist leaders such as Adam Clarke , Hannah More and Richard Watson . This tour created significant public interest , and Jones met with King William IV on April 5 , 1832 , shortly before his return to Upper Canada .
During this tour , he met Eliza Field , to whom he proposed . She accepted , and Jones returned to Upper Canada in the spring of 1832 . Field came to North America in 1833 , arriving in New York City , where the pair married on September 8 , 1833 . Field had spent the intervening time learning domestic skills such as cooking and knitting to prepare for her new life . She came from a wealthy family and had previously been attended by servants . Field came to Upper Canada and worked along Jones in his ministry work and as a teacher in the Credit River settlement , instructing the Indian girls in sewing and other domestic skills . The Mississaugas of the Credit Mission dubbed Eliza " Kecheahgahmequa " ( Gichi @-@ agaamiikwe , " the lady from beyond the [ blue ] waters " / " woman from across the great shore " ) .
= = = Wesleyan politics = = =
Jones ' translation of the Gospel of Matthew was published in 1832 , and around the same time he served as an editor for his brother John 's translation of the Gospel of John . Jones was ordained a minister on October 6 , 1833 by Reverend George Marsden in York , Upper Canada . He was the first Ojibwa to be ordained as a Methodist preacher . The same year , the Canadian Methodists had unified their church with the British Wesleyans . The combined church was now run by the British , and Jones was passed over for positions within the church in favour of less qualified individuals , and his influence lessened . When the position of head of the Canadian Indian missionaries came open , it was filled by a British Wesleyan with no experience with Indians , Reverend Joseph Stinson . William Case was given the second in command position , with special attention towards translating scriptures into Ojibwe . Case spoke no Ojibwe . Case , whom Jones had seen as a mentor , made his headquarters at the Credit Mission . Jones began to chaff in the church , as he was being given little responsibilities and the church showed no confidence in his abilities . Case told Methodist minister James Evans to begin translating hymns and books of the Bible into Ojibwe , including those Jones had already translated . After the death of Augustus Jones in November 1836 , Peter invited his stepmother and two youngest brothers to live at the Credit mission .
= = = Second British tour = = =
In the mid @-@ 1830s , Lieutenant Governor Francis Bond Head devised a plan to relocate the Ojibwa of the Credit River , along with other Indian bands of southern Upper Canada , to Manitoulin Island . Bond Head believed that the Indians needed to be removed completely from the influence of the white settlers of Upper Canada . Jones , allied with Sir Augustus Frederick D ’ Este and Dr Thomas Hodgkin of the Aborigines ' Protection Society in Britain , opposed the move . They knew the poor soil of Manitoulin Island would force the Indian Bands to abandon farming and return to a hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle . After the surrender of the Saugeen tract , protected by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 , Jones became convinced the only way to end the perpetual threat of relocation of the Mississaugas was to obtain title deeds to their lands . Jones travelled to England in 1837 to petition the Colonial Office directly on the issue . He was accompanied by his wife and their niece Catherine Sunegoo . The Colonial Secretary Lord Glenelg postponed meeting with Jones until the spring of 1838 , as he was occupied with the Rebellions of 1837 . In the meantime , Glenelg refused to approve Bond Head 's proposal . Jones spent the intervening time touring England , preaching , giving speeches and fundraising for the Canadian Methodists . Although Bond Head had sent a letter to Glenelg to discredit Jones , the Minister met with Jones in the spring of 1838 . The meeting went very well for Jones , as Glenelg promised to help secure title deeds for the Mississaugas . Glenelg also arranged an audience with Queen Victoria for Jones . Jones met with her in September of that year , and presented a petition to Queen Victoria from the chiefs of the Mississauga Ojibwa community asking for title deeds to their lands , to ensure the Credit Mississaugas would never lose the title to their lands . The petition was written in the Latin script , signed by the chiefs in pictographs and accompanied by wampum supplementing the information of the petition . Jones , dressed in his Ojibwa costume , presented the petition and interpreted it for Victoria , to ensure accurate and favourable reception . Victoria approved her minister 's recommendation that the Mississaugas be given title deeds . He returned to Upper Canada shortly thereafter .
= = = Fractured community = = =
In Upper Canada , he returned to a community that had begun to question his leadership . William and Lawrence Herchmer led a group within the community that opposed Jones ' influence , claiming it was turning the Mississaugas of the Credit Mission into " Brown Englishmen " . The brothers , while Christians , objected to the harsh discipline imposed on the young , the use of voting rather than consensus to govern and the loss of Indian lifestyle and culture . By 1840 , the settlement was very strained ; pressure from white settlers , scarcity of wood and the uncertainty of whether the band had claims to the land they occupied forced the band council to begin considering relocation . 1840 also saw the Methodist church split into two factions , Canadian Methodists and British Wesleyans . Various Indian bands aligned with either church , and competition hampered missionary work . Of Jones ' friends within the church , only Egerton Ryerson remained in the Canadian conference . With the background of these conflicts in the Credit Settlement , it became increasingly difficult for Jones to travel . Jones influence with the provincial government remained small . Although the Mississaugas of the Credit had been promised title deeds , Jones ' meeting with Lieutenant Governor George Arthur failed to produce them . Indian Agent Samuel Jarvis , appointed in 1837 , ignored the Mississaugas , failing to issue them the annual reports on their trust funds and failing to respond to letters . The strain of these community splits , combined with Jones ' responsibilities as a father after the birth of his first son , Charles Augustus ( Wahweyaakuhmegoo ( Waawiyekamigoo , " The Round World " ) ) in April 1839 , prevented Jones from undertaking many proselytizing tours . As Eliza had previously had two miscarriages and two stillbirths , the couple took great care in raising Charles .
Jones was assigned to the Muncey Mission in 1841 . Located south @-@ west of London , the mission proselytized to Indians of three different tribes ; Ojibwa , Munsee Delaware , and Oneida . Jones had hoped to relocate the Mississaugas of Credit here if they failed to obtain title deeds for New Credit , but this plan was opposed by Indian Agent Samuel Jarvis . At the Muncey Mission , each tribe spoke a different language , which made the work challenging for Jones , as did the large contingent of non @-@ Christian Indians . Here two more children were born to the couple , John Frederick ( Wahbegwuna ( Waabigwane , " Have a [ White Lily- ] Flower " ) ) and Peter Edmund ( Kahkewaquonaby ( Gakiiwegwanebi , " [ Sacred ] Waving Feathers " ) ) . John was named for Peter 's brother John and Eliza 's brother Frederick , Peter for Peter himself and Eliza 's brother Edmund . The work at Muncey Mission was stressful on Jones , and his health began to deteriorate . The 1844 Methodist conference found him in such ill health that he was declared a supernumerary . The same year , Jarvis was dismissed as chief superintendent of the Indian Agents . With Jarvis removed from office , Jones was able to secure an audience with lieutenant governor Charles Metcalfe . Metcalfe was favourably impressed with Jones ; he made available funds to build two schools at the Muncey Mission ( a boy 's school and a girl 's school ) and turned over administration of the Credit Mississaugas ' finances to their chiefs , making them the first Indian Band in Canada to have control over their trust funds .
= = = Third British tour = = =
Jones travelled to Great Britain in 1845 for a third fundraising tour , giving speeches and sermons . Wherever he travelled , Jones drew huge crowds , but inwardly he was depressed . He felt the crowds were only there to see the exotic Indian Kahkewāquonāby and his native costume , and did not appreciate all the work he had put into becoming a good Christian . Despite his misgivings about the trip , he raised £ 1000 , about two thirds of that total in Scotland , and one third in England . On August 4 , 1845 in Edinburgh Jones was photographed by Robert Adamson and David Octavius Hill . These were the first photographs taken of a North American Indian .
Jones ' health continued to decline , and he travelled to Paris to meet with Dr. Achille @-@ Louis Foville . Foville examined Jones , but did not prescribe any medicine , instead suggesting cold water sponge baths . With this advice but no effective treatment , Jones returned to England to complete his fundraising tour . Jones returned to Canada West in April 1846 .
= = = Mississaugas obtain title deeds = = =
Returning to the Credit Mission , Jones believed the most pressing issue for the Mississaugas was their lack of a clear title to their land . The settlement had established successful farms , and was almost self @-@ sufficient . It was also developing industry , with a pair of carpenters and a shoemaker . The Credit Mission Mississaugas had also funded the construction of a pair of piers at the mouth of the Credit River , the beginning of Port Credit . Although the settlement was prospering , Indian Superintendent Thomas G. Anderson pressured to band to move off the Credit Mission to a different location , hoping to group Indians into larger settlements where schools could be reasonably established and funded . As an inducement to motivate the Mississaugas to move , he promised them the title deeds which were Jones ' main goal for the band . The Saugeen Ojibwa invited the Credit Mississaugas to move to the Bruce Peninsula , which was the last large piece of unceded land in southern Ontario . The Credit Mississaugas believed this to be their best chance to obtain deeds to land , and so the band prepared for a move . They turned the Credit lands over to the province in trust , but the first survey of the Bruce returned with terrible news : The soil of the Bruce Peninsula was completely unsuitable for farming . Having already surrendered their land at the Credit Mission , the Mississaugas faced an uncertain situation . The Six Nations , hearing of the Mississaugas ' desperate situation offered a portion of their tract to the Credit Mississaugas , remembering that when the Six Nations had fled to Upper Canada the Mississaugas had donated the land the Six Nations . The Mississaugas relocated to this land along the Grand River that was donated by the Six Nations . Founded in 1847 , the settlement was named New Credit . Jones would continue in his role as a community leader here , petitioning various branches of government for funding to build the settlement . In 1848 , the Wesleyans and Methodists reconciled , and William Ryerson established a mission in New Credit .
Through the 1840s , Jones ' health had been in decline . By the time the Mississaugas moved to New Credit , Jones was too ill to move to an unbuilt settlement . Having to abandon the Credit Mission , he returned to Munceytown with his family . Jones resigned his position in the Methodist church , but continued to undertake work here and there as his health permitted . By 1850 , his doctor had ordered him to completely stop travelling and performing his clerical duties , but Jones ignored his advice . In 1851 , Jones moved to a new estate near Echo Place , which he dubbed Echo Villa . The estate was close to the established town of Brantford , but also allowed him to be close to New Credit . Although he continued to work , his failing health kept him at home often , and he began pursuing more domestic activities . Taking up woodcarving , he won £ 15 for his bowl and ladle at the annual provincial exhibition . He began writing for the Aborigines Protection Society , acting as their Canadian correspondent for their publication The Colonial Intelligencer ; or , Aborigines ' Friend . In the 1850s , Peter began to devote his time and efforts more to his wife and children . His son Charles attended Genesee College in Lima , New York , then studied law . Jones continued travelling when his health permitted . In 1851 , to Lake of Two Mountains in Canada East ; in 1852 , through Northern Ontario ; in 1853 , he travelled to New York City for a missionary meeting ; and in 1854 , he travelled to Syracuse , New York for a Methodist convention .
The New Credit settlement met with early difficulties , but soon began to prosper . An early sawmill was destroyed by arson in 1851 , but a new one was soon in operation . White squatters were driven off the land by about 1855 , although theft of logs remained a problem for several years afterwards .
Jones was struck by illness in December 1855 during a wagon ride home from New Credit to Echo Villa . Unable to shake the illness , Jones died in his home on June 29 , 1856 . He was buried at Greenwood Cemetery in Brantford . His wife Eliza supervised the publication of his books after his death . Life and Journals was published in 1860 and History of the Ojebway Indians in 1861 .
= = Memorials = =
In 1857 , a monument was erected in Jones ' honour at New Credit , inscribed " Erected by the Ojibeway and other Indian tribes to their revered and beloved Chief Kahkewaquonaby ( the Rev. Peter Jones ) . "
At the church in New Credit , built in 1852 , an inscribed marble tablet reads :
In Memory of KAHKEWAQUONABY , ( Peter Jones ) , THE FAITHFUL AND HEROIC OJIBEWAY MISSIONARY AND CHIEF : THE GUIDE , ADVISOR , AND BENEFACTOR OF HIS PEOPLE . Born January 1st , 1802 . Died June 29th , 1856 . HIS GOOD WORKS LIVE AFTER HIM , AND HIS MEMORY IS EMBALMED IN MANY GRATEFUL HEARTS .
In 1997 , Jones was declared a " Person of National Historic Significance " by the Minister of Canadian Heritage Andy Mitchell . To honour Jones and to underscore his role in helping the Mississaugas survive contact with the Europeans , a celebration of his recognition was held at New Credit . As well , the Ontario Archaeological and Historic Sites Board erected an historic plaque detailing Jones ' life . The location of the plaque is Echo Villa , the estate where Jones lived from 1851 until his death in 1856 .
= Ah @-@ ne @-@ she @-@ nah @-@ pa , Oo @-@ te @-@ ke @-@ too @-@ we @-@ nun ; Ka @-@ ke @-@ ke @-@ noo @-@ ah @-@ mah @-@ ween @-@ twah e @-@ kewh , Ka @-@ nah @-@ wah @-@ pahn @-@ tah @-@ gigk Mah @-@ ze @-@ nah @-@ e @-@ kun . ( York : Canada Conference Missionary Society , 1828 ) .
Tracts in the Chipeway and English , comprising seven hymns , the Decalogue , the Lord 's Prayer , the Apostles ' creed , and the fifth chapter of St. Matthew . =
O zhe pe e kun nun nah pun a i ee ah ne she nah pa moo mah kah toon ah sha wa ee tush ween ah gun osh she moo mah kah toon ne zhswah sweeh nah kah moo we nun kia Me tah sweeh e ki too we nun ough ke shah mune too kia ke shah munetoo o tah yum e ah win , kia Ta pwa yain tah moo win , kiapung ke o kah ke qua win ough kah noo che moo e nungh . Attributed to Peter Jones . ( New York , 1828 ) .
Ojebway Hymn Book ; translation . ( New York , 1829 ; 2nd ed . , Toronto )
Pungkeh ewh ooshke mahzenahekun tepahjemindt owh keetookemahwenon kahnahnauntahweenungk Jesus Christ . Part of the New Testament ... Translated into the Chippewa tongue , from the Gospel by St. Matthew by Peter Jones , native missionary . ( York , 1829 ) .
The sermon and speeches of the Rev. Peter Jones , alias Kah @-@ ke @-@ wa @-@ quon @-@ a @-@ by , the converted Indian chief delivered on the occasion of the eighteenth anniversary of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society , for the Leeds District : held in Brunswick and Albion Street Chapels , Leeds , September the 25th , 26th , and 27th , 1831 . ( [ Leeds , England ? ] : [ s.n. ] , [ 1831 ? ] )
The Gospel According to St. John : Translated into the Chippeway Tongue , by British and Foreign Bible Society ; Translator : Jones , John ; Editor : Jones , Peter . ( London : British and Foreign Bible Society , 1831 ) .
The Gospel of St. Matthew : Translated into the Ojebway Language . ( Toronto , 1832 ; reprint : Boston , 1839 ) .
Netum Ewh Oomahzenahegun owh Moses , Genesis aszhenekahdaig . Kahahnekahnootah moobeung owh kahkewaquonaby , ahneshenahba Makadawekoonahya . ( Toronto : Auxiliary Bible Society , 1835 ) .
Discipline of the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Canada . Translated by Peter Jones , Indian Missionary . ( Toronto : 1835 ) .
NUgUmouinUn genUnUgUmouat igiu anishinabeg anUmiajig . ( Boston : Printed for the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions by Crocker & Brewster , 1836 ) .
A Collection of Chippeway and English Hymns , for the use of the Native Indians . Translated by Peter Jones , Indian Missionary . To which are added a Few Hymns translated by the Rev. James Evans and George Henry . ( New York : Lane and Tippett , 1847 ( 1851 ) ; New York , 1853 ( 1854 ) ) .
Life and Journals of Peter Jones . ( Toronto , 1860 ) .
History of the Ojebway Indians ; with especial reference to their Conversion to Christianity . By Rev. Peter Jones , ( Kahkewaquonaby ) ... . With a brief Memoir of the Writer ; and Introductory Notice by the Rev. G. Osborn , D.D. ( London : A. W. Bennett , 1861 ) .
Additional Hymns . Translated by the Rev. Peter Jones , Kah @-@ ke @-@ wa @-@ qu @-@ on @-@ a @-@ by . ( Brantford , 1861 . )
= Sacrifice ( video game ) =
Sacrifice is a real @-@ time strategy video game published by Interplay Entertainment in 2000 for the Windows 98 platform . Developed by Shiny Entertainment the game features elements of action and other genres . Players control wizards who fight each other with spells and summoned creatures . The game was ported to Mac OS 9 @.@ 2 in 2001 .
Unlike many of its contemporary real @-@ time strategy games , Sacrifice places little emphasis on resource gathering and management . There is no system of workers ; the players ' wizards collect souls to summon creatures , and their mana — energy for casting spells — constantly regenerates . Players customize their attacks by choosing from spells and creatures aligned to five gods . To defeat an opponent , the player 's wizard sacrifices a friendly unit at the opposing wizard 's altar , thereby desecrating it and banishing the enemy wizard . Aside from a single @-@ player campaign , Sacrifice offers a multiplayer mode , in which up to four players can play against each other over computer networks .
Sacrifice was created by a small team of developers ; most of the work was done by four key personnel . The graphic engine of the game uses tesselation : thousands of polygons are used to display an object and as lesser details are needed , the number of polygons is reduced . By adjusting the required level of detail , Sacrifice can be run on various machines with the highest possible quality of graphics . Complementing the graphics of the game were the voice work of professional actors , such as Tim Curry , and the musical compositions of Kevin Manthei . Sacrifice was praised by reviewers for the novel designs of its creatures and for its humorous content . The high level of attention needed to manage its frenetic combat was mentioned as a flaw . Despite winning several awards , Sacrifice was not a commercial success , and no sequels are planned .
= = Gameplay = =
Published in 2000 for the Windows 98 platform ( and in the following year for Mac OS 9 @.@ 2 ) , Sacrifice is a real @-@ time strategy video game that incorporates elements of the action genre . Players control wizards , looking over their characters from behind . Each match starts the player with a wizard and an altar . Using the keyboard and mouse , players move their wizards around a virtual world , directing armies and casting spells to eliminate their opponents . A player 's wizard defeats an opponent by desecrating his or her altar through the magical " sacrifice " of a friendly unit .
Wizards can cast spells that harm opponents ( combat spells ) , heal damage taken , or summon creatures . More advanced combat spells affect large areas of the battlefield , taking the form of tornadoes and volcanoes . Casting spells requires energy , which the game represents in the form of mana . Recovery of mana is slow , but a wizard accelerates the process by staying close to his or her altar . Close proximity to one of several fountains of mana scattered across the world increases his or her recovery rate as well . A wizard can monopolize a mana fountain by erecting a structure known as a manalith over it . Because mana can always be regained , it is an infinite resource . Souls are the other type of resource in this game ; they are used , along with mana , to summon creatures , who form the mainstay of the players ' offensive capability . Unlike mana , souls are limited in quantity . Players start with a few souls and increase their resources by locating unclaimed souls , or by converting the souls of unfriendly creatures their wizards have killed .
Summoned creatures are mainly classified into three classes : melee , ranged , and air ( flyers ) . In a rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors manner , each class is a counter to another . Melee creatures inflict more damage to their ranged opponents , but cannot retaliate against flyers , which in turn are vulnerable to those who can attack at range . Several creatures also have special abilities , such as creating protective magical barriers , becoming invisible , or immobilizing their opponents . Two units , manahoars and sac doctors , have special purposes . Manahoars help to recharge their summoner 's mana by channeling energy from manaliths to him or her . Sac doctors are summoned to extract the souls of fallen opponents and bring them back to the altar for conversion . These units are also summoned to hold the sacrificial rituals required for desecrating enemy altars ; killing a sac doctor disrupts the process .
The spells and abilities of the creatures are designed along the ethos of five gods . Persephone , the Great Healer , bestows her followers with powers of regeneration and nature . Her counterpart , Charnel , God of Strife , celebrates death and decay ; his creatures are undead and his spells drains the life of others . The other three gods — James , Stratos , and Pyro — govern natural elements , granting their followers abilities associated with earth , air , and fire , respectively .
Unlike other real @-@ time strategy games released in or before 2000 , Sacrifice 's gameplay is not focused on large @-@ scale management of resources and bases . Instead , the game emphasizes micromanagement of the players ' units ; success in the game is linked to meticulous control of individuals or small groups to overcome enemies . Players order their armies to assume formations by pressing an assigned key or navigating through a pop @-@ up menu . The order can also be given by moving the mouse in specific patterns without waiting for the menu to appear .
= = = Single @-@ player campaign = = =
Sacrifice 's single @-@ player campaign begins with a meeting between the protagonist Eldred and the blind seer Mithras on a war @-@ torn world . Through voiceovers and cut scenes rendered by the game engine , Eldred recounts to Mithras his background and the events that led to the world 's current state . Eldred was a tyrannical emperor who ruled over the world of Jhera . However , his days of rule were numbered : his subjects were rebelling , and his enemies gathered at the borders of his realm . Turning to the mystical arts for a solution , Eldred summoned a demon , Marduk , to eliminate opposition to his rule . Marduk proved uncontrollable and ravaged Jhera . Eldred fled to the world that he and Mithras stand on . The world — having suffered a past cataclysm — was riven into a collection of five floating islands . A god rules over each realm , seeking to impose his or her own agenda . The rivalries among the gods are aggravated by Mithras 's prophecy of a traitor amongst them . Sensing the opportunity for a new lease on life , Eldred offers his service to the gods .
The campaign spans ten missions . In each mission , the player chooses a god for Eldred to champion , receiving creatures and spells from that god . The player can build up a selection of units and spells from different gods by changing Eldred 's allegiance between missions ; the selections are used in later missions or multiplayer sessions . As the game progresses , the player 's choices align Eldred with one god . Aside from the stated goals in each mission , there are secret objectives that if accomplished bestow bonuses to Eldred 's attributes ( magical and physical resistance , more mana , etc . ) .
Midway through the campaign , Eldred encounters Marduk again . The demon taunts the wizard and announces that this world will suffer the same fate as Jhera . Eldred warns the gods ; they believe one of them supports the demon and fall upon each other to eliminate the traitor . By the last stage of the campaign , Eldred has helped one god to kill the others . After the end of the wizard 's narration , Mithras reveals himself as Marduk . Stratos , the traitor , had planned for the demon to appear on this world and deliver the prophecy to the gods . Marduk berates Eldred for his naivety and starts the final battle . After defeating the demon , the player chooses one of two endings for Eldred : stay and help the last god rule the world , or leave and seek his destiny in other worlds .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Sacrifice features the capability for players to play matches against each other over computer networks ; up to four players ( human- or computer @-@ controlled ) can participate in a multiplayer match . Four modes of play are available : Skirmish , Slaughter , Soul Harvest , and Domination . Skirmish 's gameplay is similar to that of the single @-@ player mode ; a player wins the match by banishing the others ' wizards . The winner of Domination is the wizard who controls a certain number of manaliths . The goal in Slaughter is to amass the most kills , while wizards in Soul Harvest have to collect the most souls .
Initially , the multiplayer games could only be played over small @-@ area networks of computers ( local area networks ) , or over the internet through an integrated matchmaking service . Later software patches added online rankings and the capability to connect computers via Internet Protocol Suite ( TCP / IP ) , allowing play over the internet without the matchmaking service . The Macintosh version 's matchmaking , handled by GameRanger , had to be installed through a patch . Multiplayer matches cannot be played between different computer platforms .
= = Development = =
Sacrifice 's development started in August 1997 . The game 's lead programmer , Martin Brownlow , was inspired by Chaos : The Battle of Wizards , which was released in 1985 for the ZX Spectrum computer . In the old game , players take turns to control wizards , summoning creatures and casting spells to eliminate each other . The video game industry was mostly ignorant of Sacrifice 's development , partly due to Shiny 's desire to avoid repeating the bad experience of marketing their last product Messiah . Released in March 2000 , the game was extravagantly promoted by Shiny during its development , and the resulting heavy scrutiny from the media greatly stressed the team who worked on the game . Learning from this mistake , Shiny adopted a low profile for Sacrifice ; until the last several months of its development , no one outside the company knew of the game . According to Brownlow , his team was able to concentrate on developing the game without the media or " fan base questioning every decision that gets made along the way " .
The bulk of the work was done by a small team . Game designer Eric Flannum , formerly of Blizzard Entertainment , recalls that there were only three other key personnel : two programmers and an animator . As more game features were developed , the team expanded . Flannum was tasked to lead four level designers , and Jon Gwyn joined Joby Otero on the art team . After the basic features of the game had been completed , James Phinney , lead designer and producer of Blizzard 's 1998 real @-@ time strategy game StarCraft , was hired to write the plot for the single @-@ player campaign . His first draft was used as the script for recording placeholder voiceovers , which helped the team to judge the atmosphere in the game . Later , Shiny employed professional actors , such as Tim Curry and Brad Garrett , and various voice artists , such as Jennifer Hale , to record the final voices for the game 's characters . Audio filters altered the voices for the gods , giving them a supernatural edge appropriate to their roles . For background music , Shiny hired Kevin Manthei , who had composed many scores for video games and big- and small @-@ screen entertainment , such as Scream 3 and Buffy the Vampire Slayer . His compositions for Sacrifice were played by an orchestra of 25 instruments . Shiny 's founder , David Perry , was so busy with the game 's development that he passed over the opportunity to create a video game for the science @-@ fiction movie The Matrix .
= = = Graphics = = =
Sacrifice 's graphics engine was developed from Messiah 's . The older game renders its characters by tesselation , using thousands of polygons to make up character models and decreasing the number of polygons when lesser details are required , such as drawing the object at a distance . A typical object in Sacrifice comprises 200 to 2 @,@ 500 polygons . Shiny expanded the technology 's application to the game 's virtual world . The environment is not decorated with grass , flowers , and rocks by overlaying two @-@ dimensional images of such objects on the terrain model . Instead , many tiny models of these terrain features litter the landscape . Objects in the game are composed of isosceles right triangles , each of which is infinitely divisible into two smaller isosceles right triangles . The array of infinite triangles derived from these divisions is stored in a binary triangle tree data structure , and the simplicity of the division and its data management algorithms frees up the graphic processor for other duties , allowing more resources to be spent on managing the level of detail . Sacrifice 's spell effects are composed of parametric surfaces , which also can be broken down into triangles , facilitating tessellation .
In early 2000 , the computer industry released the first video graphics cards capable of processing transform , clipping , and lighting ( T & L ) instructions . With the appropriate software , these new cards took over the burden of T & L processing from the computer 's processor , allowing more detailed graphics and smoother animation . Shiny capitalized on the breakthrough , spending a few weeks to rewrite a portion of Sacrifice 's software . Brownlow and his team refined and improved the game 's graphics , increasing the number of polygons per model and setting the software to scan through scenes a few more times to determine what objects to render and how to display them . Sacrifice was acknowledged as the first game on the market to make full use of the new graphic cards ( the GeForce 2 and Radeon series ) . Because of the adopted technology , animation in the game was smooth , without the jerkiness associated with overstressed graphical engines .
For the character models , Otero and his team eschewed conventional designs inspired by The Lord of the Rings and other fantasies . Otero 's ideal was that of " form follows function " , by which a creature 's capabilities or purposes are readily apparent from its appearance . In his opinion , a creature designed to kill enemies by exploding itself would simply be a " cartoon @-@ ish bomb with feet " . Otero 's simple designs were expanded and fleshed out in detail by Gwyn , who was also responsible for creating Eldred 's model . The artists ' incorporation of humor in their work did not escape the video game industry 's notice ; many pointed out the quirky allusion of James , God of Earth , to Earthworm Jim , star of Shiny 's previous games .
= = = Release = = =
By June , the major features of the game had been implemented , and Shiny proceeded to the next stage of development . It selected a thousand members of the public to participate in a beta test of Sacrifice 's multiplayer modes , receiving feedback on software bugs , performance issues , and possible improvements . The game 's publisher , Interplay Entertainment , assigned its quality assurance department to test the single @-@ player mode . Perry promoted the game by visiting professional game reviewers , such as FiringSquad , and giving copies of the beta version to them . On November 17 , 2000 , Interplay released the game for the Windows platform . Shiny packaged a level editor , Scapex , with the finished product , allowing gamers to create their own levels . The tool displays the user 's changes as they are added to the level . Users have total control over the positioning of models and scripting of events , although the tool does not provide the capability to create new spells or creatures . User @-@ created maps can be shared with other players during the connection phase of multiplayer games .
Earlier in the same month , Macintosh software publisher MacPlay announced that it was porting Sacrifice to the Apple computers . It took the company several months to adapt the source code to the Macintosh architecture , and on December 14 , 2001 , the Macintosh version of the game was released . It has almost the same features as the original version ; however , Scapex was excluded from the port . Another feature left out was multiplayer mode , which MacPlay added through a software patch .
= = Reception = =
Sacrifice was developed and released during a period of growth for the video games market ; the amount United States consumers spent on video games increased from US $ 3 @.@ 2 billion in 1995 to $ 6 @.@ 0 billion in 2000 . " Solid " real @-@ time strategy games could sell more than 100 @,@ 000 copies , and those that sold less than 75 @,@ 000 copies were considered commercial failures by the publishers . Many real @-@ time strategy game developers concentrated on enhancing their game 's visuals without concern for innovations in gameplay . Shiny was recognized by the industry for its unconventional games , which exhibited humorous content and unique artistic designs . When it became known that the company was developing Sacrifice as its first real @-@ time strategy game , several industry observers were keen to see whether it could deliver a quality product .
Initial reactions were favorable . Sacrifice 's art was a point of focus for reviewers : the fantasy creatures ' novel designs made deep impressions on the industry . The designs were so unconventional that gaming journalist Michael Eilers remarked , " It is as if Salvador Dalí and H. R. Giger got together and played around with 3D Studio Max for a few weeks with a cooler full of Bass Ale between them . " To fellow journalist Kieron Gillen , Sacrifice resembled a version of the strategy game Command and Conquer as designed by Renaissance painter Hieronymus Bosch . Aside from being impressed by the details in the graphics , GameSpy 's Lee Haumersen found the creatures ' movements fluid and believable , remarking , " flying dragons heave their bodies through the air reminiscent of Draco in the movie Dragonheart . " Journalist Tom Chick summed up the weird experience of seeing his wizard at the head of " a troop of flapping , crawling , loping , whirling , hopping things " as the essence of " what gaming is all about . "
The game 's spell effects also elicited positive reactions . Next Generation magazine 's Samuel Bass called them " awe @-@ inspiring " , while it was " positively breathtaking " for Eurogamer 's John Bye to see " flaming missiles raining down on the battlefield , tornados lifting [ his ] men up into the sky , or the ground swelling up beneath [ his wizard 's ] feet " . Although such effects were implemented in other games , as Gillen pointed out , it was a vastly different experience to watch them from the first person perspective . Reviewers of FiringSquad and PC Gamer were equally overwhelmed by the stunning visual effects . Despite filling the screen with " winged , fully animated demons " and " multiple gigantic twisters spiraling gorgeously into the clouds " , Sacrifice performed smoothly on the reviewers ' machines , impressing the staff of Edge magazine .
Aside from the visuals , the game 's audio attracted comments . GameSpot 's staff enjoyed listening to the story unfold through the recorded voices . They found that the voice actors did not overact their roles despite the extravagant appearances of the characters . Instead , the actors ' performance conveyed an extra depth to the personalities of these characters . Haumersen noted a few flaws in the game 's vocal presentation : the character models ' lip movements did not match their speech , and they had a limited number of gestures to accompany the words . Michael House of Allgame was not altogether impressed , finding the voice acting to be " spotty [ , ] ... ranging from hilarious to obnoxious . "
To several reviewers , Sacrifice was flawed in its handling of combat . They found that the game 's interface — which presented a viewpoint that looked over the wizard from behind — hindered them from having a clear picture of their characters ' surroundings . The game 's fast @-@ paced combat ensured that fights tended to be messy affairs , where aside from picking out their units from a chaotic mass to issue commands , players had to see to their wizards ' safety , and cast spells to support their army . Reviewers commented that once a player had lost a number of early battles , his or her army could never recover from its losses to win the match . Sacrifice 's multiplayer games , as GameSpot 's Sam Parker observed , tended to be long @-@ drawn stalemates until the wizards obtained more powerful spells . PC Zone 's Keith Pullin was disappointed that the game was not designed to reward tactics ; in his experience , he achieved victory by continually summoning groups of creatures to attack the enemy . Bass agreed that the game was lacking in tactical play , but other aspects impressed him enough to downplay this failing in his assessment .
The intensity and excitement generated by the frenetic gameplay pleased IGN 's Dan Adams , but Bye was so frustrated by his experience that he claimed to have suffered a massive increase in blood pressure . The game 's heavy demand for micromanagement convinced Maximum PC to name Sacrifice the " best argument for gamers [ to grow ] a third hand " , an opinion in line with Chick 's comment that the interface " [ seemed ] to have been designed for one of the game 's 13 @-@ fingered beasts " . Sacrifice 's gameplay had its supporters ; the staff at Edge , impressed with the game 's controls and visual perspective , named it one of the " few titles [ that took ] strategy into the third dimension and convincingly used the extra plane for more than a dazzling 3D makeover " .
No sales figures were released for Sacrifice , but several members of the video game industry acknowledged the game did not sell well . James Bell , Infogrames 's Senior Vice President of Creative Development , said that Sacrifice , although an excellent game , suffered poor sales because it was badly marketed and released at the wrong time . Another reason , offered by Gillen , for Sacrifice 's commercial failure was the small size of its development team . Based mostly on the efforts of four people , the game was built around their gaming preferences , failing to take into account the opinions of a wider variety ; hence , the game became a niche product .
= = = Legacy = = =
Impressing IGN with its " wonderful land full of character and imagination " , Sacrifice was the gaming site 's choice for the best strategy game of 2000 . It was honored in the same year by European Computer Trade Show as the Best PC Game of the Show . Since its release , Sacrifice has been one of PC Gamer 's Top 100 Games for at least eight consecutive years . Looking back at the history of real @-@ time strategy gaming , Geryk pointed out that Sacrifice 's " depth and originality " was unparalleled in the genre and often overlooked in favor of its graphics . The staff of gaming site UGO shared a similar opinion , naming the game in 2009 as its eighteenth top strategy game of all time .
Although Sacrifice was honored as a quality game , industry observers pointed out that its qualities were forgotten by most people ; the staff of GamesRadar said the game was " practically invisible to the gaming public " , and according to Gillen , few remembered Sacrifice as the pioneer of the mouse @-@ gesture control system , which was praised as revolutionary in Peter Molyneux 's later game Black & White . Gillen further lamented that Sacrifice 's release heralded the end of Shiny 's forays into creative game development , as the company switched to producing more mainstream products , such as Enter the Matrix . Despite receiving numerous calls for a sequel , Shiny said in 2002 that it would not produce one . Seven years later , GamesRadar repeated the call for a sequel while proclaiming Sacrifice " one of the most underappreciated games of all time " .
= Herbal =
A herbal is " a collection of descriptions of plants put together for medicinal purposes . " Expressed more elaborately , it is a book containing the names and descriptions of plants , usually with information on their virtues ( properties ) – and in particular their medicinal , tonic , culinary , toxic , hallucinatory , aromatic , or magical powers , and the legends associated with them . A herbal may also classify the plants it describes , may give recipes for herbal extracts , tinctures , or potions , and sometimes include mineral and animal medicaments in addition to those obtained from plants . Herbals were often illustrated to assist plant identification .
Herbals were among the first literature produced in Ancient Egypt , China , India , and Europe as the medical wisdom of the day accumulated by herbalists , apothecaries and physicians . Herbals were also among the first books to be printed in both China and Europe . In Western Europe herbals flourished for two centuries following the introduction of moveable type ( c . 1470 – 1670 ) .
In the late 17th century , the rise of modern chemistry , toxicology and pharmacology reduced the medicinal value of the classical herbal . As reference manuals for botanical study and plant identification herbals were supplanted by Floras – systematic accounts of the plants found growing in a particular region , with scientifically accurate botanical descriptions , classification , and illustrations . Herbals have seen a modest revival in the western world since the last decades of the 20th century , as herbalism and related disciplines ( such as homeopathy and aromatherapy ) became popular forms of alternative medicine .
= = History = =
The word herbal is derived from the mediaeval Latin liber herbalis ( " book of herbs " ) : it is sometimes used in contrast to the word florilegium , which is a treatise on flowers with emphasis on their beauty and enjoyment rather than the herbal emphasis on their utility . Much of the information found in printed herbals arose out of traditional medicine and herbal knowledge that predated the invention of writing .
Before the advent of printing , herbals were produced as manuscripts , which could be kept as scrolls or loose sheets , or bound into codices . Early handwritten herbals were often illustrated with paintings and drawings . Like other manuscript books , herbals were " published " through repeated copying by hand , either by professional scribes or by the readers themselves . In the process of making a copy , the copyist would often translate , expand , adapt , or reorder the content . Most of the original herbals have been lost ; many have survived only as later copies ( of copies ... ) , and others are known only through references from other texts .
As printing became available , it was promptly used to publish herbals , the first printed matter being known as incunabula . In Europe , the first printed herbal with woodcut ( xylograph ) illustrations , the Puch der Natur of Konrad of Megenberg , appeared in 1475 . Metal @-@ engraved plates were first used in about 1580 . As woodcuts and metal engravings could be reproduced indefinitely they were traded among printers : there was therefore a large increase in the number of illustrations together with an improvement in quality and detail but a tendency for repetition .
As examples of some of the world 's most important records and first printed matter , researchers will find herbals scattered through the world 's most famous libraries including the Vatican Library in Rome , the Bodleian Library in Oxford , the Royal Library in Windsor , the British Library in London and the major continental libraries .
= = China , India , Mexico = =
= = = Shen Nung Pen Ts ’ ao ching of China = = =
China is renowned for its traditional herbal medicines that date back thousands of years . Legend has it that mythical Emperor Shennong , the founder of Chinese herbal medicine , composed the Shennong Bencao Jing or Great Herbal in about 2700 BCE as the forerunner of all later Chinese herbals . It survives as a copy made c . 500 CE and describes about 365 herbs . High quality herbals and monographs on particular plants were produced in the period to 1250 CE including : the Zhenlei bencao written by Tang Shenwei in 1108 , which passed through twelve editions until 1600 ; a monograph on the lychee by Cai Xiang in 1059 and one on the oranges of Wenzhhou by Han Yanzhi in 1178 . In 1406 Ming dynasty prince Zhu Xiao ( 朱橚 ) published the Jiuhuang Bencao illustrated herbal for famine foods . It contained high quality woodcuts and descriptions of 414 species of plants of which 276 were described for the first time , the book pre @-@ dating the first European printed book by 69 years . It was reprinted many times . Other herbals include Bencao Fahui in 1450 by Xu Yong and Bencao Gangmu of Li Shizhen in 1590 .
= = = Sushruta Samhita of India = = =
Traditional herbal medicine of India , known as Ayurveda , possibly dates back to the second millennium BCE tracing its origins to the holy Hindu Vedas and , in particular , the Atharvaveda . One authentic compilation of teachings is by the surgeon Sushruta , available in a treatise called Sushruta Samhita . This contains 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses , 700 medicinal plants , 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources . Other early works of Ayurveda include the Charaka Samhita , attributed to Charaka . This tradition , however is mostly oral . The earliest surviving written material which contains the works of Sushruta is the Bower Manuscript — dated to the 4th century CE .
= = = Hernandez – Rerum Medicarum and the Aztecs = = =
An illustrated herbal published in Mexico in 1552 , Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis ( " Book of Medicinal Herbs of the Indies " ) , is written in the Aztec Nauhuatl language by a native physician , Martín Cruz . This is probably an extremely early account of the medicine of the Aztecs although the formal illustrations , resembling European ones , suggest that the artists were following the traditions of their Spanish masters rather than an indigenous style of drawing . In 1570 Francisco Hernández ( c.1514 – 1580 ) was sent from Spain to study the natural resources of New Spain ( now Mexico ) . Here he drew on indigenous sources , including the extensive botanical gardens that had been established by the Aztecs , to record c . 1200 plants in his Rerum Medicarum of 1615 . Nicolás Monardes ’ Dos Libros ( 1569 ) contains the first published illustration of tobacco .
= = Egypt , Mesopotamia , Greece and Rome = =
By about 2000 BCE , medical papyri in ancient Egypt included medical prescriptions based on plant matter and made reference to the herbalist 's combination of medicines and magic for healing .
= = = Papyrus Ebers = = =
The ancient Egyptian Papyrus Ebers is one of the earliest known herbals ; it dates to 1550 BCE and is based on sources , now lost , dating back a further 500 to 2000 years . The earliest Sumerian herbal dates from about 2500 BCE as a copied manuscript of the 7th century BCE . Inscribed Assyrian tablets dated 668 – 626 BCE list about 250 vegetable drugs : the tablets include herbal plant names that are still in use today including : saffron , cumin , turmeric and sesame .
The ancient Greeks gleaned much of their medicinal knowledge from Egypt and Mesopotamia . Hippocrates ( 460 – 377 BCE ) , the " father of medicine " ( renowned for the eponymous Hippocratic oath ) , used about 400 drugs , most being of plant origin . However , the first Greek herbal of any note was written by Diocles of Carystus in the fourth century BC — although nothing remains of this except its mention in the written record . It was Aristotle ’ s pupil Theophrastus ( 371 – 287 BCE ) in his Historia Plantarum , ( better known as the Enquiry into Plants ) and De Causis Plantarum ( On the Causes of Plants ) that established the scientific method of careful and critical observation associated with modern botanical science . Based largely on Aristotle ’ s notes , the Ninth Book of his Enquiry deals specifically with medicinal herbs and their uses including the recommendations of herbalists and druggists of the day , and his plant descriptions often included their natural habitat and geographic distribution . With the formation of the Alexandrian School c . 330 BCE medicine flourished and written herbals of this period included those of the physicians Herophilus , Mantias , Andreas of Karystos , Appolonius Mys , and Nicander . The work of rhizomatist ( the rhizomati were the doctors of the day , berated by Theophrastus for their superstition ) Krateuas ( fl . 110 BCE ) is of special note because he initiated the tradition of the illustrated herbal in the first century BCE .
= = = Dioscorides – De Materia Medica = = =
The De Materia Medica ( c . 40 – 90 CE ; Greek , Περί ύλης ιατρικής " Peri hules iatrikes " , ' On medical materials ' ) of Pedanios Dioscorides , a physician in the Roman army , was produced in about 65 CE . It was the single greatest classical authority on the subject and the most influential herbal ever written , serving as a model for herbals and pharmacopoeias , both oriental and occidental , for the next 1000 years up to the Renaissance . It drew together much of the accumulated herbal knowledge of the time , including some 500 medicinal plants . The original has been lost but a lavishly illustrated Byzantine copy known as the Vienna Dioscurides dating from about 512 CE remains .
= = = Pliny – Naturalis Historia = = =
Pliny the Elder 's ( 23 – 79 CE ) encyclopaedic Naturalis Historia ( c . 77 – 79 CE ) is a synthesis of the information contained in about 2000 scrolls and it includes myths and folklore ; there are about 200 extant copies of this work . It comprises 37 books of which sixteen ( Books 12 – 27 ) are devoted to trees , plants and medicaments and , of these , seven describe medicinal plants . In medieval herbals , along with De Materia Medica it is Pliny 's work that is the most frequently mentioned of the classical texts , even though the work De Simplicibus of Galen ( 131 – 201 CE ) is more detailed and notable . Another Latin translation of Greek works that was widely copied in the Middle Ages , probably illustrated in the original , was that attributed to Apuleius and this also contained the alternative names for particular plants given in several languages . It dates to about 400 CE and a surviving copy dates to about 600 CE .
= = The Middle Ages and Arab World = =
During the 600 years of the European Middle Ages from 600 to 1200 , the tradition of herbal lore fell to the monasteries . Many of the monks were skilled at producing books and manuscripts and tending both medicinal gardens and the sick , but written works of this period simply emulated those of the classical era .
Meanwhile , in the Arab world , by 900 the great Greek herbals had been translated and copies lodged in centres of learning in the Byzantine empire of the eastern Mediterranean including Byzantium , Damascus , Cairo and Baghdad where they were combined with the botanical and pharmacological lore of the Orient . In the medieval Islamic world , Muslim botanists and Muslim physicians made a major contribution to the knowledge of herbal medicines . Those associated with this period include Mesue Maior ( Masawaiyh , 777 – 857 ) who , in his Opera Medicinalia , synthesised the knowledge of Greeks , Persians , Arabs , Indians and Babylonians , this work was complemented by the medical encyclopaedia of Avicenna ( Ibn Sina , 980 – 1037 ) . Avicenna ’ s Canon of Medicine was used for centuries in both East and West . During this period Islamic science protected classical botanical knowledge that had been ignored in the West and Muslim pharmacy thrived .
= = = Albertus Magnus – De Vegetabilibus = = =
In the thirteenth century , scientific inquiry was returning and this was manifest through the production of encyclopaedias ; those noted for their plant content included a seven volume treatise by Albertus Magnus ( c . 1193 – 1280 ) a Suabian educated at the University of Padua and tutor to St Thomas Aquinas . It was called De Vegetabilibus ( c . 1256 AD ) and even though based on original observations and plant descriptions it bore a close resemblance to the earlier Greek , Roman and Arabic herbals . Other accounts of the period include De Proprietatibus Rerum ( c . 1230 – 1240 ) of English Franciscan monk Bartholomaeus Anglicus and a group of herbals called Tractatus de Herbis written and pained between 1280 and 1300 by Matthaeus Platearius at the East @-@ West cultural centre of Salerno Spain , the illustrations showing the fine detail of true botanical illustration .
= = Western Europe = =
Perhaps the best known herbals were produced in Europe between 1470 and 1670 . The invention in Germany of printing from movable type in a printing press c . 1440 was a great stimulus to herbalism . The new herbals were more detailed with greater general appeal and often with Gothic script and the addition of woodcut illustrations that more closely resembled the plants being described .
Three important herbals , all appearing before 1500 , were printed in Mainz , Germany . Two of these were by Peter Schoeffer , his Latin Herbarius in 1484 , followed by an updated and enlarged German version in 1485 , these being followed in 1491 by the Hortus Sanitatis printed by Jacob Meyderbach . Other early printed herbals include the Kreuterbuch of Hieronymus Tragus from Germany in 1539 and , in England , the New Herball of William Turner in 1551 were arranged , like the classical herbals , either alphabetically , according to their medicinal properties , or as " herbs , shrubs , trees " . Arrangement of plants in later herbals such as Cruydboeck of Dodoens and John Gerard ’ s Herball of 1597 became more related to their physical similarities and this heralded the beginnings of scientific classification . By 1640 a herbal had been printed that included about 3800 plants – nearly all the plants of the day that were known .
In the Modern Age and Renaissance , European herbals diversified and innovated , and came to rely more on direct observation than being mere adaptations of traditional models . Typical examples from the period are the fully illustrated De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes by Leonhart Fuchs ( 1542 , with over 400 plants ) , the astrologically themed Complete Herbal by Nicholas Culpeper ( 1653 ) , and the Curious Herbal by Elizabeth Blackwell ( 1737 ) .
= = = Anglo @-@ Saxon herbals = = =
Anglo @-@ Saxon plant knowledge and gardening skills ( the garden was called a wyrtzerd , literally , herb @-@ yard ) appears to have exceeded that on the continent . Our limited knowledge of Anglo @-@ Saxon plant vernacular comes primarily from manuscripts that include : the Leechbook of Bald and the Lacnunga . The Leechbook of Bald ( Bald was probably a friend of King Alfred of England ) was painstakingly produced by the scribe Cild in about 900 – 950 CE . This was written in the vernacular ( native ) tongue and not derived from Greek texts . The oldest illustrated herbal from Saxon times is a translation of the Latin Herbarius Apulei Platonici , one of the most popular medical works of medieval times , the original dating from the fifth century ; this Saxon translation was produced about 1000 – 1050 CE and is housed in the British Library . Another vernacular herbal was the Buch der natur or " Book of Nature " by Konrad von Megenberg ( 1309 – 1374 ) which contains the first two botanical woodcuts ever made ; it is also the first work of its kind in the vernacular .
= = = Anglo @-@ Norman herbals = = =
In the 12th and early 13th centuries , under the influence of the Norman conquest , the herbals produced in Britain fell less under the influence of France and Germany and more that of Sicily and the Near East . This showed itself through the Byzantine @-@ influenced Romanesque framed illustrations . Anglo @-@ Saxon herbals in the vernacular were replaced by herbals in Latin including Macers Herbal , De Viribus Herbarum ( largely derived from Pliny ) , with the English translation completed in about 1373 .
= = = Fifteenth @-@ century incunabula = = =
The earliest printed books and broadsheets are known as incunabula . The first printed herbal appeared in 1469 , a version of Pliny 's Historia Naturalis ; it was published nine years before Dioscorides De Materia Medica was set in type . Important incunabula include the encyclopaedic De Proprietatibus Rerum of Franciscan monk Bartholomew Anglicus ( c . 1203 – 1272 ) which , as a manuscript , had first appeared between 1248 and 1260 in at least six languages and after being first printed in 1470 ran to 25 editions . Assyrian physician Mesue ( 926 – 1016 ) wrote the popular De Simplicibus , Grabadin and Liber Medicinarum Particularum the first of his printings being in 1471 . These were followed , in Italy , by the Herbarium of Apuleius Platonicus and three German works published in Mainz , the Latin Herbarius ( 1484 ) , the first herbal published in Germany , German Herbarius ( 1485 ) , the latter evolving into the Ortus Sanitatis ( 1491 ) . To these can be added Macer ’ s De Virtutibus Herbarum , based on Pliny 's work ; the 1477 edition is one of the first printed and illustrated herbals .
= = = Fifteenth @-@ century manuscripts = = =
In medieval times , medicinal herbs were generally referred to by the apothecaries ( physicians or doctors ) as " simples " or " officinals " . Before 1542 , the works principally used by apothecaries were the treatises on simples by Avicenna and Serapion ’ s Liber De Simplici Medicina . The De Synonymis and other publications of Simon Januensis , the Liber Servitoris of Bulchasim Ben Aberazerim , which described the preparations made from plants , animals and minerals , provided a model for the chemical treatment of modern pharmacopoeias . There was also the Antidotarium Nicolai of Nicolaus de Salerno , which contained Galenical compounds arranged in alphabetical order .
= = = Spain and Portugal – de Orta , Monardes , Hernandez = = =
The Spaniards and Portuguese were explorers , the Portuguese to India ( Vasco da Gama )
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and Goa where physician Garcia de Orta ( 1490 – 1570 ) based his work Coloquios dos Simples ( 1563 ) . The first botanical knowledge of the New World came from Spaniard Nicolas Monardes ( 1493 – 1588 ) who published Dos Libros between 1569 and 1571 . The work of Hernandez on the herbal medicine of the Aztecs has already been discussed .
= = = Germany – Bock , Brunfels and Fuchs = = =
Otto Brunfels ( c . 1489 – 1534 ) , Leonhart Fuchs ( 1501 – 1566 ) and Hieronymus Bock ( 1498 – 1554 ) were known as the " German fathers of botany " although this title belies the fact that they trod in the steps of the scientifically feted Hildegard of Bingen whose writings on herbalism were Physica and Causae et Curae ( together known as Liber subtilatum ) of 1150 . The original manuscript is no longer in existence but a copy was printed in 1533 . Another major herbalist was Valerius Cordus ( 1515 – 1544 ) .
The 1530 , Herbarum Vivae Eicones of Brunfels contained the admired botanically accurate original woodcut colour illustrations of Hans Weiditz along with descriptions of 47 species new to science . Bock , in setting out to describe the plants of his native Germany , produced the New Kreuterbuch of 1539 describing the plants he had found in the woods and fields but without illustration ; this was supplemented by a second edition in 1546 that contained 365 woodcuts . Bock was possibly the first to adopt a botanical classification in his herbal which also covered details of ecology and plant communities . In this , he was placing emphasis on botanical rather than medicinal characteristics , unlike the other German herbals and foreshadowing the modern Flora . De Historia Stirpium ( 1542 with a German version in 1843 ) of Fuchs was a later publication with 509 high quality woodcuts that again paid close attention to botanical detail : it included many plants introduced to Germany in the sixteenth century that were new to science . The work of Fuchs is regarded as being among the most accomplished of the Renaissance period .
= = = Low Countries – Dodoens , Lobel , Clusius = = =
The Flemish printer Christopher Plantin established a reputation publishing the works of Dutch herbalists Rembert Dodoens and Carolus Clusius and developing a vast library of illustrations . Translations of early Greco @-@ Roman texts published in German by Bock in 1546 as Kreuterbuch were subsequently translated into Dutch as Pemptades by Dodoens ( 1517 – 1585 ) who was a Belgian botanist of world renown . This was an elaboration of his first publication Cruydeboeck ( 1554 ) . Matthias de Lobel ( 1538 – 1616 ) published his Stirpium Adversaria Nova ( 1570 – 1571 ) and a massive compilation of illustrations while Clusius ’ s ( 1526 – 1609 ) magnum opus was Rariorum Plantarum Historia of 1601 which was a compilation of his Spanish and Hungarian floras and included over 600 plants that were new to science .
= = = Italy – Mattioli , Calzolari , Alpino = = =
In Italy , two herbals were beginning to include botanical descriptions . Notable herbalists included Pietro Andrea Mattioli ( 1501 – 1577 ) , physician to the Italian aristocracy and his Commentarii ( 1544 ) , which included many newly described species , and his more traditional herbal Epistolarum Medicinalium Libri Quinque ( 1561 ) . Sometimes , the local flora was described as in the publication Viaggio di Monte Baldo ( 1566 ) of Francisco Calzolari . Prospero Alpino ( 1553 – 1617 ) published in 1592 the highly popular account of overseas plants De Plantis Aegypti and he also established a botanical garden in Padua in 1542 , which together with those at Pisa and Florence , rank among the world ’ s first .
= = = England – Turner , Gerard , Parkinson , Culpeper = = =
The first true herbal printed in Britain was Richard Banckes ' Herball of 1525 which , although popular in its day , was unillustrated and soon eclipsed by the most famous of the early printed herbals , Peter Treveris 's Grete Herball of 1526 ( derived in turn from the derivative French Grand Herbier ) .
William Turner ( ? 1508 – 7 to 1568 ) was an English naturalist , botanist , and theologian who studied at Cambridge University and eventually became known as the “ father of English botany . " His 1538 publication Libellus de re Herbaria Novus was the first essay on scientific botany in English . His three @-@ part A New Herball of 1551 – 1562 – 1568 , with woodcut illustrations taken from Fuchs , was noted for its original contributions and extensive medicinal content ; it was also more accessible to readers , being written in vernacular English . Turner described over 200 species native to England. and his work had a strong influence on later eminent botanists such as John Ray and Jean Bauhin .
John Gerard ( 1545 – 1612 ) is the most famous of all the English herbalists . His Herball of 1597 is , like most herbals , largely derivative . It appears to be a reformulation of Hieronymus Bock 's Kreuterbuch subsequently translated into Dutch as Pemptades by Rembert Dodoens ( 1517 – 1585 ) , and thence into English by Carolus Clusius , ( 1526 – 1609 ) then re @-@ worked by Henry Lyte in 1578 as A Nievve Herball . This became the basis of Gerard 's Herball or General Historie of Plantes. that appeared in 1597 with its 1800 woodcuts ( only 16 original ) . Although largely derivative , Gerard 's popularity can be attributed to his evocation of plants and places in Elizabethan England and to the clear influence of gardens and gardening on this work . He had published , in 1596 , Catalogus which was a list of 1033 plants growing in his garden .
John Parkinson ( 1567 – 1650 ) was apothecary to James I and a founding member of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries . He was an enthusiastic and skilful gardener , his garden in Long Acre being stocked with rarities . He maintained an active correspondence with important English and Continental botanists , herbalists and plantsmen importing new and unusual plants from overseas , in particular the Levant and Virginia . Parkinson is celebrated for his two monumental works , the first Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris in 1629 : this was essentially a gardening book , a florilegium for which Charles I awarded him the title Botanicus Regius Primarius – Royal Botanist . The second was his Theatrum Botanicum of 1640 , the largest herbal ever produced in the English language . It lacked the quality illustrations of Gerard 's works , but was a massive and informative compendium including about 3800 plants ( twice the number of Gerard 's first edition Herball ) , over 1750 pages and over 2 @,@ 700 woodcuts . This was effectively the last and culminating herbal of its kind and , although it included more plants of no discernible economic or medicinal use than ever before , they were nevertheless arranged according to their properties rather than their natural affinities .
Nicholas Culpeper ( 1616 – 1654 ) was an English botanist , herbalist , physician , apothecary and astrologer from London 's East End . His published books were A Physicall Directory ( 1649 ) , which was a pseudoscientific pharmacopoeia . The English Physitian ( 1652 ) and the Complete Herbal ( 1653 ) , contain a rich store of pharmaceutical and herbal knowledge . His works lacked scientific credibility because of their use of astrology , though he combined diseases , plants and astrological prognosis into a simple integrated system that has proved popular to the present day .
= = Legacy = =
The legacy of the herbal extends beyond medicine to botany and horticulture . Herbal medicine is still practiced in many parts of the world but the traditional grand herbal , as described here , ended with the European Renaissance , the rise of modern medicine and the use of synthetic and industrialized drugs . The medicinal component of herbals has developed in several ways . Firstly , discussion of plant lore was reduced and with the increased medical content there emerged the official pharmacopoeia . The first British Pharmacopoeia was published in the English language in 1864 , but gave such general dissatisfaction both to the medical profession and to chemists and druggists that the General Medical Council brought out a new and amended edition in 1867 . Secondly , at a more popular level , there are the books on culinary herbs and herb gardens , medicinal and useful plants . Finally , the enduring desire for simple medicinal information on specific plants has resulted in contemporary herbals that echo the herbals of the past , an example being Maud Grieve 's A Modern Herbal , first published in 1931 but with many subsequent editions .
The magical and mystical side of the herbal also lives on . Herbals often explained plant lore , displaying a superstitious or spiritual side . There was , for example , the fanciful doctrine of signatures , the belief that there were similarities in the appearance of the part of the body affected the appearance of the plant to be used as a remedy . The astrology of Culpeper can be seen in contemporary anthroposophy ( biodynamic gardening ) and alternative medical approaches like homeopathy , aromatherapy and other new age medicine show connections with herbals and traditional medicine .
It is sometimes forgotten that the plants described in herbals were grown in special herb gardens ( physic gardens ) . Such herb gardens were , for example , part of the medieval monastery garden that supplied the simples or officinals used to treat the sick being cared for within the monastery . Early physic gardens were also associated with institutes of learning , whether a monastery , university or herbarium . It was this medieval garden of the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries , attended by apothecaries and physicians , that established a tradition leading to the systems gardens of the eighteenth century ( gardens that demonstrated the classification system of plants ) and the modern botanical garden . The advent of printing , woodcuts and metal engraving improved the means of communication . Herbals prepared the ground for modern botanical science by pioneering plant description , classification and illustration . From the time of the ancients like Dioscorides through to Parkinson in 1629 , the scope of the herbal remained essentially the same .
The greatest legacy of the herbal is to botany . Up to the seventeenth century , botany and medicine were one and the same but gradually greater emphasis was placed on the plants rather than their medicinal properties . During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries , plant description and classification began to relate plants to one another and not to man . This was the first glimpse of non @-@ anthropocentric botanical science since Theophrastus and , coupled with the new system of binomial nomenclature , resulted in " scientific herbals " called Floras that detailed and illustrated the plants growing in a particular region . These books were often backed by herbaria , collections of dried plants that verified the plant descriptions given in the Floras . In this way modern botany , especially plant taxonomy , was born out of medicine . As herbal historian Agnes Arber remarks – " Sibthorp 's monumental Flora Graeca is , indeed , the direct descendant in modern science of the De Materia Medica of Dioscorides . "
= Saddlesore Galactica =
" Saddlesore Galactica " is the thirteenth episode of the eleventh season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 6 , 2000 . In the episode , the Simpson family rescues a diving horse named Duncan from the abuse of his owner and keeps him as a pet . When the cost of keeping Duncan rises , Homer and Bart train him to be a racehorse . Duncan wins several races and , as a result , Homer is threatened with death by a group of jockeys . Meanwhile , Lisa is upset over her school unfairly losing the musical band competition at a state fair and writes a letter to U.S. President Bill Clinton in protest .
The episode features several guest appearances ; horse race caller Trevor Denman stars as himself , commentating the races in the episode , and voice artist Jim Cummings provides the animal sounds made by Duncan . Randy Bachman and Fred Turner appear as themselves as their rock band Bachman – Turner Overdrive performs at the state fair . " Saddlesore Galactica " was written by Tim Long and directed by Lance Kramer . A number of meta @-@ references are included in the episode , such as the character Comic Book Guy telling the Simpsons that they have owned a horse before in the episode " Lisa 's Pony " .
Around 9 @.@ 6 million American homes tuned in to watch the episode during its original airing . In 2008 , it was released on DVD , along with the rest of the episodes of the eleventh season . " Saddlesore Galactica " is despised by many television critics and fans according to Long . It has been described by About.com 's Nancy Basile as one of the season 's worst episodes , by Marco Ursi of Maclean 's as the worst episode of the series , and has frequently been cited by fans as an example of the show jumping the shark . Criticism has been directed at its outlandish plot , which , among other things , features elf @-@ like jockeys who lure Homer into their secret lair where they threaten him to stop Duncan from winning .
= = Plot = =
Lisa and the other members of Springfield Elementary 's school band enter a music competition together at a state fair , performing James Brown 's " Living in America " . However , they lose to the Ogdenville Elementary band , which performs John Philip Sousa 's " Stars and Stripes Forever " and uses red , white , and blue glowsticks to form a flag . Lisa accuses Ogdenville of cheating as the use of visual aids is against the rules of the competition . She later writes a letter to President Clinton , complaining about the situation . At the fair , Homer and Bart see a horse named Duncan that can dive into pools . The Simpsons take Duncan home after his sleazy owner is accused of animal cruelty and flees . However , they end up having financial issues because of Duncan ; it costs them US $ 500 a week to keep him .
Homer and Bart try to think of a way that Duncan can make money to help offset the costs of keeping him . Bart discovers that Duncan is a fast runner and suggests that he should be a racehorse . Homer enters Duncan at the Springfield Downs race track , with Bart as the jockey . However , a frightened Duncan loses his first race as he refuses to leave the stall until all other horses have finished . Homer and Bart find a strategy for Duncan to win by turning him into a frightening horse named " Furious D " , complete with dyed hair and one of Lisa 's bracelets for a nose ring . He intimidates the other horses and wins several races . Homer is soon invited by the losing jockeys to have a beer in their lounge , which turns out to be a secret lair . The jockeys reveal themselves to be murderous elf @-@ like creatures who want Homer to have Duncan lose the upcoming race . They threaten to eat Homer 's brain if he does not comply . Though intimidated at first , Homer later vows to deal with those " murderous trolls " .
At the Springfield Derby , Duncan wins the race , and the furious jockeys chase after Homer and Bart. With the help of Marge and Lisa , who spray water on the jockeys with a hose , Homer is able to put the jockeys into a garbage bag and get them sent to the dump . Afterwards , Homer and Bart prepare for Duncan 's retirement from racing to start a new life as a stud . President Clinton then shows up at the Simpsons 's house to see Lisa , presenting her with a plaque . Clinton says that Ogdenville was wrong to use glowsticks and that Springfield Elementary 's band is the true champion .
= = Production = =
" Saddlesore Galactica " was written by Tim Long and directed by Lance Kramer as part of the eleventh season of The Simpsons ( 1999 – 2000 ) . The title is a reference to the science fiction television series Battlestar Galactica . The idea of Duncan originally being a diving horse was inspired by an actual diving horse that used to jump into a pool at Steel Pier in Atlantic City , New Jersey at the beginning of the 20th century ; a postcard showing this horse was used as a reference by the animators for the scenes featuring the diving . When the animation process began , Kramer drew instructions to his animators on how horses move when they run and how their ankles work . He has said that because Duncan was a large part of the story , " we wanted him to have somewhat of a personality . So when everybody knew how to draw the horse and we got that out of the way , they could animate the horse acting . " Voice artist Jim Cummings provided the animal sounds made by Duncan in the episode .
American horse race caller Trevor Denman guest starred in the episode as himself , commentating on Duncan 's races over the public @-@ address system . Randy Bachman and Fred Turner , known for their rock band Bachman – Turner Overdrive , made an appearance in the episode as themselves . They perform on stage at the state fair during the beginning of the episode . When Bachman and Turner tell the audience that they are going to play some songs from their new album , Homer immediately yells out demands for them to play their old song " Takin ' Care of Business " . The band starts the song and Homer then yells , " Get to the ' workin overtime ' part ! " The band obliges , skipping straight to the chorus . Bachman had left the band when " Saddlesore Galactica " was recorded and because of tension between him and Turner , the two recorded their lines separately on different occasions . Long has said that the Simpsons staff members " were thrilled to have [ them ] on the show " and that the pair " could not have been nicer . "
= = Meta @-@ references = =
The episode is heavily self @-@ referential and contains a number of meta @-@ references . When the Simpsons take Duncan home from the fair , Comic Book Guy points out to the Simpsons that they have already taken in a horse as a pet ( as seen in " Lisa 's Pony " ) , and that " the expense forced Homer to work at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , with hilarious consequences . " In another scene later in the episode , when Lisa points out to Marge that Marge is showing signs of gambling problems , Comic Book Guy shows up again wearing a T @-@ shirt that says " Worst Episode Ever " and tells Lisa : " Hey , I 'm watching you ! " This refers to the fact that Marge 's gambling problems have already been explored in the episode " $ pringfield " .
Jonathan Gray analyzed the self @-@ referentiality in The Simpsons in his 2006 book Watching with The Simpsons : Television , Parody , and Intertextuality , writing that " Sitcoms constantly ' reset ' themselves , living in [ ... ] an ' existential circle ' in which nothing really changes , and every episode starts more or less where the last one started ; and The Simpsons frequently plays with this sitcom clock , and with the amnesia of sitcom memory . The family members often forget important events in their ' history ' [ ... ] " . Gray noted that in " Saddlesore Galactica " , " the action continues as normal , as sitcom memory ( or lack thereof ) is pointed out but comically not acted upon . Thus , where David Grote [ author of The End of Comedy : The Sit @-@ Com and the Comedic Tradition ] ( 1983 : 67 ) notes that sitcom episodes ' live in a kind of time @-@ warp without any reference to the other episodes , ' producing a situation whereby everything ' remains inviolate and undisturbed , no matter what transitory events may occur ' ( 1983 : 59 ) , The Simpsons comically reflects upon this . "
= = Reception = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 6 , 2000 . It was viewed in approximately 9 @.@ 6 million households that night . With a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 , " Saddlesore Galactica " finished 29th in the ratings for the week of January 31 – February 6 , 2000 . It was the second highest @-@ rated broadcast on Fox that week , following an episode of Malcolm in the Middle . On October 7 , 2008 , " Saddlesore Galactica " was released on DVD as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Eleventh Season . Staff members Tim Long , Lance Kramer , Mike Scully , Matt Groening , George Meyer , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Matt Selman , and Tom Martin participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode . Deleted scenes from the episode were also included on the box set .
According to Long , " Saddlesore Galactica " is considered by many critics and fans as one of the worst episodes in the history of the show , particularly for the scenes featuring the jockey elves . In 2007 , Maclean 's writer Marco Ursi named it his least favorite episode of The Simpsons , elaborating : " This is the one where the Simpsons get a horse – again – and the plot devolves into something involving the secret land of the jockeys . Making meta @-@ references to the fact you ’ ve just made your ' worst episode ever ' doesn ’ t make it any funnier . " Nancy Basile of About.com listed the episode as one of the worst episodes of the season — one of the episodes that made her " cringe because they included blatant gimmicks and outlandish plots " .
Despite its criticisms , " Saddlesore Galactica " received some positive reviews . While reviewing the eleventh season of The Simpsons , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented on the episode , writing : " I remember that ' Saddlesore ' was much despised when it first aired , though I can ’ t recall if I joined that chorus as well . Maybe the many iffy episodes since early 2000 have made it look better , but I think that ' Saddlesore ' offers a decent number of laughs . It goes off onto some dopey tangents and displays an unnerving tendency toward self @-@ awareness , but it provides reasonable entertainment . " DVD Talk 's Ian Jane described the cameo appearance by Bachman and Turner as " fun " .
= Gunfighter =
Gunfighter and gunslinger / ˈɡʌnslɪŋər / are literary words used historically to refer to men in the American Old West who had gained a reputation of being dangerous with a gun and had participated in gunfights and shootouts . Gunman was a more common term used for these individuals in the 19th century . Today , the term " gunslinger " is now more or less used to denote someone who is quick on the draw with a pistol , but can also refer to riflemen and shotgun messengers . The gunfighter is also one of the most popular characters in the Western genre and has appeared in associated films , video games , and literature .
Gunfighters range from different occupations including lawman , outlaw , cowboy , exhibitionists and duelist , but are more commonly synonymous to a hired gun who made a living with his weapons in the Old West .
= = Origin of the term = =
The term " gun slinger " was used in the Western film Drag Harlan ( 1920 ) . The word was soon adopted by other Western writers , such as Zane Grey , and became common usage . In his introduction to The Shootist ( 1976 ) , author Glendon Swarthout says " gunslinger " and " gunfighter " are modern terms , and the more authentic terms for the period would have been " gunman " , " pistoleer " , " shootist , " or " bad man " ( sometimes written as " badman " ) . Swarthout seems to have been correct about " gunslinger " , but the term " gunfighter " existed in several newspapers in the 1870s , and as such the term existed in the 19th century . Bat Masterson used the term " gunfighter " in the newspaper articles which he wrote about the lawmen and outlaws whom he had known . However , Joseph Rosa noted that , even though Masterson used the term " gunfighter " , he " preferred the term ' mankiller ' " when discussing these individuals . Clay Allison ( 1841 – 1887 ) , a notorious New Mexico and Texas gunman and cattleman , originated the term " shootist " .
= = = Usage = = =
Often , the term has been applied to men who would hire out for contract killings or at a ranch embroiled in a range war where they would earn " fighting wages " . Others , like Billy the Kid , were notorious bandits , and still others were lawmen like Pat Garrett and Wyatt Earp . A gunfighter could be an outlaw — a robber or murderer who took advantage of the wilderness of the frontier to hide from genteel society and to make periodic raids on it . The gunfighter could also be an agent of the state , archetypically a lone avenger , but more often a sheriff , whose duty was to face the outlaw and bring him to justice or to personally administer it . There were also a few historical cowboys who were actual gunfighters , such as the Outlaw cowboy gang who participated in the bloody Skeleton Canyon Massacre .
= = Depiction in culture = =
Gunslingers frequently appear as stock characters in Western movies and novels , along with cowboys . Often , the hero of a Western meets his opposite " double " , a mirror of his own evil side that he has to destroy .
Western gunslinger heroes are portrayed as local lawmen or enforcement officers , ranchers , army officers , cowboys , territorial marshals , nomadic loners , or skilled fast @-@ draw artists . They are normally masculine persons of integrity and principle - courageous , moral , tough , solid , and self @-@ sufficient , maverick characters ( often with trusty sidekicks ) , possessing an independent and honorable attitude ( but often characterized as slow @-@ talking ) . They are depicted as similar to a knight @-@ errant , wandering from place to place with no particular direction , often facing curious and hostile enemies , while saving individuals or communities from those enemies in terms of chivalry . The Western hero usually stands alone and faces danger on his own , commonly against lawlessness , with an expert display of his physical skills ( roping , gun @-@ play , horse @-@ handling , pioneering abilities , etc . ) .
In films , the gunslinger often possesses a nearly superhuman speed and skill with the revolver . Twirling pistols , lightning draws , and trick shots are standard fare for the gunmen of the big screen . In the real world , however , gunmen who relied on flashy tricks and theatrics died quickly , and most gunslingers took a much more practical approach to their weapons . Real gunslingers did not shoot to disarm or to impress , but to kill .
Another classic bit of cinema that is largely a myth is the showdown at high noon , where two well @-@ matched gunslingers agree to meet for a climactic formal duel . These duels did occasionally happen , as in the case of the Luke Short – Jim Courtright duel , but gunfights were typically more spontaneous , a fight that turned deadly when one side reached for a weapon , and no one knew who actually won the fight for several minutes until the air finally cleared of smoke . Gunfights could be won by simple distraction , or pistols could be emptied as gunmen fought from behind cover without injury . When a gunman did square off , it rarely was with another gunfighter . Gunslingers usually gave each other a wide berth , and it was uncommon for two well @-@ known gunslingers to face off . The gunslinger 's reputation often was as valuable as any skills possessed . In Western films and books , young toughs often challenge experienced gunmen with the hopes of building a reputation , but this rarely happened in real life . A strong reputation was enough to keep others civil and often would spare a gunfighter from conflict . Even other gunslingers were likely to avoid any unnecessary confrontation .
In the days of the Old West , tales tended to grow with repeated telling , and a single fight might grow into a career @-@ making reputation . For instance , the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral made legends of Wyatt Earp and the Outlaw Cowboy gang , but they were relatively minor figures before that conflict . Some gunslingers , such as Bat Masterson , actively engaged in self @-@ promotion . Johnny Ringo built a reputation as a gunslinger while never taking part in a gunfight or killing unarmed civilians .
= = Fact and fiction = =
Most gunfights are portrayed in films or books as having two men square off , waiting for one to make the first move . This was rarely the case . Often , a gunfight was spur @-@ of @-@ the @-@ moment , with one drawing his pistol , and the other reacting . Often it would develop into a shootout where both men bolted for cover . In popular folklore , men who held noteworthy reputations as a gunfighter were eager to match up against another gunman with the same reputation . On the contrary , in cases where two men held a similar reputation , both would avoid confrontation with one another whenever possible . They rarely took undue risks , and usually weighed their options before confronting another well @-@ known gunman . This respect for one another is why most famous gunfights were rarely two or more well @-@ known gunmen matched up against one another , but rather one notable gunman against a lesser @-@ known opponent or opponents .
These fights were usually close @-@ up and personal , with a number of shots blasted from pistols , often resulting in innocent bystanders hit by bullets gone wild . Much of the time , it would be difficult to tell who had " won ” the gunfight for several minutes , as the black powder smoke from the pistols cleared the air . How famous gunfighters died is as varied as each man . Many well @-@ known gunfighters were so feared by the public because of their reputation that when they were killed , they died as a result of ambush rather than going down in a " blaze of glory " . Others died secluded deaths either from old age or illness .
Mythology and folklore often exaggerate the skills of famous gunfighters . Most of these historical figures were not known to be capable of trick shooting , nor did they necessarily have a reputation for precision sharpshooting . Such tropes that are frequently seen in Westerns include shooting the center of a coin , stylistic pistol twirling , glancing shots that intentionally only graze an opponent ( the bullet through the hat being an example ) , shooting an opponent 's belt buckle ( thus dropping his pants ) , a bullet cutting the hangman 's rope , or shooting the guns out of opponents ' hands ( typically as an alternative to killing ) . The latter was debunked by Mythbusters as an impossibility , as unjacketed bullets tend to shatter into fragments that can hurt or even kill . Ed McGivern dispelled the myth of the inaccuracy of pistol fanning by shooting tight groups while fanning the revolver .
In Western movies , the characters ' gun belts are often worn low on the hip and outer thigh , with the holster cut away around the pistol 's trigger and grip for a smooth , fast draw . This type of holster is a Hollywood anachronism . Fast @-@ draw artists can be distinguished from other movie cowboys because their guns will often be tied to their thigh . Long before holsters were steel @-@ lined , they were soft and supple for comfortable all @-@ day wear . A gunfighter would use tie @-@ downs to keep his pistol from catching on the holster while drawing . Most of the time , gunfighters would just hide their pistols in their pockets and waistbands . Wild Bill Hickok popularized the butt @-@ forward holster type , which worked better on horseback . Other gunfighters would use bridgeport rigs that gave a faster and easier draw . Revolvers were a popular weapon to gunfighters who were horsemen , cowboys , and lawmen because of their concealability and effectiveness on horseback . The Winchester rifle was also a popular weapon among gunfighters . Dubbed the " Gun that Won the West " , it was widely used during the settlement of the American frontier . Shotguns were also a popular weapon for " express messengers " and guards , especially those on stagecoaches and trains who were in charge of overseeing and guarding a valuable private shipment .
Although quick draw and hip shooting was an important skill in the West , only a handful of historically known gunslingers were known to be fast , such as Luke Short , John Wesley Hardin , Wild Bill Hickok , Doc Holliday , and Billy the Kid . Shooting a pistol with one hand is normally associated with gunslingers , and is also a standard for them of the era to carry two guns and fire ambidextrously . Capt. Jonathan R. Davis carried two revolvers in his iconic gunfight , while Jesse James himself carried over half a dozen revolvers in many of his gunfights .
Gunfighters King Fisher , John Wesley Hardin , Ben Thompson , Billy the Kid , Wild Bill Hickok and Pat Garrett all died as a result of ambush , killed by men who feared them because of their reputation . Gunmen Kid Curry , Jim Courtright , Dallas Stoudenmire and Dave Rudabaugh were killed in raging gun battles , much as portrayed in films about the era , and usually against more than one opponent . Bill Longley and Tom Horn were executed . Famed gunman Clay Allison died in a wagon accident . Gunmen Wyatt Earp , Bat Masterson , Bass Reeves , Commodore Perry Owens , and Luke Short all died of natural causes , living out their lives on reputation and avoiding conflict in secluded retirement . Gunfighter and lawman Frank Eaton , known as " Pistol Pete " lived into old age and gained further fame , before his death at age 97 , by becoming the mascot for Oklahoma A & M College ( now Oklahoma State University ) . Rare are the gunfighters who , like William Sidney " Cap " Light , died accidentally by their own hand .
= = Famous gunfights = =
The image of a Wild West filled with countless gunfights was a myth generated primarily by dime @-@ novel authors in the late 19th century . An estimate of 20 @,@ 000 men in the American West were killed by gunshot between 1866 and 1900 , and over 21 @,@ 586 total casualties during the American Indian Wars from 1850 to 1890 . The most notable and well @-@ known took place in the states / territories of Arizona , New Mexico , Kansas , Oklahoma , and Texas . Actual gunfights in the Old West were very rare , very few and far between , but when gunfights did occur , the cause for each varied . Some were simply the result of the heat of the moment , while others were longstanding feuds , or between bandits and lawmen . Lawless violence such as range wars like the Lincoln County War and clashes with Indians were also a cause . Some of these shootouts became famous , while others faded into history with only a few accounts surviving . To prevent gunfights from happening , many cities in the American frontier , such as Dodge City and Tombstone , put up a local ordinance to prohibit firearms in the area .
The Gunfight at the OK Corral is a famous example of a real @-@ life western shootout , between the Earp Brothers together with Doc Holliday , and the Clanton @-@ McLaury gang . It lasted only 30 seconds , contrary to many movie adaptations . The gunfight itself did not actually happen in the corral , but in a vacant lot outside of it . The shooting started when Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury cocked their pistols . Both parties simultaneously drew their guns , which added to the confusion of who fired first . It is not known who fired the first shot , but Wyatt 's bullet was the first to hit , tearing through Frank McLaury 's belly and sending McLaury ’ s own shot wild through Wyatt ’ s coattail . Billy Clanton fired at Virgil , but his shot also went astray when he was hit with Morgan 's shot through his ribcage . Billy Claiborne ran as soon as shots were fired and was already out of sight . Ike Clanton panicked as well and ran towards Wyatt pleading for his life . " Go to fighting or get away ! " , Wyatt yelled and watched Ike desert his brother Billy and run . Doc instantly killed Tom with blasts from his shotgun . Frank was running to Fremont Street , and he challenged Holliday for killing his brother , but Doc dropped his shotgun , drew his pistol , and shot Frank in the right temple . Wounded and dying , Billy Clanton fired blindly into the gun smoke encircling him , striking Virgil 's leg . Wyatt responded by sending several rounds into Billy .
In April 14 , 1881 , lawman Dallas Stoudenmire participated in a gunfight in El Paso , Texas which many dubbed the Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight , in which he killed three of the four fatalities with his twin .44 caliber Colt revolvers . One of those killed was an innocent Mexican bystander . Less than a year after these incidents , he would kill as many as six more men in gunfights while in the line of duty .
Another well @-@ documented gunfight resulted in the most kills by one person in a single event , when Capt. Jonathan R. Davis shot eleven bandits single @-@ handedly on 19 December 1854 . Unknown to Davis and his companions , a band of robbers was lying in wait in the canyon brush near the trail . They were a typically diverse and motley group of Gold Rush bandits : two Americans , one Frenchman , two Britons , five Sydney Ducks , and four Mexicans . As Captain Davis and his companions trudged on foot , the bandit gang charged out of the brush , pistols flaming . James McDonald died instantly , without time to draw his revolver or react in any way . Dr. Bolivar managed to get his six @-@ shooter out and fire twice at the highwaymen before he dropped , badly wounded . Captain Davis later described himself as being " in a fever of excitement at the time . " Unfazed , he stood his ground , pulling out both pistols and firing a barrage at the charging outlaws . He shot down his assailants , one after another . The outlaws ' bullets tore at Davis 's clothing , but caused only two slight flesh wounds . Within moments , seven of the bandits were dead or dying on the ground and Davis 's pistols were empty . Four of the remaining robbers now closed in on the captain to finish him off . Davis whipped out his Bowie knife , and quickly warded off the thrusts from the two of the bandits . He stabbed one of them to death ; the other he disarmed by knocking the knife from his grasp and slicing off his nose and a finger of his right hand . The two last attackers were the men who had been wounded in a previous bandit raid . Despite their weakened condition , they foolishly approached Davis with drawn knives . The captain reacted in an instant . Slashing with his heavy Bowie , he killed them both .
In December 1 , 1884 , a town sheriff named Elfego Baca came face @-@ to @-@ face against 80 gunmen which became known as the Frisco shootout . The battle started when Baca arrested a cowboy who had shot him . In turn the cowboy called upon 80 of his associates to murder Baca . Baca took refuge in an adobe house , and over the course of a 36 @-@ hour siege , the gunmen put 400 bullet holes in the house ( some accounts say a total of 4 @,@ 000 shots ) without touching Baca . He in turn killed 4 of them and wounded 8 . When the shooting was over as the attackers finally ran out of ammo , Baca strolled out of the house unscathed . Baca went on to a distinguished career as a lawyer and legislator and died in his bed in 1945 , age 80 .
In January 1887 Commodore Perry Owens took office as Sheriff of Apache County , Arizona . He sent two deputies to arrest Ike Clanton . Clanton had instigated the Gunfight at the OK Corral and was charged with the later ambush shooting of Virgil Earp . Wyatt Earp searched for Ike Clanton in his vendetta , but never found him - Ike move north to Apache County to continue rustling cattle and killing . Owens ' two deputies killed Ike Clanton ; Phin Clanton was arrested ; three other gang members were killed ; and the Clanton gang was done . Then Sheriff Owens turned his attention to the Blevins family , the other rustling gang in the county . In June 1887 Old Man Blevins disappeared , presumably killed by the Tewksbury faction of the Pleasant Valley War . The Blevins sons searched for their father and in August Hamp Blevins and another were killed by the Tewksbury side . So Andy Blevins ( aka Cooper ) ambushed and killed John Tewksbury and Bill Jacobs in revenge . Blevins returned to Holbrook and was heard bragging about his killings . Sheriff Owens had inherited a warrant for Andy Blevins ' ( Cooper ) arrest for horse theft so he rode to Holbook on September 2 , 1887 . Sheriff Owens had hunted buffalo for the railroad and could shoot his Winchester from the hip with great accuracy . Cradling his Winchester rifle in his arm , Sheriff Owens knocked on the Blevins ' door . Andy Blevins answered with a pistol in hand , the lawman told him to come out , that he had a warrant for arrest . Blevins refused and tried to close the door . Owens shot his rifle from his hip through the door , hitting Andy Blevins in the stomach . Andy 's half @-@ brother , John Blevins , pushed a pistol out the door to Owens ' right and fired at the Sheriff . He missed and Owens shot John Blevins in the arm , putting him out of the fight . Owens saw Andy Blevins in the window moving to shoot back . Owens shot through the wall , striking Andy in the right hip - he died that night . Mose Roberts , boarding with the family , jumped out of a side window with a pistol . Sheriff Owens shot him through his back and chest , killing him . Fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Samuel Houston Blevins ran out the front door , with his brother 's revolver , and yelled " I 'll get him . " His mother ran out after him . Owens shot and Sam fell backward , dying in his mother 's arms . The shootout took less than one minute and made Owens a legend . In eight months Sheriff Owens had rid Apache County of two notorious gangs of rustlers and killers .
In many early western films and literature , Native Americans were often portrayed as savages ; having conflicts and battles against gunfighters and white settlements . According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census ( 1894 ) , an estimate of 19 @,@ 000 white men , women and children were killed while the Indians killed numbered between 30 @,@ 000 and 45 @,@ 000 casualties during the American Indian Wars . Gunfighters in history did fight Native Americans . Among them was civilian Billy Dixon , who made one of the longest recorded sniper kills , by shooting an Indian off his horse almost a mile away with his Sharps rifle , during a standoff in the Second Battle of Adobe Walls .
General George S. Patton himself had a gunfight when he was a young second lieutenant chasing Pancho Villa all over northern Mexico in 1916 . Patton and 10 enlisted men had been sent to San Miguelito Ranch to look for Villa , who had recently raided the city of Columbus , New Mexico . Patton positioned his men by the south gate and was making his way up to the north gate when a trio of Villa 's men came into the ranch on horseback . Patton drew his obsolete single @-@ action Colt Peacemaker revolver and shot two of the men . The first man had been fatally wounded in the exchange and tried to draw his pistol before Patton killed him with a single shot . After his troops took down the remaining outlaw , Patton tied the three dead men to the hood of his touring car and drove the bodies back to his commanding officer .
= = = Real @-@ life Wild West duels = = =
The image of two gunslingers with violent reputation squaring off in a street in a duel , where each draws his pistol and tries to kill the other , is a Hollywood invention . However , Wild West duels did occur in real life ( though rarely ) and as such are not entirely a myth . These duels were first recorded in the South , brought by emigrants to the American Frontier as a crude form of the " code duello , " a highly formalized means of solving
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, the Commander Australian Forces Vietnam — Major General Arthur MacDonald — believed that the task force would be better employed against North Vietnamese conventional forces , rather than in local pacification operations ; later , following a request from Weyand , 1 ATF would again redeploy outside the province . As such , in an operation similar to those three months earlier at Bien Hoa , it was planned that 1 ATF would be used to help block infiltration towards Saigon . Overall responsibility for the defence of the capital was assigned to US IIFFV , and included the US 1st , 9th and 25th Divisions , as well as the US 199th Light Infantry Brigade , 1 ATF , and a number of South Vietnamese units . The main deployment began on 25 April in response to intelligence reports of another impending offensive , with 1 ATF headquarters established at the American base at Bearcat , while 2 RAR and 3 RAR deployed to the Bien Hoa @-@ Long Khanh border to block likely infiltration routes east of the large American base complex at Long Binh , which included the airbase at Bien Hoa and the large Long Binh Logistics Depot . Meanwhile , the task force base at Nui Dat was defended by one infantry battalion , a squadron of tanks and the remainder of the cavalry . The SAS squadron also remained in Phuoc Tuy during this period , continuing reconnaissance and surveillance operations in the province .
2 RAR was tasked with patrolling and ambushing tracks and likely rocket @-@ launching sites to disrupt the expected attack against Saigon . The battalion established FSB Hunt , and conducted a number of small but successful ambushes . Meanwhile , 3 RAR established FSB Evans and conducted search @-@ and @-@ ambush operations before returning to Nui Dat on 3 May after being replaced by 1 RAR , which then joined 2 RAR for a sweep . In response to the attacks on Saigon , elements of 1 ATF redeployed on 5 May , relieving the US 199th Light Infantry Brigade in an area of operations ( AO ) known as AO Columbus so that it could be released for operations elsewhere , with companies from both battalions deploying to ambush suspected infiltration routes in the expectation of an attack by the 274th Regiment from the Viet Cong 5th Division . Five days later 2 RAR was relieved by 3 RAR , having completed its last major operation before returning to Australia . The Australians waited for the Viet Cong to make their move , but they again proved elusive and contact was only light , and by 10 May just six had been killed and one wounded after 21 days of operations . Having missed the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese units as they infiltrated the capital , it was planned that the Australians would be again redeployed on 12 May in order to obstruct the withdrawal of these forces following their defeat in Saigon . The task force would subsequently concentrate astride Route 16 on one of the major north @-@ south supply routes 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) north @-@ east of Saigon , just east of Lai Khe in Binh Duong Province , in a new area of operations known as AO Surfers . Meanwhile , US forces would operate in support on the flanks .
= = = Opposing forces = = =
1 ATF would move with its headquarters and two infantry battalions — 1 RAR and 3 RAR — as well as cavalry , artillery , engineer and aviation elements operating in support , including M113 armoured personnel carriers from A Squadron , 3rd Cavalry Regiment , 105 mm M2A2 howitzers from 12th Field Regiment , Royal Australian Artillery , Bell H @-@ 13 Sioux light observation helicopters from 161st Reconnaissance Flight and mortar locating radars from 131st Divisional Locating Battery . The concept of operations called for the establishment battalion AOs , named Bondi , Manly and Newport . 1 RAR was allocated to AO Bondi with artillery support from the 102nd Field Battery established at a fire support base , named FSB Coral . 3 RAR was initially allocated to AO Manly , west of Bondi , and would also be supported from FSB Coral by its own supporting battery , 161st Battery , Royal New Zealand Artillery . The operation would be conducted in three phases . 3 RAR — under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Jim Shelton — would conduct an air assault into Coral early on 12 May , with the lead elements securing the landing zone for the fly @-@ in of the remainder of the battalion , and 1 RAR under Lieutenant Colonel Phillip Bennett . Leaving its supporting artillery and one infantry company for protection , 3 RAR would then move west to establish blocking positions and patrol AO Manly in order to intercept North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces attempting to withdraw from the south and south @-@ west . Meanwhile , 1 RAR would establish its supporting artillery and mortars at FSB Coral , and then with one company , clear Route 16 to the village of Tan Uyen , 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) to the south . The battalion would then occupy blocking positions and patrol AO Bondi . 1 ATF headquarters would then move from Bearcat to FSB Coral on 13 May , while the forward task force maintenance area would move from Bearcat by road convoy and be operational by 14 May .
A number of People 's Army of Vietnam ( PAVN ) units had been identified in AO Surfers , including the regular North Vietnamese 7th Division — consisting of the North Vietnamese 141st and 165th Regiments under the command of Nguyen the Bon , the Vietcong 5th Division — consisting of Viet Cong 274th and 275th Regiments , and the Dong Nai Regiment . These divisions were believed to have participated in the assault on Saigon and allied intelligence considered it likely they would attempt to withdraw through the Australian area of operations in order to regroup . Other forces included North Vietnamese 85th Regiment as well as the 165th , 233rd , 269th , 275th , D280 and 745th Viet Cong Infiltration Groups and various units used for reconnaissance , guiding , logistics , liaison and other tasks . In total , an estimated strength of 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 men . Regardless , despite earlier warnings that they may concentrate up to regimental @-@ strength , a breakdown in the passage of intelligence led the Australians to believe that the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong would remain dispersed in small groups in an attempt to avoid detection . As such the Australians assumed that the communist forces would pose little threat and envisioned patrolling from company harbours to find and ambush them as they withdrew . Meanwhile , due to the risk of heavy ground fire , only a very limited aerial reconnaissance of the new area of operations was undertaken and this later had significant implications .
= = Battle = =
= = = Occupation of FSB Coral , 12 May 1968 = = =
On the night of 11 / 12 May , only a few hours before the Australian redeployment was scheduled to commence , American forces from US 1st Division operating in AO Surfers were attacked just west of the proposed landing zone ( LZ ) . Continuing through the night and into the following morning , the fighting prevented the Americans from leaving the area and led to initial delays in occupying FSB Coral . Further delays arose after the terrain around the proposed LZ was found to be unsuitable for helicopters , and Shelton was forced to designate a new location 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) to the south @-@ west for his battalion . Meanwhile , the American company providing security for the lead Australian elements had to redeploy to secure the alternate LZ . Communications were problematic throughout the operation and this further compounded the delays . The first infantry company to fly in — B Company , 3 RAR under the command of Major Bert Irwin — was already airborne and Shelton directed them to the new LZ . On landing , Irwin moved quickly to the original position , and despite rapidly clearing it , the insertion was further delayed .
1 ATF was not well practised in flying in and setting up a large fire support base , and a poorly co @-@ ordinated , prolonged and dislocated operation caused considerable delay in getting on the ground , and the scattering of a number of units . Confusion continued to affect the operation , with 161st Battery , RNZA arriving by CH @-@ 47 Chinook before FSB Coral was ready , and being forced to land in an improvised LZ in a clearing 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) to the south @-@ west . Meanwhile , the continued presence of American forces in AO Manly also prevented 3 RAR from deploying as planned , and as the battalion began landing it was forced to remain on the western side of the FSB . 102nd Field Battery , the direct support battery for 1 RAR , was subsequently landed at FSB Coral and Major Brian Murtagh , second @-@ in @-@ command of 12th Field Regiment and the artillery tactical headquarters , was subsequently designated as the FSB commander , even though his guns were now physically dislocated from each other .
These delays in turn affected the fly @-@ in of 1 RAR , with the companies forced to wait at the departure point in AO Colombus before they commenced the air move to FSB Coral . Hughes visited Bennett at FSB Coral at 15 : 30 to discuss aspects of the defence , as well as events planned for the following day . The deployment of the second battalion was not complete until 16 : 10 , with the 1 RAR Mortar Platoon arriving on the last flight , more than four hours late . It became clear to Bennett that 1 RAR would need to deploy to the east of the FSB , and with just two hours before last light the companies were moved into hasty defensive positions , the last of which were not established until 17 : 00 . Due to the hurried deployment , by dusk the two battalions of 1 ATF and their supporting elements were scattered around FSB Coral in four roughly connected groups , rather than in a co @-@ ordinated defensive position . The task force headquarters advance party and part of its Defence Platoon were located centrally , yet the task force tactical headquarters and the artillery tactical headquarters under Lieutenant Colonel Jack Kelly — Commanding Officer of 12th Field Regiment — both remained in Bearcat . Hughes was not present either , having left Bearcat to attend to matters at the task force rear headquarters at Nui Dat , and was due to move forward with the tactical headquarters to FSB Coral the following day .
There had been little opportunity for co @-@ ordination , with the Australian infantry strung out along the routes away from FSB Coral in preparation for their move the next day . 3 RAR was responsible for the security of FSB Coral , with D Company defending the north @-@ west approaches , while the remaining three companies were dispersed over 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the west , spread between the FSB and the New Zealand gun positions to the south @-@ west . 1 RAR occupied the eastern approaches , with its rifle companies dispersed over 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) harbouring in night ambush positions , while C Company was isolated to the south @-@ east picketing the road to Tan Uyen in order to provide security for the convoy due to arrive from Bearcat the following day . Bennett kept his anti @-@ tank and assault pioneer platoons inside the FSB to protect the battalion command post , while the mortar platoon would be particularly exposed , being located adjacent to the 102nd Field Battery gun position in an open area on the outer edge of the base facing to the north and east . The rifle companies to the north @-@ east provided the only protection , yet there were large gaps between these positions and they could be easily bypassed . Although the Australians made further efforts to co @-@ ordinate their defences prior to last light , attempting to tie in their positions to achieve mutual support between the sub @-@ units , these arrangements remained incomplete as night fell .
Command posts were dug in and weapons pits and shell scrapes were commenced , yet many were not completed to any depth due to a lack of time , while a heavy rainfall started at 18 : 00 and soon filled the pits with water anyway . No claymore mines or barbed wire were laid out either , as the wire had not yet arrived , while lack of materials also prevented the construction of overhead protection . 7 @.@ 62 mm M60 machine @-@ guns were placed out around the perimeter , but there was no time to test fire them or to properly tie in their arcs of fire . Meanwhile , 90 mm M67 recoilless rifles ( RCLs ) from the 1 RAR Anti @-@ Tank Platoon armed with High Explosive Anti @-@ tank ( HEAT ) and anti @-@ personnel flechette ammunition were sited to support the forward machine @-@ guns . Due to their previous experiences fighting the Viet Cong in Phuoc Tuy Province , the Australians were not overly alarmed despite the defences at FSB Coral suffering due to the hasty deployment and , although the recent fighting involving the US 1st Division only 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the west may have been additional cause for concern , its extent was unknown to the Australians at the time . Expecting the North Vietnamese to be operating in small groups while trying to avoid battle as they had done during the last three weeks , there was little thought of a major threat to the FSB . Commencing night routine , sentries were posted while the rest of the Australians stood down to get some sleep .
= = = First attack on FSB Coral , 12 / 13 May 1968 = = =
Unknown to 1 ATF , the headquarters of the North Vietnamese 7th Division was located approximately 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) to the east of FSB Coral and several units of the division were also based in the vicinity . The North Vietnamese 165th Regiment was operating to the north and the 141st Regiment to the east , while the battalion @-@ strength 275th Infiltration Group had only recently arrived , having left the Ho Chi Minh Trail on the Cambodian border just 48 hours earlier . The North Vietnamese divisional commander had quickly dispatched reconnaissance elements to observe the fly @-@ in of the Australians and their defensive preparations during the afternoon , and they soon reported the opportunity to attack the exposed gun positions of the 102nd Field Battery . One battalion of 141st Regiment , augmented by the 275th and 269th Infiltration Groups , was subsequently tasked to attack FSB Coral that night . This reconnaissance had not gone unnoticed by the Australian infantry , however , and companies from both 1 RAR and 3 RAR had fleeting contacts with small groups of North Vietnamese at last light and into the evening . D Company , 1 RAR — under Major Tony Hammett — contacted a ten @-@ man group of North Vietnamese while moving into ambush positions 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 2 @,@ 700 yd ) north of FSB Coral late in the afternoon . In a brief exchange the North Vietnamese broke contact after losing one killed , firing rocket @-@ propelled grenades into the trees above the Australians and wounding one of them .
During the evening B Company , 1 RAR — under the command of Major Bob Hennessy — had a further contact to the east with another ten @-@ man group . Later , Major Colin Adamson 's A Company detected 20 North Vietnamese moving on the perimeter utilising newly issued Starlight scopes and subsequently killed and wounded some of them . However , such events appeared to be chance encounters and caused the Australians no particular concern . By midnight the rain had stopped , and five minutes later the 1 RAR mortar position was probed and a fire @-@ fight ensued , resulting in possibly three North Vietnamese being killed . Later it became apparent that they had been marking assault lanes , while at 02 : 25 three North Vietnamese from a forward reconnaissance party walked into a D Company , 1 RAR ambush and in the ensuing contact one was killed before they again broke contact , firing rocket @-@ propelled grenades that killed one Australian and wounded 11 from a single platoon . Yet despite a number of minor clashes the North Vietnamese successfully bypassed the Australian rifle companies , conducting a forced march under cover of darkness and rain to dig in within 250 metres ( 270 yd ) of FSB Coral undetected .
Finally at 03 : 30 , rocket and mortar fire began falling on FSB Coral , concentrating on the 102nd Field Battery and the 1 RAR Mortar Platoon positions in an intense bombardment lasting five minutes . Following a ten @-@ minute pause a number of flares signalled the start of the assault . Intending to capture the field guns , two North Vietnamese companies rushed the Australians from the north @-@ east firing their AK @-@ 47 assault rifles , with the 1 RAR Mortar Platoon taking the brunt of the initial attack , while the 1 ATF Defence Platoon was also pinned down by heavy machine @-@ gun fire . The New Zealand howitzers and 3 RAR mortars began firing in support , however they failed to halt the North Vietnamese and the initial assault succeeded in over @-@ running the 1 RAR mortars , killing five and wounding eight . The flank of the main assault force then ran through the position at speed before moving on towards the gun position . During their earlier reconnaissance , the North Vietnamese had likely observed the guns to be laid facing east and had probably planned to assault from the north as a result , yet shortly before the main attack the battery had fired a mission to the north and the guns were now directly facing their axis of assault . Moving in long straight lines across a frontage of 150 to 200 men , the main North Vietnamese assault moved against the gun position as the Australian gunners opened fire over open sights with Splintex rounds at point blank range , with thousands of darts ripping through their ranks and breaking up successive waves into small groups . Amid the confusion , follow @-@ up sections hesitated upon reaching the mortar position , while other groups skirmished around the flanks and between the artillery and mortars .
Meanwhile , the 1 RAR Anti @-@ Tank Platoon — commanded by Lieutenant Les Tranter — also engaged with Splintex from their 90 mm RCLs , firing across the front of the mortars and relieving the immediate pressure on them . However , with the North Vietnamese having successfully achieved a break @-@ in , and faced with the possibility of imminent annihilation , the 1 RAR Mortar Platoon second @-@ in @-@ command — Lieutenant Tony Jensen — was forced to direct the RCLs onto his own position , to which Bennett agreed . As the North Vietnamese attempted to turn the captured mortars against the Australians , the flechette darts swept the area , clearing everything above ground , causing heavy casualties among the assaulting force and damaging a number of mortar tubes . Elsewhere , the North Vietnamese assault had reached the Australian gun position , over @-@ running two guns as desperate close quarters fighting broke out between the emplacements . The attackers subsequently succeeded in capturing No. 6 gun on the extreme edge of the gun @-@ line and then attempted to destroy it with satchel charges . In both the mortar and artillery positions the North Vietnamese and Australians occupied adjacent pits , fighting each other at close range for their possession . The gun position officer — Captain Ian Ahearn — co @-@ ordinated the defence , and the Australians finally drove off the assault with grenades and small arms , as well as Splintex rounds fired from the Anti @-@ Tank Platoon . Meanwhile , with the assault falling mainly on 1 RAR and 102nd Field Battery , to the west 3 RAR had largely remained out of contact .
Although the North Vietnamese troops were well trained and equipped , they were ultimately unable to prevail against the superior firepower of the Australian infantry and gunners , which had turned the battle in their favour . Throughout the night , fire support was co @-@ ordinated by the 1 RAR command post and the fire support co @-@ ordinating centre , which controlled integral fires from 102nd Field Battery , its direct support battery , as well as from 161st Battery RNZA and the 81 mm mortars from 3 RAR . Yet the Australian gunners soon ran out of Splintex rounds , and they were forced to use standard high @-@ explosive with their direct @-@ action fuses set to ' delay ' . The guns were then depressed to fire the shell at the ground approximately 40 to 50 metres ( 44 to 55 yd ) in front of the emplacement , which caused the round to ricochet and explode in the air above the heads of the assaulting force , an expedient which proved very effective . The Australians were also supported by artillery from a number of neighbouring American batteries that were in range , as well as by aerial strafing from helicopter gunships and continuous illumination by flares . Forward observers adjusted the artillery to within 20 metres ( 22 yd ) of the Australian position , while C @-@ 47 Spooky gunships armed with mini @-@ guns fired thousands of rounds into the assaulting forces .
After an hour of intense fighting , by 04 : 30 the main attack began to falter and the North Vietnamese subsequently withdrew into a rubber plantation to the north @-@ east , carrying many of their dead and wounded . However , in an attempt prevent the Australians from following them a company @-@ sized force remained , and the Australian gunners attempted to engage them with their remaining Splintex rounds and high explosive . Taking advantage of the extinguishing of a fire that the Australians had been using to direct the helicopter gunships , the North Vietnamese again attacked at 05 : 00 in an effort to further cover their withdrawal . Greatly reduced in strength , the attack was quickly broken up in a crossfire of high explosive and Splintex . A series of sporadic contacts then took place between the Australians and withdrawing North Vietnamese parties , while at 05 : 30 a helicopter light @-@ fire team became effective and forced the North Vietnamese rearguard to abandon its positions . Also during this time , rockets and mortars had landed on B Company , 1 RAR 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) to the south @-@ east , killing one Australian and wounding another . At 05 : 45 , 161st Battery RNZA began firing on likely withdrawal routes as the pre @-@ dawn light began to appear . The Australians then began a sweep of their position , with the 102nd Field Battery clearing the gun position while Bennett accompanied the 1 RAR Anti @-@ Tank Platoon and a regimental medical officer 's party to clear the rest of the perimeter . A number of North Vietnamese soldiers were subsequently located , with the last killed in the gun position at 06 : 10 . The two patrols then met in the mortar position while a patrol from 3 RAR carried out a similar sweep from north to south , and FSB Coral was finally cleared by 06 : 25 . By 06 : 30 the evacuation of the Australian dead and wounded began by helicopter . The communists finally completed their withdrawal by 08 : 00 .
The fighting had been costly for both sides . Australian casualties included nine killed and 28 wounded , while one howitzer and two mortars had been damaged . North Vietnamese casualties included 52 dead , who lay strewn around the perimeter , while 23 small arms and seven crew @-@ served weapons had also been captured by the Australians . While Radio Hanoi quickly announced a major North Vietnamese victory there was little doubt that the Australians had convincingly repulsed the attack , even if they had come close to suffering a military and political catastrophe , with the task force headquarters itself nearly being destroyed . The initial delays during the fly @-@ in had left the defenders spread haphazardly and , had the North Vietnamese assaulted without the preparatory fire that ultimately alerted the Australians , the result may have been different . Equally , the fortunes of war had resulted in the Australian guns being laid in the direction of the main North Vietnamese assault , and the firepower they afforded had probably been decisive . The occupation of FSB Coral was one of the first such operations conducted by 1 ATF and many of the deficiencies evident had been due to this inexperience . Command and control had been insufficient and in hindsight the lack of co @-@ ordination in setting up the defence could have been avoided with the appointment of a local defence commander . The absence of proper aerial reconnaissance prior to insertion had also resulted in units and their supporting elements landing on unsuitable ground in full view of the North Vietnamese , while the delay in the insertion of the second battalion denied them enough time to establish their positions before night fell . Failures in the assessment and timely distribution of intelligence were also identified .
= = = 1 ATF consolidates in AO Surfers , 13 – 15 May 1968 = = =
The 1 ATF forward tactical headquarters arrived from Bearcat by Chinook on 13 May , while additional personnel and stocks were brought in by road convoy to establish the forward task force maintenance area . Hughes arrived at 08 : 00 and directed Bennett to redeploy his companies in all @-@ round defence of FSB Coral , with 1 RAR consolidating their defensive arrangements with wire , sandbags , overhead protection and claymore mines , while tripod @-@ mounted machine @-@ guns were also emplaced to fire on fixed lines . Meanwhile , 3 RAR established FSB Coogee in AO Manly 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) west , with C Company securing the fire support base while the other three rifle companies conducted search operations which resulted in one being Australian killed . 161st Battery RNZA was then redeployed by air to Coogee . M @-@ 113 armoured personnel carriers from A Squadron , 3 CAV ( less one troop ) — under the command of Major John Keldie — arrived at Coral the same day , after escorting the rear echelons and 155 mm M109 self @-@ propelled artillery from A Battery , US 2 / 35th Artillery Regiment . The APCs were then split between the fire support bases , with 1 Troop assigned to 1 RAR and 2 Troop to 3 RAR , with Keldie appointed as local defence commander at FSB Coral in order to co @-@ ordinate the actions of units on the perimeter . 1st Field Squadron also provided engineer teams to each combat arm , while other elements prepared command post bunkers and fortifications within the fire support bases .
The unsuccessful assault against FSB Coral on the night of 12 / 13 May had demonstrated that the North Vietnamese would react violently to Australian attempts to control AO Surfers , and with 1 ATF deployed astride a key route to Saigon and threatening a number of communist bases and staging areas located nearby , further heavy fighting was expected over the following days . In response , the Australians were forced to refine their tactics and Hughes decided to establish strong defensive positions in order to destroy the North Vietnamese by fire , rather than by the painstaking patrolling more familiar to the Australians . The FSBs would be heavily defended by night , while the battalions would conduct defensive patrols by day . Later , fighting patrols up to company @-@ size with armoured support would then be used to locate and destroy the Viet Cong main force bases . As such the Australian concept of operations subsequently evolved from one of searching and clearing in order to locate and cut infiltration and withdrawal routes , into a series of reconnaissance @-@ in @-@ force operations from heavily defended bases . Meanwhile , in AO Manly , 3 RAR continued patrolling for the next seven days , successfully ambushing staging areas and infiltration routes between 13 – 19 May for the loss of one soldier killed .
On 14 May there were a number of patrol clashes in AO Bondi , as both sides tried to determine the intentions of the other . The Australians sent out platoon @-@ sized defensive patrols between 3 to 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 to 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from Coral and in nine contacts they suffered three killed and five wounded , while North Vietnamese casualties included 12 killed and two wounded . Later , two more Australians were wounded by a rocket @-@ propelled grenade fired into FSB Coral . During the afternoon , the patrol activity resulted in heavy fighting , and two separate actions fought within half an hour of each other by different platoons from 1 RAR led to two Australians being awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal ( DCM ) — Lance Corporal David Griffiths and Private Richard Norden . The communists appeared to be probing the Australians to gain information on their dispositions and these efforts continued the following day with the defenders observing two North Vietnamese near the perimeter of FSB Coral , while patrols from 1 RAR later contacted a number of small groups and uncovered a recently used company @-@ sized camp just 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) from the base . By 15 May , the Australians considered their defences to be properly co @-@ ordinated , while nearby the North Vietnamese 141st Regiment was again preparing to attack Coral after evading the intensive patrolling . Yet that night a large number of lights and flares were observed by the defenders , effectively warning them of the impending assault .
= = = Second attack on FSB Coral , 16 May 1968 = = =
At 02 : 30 on 16 May the North Vietnamese began a heavy barrage of rocket @-@ propelled grenades and mortar fire , concentrating on A Company 1 RAR , 1 ATF headquarters , and the forward task force maintenance area . Now heavily reinforced , the Australian and American artillery and mortars quickly responded with heavy counter @-@ battery fire , with a total of 60 guns from three batteries of 105 mm field guns , one battery of 155 mm howitzers , one 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) battery and nine 81 mm mortars firing in support , augmented by air support from three heavy fire teams ( each of three Iroquois helicopter gunships ) and three fighters with bombs and napalm . Regardless , at 02 : 40 the North Vietnamese launched a battalion @-@ sized attack , which initially fell on A and B Companies . Even with the artillery and mortars concentrating on close defensive fire tasks , the assault was largely held at the perimeter , although they did succeed in over @-@ running part of 3 Platoon , A Company . Commanded by Lieutenant Neil Weekes , the platoon had been hit heavily by indirect fire during the initial bombardment and had suffered several casualties . Concentrating on the gap created in the Australian perimeter , the North Vietnamese then assaulted with the support of 12 @.@ 7 mm DShK heavy machine @-@ guns . Ordering his men to fix bayonets , Weekes successfully reorganised the defences however , and called in close mortar fire to stabilise the position , resulting in heavy casualties among the assaulting force . He was later awarded the Military Cross for his leadership . Unable to achieve a break @-@ in , the North Vietnamese then broadened their attack to include C Company , engaging three of the four Australian companies on the perimeter . Yet after successfully opening a number of gaps in the wire , they failed to press home their attack .
By 04 : 00 A Company was still heavily engaged and the Australians called in helicopter light @-@ fire teams and C @-@ 47 Spooky gunships , which dropped flares continuously from 04 : 30 to illuminate the battlefield . By 05 : 00 the main attack was halted and the North Vietnamese began withdrawing , just as the Australians were beginning to run low on ammunition . During the lull A Company was resupplied by APC , while the Australians pushed an RCL team forward to provide additional support . At 05 : 15 the North Vietnamese attacked again , targeting the boundary between A and C Companies on the northern edge of the perimeter , only to be repulsed by mortar fire . Later a two @-@ battalion attack on A , B and C Companies was also turned back . The Australians then counter @-@ attacked with elements of A Company supported by APCs , regaining the lost 3 Platoon section post . Finally , after a six @-@ hour battle the North Vietnamese broke contact at 06 : 30 and withdrew with their dead and wounded , fighting a series of rearguard actions to prevent follow @-@ up . The Australians also began collecting their casualties for evacuation , while another resupply was completed with APCs . 1 RAR subsequently commenced a clearance of the area , with the four Australian rifle companies patrolling to a depth of 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) , killing one North Vietnamese soldier and capturing another . Five Australians had been killed and 19 wounded , while two US artillerymen were also wounded during the fighting . Only 34 North Vietnamese bodies were counted on the perimeter at dawn , however intelligence later indicated that fewer than 100 of the 790 attacking troops had survived unwounded . Meanwhile , in an attempt to disrupt the North Vietnamese withdrawal , Keldie led a troop of cavalry from Coral , engaging a North Vietnamese battalion during a pursuit that lasted until 15 : 00 .
On 17 May , Westmoreland visited FSB Coral and congratulated the task force on its defence . Both Australian battalions continued to patrol with minor contacts , and during one such incident at least six North Vietnamese were killed when a group of approximately 35 was engaged by artillery and armed helicopters after being observed by scouts from B Company , 3 RAR . During the week that followed Australian patrols clashed with groups of North Vietnamese moving through AO Surfers , many of them from the North Vietnamese 165th Regiment , which was believed to be withdrawing into War Zone D after attacking Tan Son Nhut airbase , near Saigon . A Company , 3 RAR subsequently occupied a blocking position on the Suoi Ba Pho creek , ambushing North Vietnamese moving northwards and directing mortar firing onto evasion routes , killing eight and capturing two . Elsewhere , C Company , 3 RAR located and destroyed a number of base camps in the vicinity of FSB Coogee . Meanwhile , with the approval of MacDonald , Hughes departed on a long @-@ planned leave to Singapore on 18 May , and Colonel Donald Dunstan , the task force second @-@ in @-@ command , took over as Commander 1 ATF on 20 May . A respected and experienced leader , he quickly took control amidst growing tension .
At 01 : 00 on 22 May FSB Coral was again attacked , though not on the same scale as before , coming under a short but accurate mortar bombardment that was subsequently broken up artillery and mortar fire . In order to bolster his defences and provide an increased offensive capability , on 21 May Dunstan ordered the Centurion tanks from C Squadron , 1st Armoured Regiment to redeploy the 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) from Nui Dat . Under the command of Major Peter Badman , the slow @-@ moving armoured column departed on 22 May , traversing the difficult terrain that included a number of old , rusting Bailey bridges , which threatened to collapse under the 50 @-@ tonne weight of the Centurions . Moving via the inland route under cover provided by an observation aircraft from 161st Reconnaissance Flight , they drove north on Route 2 , then west on Highway 1 to Long Binh where they staged overnight . Just north of Blackhorse the lead vehicle of the convoy hit a road mine , damaging a dozer tank but resulting in no casualties . They finally arrived at FSB Coral at 02 : 30 on 23 May . Four tanks from 1 Troop were subsequently allocated to 1 RAR , while 2 Troop was allocated to 3 RAR . Two American M42 40 mm Self @-@ Propelled Anti @-@ Aircraft Guns had also accompanied the tanks and further strengthened the Australian FSBs in a ground support role .
= = = First attack on FSB Balmoral , 26 May 1968 = = =
With 3 RAR achieving limited results in AO Manly , MacDonald suggested that Dunstan establish the battalion in a new location east of Route 16 in order to locate and destroy the North Vietnamese bases suspected to be in the area . 3 RAR subsequently occupied FSB Balmoral in AO Newport , 4 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) north of Coral , on 24 May in the hope of provoking another battle . Shelton was keen to avoid the mistakes that had been made during the earlier occupation of FSB Coral however , and he sent two companies forward on foot to occupy the new fire support base while the battalion tactical headquarters accompanied them in APCs . During the insertion there were a number of contacts between the Australians and North Vietnamese , with at least one North Vietnamese soldier being killed . Yet with B and D Companies securing the landing zone , the remainder of 3 RAR was inserted by helicopter from FSB Coogee in the late afternoon . FSB Balmoral would be developed as a battalion defensive position only , and 161st Battery RNZA was subsequently flown to FSB Coral , in order to concentrate all of the artillery in that location from where they would be able to cover the whole of the new AO . Meanwhile , the North Vietnamese had been caught by surprise and , with no time prepare an attack , they were unable to respond on the first evening . Regardless , 3 RAR worked quickly to establish their defensive position , digging in and laying wire and claymore mines .
On 25 May , 3 RAR began local defensive and familiarisation patrols . Four Centurion tanks from 2 Troop , C Squadron were ordered to redeploy to FSB Balmoral to bolster the defences , escorted by two infantry platoons from B Company , 1 RAR under Captain Bob Hennessy . En route , the North Vietnamese contacted the Australian infantry from a series of bunkers , pinning them down with machine @-@ gun fire at close range . In response the Australian tanks moved forward , suppressing the bunkers with canister rounds while the infantry was extracted . The Australians had struck the edge of a large , defended base camp estimated at company @-@ size , however under orders to continue to Balmoral before nightfall , they broke contact . The column subsequently arrived at FSB Balmoral without further incident at 15 : 30 and B Company , 1 RAR then returned to FSB Coral by helicopter . At least two North Vietnamese were killed in the encounter , while one Australian was wounded . Although a relatively minor action , the tanks had been decisive and the engagement was early proof of their effectiveness in co @-@ operation with the infantry . Meanwhile , the North Vietnamese commander was no longer able to tolerate the Australian encroachment into his base areas , and with FSB Balmoral located just 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) away , he subsequently tasked the 165st Regiment — commanded by Phan Viet Dong — to attack Balmoral . That evening tracer rounds , shots and lights again alerted the defenders of an impending attack .
At 03 : 45 on 26 May the North Vietnamese began a heavy bombardment with mortar and rockets , accompanied by machine @-@ gun and small @-@ arms fire . Immediately following the barrage , Balmoral was subjected to a ground assault across the open ground from the north @-@ east by a force of up to battalion strength , falling primarily on D Company , commanded by Major Peter Phillips . At the same time the North Vietnamese conducted a feint on the southern perimeter opposite A Company — under Major Horrie Howard — using Bangalore torpedoes to break through the wire , although the gap was not exploited . Two Centurions that had been sited directly on the main axis of assault but concealed during the day , rolled forward under the cover of darkness . Their machine @-@ guns and canister rounds proved telling during the fighting ; the main attack stalled as it reached the wire before being repelled with heavy casualties by the combined firepower of the Australian infantry and tanks . Meanwhile , as sporadic mortar , rocket @-@ propelled grenade and small @-@ arms fire continued , to the south FSB Coral was also hit with suppressing fire from mortars , recoilless rifles and rocket @-@ propelled grenades between 04 : 15 and 04 : 30 , killing one Australian and wounded another . The defenders at Balmoral then directed fire from helicopter gunships and C @-@ 47 Spooky aircraft onto likely assembly areas and mortar base plate locations . Around 05 : 00 the North Vietnamese finally broke contact and withdrew , removing the majority of their casualties under covering fire as the Australian artillery fired on their escape routes . Clearing patrols from 3 RAR then swept the area at first light but found only six North Vietnamese dead and a large quantity of weapons , ammunition and equipment . The Australians subsequently began the evacuation of their casualties , having lost a further three dead and 14 wounded .
= = = Bunker clash and patrolling in AO Surfers , 26 – 27 May 1968 = = =
Dunstan subsequently directed the clearance of the bunker system that had been located the previous day , and a combined force of D Company , 1 RAR and 1 Troop C Squadron under the command of Major Tony Hammett was tasked with carrying out a reconnaissance @-@ in @-@ force . Departing at 06 : 00 on the morning of the 26 May , the lead Australian infantry platoon was contacted at 12 : 27 by small arms fire and rocket @-@ propelled grenades 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 yd ) from Coral , after having paused to direct an air strike by Canberra bombers from No. 2 Squadron RAAF onto a nearby bunker system . In what would become the first Australian combined infantry and tank assault since the Bougainville campaign against the Japanese in the Second World War , the tanks were called forward and attacked the bunkers with anti @-@ tank solid shot and machine @-@ guns , while the infantry indicated targets with their M79 grenade launchers . Moving forward two or three abreast , the Centurions crushed many of the bunkers with their tracks and engaged others at point @-@ blank range with their main armament . Further bunkers were exposed when the foliage was cut away by canister rounds and the infantry followed the tanks using rifles and grenades , while assault pioneers provided support with a flame @-@ thrower as artillery and mortar fire engaged depth targets .
The bunkers were well constructed and camouflaged , while visibility was limited to just 10 to 20 metres ( 11 to 22 yd ) among the dense vegetation and consequently many were not located by the Australians until they were upon them . The bunkers were sited to be mutually supporting , and the North Vietnamese defending them responded with a crossfire of RPG @-@ 2 rocket @-@ propelled grenades , although the heavy armour of the Centurions proved impervious and they remained undamaged . During a three @-@ hour battle the Australians and North Vietnamese fought each other from bunker to bunker . However , with aerial reconnaissance revealing that the bunker system was part of a much larger base area , and with the Australian force judged too small to deal with it , Bennett directed Hammett to retire by late afternoon . Amidst a heavy rain the Australians broke contact at 16 : 00 under the cover of artillery and mortar fire , and they moved quickly back to FSB Coral . Fourteen bunkers had been destroyed , while seven North Vietnamese bodies were counted and quantities of weapons , ammunition and documents were also captured . Yet many more men were undoubtedly entombed in the bunkers after being crushed by the tanks , making a comprehensive body count impossible . Although it had been a fierce engagement the Australians suffered no casualties , a fact which was attributed to the effectiveness of the tanks , and further validated Dunstan 's decision to call them forward from Nui Dat . Second Lieutenant John Salter was later awarded the Military Cross for his leadership during this and other actions .
Over the following days 1 ATF continued patrolling , although these operations resulted in only small @-@ scale contact with the North Vietnamese . On 27 May an Australian Sioux light observation helicopter was damaged by ground fire during a reconnaissance flight 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) outside AO Newport , and air strikes on the area exposed several bunkers which were likely to have been used by the North Vietnamese as a headquarters ; they were subsequently destroyed by artillery fire .
= = = Second attack on FSB Balmoral , 28 May 1968 = = =
A second regimental @-@ sized attack against 3 RAR at Balmoral was launched by the North Vietnamese at 02 : 30 on 28 May , with a two @-@ battalion assault preceded by 60 mm and 80 mm mortar fire from the south . Meanwhile , FSB Coral was also attacked by indirect fire from 02 : 45 . Similar to the attack two nights before , it began with another feint from the south as the North Vietnamese sappers blew up the wire in front of A Company , but was successfully broken up before it reached the wire by the Australian defenders with claymore mines and small @-@ arms fire from their M60 machine @-@ guns , L1A1 Self Loading Rifles and M16 assault rifles . The main assault began at 03 : 10 from the north @-@ east , with the brunt again being borne by Phillips ' D Company . The Australian infantrymen were once again supported by tanks firing canister shot and machine @-@ guns , while artillery and mortars provided continuous close indirect fires , with the combined effect of this firepower stopping the North Vietnamese on the wire before they could penetrate the position . Although the assault was well co @-@ ordinated , the North Vietnamese had lost the element of surprise , with the preparatory fire once more alerting the defenders . The assault was subsequently called off after 30 minutes , while at 03 : 40 a small probe developed from the east but quickly dissipated . Sporadic mortar and rocket fire continued to fall as helicopter light @-@ fire teams and C @-@ 47 Spooky gunships engaged the North Vietnamese , directed by forward air control aircraft . From 05 : 00 until first light artillery from FSB Coral provided continuous battlefield illumination to stymie North Vietnamese attempts to clear their dead and wounded , and they finally withdrew by 05 : 30 .
At first light a clearing patrol from D Company , 3 RAR swept the area with tanks and APCs in support , killing and capturing a number of attackers that had been pinned down in old B @-@ 52 bomb craters to the north of Balmoral . The daylight revealed that the North Vietnamese had once again been soundly defeated leaving 42 dead and seven prisoners , while Australian losses were one killed and eight wounded . Quantities of weapons , clothing , ammunition and equipment were also recovered by the Australians . Phillips was subsequently awarded the Military Cross for his leadership during the battle . Many of the North Vietnamese dead were teenagers of 16 or 17 years , evidence that the PAVN had begun drafting 15 @-@ year @-@ old boys into its combat units ; as had happened after the earlier fighting , their bodies were collected by a bulldozer and buried in a mass grave . Later , a large number of shell scrapes were discovered to the north @-@ east of Balmoral during an aerial reconnaissance by a Sioux light observation helicopter , and they were thought likely to have been used by the North Vietnamese as an assembly area before being engaged by artillery firing defensive fire tasks early in the battle . The successful defence of Balmoral and the high ratio of North Vietnamese killed had confirmed the judgement of MacDonald and Dunstan and validated the decision to adopt an aggressive defence with strong static positions and forceful patrolling . The failed assault proved to be the final attempt to remove 1 ATF from AO Surfers , and there were no further attacks by the North Vietnamese against either Coral or Balmoral .
= = = Operation Toan Thang I concludes , 28 May − 6 June 1968 = = =
The Australians continued to patrol aggressively , with further clashes occurring between companies from 1 RAR and 3 RAR , and the North Vietnamese . On the morning of 30 May , C Company , 1 RAR under Major Ian Campbell had patrolled into a bunker system 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) east of FSB Coral and was contacted by a large dug @-@ in North Vietnamese force . At 08 : 30 the lead platoon , 9 Platoon , came under fire and was pinned down by rocket @-@ propelled grenades and 7 @.@ 62 mm RPD light machine @-@ guns . Meanwhile , 7 Platoon moved to assist but was also pinned down , with one section suffering heavy casualties and losing an M60 machine @-@ gun . Campbell struggled to establish a company defensive position , pushing 8 Platoon forward covered by armed helicopters and indirect fire . Yet with the two forces facing each other at only 10 to 15 metres ( 11 to 16 yd ) , the Australian artillery and mortars were rendered ineffective and Dunstan subsequently dispatched two tanks from Coral to reinforce them as heavy fighting developed . Supported by APCs , the Australian infantry and tanks then assaulted and cleared several bunkers , allowing the lead platoon to withdraw after three hours of fighting . Suffering one killed and seven wounded , C Company broke contact by 11 : 55 , withdrawing 500 metres ( 550 yd ) as artillery , mortars and air strikes engaged the bunker system . Three days later C Company returned to the area to recover the lost machine @-@ gun only to find the position as they had left it ; strewn with dead bodies and caved @-@ in bunkers with the battlefield having been abandoned by the North Vietnamese , who had also withdrawn following the Australian assault . The tanks had destroyed at least eight bunkers ,
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68 @-@ pounder guns were mounted on the main deck . Firing tests carried out in September 1861 against an armoured target , however , proved that the 110 @-@ pounder was inferior to the 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun in armour penetration and repeated incidents of breech explosions during the Battles for Shimonoseki and the Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 – 64 caused the navy to begin to withdraw the gun from service shortly afterwards .
The 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed approximately 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) and had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 12 ° . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 110 @-@ pounder Armstrong breech @-@ loader weighed 107 – 110 pounds ( 48 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) and , at an elevation of 11 @.@ 25 ° , a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . The 110 @-@ pounder gun weighed 9 @,@ 520 pounds ( 4 @,@ 318 @.@ 2 kg ) while the 40 @-@ pounder weighed 3 @,@ 584 pounds ( 1 @,@ 625 @.@ 7 kg ) . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
Resistance was rearmed during her 1867 – 68 refit with fourteen 7 @-@ inch and two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The new guns were heavier so fewer could be carried . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 9 long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 pounds ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
= = = Armour = = =
The Defence @-@ class ships had a wrought iron armour belt , 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , that covered 140 feet ( 42 @.@ 7 m ) amidships . The armour extended from upper deck level to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below the waterline . 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads protected the guns on the main deck . The armour was backed by 18 inches ( 460 mm ) of teak . The ends of the ship were left entirely unprotected which meant that the steering gear was very vulnerable . They were , however , sub @-@ divided into many watertight compartments to minimize any flooding .
= = Construction and service = =
HMS Resistance was ordered on 14 December 1859 and laid down a week later by Westwood , Baillie at their shipyard in Cubitt Town , London . She was launched on 11 April 1861 , commissioned in July 1862 and completed on 5 October at the cost of £ 258 @,@ 120 . After completion she served in the Channel Fleet until 1864 when she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet , the first British ironclad assigned to that fleet . In 1867 the ship was paid off in Portsmouth for refit and re @-@ armament . Resistance recommissioned in 1869 as guardship in the River Mersey and served there until 1873 when she returned to the Channel Fleet . In 1877 the ship resumed her post as Mersey guardship until she was paid off in 1880 at Devonport .
In 1885 Resistance began to be used as a target for the testing of armour against the effects of torpedoes and gunfire . She was sold for scrap on 11 November 1898 . She foundered in Holyhead Bay whilst under tow to the breakers on 4 March 1899 and was later raised and scrapped at Garston , Liverpool .
= Microgale macpheei =
Microgale macpheei is an extinct shrew tenrec from southeastern Madagascar . It is known only from two partial skulls found in Andrahomana cave , which radiocarbon dating of associated rodent remains suggests are about 2000 years old . It is the only known recently extinct tenrec . First described in 2007 , it is most similar to the smaller Microgale brevicaudata of northern and western Madagascar . M. macpheei has a broad rostrum ( front part of the skull ) and , like M. brevicaudata , lacks a diastema ( gap ) between the premolars . A number of details of tooth morphology are characteristic of M. macpheei .
= = Taxonomy = =
Remains of shrew tenrecs ( Microgale ) were found during expeditions to the cave of Andrahomana in southeastern Madagascar , led by David Burney in 2000 and 2003 . The Microgale material was described as a new species , M. macpheei , in 2007 by Steven Goodman , Natalie Vasey , and Burney . The species was named after Ross MacPhee in honor of his contributions to knowledge of the genus Microgale and the paleontology of Madagascar . Goodman and colleagues considered the living Microgale brevicaudata from northern and western Madagascar to be the closest relative of M. macpheei ; some populations of this tenrec have since been separated into a different species , M. grandidieri . The common name " MacPhee 's shrew tenrec " has been proposed for M. macpheei . The genus of M. macpheei , Microgale , includes more than 20 species and is the largest of the tenrec family , which includes a variety of other Madagascan mammals .
= = Description = =
Microgale macpheei is known from two specimens : a damaged cranium ( skull without mandibles , or lower jaws ) lacking the back part ( the parietal bones and further back ) as well as the incisors , canines , and second premolars ; and another damaged cranium lacking the same parts as well as the left toothrow . Both show no evidence of ongoing tooth replacement , indicating that the permanent dentition is complete . M. macpheei was larger in most measurements than M. brevicaudata , but because of small samples , some differences are not statistically significant . The length of the bony palate in the two specimens of M. macpheei is 9 @.@ 4 and 9 @.@ 7 mm , compared to 7 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 0 mm in eight adult M. brevicaudata . In both specimens , the length of the molar row is 3 @.@ 0 mm , compared to 2 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 8 mm in the sample of M. brevicaudata .
The rostrum ( front part of the skull ) is short and blunt in both M. macpheei and M. brevicaudata , contrasting with the condition in other Microgale , but the rostrum of M. brevicaudata is distinctly more tapered at the front , whereas that of M. macpheei is more blunt at the front . Unlike other Microgale , M. brevicaudata and M. macpheei lack gaps ( diastemata ) between the premolars . M. macpheei had larger , more robust teeth than M. brevicaudata . In both species , the mesiostyle and distostyle , two crests , on the fourth premolar ( P4 ) and the molars are reduced relative to the condition in other Microgale . M. macpheei lacks an extension of the protocone cusp on the lingual ( inner ) side of the third upper premolar ( P3 ) and P4 , present in M. brevicaudata , and has the paracone cusp on P4 less well @-@ developed . On the other hand , the front part of the ectostyle crest on P4 is larger . The relative lengths of some of the crests on the two last molars also differ between the two species .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Microgale macpheei is known only from the cave of Andrahomana . Its past presence there , like that of the extinct rodent Hypogeomys australis , suggests formerly more mesic ( wet ) conditions around the cave , which is currently in a dry area . In addition to M. macpheei , three other tenrecs have been described from subfossil material , but none are currently recognized as valid species ; thus , M. macpheei is at present the only known Recently extinct tenrec species . However , there is a remnant patch of mesic forest near Andrahomana , where a population of M. macpheei may survive . Although no radiocarbon dating has been carried out on M. macpheei remains , bones of the rodent Macrotarsomys petteri from layers in the same cave deposit bracketing those where M. macpheei was found yield dates of around 2480 and 1760 Before Present .
= Rules of chess =
The rules of chess ( also known as the laws of chess ) are rules governing the play of the game of chess . While the exact origins of chess are unclear , modern rules first took form during the Middle Ages . The rules continued to be slightly modified until the early 19th century , when they reached essentially their current form . The rules also varied somewhat from place to place . Today chess 's international governing body FIDE ( Fédération Internationale des Échecs ) sets the standard rules , with slight modifications made by some national organizations for their own purposes . There are variations of the rules for fast chess , correspondence chess , online chess , and chess variants .
Chess is a game played by two people on a chessboard , with sixteen pieces ( of six types ) for each player . Each type of piece moves in a distinct way . The goal of the game is to checkmate , that is , to threaten the opponent 's king with inevitable capture . Games do not necessarily end with checkmate – players often resign if they believe they will lose . In addition , there are several ways that a game can end in a draw .
Besides the basic movement of the pieces , rules also govern the equipment used , the time control , the conduct and ethics of players , accommodations for physically challenged players , the recording of moves using chess notation , as well as provide procedures for resolving irregularities which can occur during a game .
= = Initial setup = =
Chess is played on a chessboard , a square board divided into 64 squares ( eight @-@ by @-@ eight ) of alternating color , which is similar to that used in draughts ( checkers ) ( FIDE 2008 ) . No matter what the actual colors of the board , the lighter @-@ colored squares are called " light " or " white " , and the darker @-@ colored squares are called " dark " or " black " . Sixteen " white " and sixteen " black " pieces are placed on the board at the beginning of the game . The board is placed so that a white square is in each player 's near @-@ right corner . Horizontal rows are called ranks and vertical rows are called files .
Each player controls sixteen pieces :
At the beginning of the game , the pieces are arranged as shown in the diagram : for each side one king , one queen , two rooks , two bishops , two knights , and eight pawns . The pieces are placed , one on a square , as follows :
The rooks are placed on the outside corners , right and left edge .
The knights are placed immediately inside of the rooks .
The bishops are placed immediately inside of the knights .
The queen is placed on the central square of the same color of that of the player : white queen on the white square and black queen on the black square .
The king takes the vacant spot next to the queen .
The pawns are placed one square in front of all of the other pieces .
Popular mnemonics used to remember the setup are " queen on her own color " and " white on right " . The latter refers to setting up the board so that the square closest to each player 's right is white ( Schiller 2003 : 16 – 17 ) .
= = Gameplay = =
The player controlling the white pieces is named " White " ; the player controlling the black pieces is named " Black " . White moves first , then players alternate moves . Making a move is required ; it is not legal to skip a move , even when having to move is detrimental . Play continues until a king is checkmated , a player resigns , or a draw is declared , as explained below . In addition , if the game is being played under a time control players who exceed their time limit lose the game .
The official chess rules do not include a procedure for determining who plays White . Instead , this decision is left open to tournament @-@ specific rules ( e.g. a Swiss system tournament or Round @-@ robin tournament ) or , in the case of non @-@ competitive play , mutual agreement , in which case some kind of random choice is often employed . A common method is for one player to conceal a piece ( usually a pawn ) of each color in either hand ; the other player chooses a hand to open and reveal their color . Play then commences with white .
= = = Movement = = =
= = = = Basic moves = = = =
Each type of chess piece has its own method of movement . A piece moves to a vacant square except when capturing an opponent 's piece .
Except for any move of the knight and castling , pieces cannot jump over other pieces . A piece is captured ( or taken ) when an attacking enemy piece replaces it on its square ( en passant is the only exception ) . The captured piece is thereby permanently removed from the game . The king can be put in check but cannot be captured ( see below ) .
The king moves exactly one square horizontally , vertically , or diagonally . A special move with the king known as castling is allowed only once per player , per game ( see below ) .
A rook moves any number of vacant squares in a horizontal or vertical direction . It also is moved when castling .
A bishop moves any number of vacant squares in any diagonal direction .
The queen moves any number of vacant squares in a horizontal , vertical , or diagonal direction .
A knight moves to the nearest square not on the same rank , file , or diagonal . ( This can be thought of as moving two squares horizontally then one square vertically , or moving one square horizontally then two squares vertically — i.e. in an " L " pattern . ) The knight is not blocked by other pieces : it jumps to the new location .
Pawns have the most complex rules of movement :
A pawn moves straight forward one square , if that square is vacant . If it has not yet moved , a pawn also has the option of moving two squares straight forward , provided both squares are vacant . Pawns cannot move backwards .
Pawns are the only pieces that capture differently from how they move . A pawn can capture an enemy piece on either of the two squares diagonally in front of the pawn ( but cannot move to those squares if they are vacant ) .
The pawn is also involved in the two special moves en passant and promotion ( Schiller 2003 : 17 – 19 ) .
= = = = Castling = = = =
Castling consists of moving the king two squares towards a rook , then placing the rook on the other side of the king , adjacent to it . Castling is only permissible if all of the following conditions hold :
The king and rook involved in castling must not have previously moved ;
There must be no pieces between the king and the rook ;
The king may not currently be in check , nor may the king pass through or end up in a square that is under attack by an enemy piece ( though the rook is permitted to be under attack and to pass over an attacked square ) ;
The king and the rook must be on the same rank ( Schiller 2003 : 19 ) .
= = = = En passant = = = =
When a pawn advances two squares from its original square and ends the turn adjacent to a pawn of the opponent 's on the same rank , it may be captured by that pawn of the opponent 's , as if it had moved only one square forward . This capture is only legal on the opponent 's next move immediately following the first pawn 's advance . The diagrams on the right demonstrate an instance of this : if the white pawn moves from a2 to a4 , the black pawn on b4 can capture it en passant , moving from b4 to a3 while the white pawn on a4 is removed from the board .
= = = = Pawn promotion = = = =
If a player advances a pawn to its eighth rank , the pawn is then promoted ( converted ) to a queen , rook , bishop , or knight of the same color at the choice of the player ( a queen is usually chosen ) . The choice is not limited to previously captured pieces . Hence it is theoretically possible for a player to have up to nine queens or up to ten rooks , bishops , or knights if all of their pawns are promoted . If the desired piece is not available , the player should call the arbiter to provide the piece ( Schiller 2003 : 17 – 19 ) .
= = = Check = = =
A king is in check when it is under attack by at least one enemy piece . A piece unable to move because it would place its own king in check ( it is pinned against its own king ) may still deliver check to the opposing player .
A player may not make any move which places or leaves his king in check . The possible ways to get out of check are :
Move the king to a square where it is not threatened .
Capture the threatening piece ( possibly with the king ) .
Block the check by placing a piece between the king and the opponent 's threatening piece ( Just 2014 ) , ( Polgar & Truong 2005 : 32 @,@ 103 ) , ( Burgess 2009 : 550 ) .
If it is not possible to get out of check , the king is checkmated and the game is over ( see the next section ) .
In informal games , it is customary to announce " check " when making a move that puts the opponent 's king in check . However , in formal competitions check is rarely announced ( Just 2014 ) .
= = Competition rules = =
These rules apply to games played " over the board " . There are special rules for correspondence chess , blitz chess , computer chess , and for handicapped players .
= = = Act of moving the pieces = = =
The movement of pieces is to be done with one hand . Once the hand is taken off a piece after moving it , the move cannot be retracted unless the move is illegal . When castling , the player should first move the king with one hand and then move the rook with the same hand ( Schiller 2003 : 19 – 20 ) .
In the case of a pawn promotion , if the player releases the pawn on the eighth rank , the player must promote the pawn . After the pawn has moved , the player may touch any piece not on the board and the promotion is not finalized until the new piece is released on the promotion square ( Just 2014 ) .
= = = Touch @-@ move rule = = =
In serious play , if a player having the move touches a piece as if having the intention of moving it , then the player must move it if it can be legally moved . So long as the hand has not left the piece on a new square , any legal move can be made with the piece . If a player touches one of the opponent 's pieces then that piece must be captured if there is a legal move that does so . If none of the touched pieces can be moved or captured there is no penalty ( Schiller 2003 : 19 – 20 ) .
When castling , the king must be the first piece touched . If the player touches the rook at the same time as touching the king , the player must castle with that rook if it is legal to do so . If the player completes a two @-@ square king move without touching a rook , the player must move the correct rook accordingly if castling in that direction is legal . If a player starts to castle illegally , another legal king move must be made if possible , including castling with the other rook ( Schiller 2003 : 20 ) .
If a player moves a pawn to its eighth rank , it cannot be substituted for a different move of the pawn when the player has stopped touching it . However , the move is not complete until the promoted piece is released on that square .
If a player wishes to touch a piece with the intention of adjusting its position on a square , the player must first alert the opponent of this intention by saying J 'adoube or " I adjust " . Once the game has started , only the player with the move may touch the pieces on the board ( Schiller 2003 : 19 – 20 ) .
= = = Timing = = =
Tournament games are played under time constraints , called time controls , using a chess clock . Each player must make his moves within the time control or forfeit the game . There are different types of time controls . In some cases each player will have a certain amount of time to make a certain number of moves . In other cases each player will have a limited amount of time to make all of his moves . Also , the player may gain a small amount of additional time for each move made , either by a small increment added for each move made , or by the clock delaying a small amount of time each time it is started after the opponent 's move ( Schiller 2003 : 21 – 24 ) .
If a player delivers a checkmate , the game is over and that player wins , no matter what is subsequently noticed about the time on the clock .
If player A calls attention to player B being out of time while player A is not out of time and some sequence of legal moves leads to B being checkmated then player A wins automatically .
If player A does not have the possibility of checkmating B then the game is a draw ( Schiller 2003 : 28 ) .
The United States Chess Federation ( USCF ) rule is different . USCF Rule 14E defines " insufficient material to win on time " , that is lone king , king plus knight , king plus bishop , and king plus two knights opposed by no pawns , and there is no forced win in the final position . Hence to win on time with this material , the USCF rule requires that a win can be forced from that position , while the FIDE rule merely requires a win to be possible . ( See Monika Soćko rules appeal in 2008 and Women 's World Chess Championship 2008 for a famous instance of this rule . )
If a player is out of time and also calls attention to his opponent running out of time , then :
If a sudden death time control is not being used , the game continues in the next time control period ( Schiller 2003 : 23 ) .
if the game is played under a sudden death time control , then if it can be established which player ran out of time first , the game is lost by that player ; otherwise the game is drawn ( Schiller 2003 : 29 ) .
If a player believes that his opponent is attempting to win the game on time and not by normal means ( i.e. checkmate ) , if it is a sudden death time control and the player has less than two minutes remaining , the player may stop the clocks and claim a draw with the arbiter . The arbiter may declare the game a draw or postpone the decision and allot the opponent two extra minutes ( Schiller 2003 : 21 – 24 @,@ 29 ) .
= = = Recording moves = = =
Each square of the chessboard is identified with a unique pair of a letter and a number . The vertical files are labeled a through h , from White 's left ( i.e. the queenside ) to White 's right . Similarly , the horizontal ranks are numbered from 1 to 8 , starting from the one nearest White 's side of the board . Each square of the board , then , is uniquely identified by its file letter and rank number . The white king , for example , starts the game on square e1 . The black knight on b8 can move to a6 or c6 .
In formal competition , each player is obliged to record each move as it is played in a chess notation in order to settle disputes about illegal positions , overstepping time control , and making claims of draws by the fifty @-@ move rule or repetition of position . Algebraic chess notation is the accepted standard for recording games today . There are other systems such as ICCF numeric notation for international correspondence chess and the obsolete descriptive chess notation . The current rule is that a move must be made on the board before it is written on paper or recorded with an electronic device .
Both players should indicate offers of a draw by writing " = " at that move on their scoresheet ( Schiller 2003 : 27 ) . Notations about the time on the clocks can be made . If a player has less than five minutes left to complete all of their moves , they are not required to record the moves ( unless a delay of at least thirty seconds per move is being used ) . The scoresheet must be made available to the arbiter at all times . A player may respond to an opponent 's move before writing it down ( Schiller 2003 : 25 – 26 ) .
= = = Adjournment = = =
See Adjournment Chess .
= = = Irregularities = = =
= = = = Illegal move = = = =
A player who makes an illegal move must retract that move and make a legal move . That move must be made with the same piece if possible , because the touch @-@ move rule applies . If the illegal move was an attempt to castle , the touch @-@ move rule applies to the king but not to the rook . The arbiter should adjust the time on the clock according to the best evidence . If the mistake is only noticed later on , the game should be restarted from the position in which the error occurred ( Schiller 2003 : 24 – 25 ) . Some regional organizations have different rules .
If blitz chess is being played ( in which both players have a small , limited time , e.g. five minutes ) the rule varies . A player may correct an illegal move if the player has not pressed their clock . If a player has pressed their clock , the opponent may claim a win if he or she hasn 't moved . If the opponent moves , the illegal move is accepted and without penalty ( Schiller 2003 : 77 ) .
According to the FIDE Laws of Chess , the first completed illegal move is penalized by awarding the opponent two additional minutes on the clock . The second completed illegal move by the same player results in the loss of the game , unless the position is such that it is impossible for the opponent to win by any series of legal moves ( e.g. if the opponent has a bare king ) in which case the game is drawn . A move is completed when it has been made and the player has pressed the clock . In rapid chess and blitz chess , the first completed illegal move results in a loss .
= = = = Illegal position = = = =
If it is discovered during the game that the starting position was incorrect , the game is restarted . If it is discovered during the game that the board is oriented incorrectly , the game is continued with the pieces transferred to a correctly oriented board . If the game starts with the colors of the pieces reversed , the game continues ( unless the arbiter rules otherwise ) ( Schiller 2003 : 24 ) . Some regional organizations have different rules .
If a player knocks over pieces , it is their responsibility to restore them to their correct position on their time . If it is discovered that an illegal move has been made , or that pieces have been displaced , the game is restored to the position before the irregularity . If that position cannot be determined , the game is restored to the last known correct position ( Schiller 2003 : 24 – 25 ) .
= = = Conduct = = =
Players may not use any notes , outside sources of information ( including computers ) , or advice from other people . Analysis on another board is not permitted . Scoresheets are to record objective facts about the game only , such as time on the clock or draw offers . Players may not leave the competition area without permission of the arbiter ( Schiller 2003 : 30 – 31 ) .
High standards of etiquette and ethics are expected . Players should shake hands before and after the game . Generally a player should not speak during the game , except to offer a draw , resign , or to call attention to an irregularity . An announcement of " check " is made in amateur games but should not be used in officially sanctioned games . A player may not distract or annoy another player by any means , including repeatedly offering a draw ( Schiller 2003 : 30 – 31 @,@ 49 – 52 ) .
Due to increasing concerns about the use of chess engines and outside communication , in 2014 FIDE banned all mobile phones from the playing area during chess competitions , under penalty of forfeiture of the game or even expulsion from the tournament . However , the rules also allow for less rigid enforcement in amateur events .
= = Equipment = =
The size of the squares of the chessboard should be approximately 1 @.@ 25 to 1 @.@ 3 times the diameter of the base of the king , or 50 to 65 mm . Squares of approximately 57 mm ( 2 1 ⁄ 4 inches ) normally are well @-@ suited for pieces with the kings in the preferred size range . The darker squares are usually brown or green and the lighter squares are off @-@ white or buff .
Pieces of the Staunton chess set design are the standard and are usually made of wood or plastic . They are often black and white ; other colors may be used ( like a dark wood or even red for the dark pieces ) but they would still be called the " white " and " black " pieces ( see White and Black in chess ) . The height of the king should be 85 to 105 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 35 – 4 @.@ 13 inches ) . A height of approximately 95 to 102 mm ( 3 3 ⁄ 4 – 4 inches ) is preferred by most players . The diameter of the king should be 40 to 50 % of its height . The size of the other pieces should be in proportion to the king . The pieces should be well balanced ( Just 2014 ) .
In games subject to time control , a chess clock is used , consisting of two adjacent clocks and buttons to stop one clock while starting the other , such that the two component clocks never run simultaneously . The clock can be analog or digital though a digital clock is highly preferred under both USCF and FIDE rulesets . This is since most tournaments now include either a time delay ( a countdown to when a clock starts again ) or add ( extra time being added prior or after the move ) to their time controls . Before the start of the game , either the arbiter decides , or whomever is playing Black , where the chess clock is placed .
= = End of the game = =
= = = Checkmate = = =
If a player 's king is placed in check and there is no legal move that player can make to escape check , then the king is said to be checkmated , the game ends , and that player loses ( Schiller 2003 : 20 – 21 ) . Unlike other pieces , the king is never actually captured or removed from the board because checkmate ends the game ( Burgess 2009 : 502 ) .
The diagram shows an example checkmate position . The white king is threatened by the black queen ; the square to which the king could move is also threatened ; it cannot capture the queen , because it would then be in check by the rook .
= = = Resigning = = =
Either player may resign at any time and their opponent wins the game . This normally happens when the player believes he or she is very likely to lose the game . A player may resign by saying it verbally or by indicating it on their scoresheet in any of three ways : ( 1 ) by writing " resigns " , ( 2 ) by circling the result of the game , or ( 3 ) by writing " 1 – 0 " if Black resigns or " 0 – 1 " if White resigns ( Schiller 2003 : 21 ) . Tipping over the king also indicates resignation , but it is not frequently used ( and should be distinguished from accidentally knocking the king over ) . Stopping both clocks is not an indication of resigning , since clocks can be stopped to call the arbiter . An offer of a handshake is not necessarily a resignation either , since one player could think they are agreeing to a draw ( Just 2014 ) .
= = = Draws = = =
The game ends in a draw if any of these conditions occur :
The game is automatically a draw if the player to move is not in check but has no legal move . This situation is called a stalemate . An example of such a position is shown in the diagram to the right .
The game is immediately drawn when there is no possibility of checkmate for either side with any series of legal moves . This draw is often due to insufficient material , including the endgames
king against king ;
king against king and bishop ;
king against king and knight ;
king and bishop against king and bishop , with both bishops on squares of the same color ( see Checkmate # Unusual mates ) .
Both players agree to a draw after one of the players makes such an offer .
The player having the move may claim a draw by declaring that one of the following conditions exists , or by declaring an intention to make a move which will bring about one of these conditions :
Fifty @-@ move rule : There has been no capture or pawn move in the last fifty moves by each player .
Threefold repetition : The same board position has occurred three times with the same player to move and all pieces having the same rights to move , including the right to castle or capture en passant .
If the claim is proven true , the game is drawn ( Schiller 2003 : 21 @,@ 26 – 28 ) .
At one time , if a player was able to check the opposing king continually ( perpetual check ) and the player indicated their intention to do so , the game was drawn . This rule is no longer in effect ; however , players will usually agree to a draw in such a situation , since either the rule on threefold repetition or the fifty @-@ move rule will eventually be applicable ( Staunton 1847 : 21 – 22 ) , ( Reinfeld 1954 : 175 ) .
= = = Time control = = =
A game played under time control will end as a loss for a player who uses up all of their allotted time , unless the opponent cannot possibly checkmate him ( see the Timing section above ) . There are different types of time control . Players may have a fixed amount of time for the entire game or they may have to make a certain number of moves within a specified time . Also , a small increment of time may be added for each move made .
= = History = =
The rules of chess have evolved much over the centuries from the early chess @-@ like games played in India in the 6th century . For much of that time the rules have varied from area to area . The modern rules first took form in Italy during the 13th century , giving more mobility to pieces that previously had more restricted movement ( such as the queen and bishop ) . Such modified rules entered into an accepted form during the late 15th century ( Hooper & Whyld 1992 : 41 @,@ 328 ) or early 16th century ( Ruch 2004 ) . The basic moves of the king , rook , and knight are unchanged . Pawns originally did not have the option of moving two squares on their first move and promoted only to a queen if they reached the eighth rank . The queen was originally the fers or farzin , which could move one square diagonally in any direction . In European chess it became able to leap two squares diagonally , forwards , backwards , or to left or right on its first move ; some area also gave this right to a newly promoted pawn . In the Persian and Arabic game the bishop was a pīl ( Persian ) or fīl ( Arabic ) ( meaning " elephant " ) which moved two squares diagonally with jump ( Davidson 1949 : 13 ) . In the Middle Ages the pawn could only be promoted to the equivalent of a queen ( which at that time was the weakest piece ) if it reached its eighth rank ( Davidson 1949 : 59 – 61 ) . During the 12th century the squares on the board sometimes alternated colors , and this became the standard in the 13th century ( Davidson 1949 : 146 ) , whence the word " chequered " / " checkered " .
Between 1200 and 1600 several laws emerged that drastically altered the game . Checkmate became a requirement to win ; a player could not win by capturing all of the opponent 's pieces . Stalemate was added , although the outcome has changed several times ( see History of the stalemate rule ) . Pawns gained the option of moving two squares on their first move , and the en passant rule was a natural consequence of that new option . The king and rook acquired the right to castle ( see Variations throughout history of castling for different versions of the rule ) .
Between 1475 and 1500 the queen and the bishop also acquired their current moves , which made them much stronger pieces ( Davidson 1949 : 14 – 17 ) . When all of these changes were accepted the game was in essentially its modern form ( Davidson 1949 : 14 – 17 ) .
The rules for pawn promotion have changed several times . As stated above , originally the pawn could only be promoted to the queen , which at that time was a weak piece . When the queen acquired its current move and became the most powerful piece , the pawn could then be promoted to a queen or a rook , bishop , or knight . In the 18th century rules allowed only the promotion to a piece already captured , e.g. the rules published in 1749 by François @-@ André Danican Philidor . In the 19th century this restriction was lifted , which allowed for a player to have more than one queen , e.g. the 1828 rules by Jacob Sarratt ( Davidson 1949 : 59 – 61 ) .
Two new rules concerning draws were introduced , each of which have changed through the years :
The threefold repetition rule was added , although at some times up to six repetitions have been required , and the exact conditions have been specified more clearly ( see Threefold repetition # History ) .
The fifty @-@ move rule was also added . At various times , the number of moves required was different , such as 24 , 60 , 70 , or 75 . For several years in the 20th century , the standard fifty moves was extended to one hundred moves for a few specific endgames ( see Fifty @-@ move rule 's history ) .
Another group of new laws included ( 1 ) the touch @-@ move rule and the accompanying " j 'adoube / adjust " rule ; ( 2 ) that White moves first ( in 1889 ) ; ( 3 ) the orientation of the board ; ( 4 ) the procedure if an illegal move was made ; ( 5 ) the procedure if the king had been left in check for some moves ; and ( 6 ) issues regarding the behavior of players and spectators . The Staunton chess set was introduced in 1849 and it became the standard style of pieces . The size of pieces and squares of the board was standardized ( Hooper & Whyld 1992 : 220 – 21 , laws , history of ) .
Until the middle of the 19th century , chess games were played without any time limit . In an 1834 match between Alexander McDonnell and Louis @-@ Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais , McDonnell took an inordinate amount of time to move , sometimes up to 1 ½ hours . In 1836 Pierre Charles Fournier de Saint @-@ Amant suggested a time limit , but no action was taken . At the 1851 London tournament , Staunton blamed his loss in his match against Elijah Williams on Williams ' slow play ; one game was adjourned for the day after only 29 moves . The next year a match between Daniel Harrwitz and Johann Löwenthal used a limit of 20 minutes per move.The first use of a modern @-@ style time limit was in an 1861 match between Adolph Anderssen and Ignác Kolisch ( Sunnucks 1970 : 459 ) .
= = = Codification = = =
The first known publication of chess rules was in a book by Luis Ramírez de Lucena about 1497 , shortly after the movement of the queen , bishop , and pawn were changed to their modern form ( Just 2014 ) . In the 16th and 17th centuries , there were differences of opinion concerning rules such as castling , pawn promotion , stalemate , and en passant . Some of these differences existed until the 19th century ( Harkness 1967 : 3 ) . Ruy López de Segura gave rules of chess in his 1561 book Libro de la invencion liberal y arte del juego del axedrez ( Sunnucks 1970 : 294 ) .
As chess clubs arose and tournaments became common , there was a need to formalize the rules . In 1749 Philidor ( 1726 – 1795 ) wrote a set of rules that were widely used , as well as rules by later writers such as the 1828 rules by Jacob Sarratt ( 1772 – 1819 ) and rules by George Walker ( 1803 – 1879 ) . In the 19th century , many major clubs published their own rules , including The Hague in 1803 , London in 1807 , Paris in 1836 , and St. Petersburg in 1854 . In 1851 Howard Staunton ( 1810 – 1874 ) called for a " Constituent Assembly for Remodeling the Laws of Chess " and proposals by Tassilo von Heydebrand und der Lasa ( 1818 – 1889 ) were published in 1854 . Staunton had published rules in Chess Player 's Handbook in 1847 , and his new proposals were published in 1860 in Chess Praxis ; they were generally accepted in English @-@ speaking countries . German @-@ speaking countries usually used the writings of chess authority Johann Berger ( 1845 – 1933 ) or Handbuch des Schachspiels by Paul Rudolf von Bilguer ( 1815 – 1840 ) , first published in 1843 .
In 1924 , Fédération Internationale des Échecs ( FIDE ) was formed and in 1929 it took up the task of standardizing the rules . At first FIDE tried to establish a universal set of rules , but translations to various languages differed slightly . Although FIDE rules were used for international competition under their control , some countries continued to use their own rules internally ( Hooper & Whyld 1992 : 220 – 21 ) . In 1952 FIDE created the Permanent Commission for the Rules of Chess ( also known as the Rules Commission ) and published a new edition of the rules . The third official edition of the laws was published in 1966 . The first three editions of the rules were published in French , with that as the official version . In 1974 FIDE published the English version of the rules ( which was based on an authorized 1955 translation ) . With that edition , English became the official language of the rules . Another edition was published in 1979 . Throughout this time , ambiguities in the laws were handed by frequent interpretations that the Rules Commission published as supplements and amendments . In 1982 the Rules Commission rewrote the laws to incorporate the interpretations and amendments ( FIDE 1989 : 7 – 8 ) . In 1984 FIDE abandoned the idea of a universal set of laws , although FIDE rules are the standard for high @-@ level play ( Hooper & Whyld 1992 : 220 – 21 ) . With the 1984 edition , FIDE implemented a four @-@ year moratorium between changes to the rules . Other editions were issued in 1988 and 1992 ( FIDE 1989 : 5 ) , ( Just 2014 ) .
The rules of national FIDE affiliates ( such as the United States Chess Federation , or USCF ) are based on the FIDE rules , with slight variations ( Just 2014 ) . Kenneth Harkness published popular rulebooks in the United States starting in 1956 , and the USCF continues to publish rulebooks for use in tournaments it sanctions .
In 2008 FIDE added the variant Chess960 to the appendix of the laws of chess . Chess960 uses a random initial set @-@ up of main pieces , with the conditions that the king is placed somewhere between the two rooks , and bishops on opposite @-@ color squares . The castling rules are extended to cover all these positions .
In 2014 a rule about mobile phones was brought in : see # Conduct .
= = Variations = =
One case of a minor extra rule being added for a particular match is " no drawing or resigning during the first 30 moves " in the London Chess Classic on 8 – 15 December 2009 at Olympia , London .
= Final Fantasy IX =
Final Fantasy IX ( ファイナルファンタジーIX , Fainaru Fantajī Nain ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square for the PlayStation video game console . Originally released in 2000 , it is the ninth title in the Final Fantasy series and last to debut on the original PlayStation console . In 2010 , it was re @-@ released as a PSone Classics title on the PlayStation Network . The game introduced new features to the series like the " Active Time Event " , " Mognet " , and a unique equipment and skill system .
Final Fantasy IX 's plot centers on a war between nations . Players follow a young thief named Zidane Tribal , who joins with others to defeat Queen Brahne of Alexandria , the one responsible for starting the war . The plot shifts , however , when the characters realise that Brahne is working with an even more threatening person called Kuja .
Final Fantasy IX was developed alongside Final Fantasy VIII , but took a different approach by returning to the more traditional style of the early Final Fantasy games . Consequently , Final Fantasy IX was influenced significantly by the original Final Fantasy game , and features allusions to other titles in the series . It was released to critical acclaim and holds the highest Metacritic score of all Final Fantasy installments . Final Fantasy IX was commercially successful , selling 5 @.@ 30 million units worldwide by March 31 , 2003 .
Ports for iOS and Android were released in February 2016 , while a port for Microsoft Windows was released in April 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
In Final Fantasy IX , the player navigates a character throughout the game world , exploring areas and interacting with non @-@ player characters . Most of the game occurs in towns and dungeons which are referred to as " field screens " . To aid exploration on the field screen , Final Fantasy IX introduces the " field icon " , an exclamation mark appearing over their lead character 's head , signalling an item or sign is nearby . Players speak with moogles to record their progress , restore life energy with a tent and purchase items — a deviation from previous installments , which used a save point to perform these functions . Moogles may request the playable character deliver letters to other Moogles via Mognet , playable characters might also receive letters from non @-@ playable characters .
Players journey between field screen locations on the world map , a three dimensional , downsized representation of Final Fantasy IX 's world presented from a top @-@ down perspective . Players can freely navigate around the world map screen unless restricted by terrain like bodies of water or mountain ranges . To overcome geographical limitations , players can ride chocobos , sail on a boat or pilot airships . Like previous Final Fantasy installments , travel across the world map screen and hostile field screen locations is interrupted by random enemy encounters .
Final Fantasy IX offers a new approach to town exploration with the introduction of Active Time Events ( ATE ) . These allow the player to view events unfolding at different locations , providing character development , special items and prompts for key story @-@ altering decisions . ATE are occasionally used to simultaneously control two teams when the party is divided to solve puzzles and navigate mazes .
= = = Combat = = =
Whenever the playable character encounters an enemy , the map changes to the " battle screen " . On the battle screen , the enemy appears on the opposite side of the characters ; each battle uses the familiar Active Time Battle system that was first featured in Final Fantasy IV . The character 's command list is presented in a window opposite the ATB gauge list ; while all characters can physically attack the enemy or use an item from the player 's inventory , they also possess unique abilities . For example , the thief Zidane can steal items from the enemy , Eiko and Garnet can summon " eidolons " to aid the party and Vivi can use black magic to damage the opposition .
These character @-@ specific commands change when the player goes into " Trance mode " , which is activated for a short duration when an uncontrollable gauge fills as character sustains damage in a style similar to the Limit Breaks used in Final Fantasy VII . When the gauge is full , the character 's strength is amplified , and the player can select special attack commands . Zidane 's " Skill " command list , for example , changes to " Dyne " , allowing him to execute powerful attacks ; Vivi 's " Black Magic " command evolves into " Double Black " , allowing him to cast two magic spells simultaneously . Through the Configuration screen , the player can change the Battle Style from Normal to Custom , which allows two players to control any combination of characters during battle . However , two controllers must be plugged into the PlayStation .
A character 's performance in battle is determined by numerical values ( " statistics " ) for categories like speed , strength and magical power . Character statistics are driven by experience ; when players win battles , they are awarded " experience points " , which accumulate until characters gain " experience levels " . When characters " level up " , the statistics for their attributes permanently increase , which may also be amplified by the types of equipment the character is wearing . Winning battles also awards the player money ( Gil ) , Tetra Master playing cards , items and ability points ( AP ) .
= = = Abilities and equipment = = =
Final Fantasy IX deviates from the style of customisable characters featured in the last two titles by reviving the character class concept , which designates a character to a certain role in battle . For example , Vivi is designated as a black mage and is the only character who can use black magic , and Steiner is a knight and is the only character who can use sword skills .
The basic function of equipment in Final Fantasy games is to increase character attributes ; arming Zidane with a Mythril Vest , for example , increases his base defense statistic . In Final Fantasy IX , weapons and armor include special character abilities , which the character may use when the item is equipped ( permitting the ability matches their class ) . Once the character accumulates enough ability points in battle , the ability becomes usable without having to keep the item equipped . In addition to granting abilities the equipment in Final Fantasy IX determines the statistical growth of the characters at the time of level up . Armor not only raises base defense or evasion statistics but raises defense and / or other statistics at level up .
Abilities are classified into action and support categories . Action abilities consume magic points ( MP ) and include magic spells and special moves that are used in battle . Support abilities provide functions that remain in effect indefinitely and must be equipped with magic stones to be functional . The maximum number of these stones increases as the characters level up .
= = = Tetra Master = = =
Tetra Master is a card @-@ based minigame that can be initiated with various non @-@ playable characters in the field . Players assemble a deck of five cards , which can be obtained via chests , given as a reward , or earned from fighting monsters . Each card has various arrows which point to the four sides and four corners of the card , and various stats that vary between cards , with rarer cards being more powerful . Players take it in turns to strategically place cards on a 4x4 playing grid based on the available directions . Battles can occur when players place a card next to another card , depending on where the player places it . If the defending card has no arrows whilst the attacking card has an arrow pointing towards it , that card is placed under the player 's control . When two arrows meet with each other , the cards do battle based on their point values , with the losing card coming under the winning player 's control , sometimes triggering combos that put multiple cards in the winner 's control . After all cards are played , the winner is the player who has the most cards under their control , with a draw occurring if they have the same number of cards . The winning player may choose a card from their opponent 's deck out of the ones they put under their control . If the winning player scores a perfect win however , in which all ten cards are put under their control , they will win all five cards from the opponent 's deck .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Final Fantasy IX takes place primarily on the four continents of a world named Gaia ( homonymous with Final Fantasy VII 's Gaia , but not the same world ) . Most of Gaia 's population reside on the Mist Continent , named so because the entire continent is blanketed in thick Mist . Lands outside the Mist Continent — the Outer , Lost and Forgotten continents — are uncharted territories not explored until midway through the game . Several locations on the parallel world of Terra and the dream land of Memoria round out the game 's areas . The Mist Continent features four nations : Alexandria , Lindblum , Burmecia , and Cleyra . Alexandria is a kingdom to the northeast of the Mist Continent ruled by a monarchy located in Alexandria Castle . The technologically advanced Lindblum , ruled by a regent , is nestled on a plateau to the southwest where airships regularly fly by . The Kingdom of Burmecia , whose capital is showered by eternal rain is to the northwest and nearby to the isolated Cleyran civilisation , which is nestled in a giant tree in the desert , protected by a powerful sandstorm . Treno , a large , perpetually dark city , heavily populated by both aristocrats and paupers , is located on the southeast part of the continent . The Mist Continent is extremely mountainous resulting in a natural barrier between many of the ruling nations .
Gaia is inhabited by humans and various non @-@ human races . Alexandria , Treno , and Lindblum are populated by a mix of humans and anthropomorphic animals . The Burmecians are anthropomorphic rats who value dance , thus accounting for their general aversion to footwear , and live in both Burmecia and Cleyra . The Cleyrans split from the Burmecians when the latter started to appreciate " the art of war " . The dwarves are short humanoid creatures who appear as inhabitants of the village of Conde Petie on the Outer Continent . There is also a village of black mages that have gained sentient thought , who reside in the Outer Continent , as well . The Genomes , an artificial race of soulless vessels inhabit Terra ; they will house the once @-@ dormant Terran souls when Terra assimilates Gaia . Summoners are similar to other humans , but with a horn on their forehead . In the story , only two summoners remain ( Garnet and Eiko ) ; the others were exterminated when the Terran warship Invincible destroyed their homeland of Madain Sari . Lastly , the Qu are large , seemingly androgynous humanoids , who are recognised as fine gourmands . They inhabit marshlands throughout the world where they catch their main source of nutrition : frogs .
= = = Characters = = =
The eight main playable characters in Final Fantasy IX are Zidane Tribal , a member of a group of bandits called Tantalus masquerading as a theatre troupe ; Garnet Til Alexandros XVII ( alias Dagger ) , the Princess of Alexandria who has a strange connection to " Eidolons " , Vivi Orunitia , a young , timid , and kind black mage trying to find the meaning of his existence ; Adelbert Steiner , the Captain of the Knights of Pluto and loyal servant of Alexandria and Princess Garnet ; Freya Crescent , a dragon knight from the city of Burmecia looking for her lost love ; Quina Quen , a Qu whose master wants him / her to travel the world so that s / he will learn about cuisine ; Eiko Carol , a six @-@ year @-@ old girl living in Madain Sari , the lost village of the eidolon summoners , and along with Garnet , one of the last two remaining summoners ; and Amarant Coral , a bounty hunter hired to return Garnet to Alexandria . Other main characters include Regent Cid Fabool , the charismatic leader of Lindblum ; Queen Brahne , Garnet 's mother and the power @-@ hungry Queen of Alexandria ; General Beatrix , the powerful leader of the female knights of Alexandria ; and antagonist Kuja , an arms dealer and enemy of Gaia . Other minor characters and groups also appear , such as Blank , Zidane 's good friend and band partner , but their significance and back @-@ stories are revealed as the game progresses .
= = = Story = = =
Final Fantasy IX opens with Zidane and the Tantalus Theater Troupe attempting to kidnap Princess Garnet during her sixteenth birthday celebration in the city of Alexandria . Upon reaching her , they discover that Garnet , who is concerned about Queen Brahne 's increasingly erratic behavior , had planned on escaping the city and is willing to be kidnapped , especially as their employer , Regent Cid of Lindblum , is who she wanted to run to . During the escape from the city , the troupe is joined by Vivi , who is looking to explore , and Steiner , who decides to travel with Garnet for her protection rather than take her back against her will . After the group flees the city and its guards , their damaged airship crashes , and Zidane , Garnet , Vivi , and Steiner travel on together . During their journey to Lindblum , Garnet takes the alias Dagger , and the group discovers a factory in the village of Dali that is manufacturing soulless black mage soldiers that look similar to Vivi .
In Lindblum , the party meets with Cid , who explains that he hired the group to kidnap Garnet to get her away from Brahne , who also worries him . Upon learning that Alexandria has invaded the city @-@ state of Burmecia , the party splits in two . Zidane , Vivi , and new joinee Freya investigate Burmecia , while Dagger and Steiner journey back to Alexandria to try to stop Brahne from starting a war . Zidane 's group finds that Burmecia has been conquered with help from a man named Kuja , and refugees have fled to the nearby city of Cleyra . They rush to Cleyra to defend it from the encroaching forces . Dagger , meanwhile , is ignored and captured by Brahne , who extracts powerful magical weapons called eidolons from her . Brahne proceeds to use one to destroy Cleyra . Zidane and company escaped the city on Brahne 's airship and rescue Garnet , but while they do so Brahne attacks Lindblum with another ediolon .
Cid informs the group , when they reach Lindblum , that Kuja is Brahne 's arms dealer . Believing him to be from one of the other continents , normally inaccessible by airship , the party travels through a tunnel with Quina to the Outer Continent . There they meet Eiko , discover a village of black mages , and find the Iifa Tree , which produces a fighting @-@ stimulant called Mist . They learn that Kuja uses Mist to create the Black Mages , and Vivi was a prototype . After stopping the Mist creation , the group meets Amarant , hired by Brahne to capture Garnet , who joins them instead . They also learn that Garnet is originally from the same destroyed village as Eiko , and has the power to summon eidolons , which was the reason she was adopted by Brahne . Brahne and Kuja then reach the Iifa Tree , but Brahne attempts to kill him with an eidolon ; Kuja instead takes control over it and destroys her and her army instead .
The party returns to Alexandria to install Garnet as queen , but are assaulted at her coronation by Kuja . Garnet and Eiko summon an eidolon to combat Kuja 's ; when Kuja tries to take control of their ediolon , he is stopped by an old man named Garland , who then uses Kuja 's ship to destroy Garnet 's eidolon and damage the city . Kuja flees with the intent to fight Garland for power . Seeking to stop both of them , the party gets an experimental airship from Cid that runs on steam rather than Mist , which will allow them to journey to the other continents . Chasing Kuja , they find a portal to the parallel world of Terra ; there they discover that Terra is dying , and its people created Garland to orchestrate merging the two worlds . Garland in turn created Genomes , sentient soulless beings which would be taken over by Terran souls after the merging . The Iifa Tree serves to block Gaian souls from leaving Gaia but letting Terran souls in to be reborn into the Genomes , with the Gaian souls transformed into the Mist . Kuja and Zidane are Genomes , and Kuja turned against Garland to avoid being taken over at the conclusion of the plan . Kuja kills Garland with his newly gained powers , then destroys Terra as the party flees to Gaia with the Genomes .
At the Iifa tree , the party defeats Kuja , preventing him from destroying Gaia as well . The fight , so near what they find to be the Crystal , the source of life , summons Necron , a force of annihilation . Its defeat destroys the Tree ; the party flees , while Zidane stays behind to rescue Kuja . In the epilogue one year later , the fates of all of the characters are shown , and Zidane reappears in Alexandria to see Queen Garnet .
= = Development = =
Development of Final Fantasy IX began before Square had finished development on Final Fantasy VIII . The game was developed in Hawaii as a compromise to developers living in the United States . As the series ' last game on the PlayStation , Sakaguchi envisioned a " reflection " on the older titles of the series . Leading up to its release , Sakaguchi called Final Fantasy IX his favorite Final Fantasy game as " it 's closest to [ his ] ideal view of what Final Fantasy should be " . This shift was also a response to demands from fans and other developers . Additionally , the team wanted to create an understandable story with deep character development ; this led to the creation of Active Time Events . The scenario for the game was written by Sakaguchi . He began early planning on it around July 1998 . Director Hiroyuki Ito had the idea to make the protagonist Zidane flirtatious towards women .
In the game 's conceptual stage , the developers made it clear that the title would not necessarily be Final Fantasy IX , as its break from the realism of Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy VIII may have alienated audiences . This led fans to speculate that it would be released as a " gaiden " ( side story ) to the main series . By late 1999 , however , Square had confirmed that the game would indeed be published as Final Fantasy IX , and by early 2000 , the game was nearly finished . The developers made several adjustments to the game , such as changing the ending seven times . Director Ito had designed the battle system used in the game .
The game 's developers sought to make the game 's environment more " fantasy @-@ oriented " than its PlayStation predecessors . Since the creators wanted to prevent the series from following a redundant setting , Final Fantasy IX distinctly breaks from the futuristic styles of Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy VIII by reintroducing a medieval setting . In the game , steam technology is just beginning to become widely available ; the population relies on hydropower or wind power for energy sources , but sometimes harness Mist or steam to power more advanced engines . Continuing with the medieval theme , the game 's setting is inspired by Norse and Northern European mythology . According to Ito , " [ The development team is ] attracted to European history and mythology because of its depth and its drama " . The main Final Fantasy IX website says the development of the game 's world serves as a culmination of the series by blending the " successful elements of the past , such as a return to the fantasy roots , " with newer elements . The creators made the characters a high priority . The return to the series ' roots also affected the characters ' designs , which resulted in characters with " comic @-@ like looks " . Composer Nobuo Uematsu commented that the design staff attempted to give the characters realism while still appearing comic @-@ like . To accomplish this , and to satisfy fans who had become used to the realistic designs of Final Fantasy VIII , the designers stressed creating characters with whom the player could easily relate .
= = = Music = = =
The music of Final Fantasy IX was written by series regular Nobuo Uematsu , with the title being his last exclusive Final Fantasy score until the release of Final Fantasy XIV in 2010 . In discussions with game director Hiroyuki Ito , Uematsu was told " It 'd be fine if you compose tracks for the eight characters , an exciting battle track , a gloomy , danger @-@ evoking piece , and around ten other tracks . " However , Uematsu spent an estimated year composing and producing " around 160 " pieces for Final Fantasy IX , with 140 appearing in the game .
Uematsu composed with a piano and used two contrasting methods : " I create music that fits the events in the game , but sometimes , the event designer will adjust a game event to fit the music I 've already written . " Uematsu felt Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy VIII had a mood of realism , but Final Fantasy IX was fantasy , so " a serious piece with silly , fun pieces could fit in . " He felt the theme was medieval music , and was given a break to travel in Europe for inspiration — " looking at old castles in Germany and so on " . The music was not entirely composed in the medieval mode ; Uematsu claims " it would be unbalanced " and " a little boring " . He aimed for a " simple , warm " style and included uncommon instruments like the kazoo and dulcimer . Uematsu also included motifs from older Final Fantasy games " because Final Fantasy IX was returning to the roots , so to speak " and incorporated ideas like " the old intro for battle music " and arranged the Volcano theme from Final Fantasy and the Pandemonium theme from Final Fantasy II . Tantalus ' band is also heard playing " Rufus ' Welcoming Ceremony " from Final Fantasy VII near the beginning of the game .
Uematsu was twice reported claiming without hesitation that Final Fantasy IX was his favorite score . " Melodies of Life " is the theme song of Final Fantasy IX , and consists primarily of two themes that were frequently used in the game itself , the overworld theme , and a lullaby that is sung by Dagger . It was performed by Emiko Shiratori in both the Japanese and English versions and arranged by Shirō Hamaguchi .
= = Release = =
Final Fantasy IX 's release was delayed to avoid a concurrent release with then rival Enix 's Dragon Quest VII . On October 7 , 2000 , a demo day for the North American version of Final Fantasy IX was held at the Metreon in San Francisco , California . The first American release of the game was also at the Metreon ; limited edition merchandise was included with the game , and fans cosplayed as Final Fantasy characters in celebration of the release . In Canada , a production error left copies of Final Fantasy IX without an English version of the instruction manual , prompting Square to ship copies of the English manual to Canadian stores several days later .
The game was heavily promoted both before and after its release . Starting on March 6 , 2000 , Final Fantasy IX characters were used in a line of computer @-@ generated Coca @-@ Cola commercials . Figurines of several characters were also used as prizes in Coca @-@ Cola 's marketing campaign . That same year , IGN awarded Final Fantasy dolls and figurines for prizes in several of their contests .
Final Fantasy IX was also the benchmark of Square 's interactive PlayOnline service . PlayOnline was originally developed to interact with Final Fantasy X , but when those plans fell through it became a strategy site for Final Fantasy IX . The site was designed to complement BradyGames ' and Piggyback Interactive 's official strategy guides for the game , where players who bought the print guide had access to " keywords " that could be searched for on PlayOnline 's site for extra tips and information . This caused fury among buyers of the guide , as they felt cheated for the expensive print guide . The blunder made GameSpy 's " Top 5 Dumbest Moments in Gaming " list , and Square dropped the idea for Final Fantasy X , which was under development at the time .
On December 18 , 2012
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conversion , along with several passenger liners .
At the same time as construction of Graf Zeppelin resumed , conversion work began on Seydlitz . The majority of the superstructure was cut away , with the exception of the funnel , to prepare for the installation of a flight deck and an aircraft hangar . In total , approximately 2 @,@ 400 t ( 2 @,@ 400 long tons ; 2 @,@ 600 short tons ) of material from the ship was removed . The flight deck was to have been 200 m ( 660 ft ) long and 30 m ( 98 ft ) wide . The hangar was 137 @.@ 50 m ( 451 @.@ 1 ft ) long and 17 m ( 56 ft ) wide forward and 12 m ( 39 ft ) wide amidships and aft . Her armament was reduced to an anti @-@ aircraft battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm L / 65 guns in twin mounts , two forward of the conning tower and three aft , ten 3 @.@ 7 cm guns in dual mounts , and twenty @-@ four 2 cm guns in quadruple mounts .
Seydlitz 's air complement was to have consisted of ten Bf 109 fighters and ten Ju 87 Stuka divebombers . The Bf 109 fighters were a navalized version of the " E " model , designated as Bf 109T . Their wings were longer than the land @-@ based model to allow for shorter take @-@ off . The Ju 87s were to have been the " E " variant , which was a navalized version of the Ju 87D , and were modified for catapult launches and were equipped with arresting gear .
The ship was renamed Weser , but work was ceased in June 1943 , before the conversion was completed . The unfinished vessel was then transferred to Königsberg , where she remained for the rest of the war . On 29 January 1945 , the ship was scuttled before the advancing Soviet Red Army could seize her . The Soviet Navy nevertheless considered using the wreck for parts to complete the cruiser Lützow , a sister @-@ ship of Seydlitz the Soviets had purchased unfinished before the outbreak of war . This was not carried out , however , and the ship was broken up for scrap .
= Picture to Burn =
" Picture to Burn " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . It was co @-@ written by Swift and Liz Rose , and produced by Nathan Chapman . It was released on February 3 , 2008 by Big Machine Records as the fourth single from Swift 's eponymous studio album , Taylor Swift ( 2006 ) . It was inspired by the narcissistic and cocky nature of her former high school classmate and ex @-@ boyfriend Jordan Alford with whom Swift never established a formal relationship . In retrospect , Swift has stated that she has evolved on a personal level and as a songwriter , claiming she processed emotions differently since " Picture to Burn " . The song was chosen as a single based on the audience 's reaction to it in concert . Musically , the track is of the country rock genre with prominent usage of guitar , banjo , and drums . The lyrics concern setting fire to photographs of a former boyfriend .
" Picture to Burn " was praised by music critics , some who supported the feminist message . The single was commercially successful , peaking at number 28 on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number three on the country @-@ genre chart . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and has sold over one million downloads . In Canada , it charted within the top 50 and was certified gold . The music video for " Picture to Burn " was directed by Trey Fanjoy and features Swift fantasizing about taking revenge on her ex @-@ boyfriend after she discovers him with another woman . The video also has Swift and her band performing with pyrotechnics as a backdrop . Swift promoted " Picture to Burn " via live performances , including numerous while supporting as opening act for various country artists ' concert tours . It was also performed on her first headlining tour , the Fearless Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) .
= = Background = =
" Picture to Burn " was inspired by her high school boyfriend , now firefighter , Jordan Alford with whom Swift did not establish a formal romantic relationship . She was his classmate at Hendersonville High School in Tennessee and they went out before he dated classmate Chelsea who would later become his wife . " ' They dated in freshman year , but then after that , girl code , once you date an ex @-@ boyfriend you 're not friends anymore . Picture To Burn is about him . Because he 's always had big old trucks and stuff , ' Taylor Swift said . She was frequently frustrated by his narcissistic and cocky nature , and decided to write a song about how she felt at her after school job , writing songs for Sony / ATV Music . It was co @-@ written with Liz Rose on guitar , and given a comedic edge ( an idea of Swift 's ) . Swift found herself sitting , playing her guitar , and saying , " I hate his stupid truck that he doesn 't let me drive . He 's such a redneck ! Oh my God ! ' , a line that was ultimately developed into the song 's chorus . Swift described it as brutally honest , and cited it as an example of how she expresses herself if someone leaves her heartbroken , offends her , or is hostile towards her . Furthermore , she said " Picture to Burn " became the only song driven by anger on Taylor Swift , a topic she felt most teenage females could identify to . " It 's OK to be mad after a breakup or after something goes wrong with a relationship " , Swift said . The subject of " Picture to Burn " remains unaware that he is the inspiration behind the song . The song was chosen as a single based on the reactions it garnered at concerts . Swift recalled that , although " Tim McGraw " ( 2006 ) was her only single at the time she began opening for Rascal Flatts ' Me and My Gang Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) , " Picture to Burn " was the performance in which the crowd seemed to be the most enthusiastic with most screaming it " at the top of their lungs " .
In retrospect , Swift has stated that the song was something typical of her to say in her teenage years and that it exemplified how she processed emotion at the time , adding " I didn 't know anything then . " She explained , " I had this song called ' Picture to Burn , ' that 's talking about how ' I hate your truck , ' and ' I hate that you ignored me , ' ' I hate you . ' Now , the way that I would say that and the way that I would feel that kind of pain is a lot different . " Despite her evolving on a personal level and as a songwriter , she claimed not to be regretful of " Picture to Burn " , rather happy she was able to demonstrate " those emotions that when you 're so angry , you hate everything . It 's like recording your diary over the years , and that 's a gift " , she said .
= = Composition = =
" Picture to Burn " is a country song with a length of two minutes and 55 seconds . It draws influences from traditional elements of country music , resulting in an uptempo country rock number . Written in the key of G major , the song is set in common time and has a tempo of 106 beats per minute with a strong beat . Swift 's boasts with " big vocals " that span two octaves , from the note of G3 to C5 . It follows the chord progression G – Am7 – C – D. The verses are driven by banjos and drums , meanwhile the refrains ' instrumentation is marked by distorted guitars .
Lyrically , " Picture to Burn " is an evisceration of a no @-@ good adolescent male , and is directed towards an ex @-@ boyfriend . About the song 's theme , Sean Dooley of About.com commented , " Swift takes no prisoners in her quest to make a former flame feel her wrath for doing her wrong . " In the first verse , Swift introduces relationship by stating she acknowledged the fact that her former boyfriend was more in love with himself than with her . The second verse has Swift plotting retaliation : " There 's no time for tears / I 'm just sitting here planning my revenge / There 's nothing stopping me / From goin ' out with all of your best friends . " For the refrains , she speaks of igniting fire on photographs of her ex @-@ boyfriend , concluding them with a musical punch line , " As far as I 'm concerned / You 're just another picture to burn " . Critics have found the song to a symbol of feminism .
= = Critical reception = =
" Picture to Burn " received critical acclaim . Chris Neal of Country Weekly believed " Picture to Burn " , along with " Should 've Said No " , were the most immediately striking songs on Taylor Swift . Jack Lowe of About.com said the song was fun , and that females would specially enjoy it . Kate Kiefer of Paste magazine selected the track as one of Swift 's six best singles , and stated , " She really shows her age in this one " . Roger Holland of PopMatters commented that the song was the epitome of how , according to him , Swift was more given in uptempo tempos , and that it served as indication to the nature of Swift 's debut album . Holland added , " ' Picture to Burn ' is two parts Ashlee Simpson to one part Amy Dalley , with an overly familiar guitar melody that could have been lifted directly from the latter . " Top music critic Robert Christgau selected " Picture to Burn " as a highlight on Taylor Swift . Josh Love of The Village Voice attributed the song to be one of the reasons how the singer rose to stardom . He called it a " bluntly relatable composition [ ... ] that connected [ Swift ] with teens from across the spectrum . " Patrick McDonald of The Seattle Times called it a " clever , sassy , upbeat song " Alison Bonaguro of the Chicago Tribune said the song was a " clean @-@ but @-@ still @-@ rowdy " number for Swift . Kevin Courtney of The Irish Times mentioned " Picture to Burn " among powerful revenge songs and noted the lyric " Go and tell your friends that I 'm obsessive and crazy / That 's fine / I 'll tell mine you 're gay . " He supported the sentiment behind the song and wrote , " You go girl " .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending March 1 , 2008 , " Picture to Burn " debuted at number ninety @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 . The following week it ascended to number eighty @-@ three , and ten weeks later , on the week ending May 17 , 2008 , it reached its peak at number twenty @-@ eight . The song 's final appearance on the chart was on the week ending July 12 , 2008 at number eighty @-@ nine , after spending a total twenty weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 . The single has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . As of November 2014 , " Picture to Burn " has sold 1 @.@ 6 million copies in the United States .
On the week ending January 26 , 2008 , the single debuted at number fifty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot Country Songs . On its eleventh week , it entered the top ten at number nine , thus giving Swift her fourth consecutive top ten hit from her debut album . Six weeks later , on the week ending May 17 , 2008 , it reach its peak at number three on the chart . It spent a total of twenty weeks on Hot Country Songs .
On the week ending March 15 , 2008 , " Picture to Burn " debuted at number eighty @-@ five in Canada . It reached its peak at number forty @-@ eight on the chart on the week ending May 3 , 2008 . " Picture to Burn " spent a total of sixteen weeks in Canada . The single was certified gold by Music Canada for sales of 40 @,@ 000 digital downloads .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Picture to Burn " was directed by Trey Fanjoy , who directed all three of Swift 's prior music videos . Swift decided to collaborate with Fanjoy once again because she felt that since Fanjoy directed her prior videos , she knew how to deviate from it and what new grounds to cover . As opposed to their previous collaborations , the video was conceptualized to be edgy and comical . Swift herself was styled edgier than usual , sporting clothing , hair , and jewelry she was not accustomed to . She was intended to wear thigh @-@ length boots , but was not able to find a pair to correspond with her height . Instead , her stylist sewed black fabric to strap onto black high heels to give the illusion of thigh @-@ length boots . The video 's plot was conjectured to involve rampaging and seeking revenge on her ex @-@ boyfriend . Swift chose football player Justin Sandy to portray her ex @-@ boyfriend in the video , believing he had a classic and suspiciously perfect demeanor ; she described him as " real like Ken " . Swift desired to portray her backup band 's sense of humor , and thus enlisted them for the video . Swift 's real @-@ life best friend Abigail Anderson also made a cameo appearance in the video .
The video was filmed over the course of two days in Nashville , Tennessee . On the first day , performance scenes were filmed inside the Sommet Center ( now named the Bridgestone Arena ) , and involved pyrotechnics . Swift was at first nervous about the shoot , as it was her first experience with pyrotechnics . " There are some things I 'm nervous about . My hair could very well catch on fire " , she said . She was later assured of its safety and explained to about the discrepancy in the distance of the fire in reality than on camera : on camera , it appears to be quite close to her , whereas , in actuality , it was placed far behind her . On the second day , the remaining scenes were filmed at a suburban house in Nashville . Props were provided by the video personnel . On the set , Fanjoy suggested using a binoculars for the primary scenes , but Swift disagreed , believing it could come across as cheesy depending on how it was filmed . She ultimately succumbed to the idea due to Fanjoy explaining how it would translate on camera .
The video premiered on March 14 , 2008 on AOL 's The Boot . It commences with Swift and her best friend in a grey 2009 Ford Mustang GT 45th Anniversary Edition , parked behind a tree . Swift reminiscences , looking at a photograph of her and her ex @-@ boyfriend together , and states , " Would you look at how happy we were back then ? I can 't believe he turned out to be such a jerk . " Anderson is then seen ogling outside the window with binoculars , and spots Swift 's ex @-@ boyfriend and another woman arriving in a black late 90s ford f150 pick @-@ up truck . She notes the other woman in driving the truck , and Swift states angrily he never allowed her to drive it . As Swift 's ex @-@ boyfriend and the woman start frolicking inside the truck , and the music begins and the music video transcends to a concrete room where the singer ( clothed by a grey , one @-@ shoulder mini @-@ dress and black leather , thigh @-@ length boots ) is playing an electric guitar , alongside her backup band . During " Picture to Burn " ' s chorus , fire ignites behind them . Afterwards , the band is depicted entering a house furtively , using flashlights . Swift is sitting on a brown couch , sporting a black tank top , black leather pants , and beehive hair , as the band ransacks the house . They throw darts at photographs of him , envelop all of his furniture with toilet paper , mess his mirror with the word " loser " , lick his utensils and spit into his mouthwash . Suddenly , the ex @-@ boyfriend and the woman are shown approaching the house , and , seeing this , Anderson informs them of it via handheld transceiver . He enters the house and discovers it was ransacked , and repeats the word " Taylor " . The video then transitions to Anderson and Swift inside the Ford Mustang , with Anderson also repeating " Taylor " . She then suggests leaving , and Swift says , " You know what ? I 'm over it . " The video concludes with the photograph of Swift and her ex @-@ boyfriend in flames , thrown in the sidewalk . Cut @-@ scenes feature Swift and her band performing in the concrete room , Swift singing on the couch , or Swift dancing affront a shower of sparks . To date , the video has 76 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
Swift first performed the track at Billboard headquarters in 2006 . She then performed " Picture to Burn " as she opened for Rascal Flatts on several dates , from October 19 to November 3 , 2006 , included on the Me and My Gang Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) . Swift performed the song dressed in a black , knee @-@ length dress and red cowboy boots with a design of a skull and crossbones across it , as she roamed around the stage . She also performed the song when she served as opening act on twenty dates for George Strait 's 2007 United States tour , and selected dates for Brad Paisley 's Bonfires & Amplifiers Tour in 2007 . During mid @-@ 2007 , Swift embarked as the opening act on several dates for Tim McGraw 's and Faith Hill 's joint tour , Soul2Soul II Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) , where she again performed the song . Swift performed " Picture to Burn " to close while she was again opening for Rascal Flatts for their Still Feels Good Tour in 2008 . While promoting another single from Taylor Swift , Swift executed her first televised performance of " Picture to Burn " was on October 10 , 2007 on Regis & Kelly . She then performed the song at a concert at the Apple Store in SoHo , New York , which was recorded and released as a live extended play ( EP ) , iTunes Live from SoHo , exclusively sold through the iTunes Store . Commencing promotion for it in early and mid @-@ 2008 , Swift performed " Picture to Burn " on Studio 330 Sessions , Good Morning America , the 2008 CMT Music Awards , and Nashville Star . Since completing promotion for Taylor Swift and its corresponding singles , the singer has performed the song on Clear Channel Communications 's Stripped , at the 2009 CMA Music Festival , at the 2009 V Festival , and at the Australian charity concert Sydney Sound Relief .
Swift performed " Picture to Burn " to close the main set , before commencing the encore on all venues of her first headlining concert tour , the Fearless Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) . During 2009 performances , Swift donned a black cocktail dress with sparkly ornaments along the stomach , as she roamed throughout the stage , which was projected with images of searing flames , singing the song . In the 2010 extension , Swift bared a spangly , violet mini @-@ dress . Jim Harrington of the San Jose Mercury News believed " Picture to Burn " ' s performance on April 11 , 2010 at the HP Pavilion in San Jose , California demonstrated how versatile Swift was as a performer , feeling equally at gusto with tender ballads and uptempo rockers . Of the performance at the tour 's final concert on June 5 , 2010 at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough , Massachusetts , Jay N. Miller of The Patriot Ledger said , " She strutted down the catwalk chastising another hapless ex @-@ boyfriend " . Attending the same concert , Molly Trust of Billboard deemed the performance one of the most energized moments of the night , while Susan McDonald of The Sun Chronicle deemed it simple , yet the most powerful .
= = Track listings = =
Rhapsody Digital Download
" Picture to Burn " ( Alternate Version ) – 3 : 00
CD Single
" Picture to Burn " ( Radio Edit ) – 2 : 54
" Picture to Burn " ( Video ) - 3 : 05
= = Official versions = =
Album Version - 2 : 55
Radio Edit - 2 : 55 ( New Album Version / Beautiful Eyes Version )
Rock Version - 2 : 55
Alternate Version - 3 : 00
Karaoke Version - 2 : 56
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= Russian cruiser Bayan ( 1907 ) =
Bayan ( Russian : Баянъ ) was the third of the four Bayan @-@ class armoured cruisers built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the early 1900s . The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet . She was modified to lay mines shortly after World War I began . Bayan laid mines herself and provided cover for other ships laying minefields . The ship fought several inconclusive battles with German ships during the war , including the Battle of Åland Islands in mid @-@ 1915 . She also participated in the Battle of Moon Sound during the German invasion of the Estonian islands in late 1917 , where she was damaged . Bayan was decommissioned in 1918 and sold for scrap in 1922 .
= = Design and description = =
Bayan was 449 @.@ 6 feet ( 137 @.@ 0 m ) long overall . She had a maximum beam of 57 @.@ 5 feet ( 17 @.@ 5 m ) , a draught of 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) and displaced 7 @,@ 750 long tons ( 7 @,@ 870 t ) . The ship had a crew of 568 officers and men . Bayan was named in honor of the earlier Russian cruiser captured by the Japanese during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Both ships were named for the legendary bard , Boyan .
The ship had two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines with a designed total of 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 304 kW ) , but they developed 19 @,@ 320 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 410 kW ) on sea trials and drove the ship to a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 55 knots ( 41 @.@ 76 km / h ; 25 @.@ 95 mph ) . Steam for the engines was provided by 26 Belleville boilers . She could carry a maximum of 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 118 t ) of coal , although her range is unknown .
Bayan 's main armament consisted of two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 45 @-@ calibre guns in single turrets fore and aft . Her eight 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns were mounted in casemates on the sides of the ship 's hull . Anti @-@ torpedo boat defense was provided by twenty @-@ two 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) 50 @-@ calibre guns ; eight of these were mounted in casemates on the side of the hull and in the superstructure . Two guns were astern , in the admiral 's apartments , and the remaining twelve guns were located on upper deck amidships ( eight above the six @-@ inch gun casemates ) , in pivot mounts with gun shields . The ship also had two submerged 450 @-@ millimetre ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , one mounted on each broadside .
In early 1916 , eight of the ship 's 75 mm guns in the central casemate were removed , and in early 1917 , the rest were removed as well . By early 1917 , an additional eight @-@ inch gun was fitted on the centreline forward of the mainmast ( it was supposed to be protected with a gun shield , but the photos do not confirm this ) . In addition , four more six @-@ inch guns were added on an upper deck , two on each broadside . In early 1917 , Bayan was also fitted with two anti @-@ aircraft 76 mm Lender guns , mounted to the sides of the after turret .
The ship used Krupp armour throughout . Her waterline belt was 175 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) thick over her machinery spaces , reducing to 90 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) towards lower edge . Fore and aft , it reduced to 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . The upper belt and the casemates were 60 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . The armour deck was 50 millimetres ( 2 in ) thick ; over the central battery it was a single plate , but elsewhere it consisted of a 30 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) plate over two 10 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) plates . The gun turrets were protected by 132 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) of armour and the conning tower had walls 136 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) thick .
= = Service = =
Bayan was built by the Admiralty Shipyard in Saint Petersburg . Construction began on 15 August 1905 , although she was ceremonially laid down only on the day of her launching 15 August 1907 . Bayan was completed in early 1911 and commissioned on 14 July 1911 . She spent her entire career with the Baltic Fleet .
When World War I began , Bayan was assigned to the First Cruiser Brigade . Shortly after the start of the war , in December 1914 Bayan was modified to carry up to 110 mines . She laid her first mines in early December when she was one of a group of ships that mined the northern and western entrances to the Gulf of Danzig . The following month , she provided cover as other cruisers laid minefields in the western Baltic Sea , near Bornholm and Rügen Islands on the night of 12 January 1915 . Together with her sister Admiral Makarov and two protected cruisers , she fought a brief and inconclusive action with the light cruiser SMS München during the night of 6 / 7 May while covering a minelaying sortie off Libau .
On 2 July , the ship participated in the Battle of Åland Islands when intercepted and decoded wireless signals informed the Russians that a small German force was at sea to lay a minefield off the Åland Islands . Rear Admiral Mikhail Bakhirev was already at sea with Admiral Makarov , Bayan , Rurik , the protected cruisers Bogatyr and Oleg , and the destroyer Novik en route to bombard Memel . Rurik and Novik got separated from the others in fog , but the rest of the force encountered the light cruiser SMS Augsburg and a number of destroyers escorting the minelayer SMS Albatross . The Russians concentrated on Albatross , which was forced to run aground in Swedish territorial waters , while the faster Augsburg escaped to the south . The Russian cruisers were low on ammunition when they encountered two more German cruisers and broke off the action after Bayan and the armoured cruiser SMS Roon exchanged hits . Bayan fired 40 eight @-@ inch rounds and was hit with one 210 mm round amidships , which caused superficial damage and wounds to two crewmen . Roon lost her wireless aerial due to a near miss ; the Russians reported more hits , but not confirmed .
= = = Battle of Moon Sound = = =
In 1917 , Bayan was the flagship of Vice Admiral Bakhirev , who now commanded the naval forces defending the Gulf of Riga . During Operation Albion , the invasion of the Estonian islands of Saaremaa ( Ösel ) , Hiiumaa ( Dagö ) and Muhu ( Moon ) , in October 1917 , the ship defended the southern entrance to Moon Sound on 17 October . When the German minesweepers began clearing the minefields guarding the entrance , they were attacked by Bayan and the predreadnought Grazhdanin , while the predreadnought Slava engaged the dreadnoughts König and Kronprinz defending the minesweepers . Slava was hit multiple times by the German ships and Bakirev ordered his forces to withdraw . Bayan was the last ship to withdraw , but she was hit once by a 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimetre ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) shell from König before she moved out of range . The shell penetrated the deck near the forward turret and started a fire among the flammable material in the cable compartment that was not extinguished until the next day . Fragments from the shell destroyed a bulkhead and loosened some plates of the ship 's bottom . The location of the fire near the forward magazine forced it to be flooded as a precaution . Between the leaky plates and the flooded magazine , the ship took about 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) aboard and her draught forward increased to 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) . The shell killed five men and wounded three more . Despite her increased draught , Bayan was able to pass through the dredged channel connecting the northern and southern parts of Moon Sound later that day . When the general withdrawal was ordered the following day , the ship sailed for Finland .
She was paid off in 1918 and did not participate in the Russian Civil War . Bayan was sold for scrap in 1922 and broken up in Stettin .
= Burger King =
Burger King , often abbreviated as BK , is an American global chain of hamburger fast food restaurants headquartered in unincorporated Miami @-@ Dade County , Florida , United States . The company began in 1953 as Insta @-@ Burger King , a Jacksonville , Florida @-@ based restaurant chain . After Insta @-@ Burger King ran into financial difficulties in 1954 , its two Miami @-@ based franchisees , David Edgerton and James McLamore , purchased the company and renamed it Burger King . Over the next half century , the company would change hands four times , with its third set of owners , a partnership of TPG Capital , Bain Capital , and Goldman Sachs Capital Partners , taking it public in 2002 . In late 2010 , 3G Capital of Brazil acquired a majority stake in BK in a deal valued at US $ 3 @.@ 26 billion . The new owners promptly initiated a restructuring of the company to reverse its fortunes . 3G , along with partner Berkshire Hathaway , eventually merged the company with Canadian @-@ based doughnut chain Tim Hortons under the auspices of a new Canadian @-@ based parent company , Restaurant Brands International .
At the end of fiscal year 2015 , Burger King reported it had over 15 @,@ 000 outlets in 100 countries ; of these , 47 @.@ 5 % are in the United States and 99 @.@ 5 % are privately owned and operated with its new owners moving to an almost entirely franchised model in 2013 . BK has historically used several variations of franchising to expand its operations . The manner in which the company licenses its franchisees varies depending on the region , with some regional franchises , known as master franchises , responsible for selling franchise sub @-@ licenses on the company 's behalf . Burger King 's relationship with its franchises has not always been harmonious . Occasional spats between the two have caused numerous issues , and in several instances the company 's and its licensees ' relations have degenerated into precedent @-@ setting court cases . Burger King 's Australian franchise , Hungry Jack 's , is the only franchise to operate under a different name due to a trademark dispute and a series of legal cases between the two .
The Burger King menu has expanded from a basic offering of burgers , French fries , sodas , and milkshakes in 1954 , to a larger , more diverse set of product offerings . In 1957 , the Whopper was the first major addition to the menu ; it has since become Burger King 's signature product . Conversely , BK has introduced many products which failed to catch hold in the marketplace . Some of these failures in the United States have seen success in foreign markets , where BK has also tailored its menu for regional tastes . From 2002 to 2010 , Burger King aggressively targeted the 18 – 34 male demographic with larger products that often carried correspondingly large amounts of unhealthy fats and trans @-@ fats . This tactic would eventually come to hurt the company 's financial underpinnings and cast a negative pall on its earnings . Beginning in 2011 , the company began to move away from the previous male @-@ oriented menu and introduce new menu items , product reformulations , and packaging as part of 3G Capital 's restructuring plans of the company .
The 1970s were the " Golden Age " of Burger King advertising , but beginning in the early 1980s , the company 's advertising began to lose focus ; a series of less successful ad campaigns created by a procession of advertising agencies continued for the next two decades . In 2003 , Burger King hired the Miami @-@ based advertising agency of Crispin Porter + Bogusky ( CP + B ) . CP + B completely reorganized Burger King 's advertising with a series of new campaigns centered on a redesigned Burger King character accompanied with a new online presence . While highly successful , some of CP + B commercials were derided for perceived sexism or cultural insensitivity . New owner , 3G Capital , terminated the relationship with CP + B in 2011 and moved its advertising to McGarryBowen to begin a new product oriented campaign with expanded demographic targeting .
= = History = =
The predecessor to Burger King was founded in 1953 in Jacksonville , Florida , as Insta @-@ Burger King . After visiting the McDonald brothers ' original store location in San Bernardino , California , the founders and owners ( Keith J. Kramer and his wife 's uncle Matthew Burns ) , who had purchased the rights to two pieces of equipment called " Insta " machines , opened their first restaurants . Their production model was based on one of the machines they had acquired , an oven called the " Insta @-@ Broiler " . This strategy proved so successful that they later required all of their franchises to use the device . After the company faltered in 1959 , it was purchased by its Miami , Florida franchisees , James McLamore and David R. Edgerton . They initiated a corporate restructuring of the chain , first renaming the company Burger King . They ran the company as an independent entity for eight years ( eventually expanding to over 250 locations in the United States ) , before selling it to the Pillsbury Company in 1967 .
Pillsbury management tried several times to restructure Burger King in the late 1970s and early 1980s . The most prominent change came in 1978 , when Burger King hired McDonald 's executive Donald N. Smith to help revamp the company . In a plan called Operation Phoenix , Smith restructured corporate business practices at all levels of the company . Changes included updated franchise agreements , a broader menu , and new , standardized restaurant designs . Smith left Burger King for PepsiCo in 1980 , shortly before a system @-@ wide decline in sales . Pillsbury Executive Vice President of Restaurant Operations Norman E. Brinker was tasked with turning the brand around and strengthening its position against its main rival , McDonald 's . One of his initiatives was a new advertising campaign featuring a series of attack ads against its major competitors . This campaign started a competitive period between the top burger chains , known as the Burger Wars . Brinker left Burger King in 1984 , to take over Dallas @-@ based gourmet burger chain Chili 's .
Smith and Brinker 's efforts were initially effective , but , after their respective departures , Pillsbury relaxed or discarded many of their changes and scaled back on construction of new locations . These actions stalled corporate growth and sales declined again , eventually resulting in a damaging fiscal slump for Burger King and Pillsbury . Poor operation and ineffectual leadership continued to bog down the company for many years . Pillsbury was acquired by the British entertainment conglomerate Grand Metropolitan in 1989 .
Initially , Grand Met attempted to bring the chain top profitability under newly minted CEO Barry Gibbons , the changes he initiated during his two @-@ year tenure were hit or miss . Successful new product introductions and product tie @-@ ins with the Walt Disney company were offset by continuing image problems and ineffectual advertising programs . Additionally , Gibbons sold off several of the company 's assets in attempt to profit from their sale and terminated many staff members . After Gibbon 's departure , a series of CEO each tried to repair the brand by changing the menu , bringing in new ad agencies and other changes .
The parental disregard of the Burger King brand continued through Grand Metropolitan 's merger with Guinness in 1997 , when the two organizations formed the new holding company Diageo . Eventually , the ongoing , systematic institutional neglect of the brand through the string of owners damaged the company to the point where major franchises were driven out of business and its total value was significantly decreased . Diageo eventually decided to divest itself of the money @-@ losing chain and put the company up for sale in 2000 .
The twenty @-@ first century saw the company return to independence when it was purchased from Diageo by a group of investment firms led by TPG Capital for US $ 1 @.@ 5 billion in 2002 . The new owners rapidly moved to revitalize and reorganize the company , culminating with the company being taken public in 2006 with a highly successful initial public offering . The firms ' strategy for turning the chain around included a new advertising agency and new ad campaigns , a revamped menu strategy , a series of programs designed to revamp individual stores , a new restaurant concept called the BK Whopper Bar , and a new design format called 20 / 20 . These changes successfully re @-@ energized the company , leading to a score of profitable quarters . Yet , despite the successes of the new owners , the effects of the financial crisis of 2007 – 2010 weakened the company 's financial outlooks while those of its immediate competitor McDonald 's grew . The falling value of Burger King eventually led to TPG and its partners divesting their interest in the chain in a US $ 3 @.@ 26 billion sale to 3G Capital of Brazil . Analysts from financial firms UBS and Stifel Nicolaus agreed that 3G would have to invest heavily in the company to help reverse its fortunes . After the deal was completed , the company 's stock was removed from the New York Stock Exchange , ending a four @-@ year period as a public company . The delisting of its stock was designed to help the company repair its fundamental business structures and continue working to close the gap with McDonald 's without having to worry about pleasing shareholders . In the United States domestic market , the chain has fallen to third place in terms of same store sales behind Ohio @-@ based Wendy 's . The decline is the result of 11 consecutive quarters of same store sales decline .
In August 2014 , 3G announced that it planned to acquire the Canadian restaurant and coffee shop chain Tim Hortons and merge it with Burger King with backing from Warren Buffett 's Berkshire Hathaway . The two chains will retain separate operations post @-@ merger , with Burger King remaining in its Miami headquarters . A Tim Hortons representative stated that the proposed merger would allow Tim Hortons to leverage Burger King 's resources for international growth . The combined company will be the third @-@ largest international chain of fast food restaurants . The deal lead to a controversy over the practice of tax inversions , in which a company decreases the amount of taxes it pays by moving its headquarters to a tax haven , a country with lower rates but maintains the majority of their operations in their previous location . As a high @-@ profile instance of tax inversion , news of the merger was criticized by U.S. politicians , who felt that the move would result in a loss of tax revenue to foreign interests , and could result in further government pressure against inversions .
= = Structure and operations = =
Burger King Holdings is the parent company of Burger King , also known as Burger King Corporation and abbreviated BKC , and is a Delaware corporation formed on 23 July 2002 . A subsidiary , it derives its income from several sources , including property rental and sales through company owned restaurants ; however a substantial portion of its revenue is dependent on franchise fees . During the transitional period after the acquisition of the company by 3G Capital , Burger King 's board of directors was co @-@ chaired by John W. Chidsey , formerly CEO and chairman of the company , and Alex Behring , managing partner of 3G Capital . By April 2011 the new ownership completed the restructuring of Burger King 's corporate management and Chidsey tendered his resignation , leaving Behring as CEO and chair .
The company operates approximately 40 subsidiaries globally that oversee franchise operations , acquisitions and financial obligations such as pensions . One example of a subsidiary is Burger King Brands , Inc. which is responsible for the management of Burger King 's intellectual properties . A wholly owned subsidiary established in 1990 , Burger King Brands owns and manages all trademarks , copyrights and domain names used by the restaurants in the United States and Canada . It also responsible for providing marketing and related services to the parent company .
The majority of Burger King restaurants , approximately 90 % , are privately held franchises . In North America Burger King Corporation is responsible for licensing operators and administering of stores . Internationally the company often pairs with other parties to operate locations or it will outright sell the operational and administrative rights to a franchisee which is given the designation of master franchise for the territory . The master franchise will then be expected to sub @-@ license new stores , provide training support and ensure operational standards are maintained . In exchange for the oversight responsibilities , the master franchise will receive administrative and advertising support from Burger King Corporation to ensure a common marketing scheme . The 3G Capital ownership group announced in April 2011 that it would begin divesting itself of many corporate owned locations with the intent to increase the number of privately held restaurants to 95 % .
As the franchisor for the brand , Burger King Holdings has several obligations and responsibilities ; the company designs and deploys corporate training systems while overseeing brand standards such as building design and appearance . The company also develops new products and deploys them after presenting them to its franchises for approval per a 2010 agreement between itself and the franchise ownership groups . Burger King has limited approval over franchise operations such as minimum hours of operation and promotional pricing . Additionally Burger King designates approved vendors and distributors while ensuring safety standards at the productions facilities of its vendors .
Burger King is headquartered in a nine @-@ story office tower by the Miami International Airport in unincorporated Miami @-@ Dade County , Florida . Elaine Walker of the Miami Herald stated that the headquarters has a " Burger King " sign that drivers on State Road 836 " can 't miss . " In addition , the chain planned to build a neon sign on the roof to advertise the brand to passengers landing at the airport . On Monday 8 July 2002 , 130 employees began working at the Burger King headquarters with the remainder moving in phases in August 2002 . Prior to the moving to its current headquarters in 2002 , Burger King had considered moving away from the Miami area ; Miami @-@ Dade County politicians and leaders lobbied against this , and Burger King stayed . In August 2014 the future of the company 's Miami headquarters was again in doubt as reports surfaced Burger King was in talks with Tim Hortons about buying the Canadian restaurant chain , with a view to relocating its headquarters to Canada where the corporate tax rate is lower .
The company 's previous headquarters were in a southern Dade County campus described by Walker as " sprawling " and " virtually hidden away . " The former headquarters were located on Old Cutler Blvd in the Cutler census @-@ designated place . The former Burger King headquarters as of 2007 houses rental offices for several companies .
= = Franchises = =
When Burger King Corporation began franchising in 1959 , it used a regional model where franchisees purchased the right to open stores within a geographic region . These franchise agreements granted BKC very little oversight control of its franchisees and resulted in issues of product quality control , store image and design , and operational procedures .
During the 1970s , structural deficiencies in Burger King 's franchise system became increasingly problematic for Pillsbury . A major example was the relationship between Burger King and Louisiana @-@ based franchisee Chart House , Burger King 's largest franchisee group at the time with over 350 locations in the United States . The company 's owners , William and James Trotter , made several moves to take over or acquire Burger King during the 1970s , all of which were spurned by Pillsbury . After the failed attempts to acquire the company , the relationship between Chart House and Burger King soured and eventually devolved into a lawsuit . Chart House eventually spun off its Burger King operations in the early 1980s into a holding company called DiversiFoods , which in turn was acquired by Pillsbury in 1984 and absorbed into Burger King 's operations .
As part of the franchising reorganization segment of Operation Phoenix , Donald N. Smith initiated a restructuring of future franchising agreements in 1978 . Under this new franchise agreement , new owners were disallowed from living more than one hour from their restaurants – restricting them to smaller individuals or ownership groups and preventing large , multi @-@ state corporations from owning franchises . Franchisee were also now prohibited from operating other chains , preventing them from diverting funds away from their Burger King holdings . This new policy effectively limited the size of franchisees and prevented larger franchises from challenging Burger King Corporation as Chart House had . Smith also sought to have BKC be the primary owner of new locations and rent or lease the restaurants to its franchises . This policy would allow the company to take over the operations of failing stores or evict those owners who would not conform to the company guidelines and policies . By 1988 , parent company Pillsbury had relaxed many of Smith 's changes , scaled back on the construction of new locations which resulted in stalled growth of the brand . Neglect of Burger King by new owner Grand Met and its successor Diageo , further hurt the standing of the brand , causing significant financial damage to BK franchises and straining relations between the parties .
By 2001 and after nearly 18 years of stagnant growth , the state of its franchises was beginning to affect the value of the company . One of the franchises most heavily affected by the lack of growth was the nearly 400 @-@ store AmeriKing . By 2001 , the franchise owner , which until this point had been struggling under a nearly US $ 300 million debt load and been shedding stores across the US , was forced to enter Chapter 11 bankruptcy . The failure of AmeriKing deeply affected the value of Burger King , and put negotiations between Diaego and the TPC Capital @-@ led group on hold . The developments eventually forced Diaego to lower the total selling price of the chain by almost $ 750 million . After the sale , newly appointed CEO Bradley ( Brad ) Blum initiated a program to help roughly 20 percent of its franchises , including its four largest , who were in financial distress , bankruptcy or had ceased operations altogether . Partnering with California @-@ based Trinity Capital , LLC , the company established the Franchisee Financial Restructuring Initiative , a program to address the financial issues facing BK 's financially distressed franchisees . The initiative was designed to assist franchisees in restructuring their businesses to meet financial obligations , focus on restaurant operational excellence , reinvest in their operations , and return to profitability .
Individual franchisees took advantage of the AmeriKing failure ; one of BK 's regional owners , Miami @-@ based Al Cabrera , purchased 130 stores located primarily in the Chicago and the upper mid @-@ west region , from the failed company for a price of $ 16 million , approximately 88 percent of their original value . The new company , which started out as Core Value Partners and eventually became Heartland Foods , also purchased 120 additional stores from distressed owners and revamped them . The resulting purchases made Cabrera the largest minority franchisee of Burger King , and Heartland one of the company 's top franchises . By 2006 , the company was valued at over $ 150 million , and was sold to New York – based GSO Capital Partners . Other purchasers included a three way group of NFL athletes Kevin Faulk , Marcus Allen and Michael Strahan who collectively purchased 17 stores in the cities of Norfolk and Richmond , Virginia ; and Cincinnati @-@ based franchisee Dave Devoy , who purchased 32 AmeriKing stores . After investing in new decor , equipment and staff retraining , many of the formerly failing stores have shown growth approaching 20 percent .
As part of 3G 's restructuring plan , the company decided to divest itself of its corporate owned locations by re @-@ franchising them to private owners and become a 100 % franchised operation by the end of 2013 . The project , which began in April 2012 , saw the company divest corporate owned locations in Florida , Canada , Spain , Germany and other regions . The move gave the company a Q3 , 2013 profit of US $ 68 @.@ 2 million over the same quarter , 2012 of US $ 6 @.@ 6 million .
At the end of its 2013 fiscal year , Burger King is the second largest chain of hamburger fast food restaurants in terms of global locations , behind industry bellwether McDonald 's ( 32 @,@ 400 locations ) ; it is the fourth largest fast food restaurant chain overall after Yum ! Brands ( parent of KFC , Taco Bell and Pizza Hut totaling 37 @,@ 000 locations ) , McDonald 's , and Subway ( 32 @,@ 000 locations ) .
= = International operations = =
While BK began its foray into locations outside of the continental United States in 1963 with a store in San Juan , Puerto Rico , it did not have an international presence until several years later . Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury , it opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor , Ontario in 1969 . Other international locations followed soon after : Oceania in 1971 and Europe in 1975 with a restaurant in Madrid , Spain . Beginning in 1982 , BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries , including Japan , Taiwan , Singapore and South Korea . Due to high competition , all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001 ; however , BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007 . BK 's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s , and by the early 1980s in Caracas , Venezuela , Santiago , Chile and Buenos Aires , Argentina . While Burger King lags behind McDonald 's in international locations by over 12 @,@ 000 stores , as of 2008 it had managed to become the largest chain in several countries including Mexico and Spain . The company divides its international operations into three segments ; The Middle East , Europe and Africa division ( EMEA ) , Asia @-@ Pacific ( APAC ) and Latin America and the Caribbean ( LAC ) . In each of these regions , Burger King has established several subsidiaries to develop strategic partnerships and alliances to expand into new territories . In its EMEA group , Burger King 's Switzerland @-@ based subsidiary Burger King Europe GmbH is responsible for the licensing and development of BK franchises in those regions . In APAC region , the Singapore @-@ based BK AsiaPac , Pte . Ltd. business unit handles franchising for East Asia , the Asian subcontinent and all Oceanic territories . The LAC region includes Mexico , Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands and has no centralized operations group .
Australia is the only country in which Burger King does not operate under its own name . When the company set about establishing operations down under in 1971 , it found that its business name was already trademarked by a takeaway food shop in Adelaide . As a result , Burger King provided the Australian franchisee , Jack Cowin , with a list of possible alternative names derived from pre @-@ existing trademarks already registered by Burger King and its then corporate parent Pillsbury , that could be used to name the Australian restaurants . Cowin selected the " Hungry Jack " brand name , one of Pillsbury 's US pancake mixture products , and slightly changed the name to a possessive form by adding an apostrophe " s " forming the new name Hungry Jack 's . After the expiration of the trademark in the late 1990s , Burger King unsuccessfully tried to introduce the brand to the continent . After losing a lawsuit filed against it by Hungry Jack 's ownership , the company ceded the territory to its franchisee . Hungry Jack 's is now the only Burger King brand in Australia ; Cowin 's company Hungry Jack 's PTY is the master franchise and thus is now responsible for oversight of the operations that country with Burger King only providing administrative and advertising support to ensure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products .
Over a 10 @-@ year period starting in 2008 , Burger King predicted 80 percent of its market share would be driven by foreign expansion , particularly in the Asia @-@ Pacific and Indian subcontinent regional markets . While the TPG @-@ led group continued BK 's international expansion by announcing plans to open new franchise locations in Eastern Europe , Africa and the Middle East , and Brazil , the company plan is focusing on the three largest markets – India , China and Japan . The company plans to add over 250 stores in these Asian territories , as well as other places such as Macau , by the end of 2012 . Its expansion into the Indian market has the company at a competitive disadvantage with other fast food restaurants such as KFC because of the aversion of the country 's large Hindu majority to beef . BK hopes to use their non @-@ beef products , such as their TenderCrisp and TenderGrill chicken sandwiches , as well as other products like mutton sandwiches and veggie sandwiches , to help them overcome this hurdle to expand in that country . 3G has reported that it will continue with the plans to grow globally , even ramping up the planned expansion to help increase their return on investment . It is expected that 3G Brazilian @-@ based management connections in the region may help Burger King expand in Brazil and Latin America , where it has been having problems finding acceptable franchisees .
= = Controversies and legal cases = =
Burger King has been involved in several legal disputes and cases , as both plaintiff and defendant , in the years since its founding in 1954 . Disputes involving these many legal topics have affected almost every aspect of the company 's operations . Depending on the ownership and executive staff at the time of these incidents , the company 's responses to these challenges have ranged from a conciliatory dialog with its critics and litigants , to a more aggressive opposition with questionable tactics and negative consequences . The company 's response to these various issues has drawn praise as well as accusations of political appeasement from different parties over the years .
A trademark dispute involving the owners of the identically named Burger King in Mattoon , Illinois , led to a federal lawsuit . The case 's outcome helped define the scope of the Lanham act and trademark law in the United States . An existing trademark held by a shop of the same name in South Australia forced the company to change its name in Australia , while another state trademark in Texas forced the company to abandon its signature product , the Whopper , in several counties around San Antonio . Legal decisions from other suits have set contractual law precedents in regards to long @-@ arm statutes , the limitations of franchise agreements , and ethical business practices . Many of these decisions have helped define general business dealings that continue to shape the entire marketplace .
Controversies and disputes have arisen with groups such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , governmental and social agencies , and unions and trade groups over various topics . These situations have touched on legal and moral concepts such as animal rights , corporate responsibility , ethics , and social justice . While the majority of the disputes did not result in lawsuits , in many of the cases the situations raised legal questions , dealt with legal compliance , or resulted in legal remedies such as changes in contractual procedure or binding agreements between parties . The resolutions to these legal matters have often altered the way the company interacts and negotiates contracts with its suppliers and franchisees , or how it does business with the public .
Further controversies have occurred during the company 's expansion in the Middle East . The opening of a Burger King location in Ma 'aleh Adumim , an Israeli settlement in the Israeli @-@ occupied Palestinian territories , led to a breach of contract dispute between Burger King and its Israeli franchise due to the hotly contested international dispute over the legality of Israeli settlements in the Palestinian territories in accordance to international law . The controversy eventually erupted into a geopolitical dispute involving Muslim and Jewish groups on multiple continents over the application of , and adherence to , international law . The case eventually elicited reactions from the members of the 22 @-@ nation Arab League . The Islamic countries within the League made a joint threat to the company of legal sanctions including the revocation of Burger King 's business licenses within the member states ' territories .
A related issue involving members of the Islamic faith over the interpretation of the Muslim version of canon law , Shariah , regarding the promotional artwork on a dessert package in the United Kingdom raised issues of cultural sensitivity , and , with the former example , posed a larger question about the lengths that companies must go to ensure the smooth operation of their businesses in the communities they serve .
= = Charitable contributions and services = =
Burger King has two of its own in @-@ house national charitable organizations and programs . One is the Have It Your Way Foundation , a US @-@ based non @-@ profit ( 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) ) corporation with multiple focuses on hunger alleviation , disease prevention and community education through scholarship programs at colleges in the US . The other charitable organization is the McLamore Foundation , also a non @-@ profit , 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) corporation that provides scholarships to students in the US and its territories .
In various regions across the United States , Burger King and its franchises have aligned themselves with several charitable organizations that support research and treatment of juvenile cancer . Each year , these coalitions hold a fund raising drive called " A Chance for Kids " , in which Burger King restaurants sell lottery @-@ style scratch cards for $ 1 . Each card produces a winning prize that is usually a food or beverage product , but includes ( rarer ) items such as shopping sprees or trips . In the Northeast , BK has affiliated itself with the Major League Baseball team the Boston Red Sox and its charitable foundation , the Jimmy Fund . The group runs the contest in Boston . In the New York City area , it operates the contest in association with the Burger King Children 's Charities of Metro New York and the New York Yankees . Funds raised in these areas go to support the Dana @-@ Farber Cancer Institute , located in Boston . In Nebraska , the company is affiliated with the Liz 's Legacy Cancer Fund " BK Beat Cancer for Kids " program at the UNMC Eppley Cancer Center at the University of Nebraska Medical Center in Omaha . In the Pittsburgh region , it funded the establishment of the Burger King Cancer Caring Center , a support organization for the families and friends of cancer patients .
= = Products = =
When the predecessor of Burger King first opened in Jacksonville in 1953 , its menu consisted predominantly of basic hamburgers , French fries , soft drinks , milkshakes and desserts . After being acquired by its Miami , Florida , franchisees and renamed to its current moniker in 1954 , BK began expanding the breadth of its menu by adding the Whopper sandwich in 1957 . This quarter @-@ pound ( 4 oz ( 110 g ) ) hamburger was created by Burger King 's new owners James McLamore and David Edgerton as a way to differentiate BK from
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young boy who grows out of being a gangster , and , despite not willing to do so , he will at least try to keep the fighting clean . Wave Maker Magazine found " Elstree , " the album 's sixth song , as lyrically similar to " Video Killed the Radio Star , " as it follows " a failed actor taking up a more regular position behind the scenes and looking back at his life in regret . " The slow @-@ tempo ballad " Astroboy ( And the Proles on Parade ) " , according to Wave Maker , " once again revisits cyberpunk with a much lighter vibe , although the keyboards do occasionally border darker realms , expecially [ sic ] with the post @-@ chorus hook , " and the album closer " Johnny on the Monorail " has a " pop atmosphere " that " better suits the flow of the rest of the album . "
= = Release and commercial performance = =
The Age of Plastic was first released in Australia on 10 January 1980 , and in the United Kingdom on 4 February the same year . In 2000 , as part of the Island Remasters series , the album was reissued with three bonus tracks , " Technopop " , " Island " , and " Johnny on the Monorail ( A Very Different Version ) " . The album was remastered and re @-@ released again on 24 February 2010 in Japan . The new edition included 9 additional tracks , three of which were from the 2000 re @-@ release album . Initially , songs from The Age of Plastic were played on English radio stations from 31 December 1979 , and two advertisements of the album were also released . Domestically , The Age of Plastic appeared on the UK Album Charts for six weeks , reaching 27 on the chart . In Nordic countries , the record debuted at number 32 in Norway , eventually reaching number 23 , and peaked at number 24 in Sweden . It also reached the number 15 spot on the French Albums Chart , and number 35 in Japan . The album 's 2010 reissue briefly appeared at number 225 in Japan .
Four singles were released in support of the record , with the second track " Video Killed the Radio Star " being released as the album 's leading single . The LP version of the song was included on the 2010 reissue of the album , with the song " Kid Dynamo " as its B @-@ side . The single was commercially successful , topping the record charts in 16 countries , including the UK Singles Chart . The album 's title track " Living in the Plastic Age " was released as the second single . The single version was later included in the 2010 reissue . The fourth track " Clean , Clean " was released as the third single from the album , while " Elstree " was the album 's fourth and final single . All of the singles had chart success in the UK , with " The Plastic Age " and " Clean , Clean " gaining chart success on international level . A single and special DJ version of " Elstree " also appeared on the 2010 reissue of the album , as well as a 12 " version of " Clean , Clean " .
On 28 September 2010 , The Buggles reunited to play their first full @-@ length live concert . The event was billed as " The Lost Gig " and took place at " Ladbroke Grove 's Supperclub " in Notting Hill , London . It was a fund raiser with all earnings going to the Royal Hospital for Neuro @-@ disability . With the exception of " Video Killed the Radio Star " and " The Plastic Age " , which the band had previously played together , " The Lost Gig " saw the first live performances of all of the remaining songs from The Age of Plastic .
= = Critical reception = =
Most reviews of The Age of Plastic have been approving , with some critics comparing it to other albums of its genre . Melody Maker noted that the album is " all jerky twitchings and absurdly inflated post @-@ punk melodrama " and named it as " essential " . The Canberra Times 's Keith Gosman found the production excellent and said the album sounded " crisp as fresh dollar bills " . The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction described the LP as " one of the best examples of the decade 's characteristically disposable pop " , while Spin named it one of the " 8 Essentials of Post @-@ Kraftwerk Pop " .
In a retrospective review , Jeri Montesano from AllMusic gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and described it as " a fun record that doesn 't need to be taken too seriously " . He further said that " it would be difficult to find a record from this era that sounds half as good . Pop rarely reaches these heights . " While reviewing the Buggles ' second album , the same author stated that both albums " still sound fresh " compared to 1990s pop music . An Amazon.com editor named Grant Alden also compared the album to 1990s pop , and labeled the group as " Part of the early @-@ 1980s great explosion of pop music [ ... ] to have any real impact " . Trouser Press called both albums " technically stunning , reasonably catchy and crashingly hollow . "
Smash Hits rated the album 8 out of 10 and called it " quite human and therefore the most enjoyable of the lot " . In a review of the 1999 re @-@ release of the album , Vincent L. of Krinein Magazine praised the entire record because it contains " catchy tracks and joyful melodies " . Napster 's Nicholas Baker liked the album 's composition and concluded " this LP is not so much a guilty pleasure as an essential point in electropop history . " Metro Pulse 's Anthony Nownes found the tunes " punchy , memorable " and " accessible " , concluding his review with " If all rock records sounded like this — shiny and slick and highly processed — the world would be terrible . But a few Trevor Horns — people who use studio technology the way a curious and playful child uses a room full of fictile toys — are nice to have around . "
On the mixed to negative side , Joseph Stannard , in his review for Adventures in Modern Recording , opined The Age of Plastic " sounds like unfinished business , a series of good ideas in need of elaboration " . Dave Marsh and John Swenson , writing for The Rolling Stone Record Guide , opined that " aside from the wonderful ' Video Killed the Radio Star ' — perhaps the most successful recent example of a single where the production was catchier than the material " , the album was " high @-@ tech dreck " . Betty Page from Sounds commented that the group " stretches uncomfortably out into the long playing medium like a skein of well @-@ chewed bubblegum . " In a review of the 1999 reissue of the album , Richard Wallace of Daily Mirror wrote that the record " shows how [ The Buggles ] pioneered the synth @-@ led nonsense which fused much of the decade 's pop , but had little creative imagination . That bombastic electro @-@ sound became [ Trevor ] Horn 's trademark as a producer . Skip it . " Alexis Petridis of The Guardian has been the harshest on the LP , calling it " awful beyond measure " and " everything bad that people say about the music industry : it 's wasteful , it 's stupid , it has no interest in actual music . "
= = In popular culture = =
Popular French bands such as Justice , Daft Punk and Phoenix have been known to include influences of The Age of Plastic . Justice said that they were " totally fascinated by The Buggles ’ first album [ The Age of Plastic ] . It ’ s full of stuff we like - there ’ s a bit of electro , a bit of pop , a bit of classical going on there … We like the way they operated too , as an autonomous duo … "
In Adrian McKinty 's novel I Hear the Sirens in the Street : A Detective Sean Duffy Novel , the book 's main character goes into his house on a rainy day listening to The Age of Plastic , calling it a " very bad album . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written , produced and performed by The Buggles .
Original LP release
Side 1 :
" Living in the Plastic Age " – 5 : 13
" Video Killed the Radio Star " – 4 : 13
" Kid Dynamo " – 3 : 29
" I Love You ( Miss Robot ) " – 4 : 58
Side 2 :
" Clean , Clean " – 3 : 53
" Elstree " – 4 : 29
" Astroboy ( And the Proles on Parade ) " – 4 : 41
" Johnny on the Monorail " – 5 : 28
Bonus tracks on 2000 CD re @-@ release
" Island " – 3 : 33
" Technopop " – 3 : 50
" Johnny on the Monorail " ( A very different version ) – 3 : 49
Bonus tracks on 2010 Japanese CD re @-@ release
" Video Killed the Radio Star " ( Single version ) – 3 : 25
" Kid Dynamo " ( Single version ) – 3 : 29
" Living in the Plastic Age " ( Single version ) – 3 : 51
" Island " ( Edit version ) – 3 : 33
" Clean Clean " ( 12 @-@ inch version ) – 5 : 15
" Technopop " – 3 : 50
" Elstree " ( Single version ) – 4 : 06
" Johnny on the Monorail " ( A very different version ) – 3 : 50
" Elstree " ( Special DJ edit version ) – 3 : 36
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Chart positions = =
= Kingdom of East Anglia =
The Kingdom of the East Angles ( Old English : Ēast Engla Rīce ; Latin : Regnum Orientalium Anglorum ) , today known as the Kingdom of East Anglia , was a small independent kingdom of the Angles comprising what are now the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk and perhaps the eastern part of the Fens . The kingdom formed in the 6th century in the wake of the Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement of Britain . It was ruled by the Wuffingas in the 7th and 8th centuries , but fell to Mercia in 794 , and was conquered by the Danes in 869 , forming part of the Danelaw . It was conquered by Edward the Elder and incorporated into the Kingdom of England in 918 .
= = History = =
The Kingdom of East Anglia was organized in the first or second quarter of the 6th century with Wehha listed as the first king of the East Angles , followed by Wuffa .
Until 749 the kings of East Anglia were Wuffingas , named after the semi @-@ historical Wuffa . During the early seventh century , under Rædwald of East Anglia , it was a powerful Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom . Rædwald , the first of the East Anglian kings to be baptised as a Christian , is considered by many experts to be the person who was buried within ( or commemorated by ) the ship burial at Sutton Hoo , near Woodbridge . During the decades that followed his death in around 624 , East Anglia became increasingly dominated by the powerful kingdom of Mercia . Several of Rædwald 's successors were killed in battle , such as Sigeberht ( killed circa 641 ) . Under Sigeberht 's rule and the guidance of his bishop , Felix of Burgundy , Christianity was firmly established in East Anglia .
After Æthelberht II was killed by the Mercians in 794 , and until 825 , East Anglia ceased to be an independent kingdom , although it briefly reasserted its independence under Eadwald in 796 . It survived until 869 , when the Vikings defeated the East Anglians in battle and their king , Edmund the Martyr , was killed . After 879 , the Vikings settled permanently in East Anglia . In 903 the exiled Æthelwold ætheling induced the East Anglian Danes to wage a disastrous war on his cousin Edward the Elder . By 917 , after a succession of Danish defeats , East Anglia had submitted to Edward and was incorporated into the kingdom of England , afterwards becoming an earldom .
= = = Settlement = = =
East Anglia was settled by the Anglo @-@ Saxons as early as around 450 , earlier than many other regions . It emerged from the settlement and political consolidation of Angles in the approximate area of the former territory of the Iceni and the Roman civitas with its centre at Venta Icenorum , close to Caistor St Edmund . According to Bede , the East Angles ( as well as the Middle Angles , the Mercians and the Northumbrians ) were descended from natives of Angeln ( now in modern Germany ) . The first reference to the East Angles is from around 704 – 713 , in the Whitby Life of St Gregory .
The East Angles formed one of the seven kingdoms known to post @-@ mediaeval historians as the Heptarchy , a scheme used by Henry of Huntingdon in the twelfth century . Some modern historians have questioned whether seven independent kingdoms ever really existed contemporaneously , and claim that the political situation was much more complicated .
= = = Pagan rule = = =
The East Angles were initially ruled by the pagan Wuffingas dynasty , apparently named after an early king , Wuffa , although his name could have been an invention to explain the dynastic name , which means ' descendants of the wolf ' . An indispensable main source of information on the early history of the kingdom and its rulers is Bede 's Ecclesiastical History , but he provided few facts relating to the chronology of the East Anglian kings or the length of their reigns . Nothing is known of the earliest kings of East Anglia , or how the kingdom was organised , although a possible indication of the original centre of royal power is the concentration of ship @-@ burials at Snape and Sutton Hoo in eastern Suffolk . The " North Folk " and " South Folk " may have existed before the arrival of the first East Anglian kings .
The most powerful of the Wuffingas kings was Rædwald , ' the son of Tytil , whose father was Wuffa ' , according to the Ecclesiastical History . For a brief period in the early seventh century , whilst Rædwald ruled , East Anglia was among the most powerful kingdoms in Anglo @-@ Saxon England : Rædwald was described by Bede as the overlord of the kingdoms south of the Humber . In 616 , he had been strong enough to defeat and kill the Northumbrian king Æthelfrith at the Battle of the River Idle and enthrone Edwin of Northumbria . He was probably the individual honoured by the sumptuous ship burial at Sutton Hoo . It has been suggested by Blair , on the strength of the parallels between some of the objects found under Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo and those discovered at Vendel in Sweden , that the Wuffingas may have been the descendants of an eastern Swedish royal family . However , as those items previously thought to have come from Sweden are now believed to have been made in England , it seems less likely that the Wuffingas were of Swedish origin .
= = = Christianization = = =
During the seventh century , Anglo @-@ Saxon Christianity was successfully established . The extent to which paganism was displaced in East Anglia is exemplified by a lack of any East Anglian settlements that are named after the old gods .
Rædwald was the first East Anglian king to be baptised , in 604 . He maintained a Christian altar , but at the same time continued to worship pagan gods . From 616 , when pagan monarchs briefly returned in Kent and Essex , until Rædwald 's death , East Anglia was the only Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom with a reigning baptised king . On his death in around 624 , he was succeeded by his son Eorpwald , who was soon afterwards converted from paganism as a result of the influence of Edwin , but his new religion was evidently opposed in East Anglia and Eorpwald met his death at the hands of a pagan , Ricberht . After three years of apostasy , Christianity prevailed with the accession of Eorpwald 's brother ( or step @-@ brother ) Sigeberht , who had been baptised during his exile in Francia . Sigeberht oversaw the establishment of the first East Anglian see for Felix of Burgundy at Dommoc , probably at Dunwich . He later abdicated in favour of his brother Ecgric and retired to a monastery .
= = = Mercian aggression = = =
The eminence achieved by East Anglia under Rædwald did not last long , as his dynasty fell victim to the rising power of Penda of Mercia and his successors . Throughout the mid @-@ seventh to early ninth centuries , Mercian power grew until a vast region from the River Thames to the Humber , including East Anglia and the south @-@ east , became a zone of Mercian hegemony . In the early 640s Penda defeated and killed both Ecgric and Sigeberht , who was later venerated as a saint . Ecgric 's successor Anna and Anna 's son Jurmin were killed together in 654 at the Battle of Bulcamp , near Blythburgh . Having eliminated Anna 's challenge to his rising power , Penda then subjected the East Anglians to Mercian overlord @-@ ship . In 655 Æthelhere of East Anglia joined Penda in a campaign against Oswiu , which ended in a disastrous Mercian defeat at the Battle of the Winwaed , in which both Penda and his ally Æthelhere were killed .
The last Wuffingas king was Ælfwald , who died in 749 . During the late 7th and 8th centuries East Anglia continued to be overshadowed by Mercian hegemony until , in 794 , Offa of Mercia had the East Anglian king Æthelberht executed and then took control of the kingdom for himself . A brief revival of East Anglian independence under Eadwald after Offa 's death in 796 was soon suppressed by the new Mercian king , Coenwulf .
The independence of the East Anglians was restored by a successful rebellion against Mercia led by Æthelstan in 825 . Beornwulf of Mercia 's attempt to restore Mercian control over East Anglia resulted in his defeat and death , and his successor Ludeca met the same end in 827 . The East Angles appealed to Egbert of Wessex for protection against the Mercians and Æthelstan then acknowledged Egbert as his overlord . Whilst Wessex took control of the south @-@ eastern kingdoms which had been absorbed by Mercia during the eighth century , East Anglia could maintain its independence .
= = = Viking attacks and eventual settlement = = =
In 865 , East Anglia was invaded by the Danish Great Heathen Army , which occupied winter quarters and secured horses before departing for Northumbria . The Danes returned to East Anglia in 869 , wintering at Thetford before being attacked by the forces of Edmund of East Anglia , who was defeated and killed at Hægelisdun ( identified variously as Bradfield St Clare in 983 , which is near to his final resting place at Bury St Edmunds ; Hellesdon in Norfolk ( documented as Hægelisdun c.985 ) ; Hoxne in Suffolk ; and now with Maldon in Essex ) . From this point onwards , East Anglia effectively ceased to be an independent kingdom . Having defeated the East Angles , the Danes then installed puppet @-@ kings to govern on their behalf , while they resumed their campaigns against Mercia and Wessex . In 878 the last portion of the Great Heathen Army to remain active was defeated by Alfred the Great and withdrew from Wessex after making a peace treaty . In 880 the Vikings returned to East Anglia under the leadership of Guthrum , who , according to the mediaeval historian Pauline Stafford , " swiftly adapted to territorial kingship and its trappings , including the minting of coins " .
In addition to the traditional territory of East Anglia , Cambridgeshire and parts of Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire , Guthrum 's kingdom probably included Essex , the only portion of Wessex which had come under Danish control . A peace treaty made between Alfred and Guthrum sometime in the 880s .
= = = Absorption into the Kingdom of England = = =
In the early tenth century , the East Anglian Danes came under increasing pressure from Edward the Elder , king of Wessex . In 902 Edward 's cousin Æthelwold ætheling , who had been driven into exile after an unsuccessful bid for the throne , arrived in Essex after a stay in Northumbria . He was apparently accepted as king by some or all of the Danes in England and in 903 he induced the East Anglian Danes to wage war on Edward . This ended in disaster , with the death of Æthelwold and of Eohric of East Anglia in a battle in the Fens .
Between 911 and 919 , Edward expanded his control over the rest of England south of the Humber , establishing in Essex and Mercia burhs , often designed to control the use of a river by the Danes . In 917 , the Danish position in the area suddenly collapsed . A rapid succession of defeats culminated in the loss of the territories of Northampton and Huntingdon , along with the remainder of Essex : a Danish king , probably from East Anglia , was killed at Tempsford . Despite reinforcement from overseas , the Danish counter @-@ attacks were crushed , and following the defection of many of their English subjects as Edward 's army advanced , the Danes of East Anglia and Cambridge both capitulated .
The territory of East Anglia was absorbed into the kingdom of England . Norfolk and Suffolk became part of the new earldom of East Anglia , when in 1017 , Thorkell the Tall was made earl of East Anglia by Cnut the Great . The restoration of the ecclesiastical structure in the region saw the two former East Anglian bishoprics replaced by a single one based at North Elmham .
= = Old East Anglian dialect = =
The East Angles spoke Old English . Their language is historically important , as they were among the first Germanic settlers to arrive in Britain during the fifth century : according to Kortmann and Schneider , East Anglia " can seriously claim to be the first place in the world where English was spoken " .
The evidence for dialects in Old English comes from the study of texts , place @-@ names , personal names and coins . A. H. Smith was the first to recognise the existence of a separate Old East Anglian dialect , in addition to the previously recognised dialects of Northumbrian , Mercian , Saxon and Kentish . He acknowledged that his proposal of such a dialect was tentative , acknowledging that " the linguistic boundaries of the original dialects could not have enjoyed prolonged stability " . As no East Anglian manuscripts , Old English inscriptions or literary records such as charters have survived to modern times , there is little evidence to support the existence of an Old East Anglian dialect . According to a study made by Von Feilitzen in the 1930s , the recording of many place @-@ names in Domesday Book was " ultimately based on the evidence of local juries " and so the spoken form of Anglo @-@ Saxon places and people was partly preserved in this way . Evidence from Domesday Book and later sources does suggest that a dialect boundary once existed , corresponding with a line that separates from their neighbours the English counties of Cambridgeshire ( including the once sparsely @-@ inhabited Fens ) , Norfolk and Suffolk .
= = Geography = =
The kingdom of the East Angles bordered the North Sea to the north and the east , with the River Stour historically dividing it from the East Saxons to the south . The North Sea provided a " thriving maritime link to Scandinavia and the northern reaches of Germany " , according to the historian Richard Hoggett . The kingdom 's western boundary varied from the rivers Ouse , Lark and Kennett to further westwards , as far as the Cam in what is now Cambridgeshire . At its greatest extent , the kingdom comprised the modern @-@ day counties of Norfolk , Suffolk and parts of eastern Cambridgeshire .
Erosion along the eastern border and deposition along the north coast altered the shape of the East Anglian coastline during Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon times ( and continues to do so today ) . During Saxon times the sea inundated the naturally low @-@ lying Fens . As sea levels fell alluvium was deposited near major river estuaries and the ' Great Estuary ' near Burgh Castle became slowed closed off by a large spit .
= Nuclear Strike =
Nuclear Strike is a shooter video game developed and published by Electronic Arts for the PlayStation in 1997 . The game is the sequel to Soviet Strike and the fifth instalment in the Strike series , which began with Desert Strike on the Sega Genesis . The Soviet Strike development team also created Nuclear Strike . EA released a PC port the same year ; THQ developed and in 1999 published a Nintendo 64 version called Nuclear Strike 64 .
Nuclear Strike is a helicopter @-@ based game , with strategy elements added to the action gameplay . The plot concerns an elite special force - the player 's allies - pursuing a nuclear @-@ armed rogue spy through a fictionalised Asian setting . It retained the earlier game 's engine but added several modifications to improve graphical performance and make the game more accessible . The game features 15 playable vehicles , a large increase from previous games . In addition to the main fictionalised Apache , there are secondary helicopters , jets , armour and a hovercraft . The player also commands ground troops in occasional real @-@ time strategy sections .
The game received positive , negative and mixed reviews . Critics noted a weak storyline , though GameSpot dismissed this is as unimportant in an action game . GameSpot called the graphics - which made use of specialised hardware such as 3Dfx Voodoo video cards and the N64 Expansion Pak - " about as good as it gets " , while Allgame said they are " decent " and Daily Radar called them " horrible " . Critics praised the full motion video as well as the music and sound effects . Reviewers enjoyed the straightforward gameplay but several complained of a close similarity to its predecessor Soviet Strike and questioned the game 's value as a result .
= = Plot = =
The game begins in Indocine , a fictional Southeast Asian country . The player controls a Super Apache helicopter as part of the STRIKE covert operations force , led by General Earle ( John Marzilli ) and assisted by technician Hack ( Antwon Tanner ) and propagandist Andrea Gray ( Susan Turner @-@ Cray ) . The antagonist is Colonel LeMonde ( Bo Hopkins ) , a spy @-@ turned @-@ warlord who has stolen a nuclear weapon . Allied to STRIKE in Indocine is guerrilla leader Naja Hana ( Moon Bloodgood ) , whose forces join the player in attacking LeMonde 's forces . Meanwhile , LeMonde bluffs STRIKE by arming a fake nuclear bomb in an old temple compound , which results in Naja attempting to locate the warhead and LeMonde . At the same time , the player is sent on a wild goose chase attacking a decoy convoy thought to have the nuclear bomb being transported away from Indocine . In actuality , LeMonde escapes capture long before STRIKE could catch up to him and he managed to smuggle the real nuclear bomb away from Indocine off @-@ screen . This prompts the player to extract Naja from the now booby @-@ trapped compound before the whole compound blew up sky high . Nonetheless , his forces are eventually defeated in Indocine and STRIKE conducts their operations in the South China Sea , where LeMonde is discovered dealing with Napoleon Hwong ( Philip Tan ) , head of a fictional Triad @-@ like criminal organization known as the Octad . The player recruits mercenary Harding Cash ( Jamie Donovan ) in battling the pirate warlord in an attempt to recover the missing nuclear weapon . After defeating Hwong 's forces , the player and Harding manage to capture and interrogate Hwong for information concerning the whereabouts of the nuke long enough before Hwong commits suicide . The player eventually heads to Pyongyang , North Korea , where the stolen nuke is located .
LeMonde resurfaces in Pyongyang , where North Korean ruler Kym Zung @-@ Lee invites several world leaders to a peace conference . The two plan to kidnap the world leaders , especially since Kim financed LeMonde 's operations in Indocine and getting the nuclear weapon ( stashed inside Kim Il @-@ sung 's statue on Mansudae Hill ) . Using a small helicopter and nonlethal weapons , the player is able to spirit the delegates to a French frigate somewhere in the Taedong River and get them out of the country ; other delegates left behind are sent to bomb shelters or are evacuated by STRIKE Chinook transports . Also , between escorting the delegates to safety , the player and Andrea manage to take over an AH @-@ 1 Cobra attack helicopter from a museum while fending off Kym 's security forces in the process . The missing nuclear weapon explodes as the player sits out the blast in the Rungnado May Day Stadium .
North Korea blames the nuclear explosion on the South and sends its forces across the DMZ in an attempt to start a second Korean War while LeMonde heads to Russia . STRIKE heads down to the DMZ and assists US Forces Korea and the South Korean Army in repelling the assault . Having prevented another Korean War , STRIKE , together with Naja and Cash , attack an old Mongol @-@ era fortress in Siberia , where LeMonde has brought in mercenaries to fortify it as he prepares the launch of a " proto @-@ nuclear " missile designed to rupture the ozone layer . LeMonde 's forces are eventually routed , the proto @-@ nuclear missile eventually destroyed , and LeMonde himself is killed in an airstrike sponsored by STRIKE . Naja and Cash fall in love , while STRIKE prepares to deploy to another crisis zone .
= = Gameplay = =
Nuclear Strike is a helicopter @-@ based shooter game with a blend of both strategy and action , which the player views from outside the helicopter from an overhead perspective . It is similar to previous games in the series , but has 15 playable vehicles , a larger number than any of its predecessors . The main helicopter is a fictional Super Apache , with additional helicopters including the Cobra and other Hueys . Playable jets include the Harrier Jump Jet and a fictional V / STOL version of the A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt II . The player can use surface vehicles including the M1 Abrams tank , Bradley armoured vehicle , the Multiple Launch Rocket System and a PACV hovercraft .
The game features five different terrain settings with each level being played on a large map divided into several missions . These missions include seek @-@ and @-@ destroy , search @-@ and @-@ rescue , escorts , the destruction of bridges , supply drops and air support . In some sections the player forms part of a coordinated attack with AI @-@ controlled allies , while in others the player directs ground troops in the style of a real @-@ time strategy game . As well as engaging in combat , the player must monitor and replenish his fuel and ammunition supplies . The heads @-@ up display shows this information , along with intelligence on missions objectives and on friendly and enemy units and their locations . The compass indicating mission objectives is a feature new to Nuclear Strike , as is a radar showing the positions of nearby enemies .
= = Development = =
The game is the second 32 @-@ bit Strike game : the sequel to Soviet Strike and the fifth installment in the Strike series , which began with Desert Strike on the Sega Genesis . It was developed at Electronic Arts ' Granite Bay Software , by a 50 strong team led by producer Michael Kosaka and including the " same core group " - designers , programmers , artists and composers - as developed Soviet Strike . Series creator Mike Posehn received royalties for Nuclear Strike but did not work on programming the game . The game retained Soviet Strike 's engine , with several modifications . The development team increased the frame rate by 25 % over its predecessor , resulting in a " faster and smoother " feel . The game streams the environment from its CD , resulting in " no perceptible loading time " , while the terrain itself is persistent : damage such as cratering remains for the duration of play . The team improved the artificial intelligence and added more camera angles , though the game like its predecessors still eschews any in @-@ cockpit perspective .
Soviet Strike received criticism regarding the player 's limited view of his surroundings and attacks from enemies out with it . To offset this potential problem , the developers added a radar to the HUD , which illustrated surrounding enemies to the player . Gamers also criticized the difficulty of Soviet Strike . A high difficulty level being traditional to the Strike series , the team did not wish to alienate long @-@ term fans by making Nuclear Strike directly easier , but instead more accessible , using such devices as the new radar , a new compass indicating the direction of the next objective and " a lot more visual and audible clues " . Producer Kosaka explained : " A lot of the stuff we couldn 't fit in [ Soviet Strike ] is going in this one " . The team added several new vehicles , as well as continuing the occasional real time strategy sections found in Soviet Strike . The jets proved problematic in early testing due to their speed , but appeared in the final game . Heat @-@ seeking missiles were among other new additions , as was a proprietary technology termed the Interactive Music System . This generates more " pulse pounding " music depending on the level of action occurring in @-@ game . Palomar Studios created the full motion video , for which some footage was shot in both Thailand and the Bronson Cave , used as the Batcave in the 1960s television incarnation of Batman . This latter shoot also employed a live tiger .
Initially only the PlayStation version and a PC port were planned , but the game appeared on the Nintendo 64 in 1999 as Nuclear Strike 64 . The PC port was developed by EA Tiburon , with both the PlayStation original and PC published by Electronic Arts in 1997 . Nuclear Strike 64 was developed by Pacific Coast Power & Light and published by THQ . Another sequel provisionally titled Future Strike was later planned , but the game was eventually released as Future Cop : LAPD , a mech @-@ based shooter game .
= = Reception = =
Daily Radar found the story lacking , while GameSpot 's Shane Mooney defended it thus : " people moan about a lack of a compelling story in action titles , which makes about as much sense as complaining about the lack of a nailgun in a football sim [ ... ] People couldn 't care less if the story was written by Steinbeck or Stymy the Hack , as long as they get to see THX @-@ rattling fireballs and bad guys bleeding from every orifice . "
IGN noted improved graphics , which it favourably compared to those of a John Woo film . GameSpot called the graphics as " about as good as it gets " , particularly with a 3D video card . The New Straits Times also appreciated the game 's performance with a 3Dfx Voodoo card , praising the graphics of the terrain , as well as water and helicopter movements . GameFan acclaimed the attention to detail and variety in environment graphics ' textures . Reviewing the PC version , Allgame called the graphics " decent " , but criticised the minimal progress from Soviet Strike which resulted in " a slightly archaic look " and lack of " a feel of individuality " . Reviewing Nuclear Strike 64 , the website noted that the graphics ably handled numerous explosions and enemies . The reviewer praised the detail , colours and fluid motion . He also acknowledged the use of N64 Expansion Pak , but said " the game still moves and looks very nice " without it . Game Revolution felt : " This is definitely the best @-@ looking ' Strike ' game yet . " It praised the " gorgeously rendered " maps and the detail on structures and units , while Next Generation complained of " water that doesn 't ripple and a few other missing touches " resulting in a somewhat haphazard feel . Daily Radar praised the terrain graphics but called the vehicles " horrible " . Power Play praised the impressive graphics and destructible scenery . Game Revolution also praised the persistent battlefields : " What really stands out is the ability to interact with everything . When you shoot water , you see and hear the splashes . You can blow up almost anything that they 've put on the map " but noted the sometimes unrealistic results , such as ships being launched high into the air upon destruction . Edge called said the terrain graphics were " some of the best yet on the PlayStation " , but there were otherwise no ground @-@ breaking visuals .
GameFan praised the " super stylish " full motion video . Allgame felt the game to be worth playing for the FMV alone , calling it the " best aspect of the game " and " an awesome video presentation that , combined with a number of high quality voice @-@ acting jobs , does a great job of conferring the intensity and danger of the nuclear dilemma at hand . " Game Revolution noted the strong production values of most of the FMV and while a minority had " back yard " production , they nevertheless used quality actors and " fairly impressed " the reviewer , though he criticised the " MTV @-@ like editing " . Edge also noted the " MTV @-@ style presentation " and called it " stylish " and atmospheric . Reviewing Nuclear Strike 64 , Allgame praised the atmospheric music as " reminiscent of a large budget political spy thriller " . The reviewer said : " what really cranks up the adrenaline and ramps up the immersion factor in the game is the great sound effects . "
Allgame said the enjoyment " isn 't bad " , but limited : " You can only blow up so much stuff with a helicopter . " Glenn Rubenstein of GameSpot in his PlayStation review called the game tired and mediocre , but reviewing the PC version , Shane Mooney wrote : " I 'm happy to say that the much @-@ maligned action @-@ heavy , plot @-@ light genre has received a solid kick in the pants from the wonderfully fun Nuclear Strike . " Mooney praised the successful port from the console version and believed players would " find plenty to slobber over in this extremely entertaining title . " Daily Radar said : " When it comes to creating an action game , it would be nice to play something that requires a little bit more than just holding down the fire button continuously . In Nuclear Strike 64 , that 's just about all you do . " The website said : " if all you 're looking for is a game where you can fly around in a helicopter , drive a tank and manipulate 10 other vehicles in a destructive fest , well , here you go . " Allgame summarised : " When all is said and done , Nuclear Strike 64 is a fine example of an excellent shooting game . " The reviewer believed that gamers would appreciate the game 's longevity and variety . Game Revolution praised the helpful interface and responsive controls and said the mechanics were generally good , but complained of an occasionally inaccurate targeting system . The website acclaimed the " perfect " difficulty level . GameFan took issue with enemies shooting the player 's vehicle while not visible on @-@ screen . GameSpot 's minor complaints were infrequent game saves , a " too easy " structure allowing supply lines to be destroyed before the main forces , a short game despite large missions and a lack of multiplayer .
Allgame felt Nuclear Strike " is really nothing more than a repackaged version of the earlier game " . The reviewer felt there to be limited motivation for owners of Soviet Strike to buy the new sequel other than the FMV . GameFan called Nuclear Strike " a tangible improvement over its predecessor " and " a more satisfying experience all round . " The writer felt the increased number of vehicles set the game apart from Soviet Strike , saying they " make for a far richer , more active playing experience . " He recommended it to Soviet Strike devotees , while Power Play recommended it for fans of action games . IGN wrote the game was a " fine example " of the series , also citing a broader range of vehicles over Soviet Strike . Nonetheless it gave Nuclear Strike a lower score than the game 's predecessor , saying " at its heart Nuclear Strike is the same game as Soviet Strike [ ... ] It 's not a bad game , it 's just more of the same . " GameFan 's reviewers called Nuclear Strike " the definitive strike game " and said it " trounces all other Strikes that have come before . " Previewing the PlayStation version , Super GamePower predicted the improved explosion effects , missions and wider range of vehicles would make it the best in the series . In its review , the magazine said the game contained nothing new for fans of the previous games , but felt the control system , explosions , helicopter sound effects to be excellent . Next Generation said : " Those who enjoyed Soviet Strike are certain to like Nuclear Strike even more " , but said the games are almost indistinguishable . Game Revolution acknowledged the game is " basically the same rehash of its predecessors , but it stands as a great game on its own . Nuclear Strike is a definite buy for fans who haven 't tired of the series , and at least a ' rent me ' for those who have been locked in the closet and haven 't played any ' Strike ' games . " Edge said : " Fans of the series lusting after more above @-@ viewed shooting action will naturally welcome this latest regurgitation . The seasoned gamer , however , will no doubt walk away with a feeling of déja vu . "
= HMS Aldenham ( L22 ) =
HMS Aldenham ( pennant number L22 ) was an escort destroyer of the Type III Hunt @-@ class . The Royal Navy ordered its construction in July 1940 . Upon completion in February 1942 , she was deployed to convoy escort duty . Aldenham is one of the ships credited with the sinking of the U @-@ 587 on 27 March 1942 . After circumnavigating Africa , she joined the Mediterranean Fleet , escorting convoys between Alexandria , Malta and Tobruk . She took part in the Allied invasion of Sicily , landings at Salerno and Anzio , the Dodecanese Campaign and Operation Dragoon before being assigned to the Adriatic Campaign .
On 14 December 1944 , Aldenham was sunk by a naval mine in the Adriatic Sea off Pag Island after she led a Royal Navy force in a bombardment mission against targets on the island of Pag and near the town of Karlobag in support of the Yugoslav Partisans . Although the rest of the force came to pick up survivors , cold weather and severe damage to Aldenham permitted the rescue of only 63 of her crew . Her wreck , broken in two by the explosion , was discovered in 1999 – 2000 . It is a war grave , where 126 crew members and two Yugoslav Partisans aboard Aldenham at the time of the mining died . She was the last Royal Navy destroyer lost in World War II .
= = Design and construction = =
Aldenham was a Royal Navy Type III Hunt @-@ class destroyer . She had an overall length of 85 @.@ 34 metres ( 280 @.@ 0 feet ) , a beam of 9 @.@ 45 metres ( 31 @.@ 0 feet ) and a maximum draught of three metres ( 9 @.@ 8 feet ) . Aldenham had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 015 tonnes ( 999 long tons ; 1 @,@ 119 short tons ) , and a full load of 1 @,@ 490 to 1 @,@ 545 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 466 to 1 @,@ 521 long tons ; 1 @,@ 642 to 1 @,@ 703 short tons ) . Her two Parsons geared steam turbines drove two propeller shaft . Steam was supplied by two Admiralty three @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines were rated at 13 @,@ 970 kilowatts ( 18 @,@ 730 shp ) and gave Aldenham a speed of 28 @.@ 3 knots ( 52 @.@ 4 km / h ; 32 @.@ 6 mph ) during sea trials , but she achieved up to 27 knots ( 50 kilometres per hour ; 31 miles per hour ) on deployments .
Aldenham was armed with four quick @-@ firing four @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) Mk XVI naval guns on twin mounts , four anti @-@ aircraft 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 pounder naval guns and three Oerlikon 20 mm cannons . She also had two 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes , and 70 – 100 depth charges deployed by four throwers and two chutes .
The ship was ordered on 4 July 1940 . She was laid down by Cammell Laird shipyard in Birkenhead on 22 August 1940 as construction project J 3766 . Aldenham was launched on 27 August 1941 and completed on 5 February 1942 .
= = Service = =
Aldenham and its crew of 170 completed brief training at Scapa Flow before deploying for the first time on 21 March 1942 , as a part of an Escort Group assigned to the WS 17 convoy sailing to the Cape of Good Hope . On 27 March , Aldenham , together with Leamington , Grove and Volunteer , sank U @-@ 587 in the North Atlantic , due west of Ushant , France . Aldenham was commanded by Lieutenant Alex Stuart @-@ Menteth .
Circumnavigating Africa and transiting the Suez Canal accompanied by Grove , Aldenham joined the 5th Destroyer Flotilla in the Battle of the Mediterranean . She escorted 14 convoys there , protecting shipping between Alexandria , Malta and Tobruk . On 29 August 1942 , she was assigned coastal bombardment duties , including the area of El Daba . Sources disagree which ships took part in the bombardment of El Daba itself . According to Jürgen Rohwer , Aldenham and Eridge were the only ships involved , while Paul Kemp places Eridge at the scene supported by fellow destroyers Croome and Hursley . Aldenham towed Eridge back to Alexandria after the latter ship was disabled by an Italian MTSM motor torpedo boat during the bombardment .
Aldenham was a part of an allied blockade off Cap Bon in May 1943 and escorted landing craft during the Allied invasion of Sicily in July and the Salerno landings in September that year . She assisted Eskimo removing wounded when Eskimo was attacked and hit by the Luftwaffe on 15 July . Aldenham also took part in failed Dodecanese Campaign of 1944 , when she sustained minor damage in an aircraft attack . After repairs in Alexandria , Aldenham saw action in Operation Shingle off Anzio , Italy , and escorted convoys between Oran , Algeria and Naples . She was based in Taranto in May , and transferred to Bari in June , before supporting Operation Dragoon , protecting landing craft off southern France . Afterwards , she sailed again to the Adriatic Sea , joining a Royal Navy flotilla fighting the Adriatic Campaign .
The Royal Navy Adriatic flotilla consisted of Aldenham , Atherstone , Avon Vale , Lamerton , Lauderdale , Wheatland , Wilton , Brocklesby and Quantock . In late November 1944 , the flotilla , led by Aldenham under Commander James Gerald Farrant , intercepted and captured German hospital ship Bonn ( ex @-@ Yugoslav steamship Šumadija ) . She and Atherstone bombarded German units deployed to the island of Rab on 9 December . The bombardment was in support of Yugoslav Partisans advance north along the eastern coast of the Adriatic , capturing the coast and islands from retreating German forces .
What became Aldenham 's final deployment began on 14 December 1944 , when she and Atherstone sortied from a Royal Navy base at Ist Island and anchored off the western coast of Pag Island , north of Zadar , to bombard an artillery battery near Karlobag and other military targets on Pag . Because of poor visibility , the artillery observers on Pag directed destroyers to strike the Pag Island objectives first . Each destroyer fired 500 four @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) shells against bunkers and barracks on the island between 09 : 00 and 11 : 20 . The town of Pag itself was targeted by the destroyers for an hour at 14 : 00 , while Aldenham alone engaged the battery at Karlobag at approximately 13 : 00 and again before 15 : 00 as visibility improved , firing 200 shells against that target . At 15 : 00 , the destroyers started their return to Ist with Aldenham in the lead and Atherstone following her at 20 knots ( 37 kilometres per hour ; 23 miles per hour ) .
= = Sinking = =
As Aldenham was making a turn at a position north of the islet of Škrda , to sail between islands of Planik and Olib , she hit a mine that exploded under her engine room . The ship broke in two and her bow sank quickly , followed by her stern a little later , at 15 : 29 . Cold weather hampered rescue efforts by Atherton and accompanying motor launches ML 238 and HDML 1162 , and only 58 seamen and five officers , including Farrant , were pulled out of the sea . 126 crewmen died , as well as a wounded Yugoslav Partisan transported from Pag for medical treatment and Yugoslav Partisan liaison officer , Colonel Ivan Preradović . Aldenham was the last Royal Navy destroyer lost in World War II .
A portion of the surviving crew revisited the site on 14 December 1984 , but the shipwreck was not located until 15 years later . In 1999 , Italian wreck divers located a 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) long bow section one nautical mile ( 1 @.@ 9 kilometres ) off Škrda . It lies on the port side , at a depth of 86 metres ( 282 feet ) , but it is normally obscured by silt stirred up by trawling further north in the Kvarner Gulf . The aft section of the ship was discovered in 2000 through testimony of a fisherman from Pag . It was found closer to Škrda , approximately 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 feet ) away from the bow section . Aldenham 's boilers and propellers were still operating as the ship sank , and the section struck the silty seafloor at a depth of 82 metres ( 269 feet ) , with her keel on top . Her rudder is now at a depth of 67 metres ( 220 feet ) . The wreck was declared a British war grave , and forms a part of " the Ghost Fleet of Pag " together with wrecks of Kriegsmarine destroyer TA 20 ( ex @-@ Italian Audace ) , corvettes UJ 202 and UJ 208 ( ex @-@ Italian Melpómene and Spingarda ) sunk in the Action of 1 November 1944 , and World War I wrecks of Austro @-@ Hungarian steamships SS Albanien and SS Euterpe .
= = Remembrance = =
Annual memorial services are held by the HMS Aldenham Association in Aldenham Church of St John The Baptist each December . The church contains a stained glass window dedicated to Aldenham , and a Book of Remembrance is displayed in front of the stained glass window , along with a White Ensign . The stained glass window memorial was unveiled on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of sinking of Aldenham by surviving shipmates Martin and Maurais .
= Albert Ketèlbey =
Albert William Ketèlbey ( / kəˈtɛlbi / ; born Ketelbey ; 9 August 1875 – 26 November 1959 ) , was an English composer , conductor , and pianist , best known for his short pieces of light orchestral music . He was born in Birmingham , and moved to London in 1889 to study at Trinity College of Music . After a brilliant studentship he did not pursue the classical career predicted for him , becoming musical director of the Vaudeville Theatre before gaining fame as a composer of light music and as a conductor of his own works .
For many years Ketèlbey worked for a series of music publishers , including Chappell & Co and the Columbia Graphophone Company , making arrangements for smaller orchestras , a period in which he learned to write fluent and popular music . He also found great success writing music for silent films until the advent of talking films in the late 1920s .
The composer 's early works in conventional classical style were well received , but it was for his light orchestral pieces that he became best known . One of his earliest works in the genre , In a Monastery Garden ( 1915 ) , sold over a million copies and brought him to widespread notice ; his later musical depictions of exotic scenes caught the public imagination and established his fortune . Such works as In a Persian Market ( 1920 ) , In a Chinese Temple Garden ( 1923 ) , and In the Mystic Land of Egypt ( 1931 ) became best @-@ sellers in print and on records ; by the late 1920s he was Britain 's first millionaire composer . His celebrations of British scenes were equally popular : examples include Cockney Suite ( 1924 ) with its scenes of London life , and his ceremonial music for royal events . His works were frequently recorded during his heyday , and a substantial part of his output has been put on CD in more recent years .
Ketèlbey 's popularity began to wane during the Second World War and his originality also declined ; many of his post @-@ war works were re @-@ workings of older pieces and he increasingly found his music ignored by the BBC . In 1949 he moved to the Isle of Wight , where he spent his retirement , and he died at home in obscurity . His work has been reappraised since his death ; in a 2003 poll by the BBC radio programme Your Hundred Best Tunes , Bells across the Meadows was voted thirty @-@ sixth most popular tune of all time and the last night of the 2009 Proms season marked the fiftieth anniversary of Ketèlbey 's death — the first time his music had been included in the festival 's finale .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education , 1875 – 95 = = =
Albert William Ketèlbey was born on 9 August 1875 at 41 Alma Street in the Aston area of Birmingham , England . He was the second of five children of George Henry , a jewellery engraver , and his wife Sarah Ann , née Aston . The grave accent was Albert 's invention : the family name was spelled without it at the time of his birth and there had been several variants of the name in the previous generations . All the children were taught a musical instrument and Ketèlbey 's brother , Harold , was later a violinist of note . Albert showed a natural talent for the piano and singing , and he subsequently became head chorister at St Silas ' Church in nearby Lozells .
At the age of eleven Ketèlbey joined the Birmingham and Midland Institute school of music ( now the Birmingham Conservatoire ) where he was tutored by Dr Alfred Gaul in composition and Dr H.W. Wareing in harmony . At the age of thirteen Ketèlbey composed his first serious piece of music , " Sonata for Pianoforte " , which , for Tom McCanna , his biographer , " shows a precocious mastery of composition " . Ketèlbey competed for a scholarship to Trinity College of Music in London , and received the highest marks of all entrants ; the future composer Gustav Holst came second . Ketèlbey entered the college in 1889 , studying under G.E. Bambridge ( piano ) , Dr G. Saunders ( harmony ) and Frederick Corder ( composition ) .
In 1892 Ketèlbey again won the annual scholarship competition and was appointed as the organist at St John 's Church , Wimbledon , London . He held the post for the next five years , during which time he wrote several anthems and hymns , the latter of which included " Every Good Gift " , " Behold ! Upon the Mountains " and " Be Strong ! All ye People " . It was around this time he added the accent to his surname , with the aim of moving the stress onto the second syllable , rather than the first . In that year he appeared in a series of concerts in London and provincial cities . In March 1892 at the capital 's Queen 's Hall he played Frédéric Chopin 's Scherzo No. 2 in B @-@ flat minor ; the reviewer for The Illustrated London News thought the " brilliant " Ketèlbey played " most beautifully " . He won several prizes at the college before being awarded his certificate in 1895 . During this period , The British Musician reports , some critics found likenesses between Ketèlbey 's music and that of Edward German .
Towards the end of his time at the college Ketèlbey wrote lighter , mostly mandolin based , compositions . As he still aspired to be a serious composer , he adapted the pseudonym Raoul Clifford in an effort to distanced himself from the genre . On leaving the college he became one of its examiners in harmony . He wrote piano pieces as part of his role , and used the pseudonym Anton Vodorinski for the work ; he subsequently used the name for more serious works , which he published with French titles .
= = = Early career , 1896 – 1914 = = =
In 1896 Ketèlbey took up the post of conductor for a travelling light opera company ; his father , who wanted his son to be a composer of serious music , disapproved of what he saw as a lightweight role . After a two @-@ year tour Ketèlbey was appointed as musical director of the Opera Comique Theatre — at age 22 , the youngest theatrical conductor in London at the time . He moved into a house in Bruton Street , in London 's Mayfair , where he wrote the song " Blow ! Blow ! Thou Winter Wind " , to words from Shakespeare 's As You Like It . The Opera Comique staged a successful revival of the musical Alice in Wonderland between December 1898 and March 1899 , and according to his biographer John Sant , it is possible that Ketèlbey wrote some of the music . This was followed by the comic opera A Good Time from April , for which Ketèlbey wrote the music and songs . Following poor reviews , the short run of the piece ended in May and the Opera Comique closed because of the losses brought about by the production . There , Ketèlbey began a relationship with the actress and singer Charlotte " Lottie " Siegenberg . The couple married in 1906 but the relationship was childless .
Ketèlbey wrote music in the style of the Gilbert and Sullivan works for a comic opera The Wonder Worker , which was staged at the Grand Theatre , Fulham in 1900 . The reviewer for the London Evening Standard thought Ketèlbey 's score was " attractive though conventional ... No originality is shown in conception or treatment , but the conception is appropriate , and the treatment effective . " The same year Ketèlbey began undertaking transcription work at the music publisher A. Hammond & Co , making arrangements of music for smaller orchestras . In 1904 he also began to work for a second music publisher , Chappell & Co , a third in 1907 , the Columbia Graphophone Company , and a fourth in 1910 , when he worked for Elkin & Co . McCanna considers that " this hack @-@ work may have been tedious , but the experience was invaluable in moulding the composer 's fluent writing for both piano and orchestra " . Throughout the time working for the companies he continued to compose and publish his own work , comprising organ music , songs , duets , piano pieces and anthems . He worked for Columbia for over twenty years and rose to the position of Musical Director and Adviser , working with leading musicians across a range of musical styles ; Columbia released more than 600 recordings with Ketèlbey conducting .
In 1912 the composer and cellist Auguste van Biene offered a prize for a new work to complement his popular piece The Broken Melody . Ketèlbey was the winner of the competition with a new composition , The Phantom Melody , which became his first major success . In the following year he won two prizes totalling £ 200 in a competition held by The Evening News : second place with a song for female voices , and first place with his entry for male voices . The latter song , " My Heart Still Clings to You " , is described by Sant as " a typical tragical @-@ love ballad of this time , and its almost Victorian sentimentality comes through in its words " . In the early to mid @-@ 1910s Ketèlbey began to write music for silent films — a new growth industry in Britain from 1910 onwards — and he had great success in the medium until the advent of talking films in the late 1920s .
= = = Rising reputation and success , 1914 – 46 = = =
In 1914 Ketèlbey wrote the orchestral work In a Monastery Garden , which was published in the following year both as a piano piece and in full orchestral form . It was his first major success , his most famous piece , and became known all over the world ; by 1920 over a million copies of the sheet music had been sold . There are two competing stories detailing the inspiration behind the piece : although Ketèlbey later said that he wrote the work for an old friend , he also stated that he composed it after visiting a monastery . The musicologist Peter Dempsey considers that " this piece ... remains to this day a world @-@ renowned staple of the light @-@ music repertoire , while McCanna opines that from the first bar , listeners " ... might sooner expect such a device in the impassioned world of a [ Gustav ] Mahler symphony than in a genteel English salon piece " . The success of The Phantom Melody and In a Monastery Garden led to Ketèlbey 's engagement by André Charlot as the musical director for the 1916 revue Samples ! at the Vaudeville Theatre . The appointment led to similar positions at other London theatres , including the Adelphi , Garrick , Shaftesbury and Drury Lane theatres .
Because of the rise in Ketèlbey 's popularity , and in sales of his sheet music , in 1918 he became a member of the Performing Rights Society . Except for a brief interval in 1926 when he resigned over a dispute about the allocation of funds to its members , he remained a lifelong member . In 1919 he composed the romantic work In the Moonlight , which his publisher considered to be " a work of striking beauty " . In the following year he wrote Wedgwood Blue — a gavotte — and In a Persian Market ; the latter became one of his more popular works . The musicologist Jonathan Bellman , calling In a Persian Market " immortal " , describes it as " an ' intermezzo scene ' for band or small orchestra ; reprehensibly demeaning or delightfully tacky " . The work was not without its critics ; the composer and conductor Nicolas Slonimsky quotes the view of a Russian journal that " the suite ... had its ' immaculate conception ' in imperialistic colonial England . The composer 's intention is to convince the listener that all 's well in the colonies where beautiful women and exotic fruits mature together , where beggars and rulers are friends , where there are no imperialists , no restive proletarians . " In The Musical Times , the pseudonymous reviewer " Ariel " described the work as " naive and inexpensive pseudo @-@ orientalism " , which led to heated correspondence in the journal over the following months between the composer and the critic .
In 1921 Ketèlbey moved from his home in St John 's Wood , where he had been living for the previous seven years , to Frognal , an area of Hampstead , north west London . He installed a billiards table in the basement , which became his favoured form of relaxation . He produced a series of orchestral pieces in the first half of the 1920s , including Bells Across the Meadows released in 1921 , and Suite Romantique ( 1922 ) , which the music critic Tim McDonald considers " impressive " . In the following year Ketèlbey wrote In a Chinese Temple Garden , followed in 1924 by Sanctuary of the Heart and Cockney Suite . The last of these contained the finale " ' Appy ' Ampstead " , which the writers Lewis and Susan Foreman describe as " ... a kaleidoscope of passing images , mouth organs , a cornet playing , ... a band , ... shouts of a showman ... with his rattle and a steam engine and roundabout " .
In 1923 the composer Frederic Austin wrote the opera Polly , closely based on the 1729 work of the same name by John Gay and Johann Christoph Pepusch ; recordings of Austin 's work were published by Columbia 's main rival , the Gramophone Company . At Columbia 's request Ketèlbey produced his own version of Gay 's original . Austin considered that it copied elements of his , and sued for copyright infringement . Acting as a court expert witness , the composer Sir Frederick Bridge thought that the case " ... is an awful bore . ... These two good men are good musicians , and they have no business to be fighting over the game . It is not worth the trouble . ... It is rubbish . I am sick of ' Polly ' . " After three weeks the case ended with the judge finding against Columbia .
Such was Ketèlbey 's popularity that by 1924 his works could be heard several times a day in restaurants and cinemas , and in that year the Lyons tea shops spent £ 150 @,@ 000 on playing his music in their outlets . He continued to build on his success in 1925 with In a Lovers ' Garden and In the Camp of the Ancient Britons — inspired by a trip he took to Worlebury Camp , near Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . He undertook annual tours of Britain , conducting his music with municipal orchestras , and also worked with the BBC Wireless Orchestra . He was invited to conduct several international orchestras , and spent time in Belgium , Germany , France , Switzerland and particularly in the Netherlands , where he built a strong relationship with the Concertgebouw and Kursaal Grand Symphony orchestras . His music was popular on the continent and his obituarist in The Times later reported that one Viennese critic considered that Ketèlbey 's music was behind only that of Johann Strauss and Franz Lehár . Continental audiences often called him " The English Strauss " .
Ketèlbey was financially successful enough to leave Columbia Records in 1926 to spend more time composing , although he continued to conduct for them on an occasional basis , particularly between 1928 and 1930 when he conducted sixteen of his own works with the company , published as Ketèlbey Conducting his Concert Orchestra . He spent his time undertaking annual conducting tours and composing , and in 1927 he published By the Blue Hawaiian Waters and the suite In a Fairy Realm , while in the following year he wrote another suite , Three Fanciful Etchings . His works continued to sell well , and in the October 1929 issue of the Performing Right Gazette his publisher described him as " Britain 's greatest living composer " ; when the advertisement was mentioned in The Musical Times , the anonymous writer wrote " we sympathise with Mr Ketèlbey in being thus raised to a pinnacle which he himself , we are sure , would be very far from claiming . " Sant writes that Ketèlbey subsequently became Britain 's first millionaire composer . In February 1930 he began what became an annual series of concerts at the Kingsway Hall , conducting a new work , The Clock and the Dresden Figures . In a review of the 1933 concert , the critic S.R. Nelson wrote that " as a descriptive writer Ketèlbey really does take some beating . He has the happy knack of combining infinitely melodious themes and the cleverly diluted likeness of the authentic atmosphere . "
The introduction of talking films in 1927 with The Jazz Singer and the subsequent growth of the medium had a serious impact on composers and music publishers involved in the film industry as it heralded a decline in the sales of sheet music . Although Ket
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February . That day the French captured and scuttled the 10 @-@ gun cutter HMS Sprightly . In the evening , Ganteaume called his ships to a halt off Cape de Gata in the Alboran Sea and Peard unwittingly passed them in the night , so that by the morning of 11 February the French were in a position to pursue his frigate .
For three days Peard sailed north and east , on several occasions believing that he had lost the French only for Ganteaume 's ships to reappear over the horizon once more as light winds hampered his escape . At dawn on 13 February , Peard realised that he would eventually be caught and defeated , and swung Success back towards the west , hoping that by doing so he would lead the French straight into any British forces that might now be searching for Ganteaume . The plan failed when the wind disappeared completely at noon , and by 15 : 00 two French ships of the line had approached within gunshot . Hopelessly outnumbered , the frigate surrendered without further resistance and was attached to the French squadron as Succès , the crew provided by detachments from other vessels . Peard and his men joined the prisoners taken from Incendiary and Sprightly on Ganteaume 's flagship Indivisible and were closely questioned as to British movements in the Mediterranean . When interrogated , Peard informed Ganteaume that the invasion of Egypt was already underway , that the Eastern Mediterranean was controlled by a powerful fleet under Lord Keith and that a squadron under Sir John Borlase Warren was actively hunting the French and could appear at any moment .
The information that Ganteaume gleaned from his captive was largely false . A large expeditionary force and fleet under Lord Keith was in the Mediterranean but would not arrive in Egypt for more than two weeks , British landings eventually going ahead on 8 March . At the time Ganteaume questioned Peard , the force was anchored at Karamania on the southern coast of Anatolia , struggling with reluctant Ottoman allies and bad weather . In addition , there was little active pursuit of his squadron during February : when Concorde reached Plymouth on 3 February , urgent messages were sent to Earl St Vincent at the Admiralty who ordered the despatch of a fast squadron of six ships of the line , two frigates and a brig in search of Ganteaume 's ships . However , attached to command this force was Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Robert Calder , who traveled in a slow second rate ship of the line that significantly delayed the passage of his squadron . In any case , a miscalculation of Ganteaume 's intentions at the Admiralty resulted in orders for Calder 's squadron to sail to the West Indies , and they played no further part in the campaign . Warren , whose squadron was based off Cádiz , had learned of Ganteaume 's passage on 8 February and sailed to Gibraltar in pursuit before continuing to Minorca on 13 February , arriving on 20 February without seeing any sign of the French and subsequently sailing for Sicily in March after hearing news of the impending Treaty of Florence between France and the Kingdom of Naples . Despite the lack of genuine pursuit , Ganteaume was unnerved by the information gleaned from Peard , and ordered the squadron to sail for Toulon , arriving on 19 February without any further contact with the Royal Navy .
= = Second expedition = =
When Bonaparte learned that Ganteaume was anchored in Toulon rather than off the Egyptian coast , he was furious and ordered the squadron to return to sea and complete its mission as ordered . His anger was amplified by the news that the frigate Africaine , despatched from Rochefort with the same orders to resupply Egypt , had been captured at the Action of 19 February 1801 by the British frigate HMS Phoebe in the Western Mediterranean . To emphasise his instructions , Bonaparte sent General Jean @-@ Gérard Lacuée to deliver them in person . Ganteaume was ordered to sail to Alexandria immediately , and if the Egyptian port was under attack by British forces , the troops were to be landed anywhere practical between Cape Rasat and Tripoli and make their way to Alexandria overland . Ganteaume sailed on 19 March , as soon as Lacuée had delivered the orders , with seven ships of the line , three frigates and three merchant ships carrying supplies .
Within hours of departing from Toulon , the squadron was struck by a heavy gale . One of the ships of the line lost its mainmast and turned back for Toulon , and the remainder of the force was scattered . The British blockade force sighted the disparate squadron on the following morning and although the French escaped pursuit , HMS Minerve succeeded in capturing one of the isolated merchant vessels . By 25 March , all but three of Ganteaume 's ships had been recovered and the force was limping southwards through the Tyrrhenian Sea when it ran directly into Warren 's squadron as it returned from Sicily . Ganteaume turned southeastwards to escape and Warren gave chase , the faster vessels in his squadron gaining on the French but the slower ships , particularly HMS Gibraltar and HMS Athenienne , falling far behind . Concerned that this placed his squadron in danger of becoming separated during the night , Warren ordered his faster ships to slow down and gradually lost sight of the French during the evening . Ganteaume took advantage of the respite to turn northwards in the darkness , and once again returned to Toulon .
= = Third expedition = =
When news reached Bonaparte that Ganteaume had returned to Toulon for a second time , he once again issued orders for the admiral to go to sea and fulfill his original orders to resupply the Egyptian garrison . On 27 April , the French force sailed for the third time , with seven ships of the line , two frigates , a corvette and two storeships . Before sailing to Egypt Ganteaume first cruised off Elba in the Ligurian Sea , achieving regional superiority long enough that a force was able to cross to the island from Piombino , rapidly subduing all but the fortress of Porto Ferrajo , which was besieged . Ganteaume 's ships bombarded the fortress on 6 May , but an outbreak of typhus in the squadron significantly reduced its operational effectiveness . Ganteaume therefore divided his force , taking four ships with healthy crews south , while Formidable , Indomptable and Desaix , and the frigate Créole were all too undermanned to perform efficiently , and were sent back to Toulon . Having reorganised his force , Ganteaume passed through the Straits of Messina on 25 May . On 5 June off Brindisi , the squadron sighted and chased the British frigate HMS Pique under Captain James Young , which was able to effect an escape to Alexandria and warn Keith of Ganteaume 's approach . A planned rendezvous off Brindisi with three Neapolitan frigates did not occur , and by 7 June the squadron was close enough to Egypt for Ganteaume to send his corvette Héliopolis to investigate the situation at Alexandria .
On 9 June , Héliopolis reached the Egyptian coast and immediately came under pursuit from the British ships of the line HMS Kent and HMS Hector and a brig that had been detached from Lord Keith 's fleet the previous day . Under pressure , the captain of Héliopolis sought safety in Alexandria harbour , which was still in French hands , and became trapped there . Keith meanwhile , acting on the report of Captain Young who had arrived on 7 June , had turned the remainder of his ships to the west in search of Ganteaume . When the corvette did not return to his squadron , Ganteaume assumed that it had been captured and that a powerful enemy presence lay off the harbour . Believing that a landing in Egypt itself would be impossible , he searched for an alternative site , and determined that the soldiers aboard should be landed at Benghazi , a small town situated between Tripoli and Alexandria . On sighting the French the inhabitants formed a militia , their control of the available beaches rendering a landing impractical . Even as the French squadron dropped anchor off Benghazi , the first ships of Keith 's fleet appeared to the east . Ganteaume panicked and instructed his captains to cut their anchor cables and flee to the west . The two storeships , much slower than the rest of the squadron , were abandoned by the warships and were subsequently seized by the fast frigate HMS Vestal under Captain Valentine Collard .
Ganteaume 's surviving squadron gradually outran Keith 's pursuit and on 24 June was sailing off Cape Derna when a sail was sighted to the northeast . Ganteaume ordered his ships to pursue , and the strange ship was discovered to be the British ship of the line HMS Swiftsure under Captain Benjamin Hallowell , which had been despatched by Keith to warn Warren 's squadron that Ganteaume was in the Eastern Mediterranean . Although he attempted a series of increasingly desperate manoeuveres in his efforts to escape , Hallowell 's ship was in poor repair and under @-@ crewed and after a short exchange of fire , was forced to surrender . Without any warning , Warren was not able to intercept Ganteaume 's return , and the French squadron was able to reach Toulon unharmed on 22 July .
= = Aftermath = =
Heliopolis was the only one of Ganteaume 's ships to reach the Egyptian garrison , joining the frigate Régénérée and the corvette Lodi that had each made the passage independently and had arrived on 1 March . It was the last reinforcement for the Army of Egypt : without Ganteaume 's supplies and with the Royal Navy dominant in the Eastern Mediterranean , the French forces in Egypt were outnumbered by the British expeditionary force and defeated in a campaign during the summer of 1801 , surrendering at the Capitulation of Alexandria in August . Although he totally failed to achieve his primary objective , Ganteaume 's naval forces had significantly reinforced the battered French Mediterranean fleet : the ships that were detached at Elba in May were subsequently engaged at the Battles of Algeciras in July , at which another British ship of the line was captured but the Franco @-@ Spanish force suffered severe losses .
Although he was the subject of severe criticism by Bonaparte , historian William Laird Clowes , writing in 1900 , considered that Ganteaume had done well to prevent his squadron being overwhelmed by the British , particularly during the attempt to land at Benghazi when he almost suffered a repeat of the situation at the Nile in 1798 , with his ships anchored close inshore as a British fleet bore down on them . This precarious position , described by Clowes as a " mad idea " , was not one of Ganteaume 's choosing : it had been dictated by Bonaparte before he departed Toulon for the second time . Clowes considered that Ganteaume 's " caution was , after all , less dangerous to his country than the rash and infatuated naval strategy of his master " . Ganteaume did not hold another sea command , but was made commander of the Mediterranean and governor of Toulon following the Peace of Amiens in March 1802 .
= = Order of battle = =
= Jackie Hudson =
Jacqueline Marie " Jackie " Hudson , O.P. , ( November 19 , 1934 – August 3 , 2011 ) was an American Dominican Sister and anti @-@ nuclear activist . She spent the first 29 years of her working career as a music teacher . After her retirement from education , she dedicated her life to anti @-@ war activism , during the course of which her actions led her to be arrested several times . In 2011 , after a decline in her health in prison , Hudson died from multiple myeloma at the age of 76 .
= = Early life , education , and career = =
Born in Saginaw , Michigan , she was the youngest of two children . Her father had studied in a seminary for a time and both her parents were very religious . Hudson was raised in the Roman Catholic faith and attended Catholic schools for her entire education . In 1952 , at the age of 18 , she decided to join the Dominican Sisters of Grand Rapids .
After her initial formation as a member of her religious congregation , Hudson was permitted to attend VanderCook College of Music , concentrating in music and religious education . This led to a nearly three decade long career as a music teacher at a series of Roman Catholic junior high schools in Michigan , where she taught piano and band as well as vocal music . Throughout this time , she also sang in a musical group composed of other Dominican Sisters , known as the Mellow D ’ s .
= = Activism = =
After her retirement in the early 1980s , Hudson started to study the effects of nuclear bombs and radiation on the environment and people ; because of what she found , she subsequently focused her ministry on peace and protesting nuclear proliferation . In 1983 , she protested the introduction of nuclear cruise missiles to Michigan . In 1990 , she was arrested and imprisoned for 6 months for illegally accessing a bunker on Wurtsmith Air Force Base and painting " Christ lives , Disarm " on the side of it . Hudson had a strong belief that she was doing the right thing and living out her faith , and stated that " [ Jesus ] put life before the law . " In this , she was acting upon a determination by her congregation that the members were free to take social stands about which they felt deeply as individuals , without , however , representing the congregation .
Hudson moved to Bremerton , Washington , in 1993 where she joined a peace community involved in social justice issues . She became certified as a commercial driver and obtained a job driving a city bus in order to earn an income through which she both could support herself and meet her financial obligations to the congregation .
In 2000 , Hudson and two other Sisters of her congregation , Carol Gilbert , O.P. , and Ardeth Platte , O.P. , entered Peterson Air Force Base without authorization and sprinkled blood on a fighter plane . The trio was caught and arrested . They were then held in a federal prison until the charges were dropped because there was no lasting damage was done to the airplane . Gilbert claimed that the base was part of the " Star Wars " defense system and the government did not want to draw unnecessary attention to the area . In 2002 , the same group of nuns gained access to a Minuteman III missile silo in Colorado . Wearing white hazmat suits emblazoned with " Citizen Weapon Inspection Team , " they pounded on the missile , drew a cross in their own blood and prayed for peace . At their pre @-@ trial hearing , the Sisters , dressed in their religious habit , engaged in silent protest by only answering the judge with a nod . When their trial came about , the presiding judge , Robert E. Blackburn , granted an in limine motion to the prosecutor preventing the Sisters from arguing that their actions were legal under international law and the Nuremberg defense . The group was sentenced to between 31 and 40 months for obstructing national defense and damaging government property . The sister 's appeal was rejected in 2005 by the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals .
In 2010 , Hudson and 13 others illegally entered the grounds of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . She was incarcerated in a Georgia prison pending her sentence , but was allowed to go home in June 2011 due to a serious decline in her health .
= = Death and legacy = =
Hudson died on August 3 , 2011 , at age 76 , at the Harrison Medical Center near her home in Poulsbo , Washington . She had suffered from pneumonia , but the cause of death was multiple myeloma . For 58 years , until her death , she was a member of the Dominican Order . In November 2011 , Dorli Rainey , an Occupy Seattle protester cited Hudson as her inspiration " to keep fighting the good fight , even in the winter years of her life . "
= California State Route 3 =
State Route 3 ( SR 3 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California . It runs from State Route 36 north along the shore of Trinity Lake , Fort Jones and Etna . The route approaches Yreka , intersecting with Interstate 5 , and turns east to Montague . The road was numbered SR 3 in 1964 , and most of it has been part of the state highway system since 1933 .
= = Route description = =
SR 3 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System . Caltrans has subsequently designated it as a scenic highway for its entire length .
State Route 3 begins at the junction with State Route 36 south of the town of Peanut in Trinity County . SR @-@ 3 is also known as Bramlot Road from its southern terminus to Hayfork . This stretch of road through the Shasta @-@ Trinity National Forest parallels the Hayfork River . Once SR @-@ 3 reaches the town of Hayfork , it travels along Hyampom Road east and snakes through the mountains to Douglas City and the junction with State Route 299 . From there , SR 3 runs concurrently with SR 299 north to the town of Weaverville .
SR 3 then departs from SR 299 , providing access to the Whiskeytown @-@ Shasta @-@ Trinity National Recreation Area and Trinity Dam along Lewiston Lake .
SR 3 passes through the towns of Covington Mill , Trinity Center , and Wyntoon before paralleling the Trinity River and Trinity Mountains as Weaverville @-@ Scott Mountain Road and crossing the Scott Mountains and the Pacific Crest Trail at 5 @,@ 205 feet ( 1 @,@ 586 m ) into Siskiyou County .
In Siskiyou County , SR 3 passes through Callahan , Etna , Greenview , and Fort Jones as it turns northeast to intersect with Interstate 5 in Yreka . At this point , State Route 263 continues in the northerly direction towards State Route 96 ; SR 3 turns east to its northern terminus in the incorporated city of Montague .
= = History = =
The short piece from SR 36 north to Peanut was added to the state highway system in 1907 as part of the Peanut Road , which became Route 35 in 1917 . Route 35 was extended north from Peanut to Route 20 ( SR 299 ) near Douglas City in 1933 , and simultaneously a new Route 82 was created , running from Route 3 ( I @-@ 5 ) in the Yreka area southwest to Etna and east to Montague . The gap between Douglas City and Etna was filled in 1959 with an extension of Route 82 south to Route 20 near Weaverville ; at the same time , the portion between Weaverville and Yreka was added to the California Freeway and Expressway System , which identifies the main routes of transportation in the state of California . The State Route 3 designation was applied to the Peanut @-@ Montague roadway in the 1964 renumbering . The overlap with temporary I @-@ 5 ( along the portion where SR 3 runs concurrently with Interstate 5 today ) near Yreka was removed when the new I @-@ 5 bypass was built ; the legislative definition was updated to reflect this in 1974 , soon after the building of the bypass .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= Evan Almighty =
Evan Almighty is a 2007 American comedy film and the stand @-@ alone sequel / spin @-@ off to Bruce Almighty ( 2003 ) . The film was directed by Tom Shadyac , written by Steve Oedekerk , based on the characters created by Steve Koren and Mark O 'Keefe from the original film , and starring Steve Carell , Morgan Freeman , Lauren Graham , John Goodman , John Michael Higgins , Jimmy Bennett and Wanda Sykes .
Production of the film began in January 2006 . Several visual effect companies were used to provide CGI for the numerous animals and the climactic flood scene . The main plot is a modern @-@ day retelling of Noah 's Ark . By the time the film had completed production , it had become the most expensive comedy film ever at the time ; it was later overtaken by Men in Black 3 . In October 2007 , the film was released on DVD and HD DVD .
The film grossed less than its budget of $ 175 million worldwide , and received generally negative reviews . Evan Almighty was also notable for allegations that the many animals used in the film were treated poorly , but Universal Pictures stressed the animals ' conditions were acceptable .
= = Plot = =
Newly elected to Congress , former local television news reporter Evan Baxter ( Steve Carell ) leaves his hometown of Buffalo , New York and moves to the fictional town of Prestige Crest , Virginia , where his congressional campaign officially declares that he will change the world . Evan prays to God ( Morgan Freeman ) to give him this opportunity . His wife , Joan ( Lauren Graham ) , also prays that she , Evan , and their three sons ( Jimmy Bennett , Graham Phillips , and Johnny Simmons ) will be closer together as a family . On the first day of his job at Congress , Evan is given a prime office space , where he is accompanied by his three congressional staffers , Rita , Marty , and Eugene ( Wanda Sykes , John Michael Higgins , and Jonah Hill ) , and invited to junior co @-@ sponsor the Public Land Act bill with his greedy boss , Chuck Long ( John Goodman ) . Soon after Evan 's election to Congress , six strange things start to happen around him :
The number 614 starts to appear everywhere he goes ( i.e. alarm clock , government license plate , Rita 's phone extension )
Ancient tools and gopher wood are delivered to his house that he actually did not order .
A man claiming to be the Genesis God appears everywhere he goes .
Pairs of animals simply follow Evan without any apparent reason ( with birds even flying into his office through the window ) .
Evan grows a beard no matter how many times he shaves .
Eight vacant lots in Prestige Crest are purchased in his name .
Evan soon learns that 614 refers to the verse in the Book of Genesis , where God originally instructs Noah to build an Ark in preparation for a flood . God later repeatedly appears in various guises before finally revealing himself to Evan , and cordially insisting that he should also build an Ark as well . God explains to Evan that a flood is coming , and that the only opportunity Evan will have to change the world is by saving his community instead . God also tells Evan to inform others about the flood should they ask him later . Concerned about Evan 's behaviour , Joan initially believes that he is having a mid @-@ life crisis . Evan begins constructing the Ark with his sons , who start to admire him as he is spending more time with them .
Animals eventually follow Evan to Congress . When Long discovers this , he allows Evan latitude at first , but warns him that he will no longer tolerate it if it happens again in the future . Meanwhile , Evan 's staffers are outraged by his change of appearance and behavior . When Evan returns to the Ark during construction , God presents him with a robe , and later tells him that the flood will likely come at midday on September 22 . When Joan becomes suspicious of his behavior , Evan tells her the truth : God has been talking to him and is responsible for his new looks and recent actions , although Joan does not believe Evan and she is convinced that he is beginning to lose his mind . After wearing the robe for some time , Evan finds it comfortable , but soon realizes that God will not allow him to take it off and wear anything else after two failed attempts to change his clothes later . The next time Evan arrives at Congress for work , animals follow him once again and he is mysteriously changed into his robe midway during the session . Evan reluctantly explains his divine mission , but Long does not take him seriously , and Evan is suspended from Congress and removed from the Public Land Act bill . Evan deduces that God purposely had him suspended from Congress , so that he would have more time to build the Ark . In continued skepticism , Joan leaves Evan alone after believing that he is going insane .
Evan decides to build the Ark alone , gaining media attention and public ridicule , as hundreds of animals assemble in pairs . Meanwhile , God appears to Joan as a waiter at a diner . God listens to Joan as she expresses concern that Evan is only losing his sanity and allowing himself to become a laughing stock , though claiming that " God told him to do it " . Sympathetic toward Evan , God tells Joan that perhaps it is an only opportunity for them , and explains that he does not give things but only the opportunity by which to obtain things , citing togetherness of families as one of these things . Seeing God 's meaning , Joan returns to Evan with new @-@ found faith and continue helping him finish the Ark together in order to prepare for the flood . Meanwhile , Evan overhears from his staffers that Long has commissioned a dam and has cut corners in doing so , and that he will most likely do the same thing with his Public Land Act bill .
On September 22 , Evan loads hundreds of animals onto the Ark in front of hundreds of spectators and live news crews , who continue to mock him . Later , Long and the policemen arrive with a wrecking ball crew to try and destroy the Ark , since it violates numerous building codes in Prestige Crest . Minutes pass with no sign of rain , and while a heavy rainstorm does come , it passes within moments , leaving Evan himself humiliated . However , Evan connects Long 's profiteering ethics and what God had already told him , and realizes that the dam under Long Lake is preparing to burst . Evan warns to those present must board the Ark , and many have do so when the prophesied flood is triggered shortly after the dam burst . Prestige Crest is catastrophically destroyed , and the Ark later rides the flood through the streets and landmarks of Washington , D.C .. The Ark reaches its final destination in front of the Capitol , which disrupts the vote on the Public Land Act bill . Long becomes outraged that the flood did really happen . Evan informs Long that the flood was actually caused by his poor design of the dam , which prompts the other Congressmen also present to turn against Long .
After Congress suspends the Public Land Act bill to investigate Long 's profiteering ethics , and the animals return to their natural habitats , Evan is finally reinstated as a congressman , and celebrates this event by shaving his beard , changing back into his regular clothes , and going on a long @-@ promised hiking trip . When God reappears once again during the hike , Evan is initially disappointed in which he realizes he never needed to build the Ark since the flood had only happened because of Long 's defective dam . However , God reassures Evan that he now has a perfect life as well as everything that he had originally prayed for , and that this would not have happened otherwise . Evan is happy to realize this , and God informs him that the right way to change the world is by doing one Act of Random Kindness ( ARK ) at a time . During the film 's closing credits , God issues a new commandment to the outgoing audience : " Thou shalt do the dance " . This is later followed by a footage of the film 's cast and crew members dancing to C + C Music Factory 's hit song " Gonna Make You Sweat ( Everybody Dance Now ) " .
= = Cast = =
Steve Carell as Evan Baxter
Morgan Freeman as God
Lauren Graham as Joan Baxter , Evan 's wife .
Johnny Simmons as Dylan Baxter
Jimmy Bennett as Ryan Baxter
Graham Phillips as Jordan Baxter
Wanda Sykes as Rita
John Michael Higgins as Marty
Jonah Hill as Eugene
John Goodman as Congressman Chuck Long , Evan 's greedy boss .
Molly Shannon as Eve Adams
Harve Presnell as Congressman Burrows
Jon Stewart as himself
Catherine Bell as Susan Ortega ( Uncredited )
Dean Norris as Officer Collins
Maile Flanagan as Mail Carrier
Lisa Arch and Simon Helberg as staffers
David Barrera and Ed Helms as Ark reporters
Ruth Williamson as neighbor
Jim Doughan as neighbor
Michael Roper as Congressional Reporter
Emily Eby as Animal Wrangler
Bart the Bear 2 and Honey Bump as bears
= = Production = =
= = = Screenplay = = =
The film 's screenplay was originally titled The Passion of the Ark and was written by Bobby Florsheim and Josh Stolberg . It became the subject of a seven @-@ studio bidding war in April 2004 . The script was sold to Sony Pictures in a deal worth $ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 plus a percentage of the profits , a record for a spec script from previously unproduced writers . Universal Studios immediately made a deal to co @-@ produce the script with Sony and have Steve Oedekerk rewrite it into the sequel to Bruce Almighty . Steve Oedekerk had been involved with Bruce Almighty as an executive producer and co @-@ writer of the screenplay ( with Steve Koren and Mark O 'Keefe , who wrote the story ) . The studio later discarded the original The Passion of the Ark script completely , and Oedekerk fashioned a new script from scratch ( only he received final credit on the finished film as screenwriter ) . Jim Carrey was asked to reprise his role as Bruce in the sequel and , when he declined , director Tom Shadyac convinced Steve Carell to accept the leading role . Shadyac , reflecting on the first film , stated " [ Carell ] delivered some of the funniest stuff in the movie . We thought , ' Why not take that character and spin him off into a different film ? ' "
= = = Casting = = =
Jim Carrey declined to reprise his role from the original Bruce Almighty . Although Carrey did act in a sequel to Ace Ventura : Pet Detective , he has said that he is " not a big fan of doing the same character twice . " This marked the third time a sequel has been made to a film for which Carrey declined to reprise his role ; the first were Dumb and Dumberer and Son of the Mask .
= = = Budget = = =
The initial budget , at approximately $ 140 million , led Evan Almighty to become the most expensive comedy film ever made . Added costs such as set construction , visual effects , and problems with filming multiple animals in a controlled location brought the budget up to $ 175 million . Once marketing for the film was also included , the film 's entire budget was estimated to be around $ 200 million . The ballooning budget caused Sony to drop the project and hand it over entirely to Universal Studios . Part of the budget was Carell 's payroll , where he earned a reported $ 5 million for his leading role . The Virginia Film Office estimates the film brought $ 20 – 25 million to Virginia , with the majority of it in the Charlottesville area .
= = = Ark design and construction = = =
Construction of the ark began in January 2006 and the scenes involving the ark were shot in a Crozet , Virginia subdivision called Old Trail . The ark was designed to meet the actual measurements of the biblical ark , measuring 450 feet ( 137 m ) long , 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide , and 51 feet ( 16 m ) high . The ark 's layout was also based on pictures in several children 's books that crew members had read in their childhoods . When the characters were filmed during the day building the ark or were on location elsewhere , crew members would further construct the ark at night . A concrete base was built to support the weight of the large ark ; after filming was completed , the ark was taken down in a week , and the base in another week .
In disassembling the set , everything that was salvageable from the ark was donated to Habitat for Humanity . " Leave no trace " was the slogan used by the director as part of the DVD 's bonus features , " The Almighty Green Set " .
= = = Costumes and filming locations = = =
To create Evan 's beard and long hair , three designers would take three hours each day adding individual hairs using prosthetic adhesive and making Carell wear custom wigs . The wigs consisted of both human and yak hair . With his new look , Carell was sometimes nicknamed " Mountain Man " , " Retrosexual " , or " Unabomber . " For his costumes , designers spoke with textile experts , researched historical information on the clothing that was likely worn at the time of Noah , and used aged fibers for the clothing .
Scenes for the film were filmed in various locations in Virginia , including areas in and around Crozet , Waynesboro , Richmond , Charlottesville , and Staunton , though some filming did take place at Universal Studios in Hollywood , California .
= = = Effects = = =
For the CGI used throughout the film , companies Rhythm & Hues ( R & H ) and Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) developed different parts of the film . R & H focused on the animation of the animals , while ILM completed the final scene of the ark rushing through Washington D.C. Lindy De Quattro , the ILM associate visual effects supervisor , revealed that " This is the first time where we had to do a whole series of shots that were happening mid @-@ day , where you were going to get a really long look at the water and what it was doing . " The company initially experienced problems creating the water effects and had to develop new tools which would choreograph the movements of the water . In addition , ILM used similar tools that were used on their prior film Poseidon . Lighting was also an issue as the characters on the ark had been filmed on a greenscreen stage , and the visual effects company had to ensure that the lighting matched that of the characters and the outside setting . Details were added to the ark for long @-@ distance shots to make the design of the ark more appealing and relate the ark 's size to scale in comparison to the amount of water . To complete the scene , ILM used thirty to sixty crew members and produced 200 shots over a yearlong period between April 2006 and May 2007 .
Rhythm & Hues created 300 pairs of animals for use on the ark and fifteen pairs with higher detail for closeup shots . R & H was also assisted by C.I.S. Hollywood , another visual effects company , who provided a large number of composites , involving hundreds of greenscreen animal elements . In scenes where there are multiple species of animals , crew members would film the animals on the greenscreen and R & H and C.I.S would digitally add the animals one at a time , sometimes taking several weeks to a couple of months . Andy Arnett , the animation supervisor , declared that " The research was extensive . It took six or seven months to perfect the look and feel of the animals before we had the first shot out the door . "
For the scene in Congressman Long 's office , CGI was used the entire time for the fish that follow Evan around from the fish tank . Cafe FX , the visual effects company hired for the scene , ordered ten different kinds of tropical fish from a local store and studied their movements to imitate them on screen using computer animation . Jeff Goldman , the visual effects supervisor , stated " Early in the sequence , we mimicked the actual behavior of the fish in our animation , but as the scene plays out , the fish are a counterpoint to Steve Carell 's comedic timing . "
= = Marketing = =
In late May during production , the media learned that director Tom Shadyac angrily complained to producers , saying " I 'm not seeing any ads , and I don 't know why . I 'm not getting answers . People are giving me information that isn 't true ... I 'm only hearing about all the other summer movies , and nothing about mine . " Shadyac also fired his marketing consultants that he had used for prior films due to his thoughts over the mishandling of the marketing . He later apologized for his outburst with producers , and claimed that it was as a result of his nervousness before the film 's release .
Grace Hill Media , a marketing firm that targets religious Americans , held exclusive screenings of the film in mid @-@ June in fifty cities in the United States to reach religious moviegoers . The firm was also used for marketing Bruce Almighty , The Da Vinci Code , and The Passion of the Christ . Grace Hill provided free screenings to blogs in exchange for publicity on the blogs . The film and its subsequent home video release was marketed to Christians and their churches through a " kindness campaign " called Ark ALMIGHTY .
The first trailer of the film premiered on March 29 , 2007 for a marathon of The Office , which also stars Steve Carell and Ed Helms . For online advertising , an eight @-@ minute clip of a scene was released on Yahoo ! two days before the release of the film . The premiere for the film was held on June 10 , 2007 and guests included Adam Sandler , David Hasselhoff , Kate Flannery , Eddie Murphy , Kevin James , and Mindy Kaling , among others .
= = Environmental impact = =
Director Tom Shadyac felt the film reflected environmental themes of how humans are stewards of God 's creation . In keeping with the themes , Evan Almighty became NBC Universal 's first film to offset the production 's carbon emissions . Producer Michael Bostick revealed how the emissions were offset :
" We worked closely with The Conservation Fund to calculate our carbon emissions from what we used on the movie — whether from vehicles used or any of the construction equipment . Once our carbon emissions were calculated , we planted trees that will effectively zero out our climate @-@ changing footprint left behind from the movie . "
Shadyac accomplished this by requiring crew members to plant 2 @,@ 050 trees at the Rappahannock River Valley National Wildlife Refuge in Warsaw , Virginia and the San Joaquin River National Wildlife Refuge near Modesto , California . He also bought over 400 bikes for all the cast and crew , to get to work instead of driving . In addition , rather than simply demolishing sets , Shadyac tried to donate houses built for the production and had the Ark set recycled , by donating materials to Habitat for Humanity . During the premiere of the film for cast and crew at Universal Citywalk , the attendees were encouraged to donate to a campaign to plant trees in forests around the world . The after party used recycled cups and plates to offset the use of resources . Shadyac also required that when Industrial Light & Magic developed the climactic scene , that the CGI flood did not appear to harm any of the trees in the scene .
The film partnered with the website Get On Board Now , which focused on the importance of conservation during production of the film . Donations were taken at the website for The Conservation Fund , which paid for the planting of 15 @,@ 000 trees .
= = Animal welfare = =
The American Humane Association oversaw the 177 species of animals that were used in the film . In scenes including both predators and prey , the animals were digitally added instead to ensure their safety . The American Humane Association gave its permission for the film to display " No animals were harmed in the making of this movie " over the closing credits .
Animal rights organization PETA accused the film 's producers of using animals that had previously been abused . Two chimpanzees who appear in the movie , Cody and Sable , were surrendered by their owner to settle a lawsuit that documented allegations of beatings and mistreatment . The film 's director , Tom Shadyac , said of PETA 's criticisms " They 're not wrong . There 's a certain amount of hypocrisy whenever you work with animals , even to show , which we hope we 're showing , that respect of all of God 's creation ... I don 't know . I respect their criticism . " PETA was also critical of Birds & Animals Unlimited , the primary animal supplier to the film , for alleged serious and continuing violations of the U.S. Animal Welfare Act , including failure to comply with veterinary care requirements and failure to provide shelter from heat and sunlight , which PETA details and claims it can document . A Universal Studios spokesperson declared :
" The live animals used in the filming of Evan Almighty were supplemented by a great number of computer @-@ generated animals , but it would have been impossible to depend on CGI exclusively as some key scenes in the film demonstrate the need for peaceful and productive co @-@ existence between man and animals . One of the most prominent , inescapable messages of the film is the responsibility that humans have to protect and care for animals . "
= = Release = =
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on HD DVD and DVD on October 9 , 2007 and was the fourth @-@ most rented DVD of the week earning $ 6 @.@ 4 million . In the film 's first six weeks of release it earned $ 27 @,@ 676 @,@ 676 in domestic DVD sales . The HD @-@ DVD and DVD 's special features include deleted scenes , outtakes , cast interviews , and footage of the animals used in the film . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray on August 7 , 2012 .
= = = Proposed ban = = =
Malaysia 's Muslim Consumers Association ( PPIM ) called for a ban on the film , claiming it is offensive to Islam . Secretary @-@ General Maamor Osman claimed that the film was depicting the great flood as comedy and characterized God with the portrayal of a human , both of which are considered blasphemous in Islam . Similarly there was some public protest against Bruce Almighty being shown in theaters , but that movie was released on DVD and is now shown on television broadcasts . Evan Almighty was still released in Malaysia on August 23 , 2007 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical release = = =
Evan Almighty received generally negative reviews from critics and viewers . On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an approval rating of 23 % , based on 192 reviews , with the critical consensus reading , " Big on special effects but short on laughs , Evan Almighty underutilizes a star @-@ studded cast that includes Steve Carell and Morgan Freeman . " At the website Metacritic , which utilizes a normalized rating system , the film earned a score of 37 out of 100 , based on 33 critics , indicating " generally unfavorable reviews " .
In his review of the film , Richard Roeper commended Jim Carrey for declining to reprise his role in " three of the worst sequels of all time " , which included Dumb and Dumberer : When Harry Met Lloyd , Son of the Mask and Evan Almighty . He continued : " Evan Almighty is a paper @-@ thin alleged comedy with a laugh drought of biblical proportions , and a condescendingly simplistic spiritual message . "
Several reviewers credit Carell 's performance to significantly improving the humor of the film . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone declared the film the year 's Worst Epic on his list of the Worst Movies of 2007 . Before Evan Almighty was released , it was nominated for " Best Summer Movie You Haven 't Seen Yet " at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards . Competing against seven other nominees , it lost to Transformers . According to box office figures , the film is the second highest @-@ grossing film about " Supernatural Comedies with Religious Elements " according to
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Box Office Mojo , directly behind Bruce Almighty . Evan Almighty was nominated for one Razzie Award , Worst Prequel or Sequel ( lost to Daddy Day Camp ) .
= = = Box office = = =
Though Evan Almighty was hyped up , especially with churchgoers , and had double the budget of Bruce Almighty , it performed under expectations . On its first weekend , it opened in 5 @,@ 200 screens in 3 @,@ 604 theaters and earned $ 31 @.@ 1 million ( on its first two days the film earned $ 11 @.@ 4 million followed by $ 8 @.@ 3 million on Sunday ) . The opening was less than half of the first film 's $ 68 million weekend ( $ 85 million counting Memorial Day ) . Nikki Rocco , the president of distribution for Universal Pictures declared , " We never expected it to be much higher ... it is not unusual for family films to open at a level like this and build . This film will have legs . " The film managed to remain at the third spot at the box office in its second week , before dropping to fifth place in its third week .
Internationally , the film also opened in first place in Russia and Ukraine , earning $ 1 @.@ 5 million in Russia with 329 venues and $ 179 @,@ 000 in Ukraine at 64 locations . The gross in the opening weekends for the two countries was 10 % and 11 % , respectively , bigger than the opening for Bruce Almighty . Altogether , the film has earned $ 173 @,@ 391 @,@ 888 worldwide with $ 100 @,@ 462 @,@ 298 in the U.S. and $ 72 @,@ 929 @,@ 590 in the international box office .
= = Soundtrack = =
Evan Almighty : Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture debuted in 2007 . The soundtrack debuted on June 19 , 2007 . " Revolution " was performed by Rascal Flatts in the film . Their version is not on the soundtrack , but it appears as a bonus track on their album Still Feels Good . Also not included on the soundtrack are Elton John 's 2006 hit , " Just Like Noah 's Ark " of which only a little bit is heard during the start of building the ark , and John Mayer 's " Waiting on the World to Change " , used in the main ark @-@ building montage . " Ready For a Miracle " was released as a single for the soundtrack by American country pop recording artist , LeAnn Rimes .
Rascal Flatts ' version of " Revolution " peaked at number 57 on the Hot Country Songs charts , and " The Power of One " by Bomshel reached number 52 on the same .
Note : Tracks one , two and fourteen to sixteen are taken from the film while tracks three through thirteen are inspired by the film .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2008 , the soundtrack was nominated for a Dove Award for Special Event Album of the Year at the 39th GMA Dove Awards . The song " Be the Miracle " by Room for Two was also nominated for Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year while " Ready for a Miracle " by LeAnn Rimes won the Dove Award for Traditional Gospel Recorded Song of the Year .
= Legacy of Kain : Soul Reaver =
Legacy of Kain : Soul Reaver is an action @-@ adventure game developed by Crystal Dynamics and published by Eidos Interactive . It was released for the PlayStation and Microsoft Windows in 1999 and for the Dreamcast in 2000 . As the second game in the Legacy of Kain series , Soul Reaver is the sequel to Blood Omen : Legacy of Kain . Soul Reaver was followed by three games , one of which , Soul Reaver 2 , is a direct sequel .
Taking place 1500 years after the events of Blood Omen , Soul Reaver chronicles the journey of the vampire @-@ turned @-@ wraith Raziel , lieutenant to the vampire lord Kain . Raziel is killed by Kain , but is revived by The Elder God to become his " soul reaver " and to exact revenge . Raziel shares this title with Kain 's sword , the Soul Reaver , which he acquires during the game .
Crystal Dynamics began development of the game in 1997 , but a deteriorating relationship with Silicon Knights , who had developed Blood Omen , created legal problems . This and other delays forced material originally planned for Soul Reaver to be instead released with later games of the series . Soul Reaver was generally well received by critics and praised for its intriguing gothic story and high @-@ quality graphics . However , the game was criticized for simple and repetitive gameplay and an unsatisfying climax .
= = Gameplay = =
The player controls Raziel , a disfigured and ghostly vampire . Gameplay relies largely on shifting between the material and spectral planes of existence to progress through areas . Although interaction with objects is limited in the spectral realm , this can be advantageous , because Raziel can phase through otherwise impassable gates there , and water is insubstantial , allowing him to walk on lakebeds ; however , blocks , doors , and switches can be manipulated only in the physical realm . Many puzzles are based on the differences between the two realms ; for example , platforms and environment features in one realm may change form to open new paths in the other . Block puzzles are also common and require the rotation , flipping , and moving of large blocks to progress , often with a time limit and while avoiding enemies .
Combat in Soul Reaver is a hack and slash system , involving the use of combinations of various different attacks before a finishing move . Raziel 's enemies are grouped into humans , spectral creatures , and most commonly , vampires . Human enemies include peasants , vampire hunters and vampire worshippers . In the spectral realm , players fight minor enemies called Sluagh and the souls of dead vampires who have become wraiths . Each brood of vampire enemies has unique powers reminiscent of their clan leader . Human and spectral enemies can be killed with Raziel 's claws or any weapon , but vampires must be bludgeoned into a stunned state and then destroyed by impaling them , lighting them on fire , or tossing them into a hazard such as sunlight or water . When killed , enemies leave behind souls that replenish Raziel 's health , which automatically decreases in the material realm and increases in the spectral . Possession of the Soul Reaver sword stops automatic degeneration of health in the physical realm , but Raziel loses the sword instantly if he sustains damage and can regain it only by restoring his health to full .
At first , Raziel can jump , glide using his torn wings , move blocks , and pick up and throw objects and enemies . Initially unarmed , he fights using his claws , but can alternatively use weapons such as rocks , torches , spears and staffs , and the Soul Reaver . Raziel can freely shift to the spectral realm , but can return to the material realm only through special portals when at full health . Raziel automatically shifts to the spectral realm if he runs out of health . As the game progresses , Raziel gains the powers of his clan brothers after defeating them and becomes able to phase through gates in the spectral realm and climb walls in the material realm . Initially vulnerable to water , he overcomes this weakness and learns to swim . He also gains the ability to constrict objects and enemies with a band of energy , although this feature was one of the few abilities not to feature in future games . Players can find an ancient relic that gives Raziel the power to fire bolts of telekinetic energy , which cause little damage by themselves but can knock enemies into hazards and push objects from a distance . Baptism in holy flame can transform the Soul Reaver into the Fire Reaver , which can set enemies aflame and adds fire to Raziel 's telekinetic bolts . Players can also find magical glyphs that allow Raziel to expend magical energy to attack groups of enemies simultaneously . These glyphs typically involve vampire weaknesses such as sunlight , fire , water , or sound , as well as additions such as telekinetic force ( available well before the normal telekinesis becomes available ) and the causing of earthquakes to temporarily stun enemies . Glyphs are acquired through finding glyph altars , specific locations in Nosgoth where the skills can be learned , and solving a puzzle before being granted the magical ability . However , Raziel begins the game with access to the ' Shift ' glyph , granting the ability to shift between the material and spectral planes , with no glyph altar necessary .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Soul Reaver takes place within the fictional world of Nosgoth , where the health of the land is tied to the nine Pillars of Nosgoth , and each pillar in turn is represented by a guardian . Before the events of Soul Reaver , the guardians became corrupt , and , after Kain killed eight of them , he discovered he was the final one . Refusing to sacrifice himself to restore the Pillars , he doomed Nosgoth to eternal decay and proceeded to raise his vampire lieutenants , including Raziel , to besiege the land . By the time of Soul Reaver 's introduction , the vampires are now the land 's dominant species and apex predators , the humans have been decimated , and the vampire tribes have each claimed a region of Nosgoth and turned their attention to internal matters . Unknown to the vampires , beneath Nosgoth lurks The Elder God , an ancient and powerful entity . The Elder God controls the Wheel of Fate , a cycle of reincarnation of souls that circle the Wheel in a loop of predestination ; however , because vampires are immortal , their souls do not spin with the Wheel , causing the land to decay as the Wheel stalls . By the time that Raziel is revived centuries after the game 's opening cinematic , Nosgoth is on the brink of collapse , little more than a wasteland wracked with cataclysms and earthquakes .
= = = Characters = = =
The protagonist of Soul Reaver is the vampire @-@ turned @-@ wraith Raziel , whom Kain casts to death at the beginning of the game . Although Kain is the protagonist of the previous game , Blood Omen : Legacy of Kain , he is the primary antagonist and final boss of Soul Reaver . The Elder God resurrects and assists Raziel , explains the game 's controls , and describes previous events in the story . Ariel , who preceded Kain as the guardian of the Pillar of Balance , appears as a spirit and offers Raziel advice on occasion . During his quest , Raziel meets his brothers — Melchiah , Zephon , Rahab and Dumah — who serve as the game 's bosses . Each has developed different powers that Raziel partially gains by killing them and devouring their souls . A fifth brother , Turel , was omitted due to time constraints on development .
= = = Story = = =
As the game begins , Raziel approaches Kain 's throne and extends newly grown wings . In an act of seeming jealousy , Kain tears the bones from Raziel 's wings and has him thrown into the Lake of the Dead , a large natural whirlpool ; however , Raziel is resurrected as a wraith by The Elder God to become his " soul reaver " and kill Kain , thus restoring Nosgoth . With The Elder God 's guidance , Raziel adapts to his new form and returns to Nosgoth . Infiltrating a Necropolis inhabited by the Melchahim vampires , Raziel finds his brother Melchiah , who has devolved into a beast unable to sustain his own flesh . After Raziel kills Melchiah and absorbs his soul , he confronts Kain among the ruined Pillars of Nosgoth in the Sanctuary of the Clans . Kain does not appear surprised to see Raziel , apparently having even been expecting him , and implies that he has destroyed Raziel 's vampire clan , which only enrages Raziel even further . When Raziel begins to criticize him , Kain simply launches a tirade against him before noting what has become of the empire and engaging him in combat . Kain quickly overpowers Raziel and attempts to strike him down with the Soul Reaver , a powerful sword that absorbs its victims ' souls ; however , the Reaver shatters when it strikes Raziel , and Kain escapes , strangely satisfied . Raziel enters the spectral realm to find the blade 's soul @-@ devouring spectral form , which binds itself to him . After this , Raziel meets Ariel , who restores his strength , and learns of Zephon 's location from The Elder God .
Raziel ventures into a large cathedral once inhabited by the humans and finds the Zephonim clan . After ascending into the cathedral 's spires , he finds that Zephon is now a large insect like creature whose body has merged into the cathedral spire in which he dwells . Raziel kills Zephon and uses the gained power to infiltrate an ancient crypt . There , Raziel discovers coffins for members of the Sarafan , a fanatical order of vampire hunters killed centuries before Kain 's rule . To Raziel 's horror , he finds the crypt was designated for him and his brothers ; as cruel irony , Kain revived the Sarafan to serve him as his vampire sons . Raziel ventures through a secret passage under the crypt and finds a flooded abbey inhabited by the Rahabim clan , whose members have mutated into amphibians ; its leader , Rahab , has become a merman . Raziel tells Rahab what he has learned about their human pasts , but Rahab is unmoved , claiming that Kain " saved " them , and attacks . Raziel defeats Rahab and absorbs his soul , then crosses the Lake of the Dead to the abandoned fortress of his brother Dumah . The Elder God explains that the Dumahim vampires were scattered following an invasion of human hunters . Raziel eventually finds Dumah shackled to his throne with his heart pierced . Raziel revives Dumah and leads him into a giant furnace , burning him alive and absorbing his soul .
Afterward , Raziel discovers the Oracle 's Cave , where Moebius the Time Streamer once hid the Chronoplast , a magical time machine . Raziel traverses the caves and finds Kain in the Chronoplast 's control room . Raziel is angered over what he has learned , and Kain says his actions are justified due to his being subject to destiny , before proceeding to inform Raziel that the Sarafan were far from the noble crusaders that Raziel believes them to be when the latter demands to know why he created him , which Raziel refuses to listen to . Raziel attacks Kain while the latter continues to adjust the Chronoplast 's controls . Although Raziel eventually gains an advantage , the Chronoplast activates , and Kain escapes through a time portal , beckoning Raziel to follow . Raziel complies , ignoring warnings from The Elder God . As the game ends , Raziel emerges from the timeslip and is greeted by Moebius , leading into the events of Soul Reaver 2 .
= = Development = =
Soul Reaver entered development alongside Blood Omen 2 in 1997 and focused on puzzle solving instead of Blood Omen 2 's action . During design , the development team created larger areas that could be explored more thoroughly as Raziel acquired new powers , avoiding the " shallow [ ness ] " of Blood Omen 's layout . Crystal Dynamics based Soul Reaver on Silicon Knights ' research of vampire mythology for Blood Omen . Other aspects of the game , such as the idea of a fallen vampire who devoured souls , were inspired by the epic poem " Paradise Lost " . The staff aimed to develop gameplay similar to Tomb Raider and used an upgraded version of Gex 3 's game engine to generate the three @-@ dimensional game world . Before Soul Reaver 's release , the relationship between Silicon Knights and Crystal Dynamics dissolved . Because their research was used , Silicon Knights filed an injunction to stop further promotion of the game . Other delays pushed the release date from October 1998 to August 1999 .
These delays forced Crystal Dynamics to cut significant game material , including additional powers for Raziel , a third battle with Kain , and an expanded Glyph system which would have given elemental powers to the Soul Reaver . In an interview , series director Amy Hennig stated that the development team split the original , much larger plans in two after realizing that they had " over @-@ designed the game " , given the constraints on time and data . This decision explains Soul Reaver 's cliffhanger ending and the appearance of originally planned material in later games . Despite the split , Hennig explained that the team left unused components — such as extra power @-@ ups and enemies — in Soul Reaver 's game engine to avoid unforeseen glitches that might have arisen from their removal .
= = = Audio = = =
Kurt Harland composed most of the music for Soul Reaver ; Jim Hedges handled the remaining audio . Harland remarked that , under Amy Hennig 's direction , he programmed music to change based on the current gameplay situation — for example , combat or swimming . This variation was accomplished through a custom Musical Instrument Digital Interface ( MIDI ) driver , which altered music based on signals from the game engine . Each vampire tribe had corresponding music ; one tribe of vampires was associated with a slow , thumping theme to convey a sense of working machinery . To further fit the music to the environment , the sound team consulted level designers regarding layout and appearance . Music from both Soul Reaver and Soul Reaver 2 was released on a promotional soundtrack in 2001 .
For the game 's voice acting , Raziel was voiced by Michael Bell , and Tony Jay , who had provided the voice of Mortanius in Blood Omen , voiced The Elder God . Anna Gunn , Simon Templeman and Richard Doyle reprised their roles from Blood Omen as Ariel , Kain and Moebius . Bell , Templeman and Jay also provided the voices of Melchiah , Dumah and Zephon , respectively , and Neil Ross voiced Rahab .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
Soul Reaver was showcased at the 1998 E3 , where attendees were given free demo discs . Over time , further demo disks were released , including one bundled with Official PlayStation Magazine . Soul Reaver was released for the PC and Sony PlayStation in 1999 and for the Dreamcast version in 2000 . The PC and Dreamcast versions used a much higher frame rate than did the PlayStation version , and the Dreamcast port had further graphical enhancements . A Japanese release for the game was planned , but canceled . In 2000 , Soul Reaver was added to Sony 's " Greatest Hits " list , and more than 1 @.@ 5 million copies were sold by 2001 . Sony later re @-@ released the game for digital download on the PlayStation Network in November 2009 .
Eidos Interactive , the game 's publisher , spent US $ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on a pre @-@ release advertising campaign , which included magazine articles , television ads , and a tie @-@ in comic book published by Top Cow Productions . Because such films like Stir of Echoes , The Sixth Sense , The Blair Witch Project and The Mummy had premiered earlier in 1999 , Soul Reaver 's release was considered " ideally timed " for a horror @-@ oriented game . The lack of load times was a key marketing point praised by several reviewers . After release , Eidos and BBI partnered to release action figures of Raziel and Kain .
= = = Reception = = =
Soul Reaver 's dark and gothic atmosphere was generally well @-@ received , and several publications praised the game 's cut scenes . IGN 's reviewer called it " such an ambitious game - and one that achieves nearly everything it sets out to do - that few games come close to it " , and praised the soundtrack for blending with the atmosphere unobtrusively . The Dreamcast port was cited as " perhaps one of the best looking console games ever made " . Next Generation Magazine echoed this , stating that , " even if you own the PlayStation version , you may want to rent this anyway " , but expressed disappointment that no new features were added to the Dreamcast port . AllGame 's reviewer called the cut scenes " seamless " , and their frequency neither too high nor too low . The game 's storyline was praised by Game Informer as being " grim and interesting " . Soul Reaver 's voice acting was also highly praised ; GameSpot ranked this aspect of the game in its list of top ten " Best Voice Acting in Games " . GameSpot also considered the atmosphere as rich as that of Blood Omen , yet less dramatically overstated , and considered the graphics " among the best that have ever been on the PlayStation . " GamePro praised the aspect of shifting between realms , particularly the visual effects involved .
IGN stated that acquiring and learning the powers of Raziel 's brothers constituted part of the fun , and that Raziel 's moves were well animated and articulated . Finding minimal difficulty in using camera controls , GameSpot likened them to those of Banjo @-@ Kazooie and stated that players would want to adjust the camera deliberately to watch Raziel 's movements . RPGamer called the gameplay smooth and seamless , and , although the reviewer was initially worried that the interface would resemble that of the Tomb Raider series , stated that these concerns disappeared after playing . Presenting differences between the two , AllGame echoed RPGamer 's sentiment and stated that the game 's puzzles would challenge " all but the most experienced gamers " , while Game Informer considered the puzzles " difficult @-@ to @-@ the @-@ point @-@ of @-@ insanity " . Computer Gaming World enjoyed the devouring of souls , a gameplay element that caused Alexander Smith of the Star Tribune to compare Soul Reaver to the television series Outlander .
Website reviewers deemed Soul Reaver 's gameplay too non @-@ linear and its objectives too unclear . GameSpot criticized the warp system for using confusing symbols that did little or nothing to indicate the warp 's destination , and weighed the fun of impaling vampires with the Soul Reaver against the lack of challenge presented by bosses and most enemies . Next Generation Magazine considered the game challenging due to " difficult puzzles and lack of a map " , requiring the player to backtrack . RPGamer 's reviewer said that the music was " more suited to putting babies asleep " and that enemies sounded like barnyard animals . The Tampa Tribune also criticized the camera controls , though noted that the " auto @-@ facing " feature made the difficulties negligible . PC Zone criticized the PC port of the game for " chunky " graphics and bad camera controls , stating " it feels too much like a PlayStation release ported hurriedly on to the PC " . Computer Gaming World similarly felt that the limitations of the PlayStation carried over in the PC port , rendering the latter 's visuals " mind @-@ numbingly boring " . The publication praised the Lucifer @-@ based story for engaging players , but was disappointed that " it peters out in an unsatisfying climax " . Game Informer stated , " Even after years in development , Soul Reaver doesn 't feel finished . It feels rushed . " 1UP ranked Soul Reaver second on its " Top 5 Games That Ended Halfway Through " , stating " it 's pretty clear that the plot would have been a lot different if the money hadn 't inconveniently run out . " GamesRadar placed Soul Reaver at # 4 on a 2007 list of the top seven video game apocalypses , regarding the post @-@ apocalyptic Nosgoth as " one of the most fascinating wastelands we 've ever explored " .
= Long John Peter =
" Long John Peter " is the 12th and the final episode of the sixth season of the animated series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on May 4 , 2008 . Written by Wellesley Wild and directed by Dominic Polcino , " Long John Peter " served as the final episode of the season , which was cut short due to creator Seth MacFarlane 's participation in the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . In the episode , Chris falls in love with a lovely vet intern Anna and turns to Peter for some advice .
" Long John Peter " was watched by 7 @.@ 68 million viewers in its original broadcast , according to the Nielsen ratings . Actress Amanda Bynes guest starred as Anna , and Bryan Cranston and Mae Whitman made minor appearances in the episode . " Long John Peter " received generally positive reviews from critics , and was praised for its action sequence featuring Peter and a British man having a pirate fight on their cars .
= = Plot = =
The Griffin family are waiting for the examination results of Brian at the veterinary office of Dr. Jewish , as Brian had apparently had stomach pains prior to the events in the episode ( Brian had eaten one of Stewie 's used diapers — which he claimed that he had mistaken for Indian cuisine ) . Chris spots a young intern named Anna and develops a crush on her . While there , Peter finds a parrot and decides to keep it , leaving a dog wearing a top hat and a mustache in its place . Peter begins taking the parrot everywhere he goes , showing it off to his friends , Quagmire , Cleveland , and Joe , who , in turn , begin making suggestions as to how Peter could change his appearance to appear more " pirate @-@ like " because of the resemblance between Peter and a pirate , who are known for keeping parrots as pets . Peter takes the advice given to him by his friends by dressing up in pirate clothing , gathering up a crew of other " pirates " , and going by the name " Long John Peter " . Peter begins taking the pirate act to the extreme , even robbing a British man 's car filled with sugarcane , tobacco , and spices . In the " battle " for the spices , Peter 's parrot is severely injured and eventually dies .
Meanwhile , at the vet where Dr. Jewish breaks the bad news about Peter 's dead parrot , Chris and Anna hook up and begin dating . The relationship goes smoothly until Peter berates Chris for treating her too well . Peter tells him that women like bad boys , so Chris calls Anna a " bitch " on their next date , thinking that will improve the relationship . Instead , she breaks up with him . After hearing what happened , Lois , furious at Peter , orders him to try to comfort Chris , but Peter fails to cheer up Chris when Peter gives him a bullfrog which died when Peter poked holes on its back . When Lois tells Chris that the only person he should turn to in this situation is himself , Chris beats Brian with a chair as an excuse to return to the vet , sees Anna there , and apologizes to her . Anna forgives Chris and they renew their relationship , while Brian collapses to the floor in pain . Brian asks for help but Stewie comes in and kicks Brian in his stomach , before leaving him there .
= = Production = =
" Long John Peter " was written by Wellesley Wild and directed by Dominic Polcino . According to consulting producer Tom Devanney , Wild came up with the pirate story when he had been out of work for four weeks . Creator Seth MacFarlane pitched the structure of the Chris and Peter story , which is , according to executive producer David A. Goodman , the same story as in MacFarlane 's pilot The Life of Larry . Actress Amanda Bynes guest starred as Chris 's love interest Anna , and Goodman praised her performance .
In addition to Bynes and the regular cast , actor Bryan Cranston and actress Mae Whitman guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actor John G. Brennan , writer Chris Sheridan , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , actress Jennifer Tilly , and writer John Viener made minor appearances . Actors Patrick Warburton and Adam West guest starred in the episode as well .
= = Cultural references = =
" Long John Peter " contained several pop culture references . When Chris sees Anna for the first time , he starts singing the song " Crazy for You " , which was originally performed by Madonna in the film Vision Quest ( 1985 ) . When Peter is fighting a British man , the title music from The Sea Hawk ( 1940 ) , composed by Erich Wolfgang Korngold , is used . The episode imagines what it would be like if Michael J. Fox , who has Parkinson 's disease , would star as Zorro . In a trailer for a film , the tune from Coldplay 's " Clocks " is played .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast on May 4 , 2008 , " Long John Peter " was watched by 7 @.@ 68 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings . The episode finished second in its timeslot , after ABC 's Desperate Housewives . " Long John Peter " acquired a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 10 share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and a 4 @.@ 7 rating / 7 share in the 18 – 34 demographic . The episode dropped in 9 % from the previous episode , " The Former Life of Brian " , which received a 4 @.@ 3 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic and a viewership of 8 @.@ 42 million .
Since airing , " Long John Peter " has received generally positive reviews from television sources and critics . Ahsan Haque of IGN wrote that " Long John Peter " was " thoroughly entertaining from start to finish , and is a great way to end this short season on a high note . " He praised the action sequence , calling it " truly inspired " and " extremely well scripted " , and graded the episode 8 @.@ 9 out of 10 . Brad Trechak of TV Squad stated that " the pirate segment of the episode wasn 't very good and seemed out of place " , though he also praised the action scene . He enjoyed the plot line about Chris and Anna , and called the episode " a high note " . Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club wrote that " the pirate gag was fine enough , in that it resulted in an amusing land @-@ battle sequence " and " Chris ' storyline resulted in some of the best Family Guy laughs I 've had in a while " . She graded the episode A- .
= Tropical Storm Fran ( 1984 ) =
Tropical Storm Fran was one of the deadliest tropical cyclones in the history of Cape Verde . The sixth named storm and eleventh tropical cyclone of the 1984 Atlantic hurricane season , Fran developed from a tropical wave near Cape Verde on September 15 . It began as a tropical depression and gradually strengthened while tracking westward , remaining south of the Cape Verde archipelago . Late on September 16 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Fran , shortly before brushing Cape Verde , and then moving further out to sea . The storm approached hurricane status on September 17 and September 18 , though it eventually weakened . Beginning on September 19 , Fran encountered strong wind shear , which contributed to further weakening . By September 20 , Fran dissipated well east of the Lesser Antilles .
While passing southeast of Cape Verde , the storm produced torrential rainfall . At least 1 @,@ 094 houses were severely damaged due to flooding , which left at least 2 @,@ 100 people homeless . Significant damage also occurred to roads in the country , which was still in need of repairs as late as January 1985 . The hydraulic infrastructure was destroyed on six islands , requiring $ 1 million ( 1984 USD ) in repairs . In addition , agriculture was extensively damaged , resulting in $ 1 @.@ 84 million ( 1984 USD ) in losses to crops . The storm caused no impact outside of Cape Verde . Overall , the storm caused about $ 2 @.@ 84 million ( 1984 USD ) in damage and between 29 and 32 fatalities . Several organizations and countries donated to disaster relief funds , which cash amounts alone reaching slightly more than $ 501 @,@ 000 ( 1984 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A well @-@ defined tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 14 . The system rapidly organized , and at 1200 UTC on September 15 , it developed into a tropical depression while located to the southeast of the Cape Verde . Early on September 8 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Fran , based on intensity estimates via the Dvorak technique . By then , the storm had begun a track to the northwest ; Fran then passed near the southernmost islands of Cape Verde . Late on September 17 , Fran attained peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) . It maintained this intensity for about 24 hours , during which Fran turned to the west and later to the west @-@ southwest . The storm encountered strong wind shear on September 19 ; this caused it to weaken and the deep convection to detach from the center of the storm . At 0600 UTC on September 20 , Fran was downgraded to a tropical depression . Twelve hours later , the storm dissipated while located about 1 @,@ 250 miles ( 2 @,@ 010 km ) east @-@ northeast of Antigua . By the following day , the remnants of Fran became unidentifiable .
= = Impacts = =
Light winds were reported in Cape Verde ; some weather stations recorded winds of 35 miles per hour ( 56 km / h ) . As a result , wind damage was minimal . While passing southeast of Cape Verde , Fran dropped torrential rainfall on the islands , which caused significant flooding . The storm caused severe damage to at least 1 @,@ 094 houses , which left at least 2 @,@ 100 people homeless . On Santo Antão , São Nicolau , and Santiago , agriculture also suffered losses , totaling to $ 1 @.@ 84 million ( 1984 USD ) . Fran also caused significant damage to roads , which still required repairs as late as January 1985 . The hydraulic infrastructure on Santo Antão , Santiago , São Nicolau , São Vicente , Fogo , and Maio was destroyed and cost about $ 1 million ( 1984 USD ) to repair . At least 29 people were killed , though some sources claim there were as many as 32 fatalities . Fran is thus the second deadliest tropical cyclone in the history of Cape Verde , behind only Hurricane Debbie in 1961 , which caused 60 fatalities after a plane crashed due to weather associated with the storm . Overall , the storm caused at least $ 2 @.@ 84 million ( 1984 USD ) in damage . Elsewhere , the storm caused no damage or fatalities .
On October 10 , 1984 , the Government of Cape Verde appealed for international assistance . Emergency relief aid requested included : two @-@ month supply of food for 1 @,@ 124 families , 1 @,@ 064 mattresses , 532 kerosene stoves , 2 @,@ 128 sets of dinner ware , 2 @,@ 128 mugs , 1 @,@ 064 cooking pots and pans , 532 water buckets , 2 @,@ 128 sheets , 1 @,@ 064 blankets , 2 @,@ 660 articles of clothing , and building materials for repair of the 1 @,@ 094 houses . In January 1985 , the government of Cape Verde announced that they had made significant progress with relief assistance . However , repairs to roads , infrastructure , and crops were still required . Five organizations contributed cash , including the National Solidarity Movement , the Cape Verde Red Cross , Chinese Red Cross , Oxfam Novib , and Oxfam of the United Kingdom ; donations collectively totaled to $ 172 @,@ 221 ( 1984 USD ) . France , Finland , the Soviet Union , and the United States supplied 4000 tons of cereals , $ 79 @,@ 000 ( 1984 USD ) to the Red Cross , $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 1984 USD ) for home repairs , 32 packages of medicines , and 17 packages of blankets .
= Chris Pappas ( Neighbours ) =
Christos " Chris " Pappas is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours , played by James Mason . Mason was told the character was gay when he successfully auditioned for the role in 2009 . He began filming his first scenes in October of that year and he made his first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 25 February 2010 . Executive producer Susan Bower said the character 's storyline was created because of requests from young viewers in the Neighbours website 's online forums . The storyline has also been based on the real life experiences of the show 's writers . Chris was the first prominent , ongoing male homosexual character in the show 's twenty @-@ five @-@ year history . He was the second ongoing homosexual character overall , following Lana Crawford 's ( Bridget Neval ) introduction in 2004 . Chris departed on 27 March 2015 , but made a cameo appearance on 6 November .
Chris was a high school student who befriended the soap 's other teens . He became the captain of the school 's basketball team and he began dating Summer Hoyland ( Jordy Lucas ) . However , Chris developed a crush on Andrew Robinson ( Jordan Smith ) and subsequently revealed that he was gay . Chris initially struggled with his sexuality and the reactions of his friends , family and team mates . Upon finding employment at the local garage , Chris was faced with Warren Burrell ( Tony Rickards ) , a homophobic customer . In August 2011 , a love interest for Chris was introduced in the form of Aidan Foster ( Bobby Morley ) and they formed Neighbours ' first gay couple . After a break @-@ up and reunion , Chris and Aidan split for good in January 2013 . Chris became the focus of a coward punch storyline in 2014 and agreed to have a baby with his friend Lucy Robinson ( Melissa Bell ) .
Bower expected Chris 's coming out storyline to receive criticism and some media commentators called it " an obvious ratings grab " . Mason and the show 's script producer defended the storyline , saying that it was not a ploy to boost ratings and that it explored how Chris 's coming out affected the people around him . Television critics and LGBT websites have given the character and his storyline development a positive reception . In 2012 , Mason earned a nomination for Most Popular New Male Talent at the Logie Awards .
= = Creation and casting = =
Neighbours ' executive producer Susan Bower said the creation of the character and his storyline was a result of requests from young viewers in the Neighbours website forums . Bower said that although the show had featured lesbian romances before , love scenes between men are still taboo in Australian dramas . She added that Chris 's coming out storyline was also based on the real life experiences of the shows writers .
Mason 's agent got him an audition with Neighbours and he originally read for the role of Andrew Robinson . The part was given to Jordan Smith , but an offer to play the role of Chris arrived three days later . Mason told Matt Akersten of SameSame that he was okay with knowing Chris would be gay . The character is Mason 's first major television role . He began filming his first scenes in October 2009 , before making his on @-@ screen debut in February 2010 . Bower later revealed that two @-@ thirds of the boys who auditioned for the role of Chris backed out when they discovered the character was gay , which she said was " disappointing , but not surprising . " Mason said that he was " really excited to get an opportunity like this " and added the writers had helped him out as the script was coming straight from their experiences . Bower praised Mason , saying that he " does a wonderful job . "
In October 2010 , the ATV News Network reported that the Neighbours writers and producers were unsure how to keep Chris connected to Ramsay Street . ATV said that the writer were " stumped " as to what to do with the character and his story . At the time , Mason was still filming for the show , but ATV reported that it was not known if he would be given a new contract . However , in January 2011 , a Network Ten spokesperson told SX News that Mason 's role would be expanded from April and he and Chris will get more screen time . Chris will be seen taking on " issues that every gay teenager does . " On becoming a regular cast member , Mason told Channel 5 , " I love it . The more time I spend on Neighbours , the more I feel part of the show . And I 'm learning all the time . The thing about this industry is it 's very hard to find stable work , so to have stability , I 'm extremely grateful . "
= = Development = =
= = = Coming out = = =
Chris is Neighbours ' second ongoing homosexual character , following the introduction of Lana Crawford in 2004 . Neighbours has featured a few short @-@ term or minor male gay characters before for plot points or small story arcs , but Chris is the first male gay character to be given a prominent role . The first minor male gay characters to appear were Andrew MacKenzie ( John Morris ) and Alf Taylor ( Frank Bren ) in 1994 . The following year a gay schoolteacher , Andrew Watson ( Chris Uhlman ) , became the victim of a dismissal campaign by his pupils . Hairdresser Gino Esposito ( Shane McNamara ) was often hinted at being gay .
Mason has said that there have been a few hints about Chris 's sexuality along the way and in August 2010 , Chris finally revealed that he is gay to his girlfriend , Summer . TV Week described Chris as being " deeply conflicted " over his decision to tell her about his sexuality . Mason said " It 's hard for Chris because he has a girlfriend who he 's been with for some time . To try and tell someone in this situation would be really difficult " . Summer initially takes the news well and plays it down , but when fellow student Natasha Williams ( Valentina Novakovic ) discovers that one of her classmates is gay , she goes out of her way to find out who it is and expose them . Mason said that she does not realise that " what she sees as a game is someone else 's life " .
Mason has said he was nervous about filming Chris 's coming out . Describing the scene , he said " I did have to stand up in front a group of people and tell them [ as my character ] , I was gay . That was a little intimidating " . The actor felt that the storyline had been handled in a realistic manner and said that it shows that coming out is a difficult thing to do . Mason also spoke to a friend about his coming out experience to gain information about how long it took him to come out and how people reacted . The storyline follows Chris 's struggle with his sexuality and depicts the reactions of his friends and family . It also deals with the issue of homophobia in sport . The Australian gay and lesbian newspaper , SX News said " Chris is the captain of the school basketball team , but once word he 's gay gets out to the other teams it turns nasty for him " .
Previous same @-@ sex storylines in the show had led to criticism from conservative groups . Bower has said that she expects this storyline to come under fire , saying " I do believe homophobia is still alive and well , and I have no doubt that we will get complaints about it " . Australian LGBT website SameSame said the story had attracted attention from some media commentators , who called it " an obvious ratings grab and an attempt to out @-@ gay rival soap , Home and Away " . However , script producer , Emma Steele defended the storyline and said that it is not a " ploy to grab ratings " . Steele said that she is " particularly proud " of the way Chris 's storyline had been handled and she added " It was something we wanted to do for a while because it 's a story that affects so many people and in so many different ways . It wasn 't just Chris 's story . I think it 's interesting to see how [ his sexuality ] affected his friends and his relationships with them too " .
Mason said he hoped that his storyline would " draw in viewers in a responsible way " and the feedback would stay positive . Mason added that he would like to see Chris happy in the future and hopes the viewers will warm to him . He added " I know it 's quite a sensitive topic , but I think the difference between his and the last encounters they 've had is that we 're looking more in @-@ depth into more than just a " gay kiss " . We go more into the relationships , how it affects people around " . Steele backed this up , saying " We wanted gay to be part of Chris 's character , not Chris to be the gay character . He 's not your typical gay stereotype that some TV shows like to play up . He 's on the basketball team , he 's had a girlfriend for a time , and I think the show does a good job of portraying the way his character is discovering who he really is " .
= = = Relationship with Aidan Foster = = =
In October 2010 , Mason stated that a romantic interest for Chris could be introduced in the future . He said that it was not confirmed , but there was a chance that Chris would find someone . Mason admitted that he would find it " awkward " if he had to perform a male kissing scene . The following year , Mason revealed that the writers had plans for a romance for Chris on their radar and a few weeks later it was announced that Bobby Morley had joined the cast as Aidan Foster , a love interest for Chris . Aidan and Chris formed the serial 's first gay couple . Bower called the storyline " a natural progression " for Chris , noting that he needed to meet someone at some stage . Bower told Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy that Chris 's romance will be handled in a sensitive way and will be treated within the character . She explained " Chris is a naturally shy person – he is not a person who either flaunts his sexuality or his heart . So it will be done according to that character . And it may not be a full @-@ on relationship . The character that Bob is playing is older and further down the track with his relationship testing , so it will be a relationship story rather than a gay male romance . " Mason said that Chris and Aidan 's relationship would have a slow build up .
Chris meets Aidan when he is brought into the hospital following a " vicious beating " . Aidan provides a source of kindness and support for Chris . He later takes his car to the local garage to be serviced and flirts with Chris , who is initially unaware of what is going on . Lucas Fitzgerald ( Scott Major ) attempts to help Chris by asking Aidan if he is gay or straight , which leads to embarrassment for them all . The appearance of Chris ' father , George ( Lliam Amor ) , makes the situation worse and when Aidan asks Chris out for a drink , he turns him down . Mason told an Inside Soap writer " George is only just starting to accept that his son is gay , so when Aidan invites Chris for a drink , Chris turns him down out of fear of what his dad will think . " Chris becomes intrigued by Aidan , but he also unsure what to do as he has never had a boyfriend before and it is all new to him . Natasha urges Chris to " face his fears " and she decides to play matchmaker at a barbecue they are all attending . Chris bonds with Aidan , but he thinks he missed his chance when Aidan goes on a date with someone else . Mason revealed that this leads to some new tension between the characters .
Aidan and Chris later arrange a date , which turns into " a complete disaster " . Chris is initially anxious and on edge , until he realises Aidan is having fun and he relaxes . However , Natasha then calls Chris to help with a problem and he has to leave Aidan , who assumes Chris has set the whole thing up to get out of the date . Aidan and Chris go out on another date , which marks the beginning of their relationship and Neighbours ' first ever gay couple . On 9 April 2012 , Aidan and Chris shared their first on @-@ screen kiss . The couple , who had not shown any sign of physical affection until that point , shared " a rather passionate embrace " during a house party . Morley told TV Week 's Andrew Mercado that Chris and Aidan share the intimate moment as any other couple would do . Morley thought the kiss was just as awkward as any other kiss he had previously performed , but he and Mason spent a lot of time and effort into getting it right for their characters . Chris and Aidan 's kiss marked the serial 's first male gay kiss in its twenty @-@ seven @-@ year history . Bower had previously promised that it would not be " sensationalist or token " and the low @-@ key scene earned praise from viewers on social networking sites .
Morley took a break from Neighbours in mid @-@ 2012 , which led the writers to improvise an on @-@ screen break up for Aidan and Chris . The break up occurs after Aidan learns Chris has not told his parents that they are in a relationship . Mason said that Chris is fine with his friends knowing about his relationship , but it is different story when it comes to his parents . His father has not always made things easy for him in the past , so he does not give him and his mother a chance to get to know Aidan . When Chris ' parents throw him a birthday party at Lassiter 's Lake , he decides not to invite Aidan . However , Aidan learns about the party from Andrew and he feels " hurt and humiliated " by Chris ' actions . Aidan makes it clear to Chris that their relationship is over and Mason added " That 's when the gravity of the situation hits Chris , and he 's left in shock . He thinks , ' How did it come to this ? ' . Things really seemed to be falling into place with Aidan . " Chris then learns that his parents would have accepted the relationship and he realises that he has lost Aidan due to an assumption .
Chris and Aidan later got back together , but after a few weeks , Chris broke up with Aidan for good . Chris ended the relationship because Aidan was not being honest about things . Chris learned that Aidan had been keeping Andrew 's epilepsy and his own suspension from the hospital a secret . When Aidan then got into a fight and hid it , Chris became " exasperated enough " to end things . Mason said Chris was still in love with Aidan , so it was tough on them both . Aidan later made a " desperate suggestion " that they move in together , but Chris realised that it would be a bad idea . Mason quipped " Chris is a pretty happy @-@ go @-@ lucky guy , so I don 't think he 'll be wallowing in self @-@ pity for long . " Mason added that he would miss Morley , as he had enjoyed working with him during the storyline .
= = = Warren Burrell = = =
In September 2011 , Chris meets Warren Burrell ( Tony Rickards ) , a homophobic customer at the garage . Warren makes his prejudice against gay people clear to Chris . Mason said Chris was unsure how to respond to the situation , as he has never met an adult who speaks about gay people in the way Warren does . Chris tells his boss , Lucas Fitzgerald , about Warren , but he is disappointed when Lucas does not do anything about it . Of Chris 's situation , Mason explained " It was very confronting for him . And because the guy wasn 't pointing his remarks directly at Chris , Lucas didn 't understand why Chris was so offended . At first , he didn 't have an appreciation of how deep those comments hurt Chris . " The storyline divided the opinions of viewers with some understanding why Lucas would not want to confront Warren , while others were on Chris 's side . Mason said he was pleased that viewers were discussing the storyline and he admitted he appreciated both sides . The actor said " Lucas wasn 't there when the customer was saying these things , so he didn 't understand Chris 's point of view . However , as the story went along , we saw Lucas change and his respect for Chris grew . " Mason added the storyline was about showing understanding for where a person is coming from and being willing to change your ideas .
Two months later , Warren returns to the garage and Lucas shows his support for Chris and defends him . Chris meets and befriends Warren 's son , Blake ( Oliver Edwin ) . When Warren learns Blake is friends with Chris , he decides to put a stop to the situation . Warren threatens to kill Chris unless he stops spending time with Blake . Mason told TV Week that he thinks it is a shame Chris and Blake cannot continue their friendship because of Warren and his views . It soon becomes clear someone is spying on Chris , but whether it is Warren or someone else is not clear . Mason added something big would happen and it may not end well for Chris .
= = = Scotty Boland = = =
In February 2013 , Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy reported that Chris would be shocked when he realises that Scotty Boland ( Rhys Uhlich ) " may have a romantic interest in him . " During a charity camp @-@ out , which has been organised by Scotty 's girlfriend , Georgia ( Saskia Hampele ) , Scotty visits Chris ' tent and says something that makes Chris believe he is making a move on him . Mason commented that the storyline has " a serious side " because everyone believes Scotty is straight , especially his girlfriend . However , he added that there would be some funny moments in the lead up to the big revelation . Not long after the camp @-@ out incident , Scotty lets his attraction to Chris get the better of him and he tries to kiss Chris . Uhlich explained " There 's no mistaking this as Scotty hitting on Chris . He 's really put it out there now , but Chris doesn 't go for it . So he kicks Scotty out of the house , but even then Scotty doesn 't realise what the kiss means . " A shocked Chris then confides in his housemate , Kyle Canning ( Chris Milligan ) , about the kiss and they decide that they need to tell Georgia about it . However , they soon learn that Scotty has proposed to Georgia and decide to remain silent to stop her from having her heart broken .
= = = Coward punch = = =
In September 2014 , Chris was the focus of a coward punch storyline . During Kyle and Georgia 's joint bucks and hen night , Chris was forced to eject a drunk Josh Willis ( Harley Bonner ) from The Waterhole when he caused a scene . Shortly after , Josh returned and hit Chris with a coward punch , causing him to fall and hit his head on a rock . Kyle and Georgia found Chris unconscious and he was rushed to hospital in a critical condition . Mason was pleased to be given the storyline , explaining that it was a topical issue in Australia at the time . He said " The whole moral of the story is that one little mistake can have really dire consequences . I like to think that we can use this story to really educate people and get the word out there that this is something really serious that we 're battling against at the moment . " Mason thought that Chris might be able to forgive Josh in the future , but it would be " a long process " , and he would have to deal with the fact that his life had changed forever due to the attack first . Mason added that Chris would have difficulties accepting that someone like Josh attacked him .
Chris faced further trouble when he suffered a sudden seizure . Mason explained that many things had changed for Chris since the attack and the seizure compounded his fear that he will be struggling for the rest of his life . Chris was also worried that he had developed epilepsy like Andrew did , but doctors informed him that the seizure was a temporary symptom of his brain injury . Chris was kept in hospital overnight , which meant his romantic plans with his partner Nate Kinski ( Meyne Wyatt ) were put on hold . However , Nate turned up at the hospital and Mason said , " The two of them just cuddle , and for the first time Chris realises this is a serious relationship . " Nate then told Chris he loved him for the first time .
= = = Departure = = =
After five years in the role , Mason decided to leave Neighbours and Chris departed on 27 March 2015 . Chris 's exit storyline saw him decide to be a full @-@ time father to his child with Lucy Robinson ( Melissa Bell ) , and move to New York . When Nate told Chris that he did not want to move to New York , they decided to end their relationship . Wyatt commented " It 's been a long time coming . Chris has decided that he wants to go to New York and Nate is staying in Erinsborough . " Chris departed Erinsborough with Lucy . On 6 November 2015 , Chris and Lucy made a cameo appearance to announce the birth of their daughter .
= = Storylines = =
After being scammed by Andrew Robinson and Harry Ramsay into buying a manual on how to win a girlfriend , Chris befriends them and Summer Hoyland . Chris joins the basketball team and is later elected captain . He also begins dating Summer , which makes Harry jealous . Andrew gets Chris fired from his job as a lifeguard at the local swimming pool when he throws a party that gets out of control . To make things up to Chris , Andrew helps him get a job at the local gym . Summer becomes annoyed when Chris forgives Andrew so easily and then allows himself to be influenced by him into skipping school . Chris also ends up in a fight with Kyle Canning when he defends Andrew . Michael Williams ( Sandy Winton ) becomes concerned about Chris 's behaviour and Chris later tells him he is confused about Andrew , leading Michael to realise Chris is gay . When Michael 's daughter , Natasha , spreads a rumour that a Year 11 student is gay , several people believe it is Summer . The rumours start to affect Chris and he comes out to his class . When Andrew realises Chris has feelings for him and is annoyed .
Chris is suspended from school when he gets into a fight with a rival basketball captain . When his parents find out about the fight and that he is gay , they throw Chris out and he stays with Summer . She later breaks down and reveals that she is struggling with his sexuality . Chris reassures her that it is not her fault he is gay and their friendship becomes stronger . Chris befriends Natasha and helps her and Summer to make up when they fall out . After receiving lower grades than expected , Chris reconsiders attending university . He gets a job at Fitzgerald Motors , upsetting his father , George , who wants him to go to university . To keep George happy , Chris begins attending TAFE . A customer , Warren Burrell , makes derogatory comments about gay people and makes Chris feel uncomfortable . Warren 's son , Blake , befriends Chris and apologises for his father . Warren witnesses them playing pool and warns Chris to stay away from Blake . Chris is later attacked while working and Lucas takes him to the hospital , but Chris leaves before getting his x @-@ rays . He later collapses and Rhys Lawson has to perform emergency surgery to get Chris breathing again .
Nurse Aidan Foster is assigned to look after Chris . Chris later turns down Aidan 's offer of a drink ; but Natasha encourages him to spend time with Aidan . Chris becomes jealous when Aidan goes on a date with another guy and eventually manages to ask Aidan out . Chris and Aidan begin dating . Aidan encourages Chris to tell his parents about them , but Chris admits that he is struggling to and worries how his father will react . Chris chooses not to invite Aidan to his birthday party , which is hosted by his family , and Aidan breaks up with him . Chris tells his parents about his relationship and they assure him that they would have accepted it . During a car journey to the city , Chris and his friends find Sophie Ramsay ( Kaiya Jones ) hiding in the boot of his car . Andrew pressures Chris into allowing Sophie to sit on Summer 's lap . An argument between Andrew and Natasha breaks out and when Andrew bumps Chris ' arm , he loses control of the car and crashes . Chris blames himself for the accident and Andrew 's father , Paul ( Stefan Dennis ) , tries to sue him . The police fine Chris and he loses his license for six months . Chris and Aidan get back together and Chris moves into 26 Ramsay Street .
Chris becomes frustrated with Aidan when he does not confide in him about his feelings or accept help from him . When Aidan goes back on his promise to be more open and honest , Chris breaks up with him . Chris suffers a flashback to the crash and damages a Lassiter 's car . Ralphie Mahone ( Daniel Bowden ) fixes the car and in return , he asks Chris to rework some vehicles for him . Chris comes clean to Lucas , who calls the police . Ralphie threatens Chris , but Mason Turner ( Taylor Glockner ) intervenes and gets rid of Ralphie . Georgia Brooks 's boyfriend , Scotty , makes sexual advances towards Chris . When Georgia finds out , she starts avoiding Chris , but they later make up . Chris befriends Amber Turner ( Jenna Rosenow ) when he sees she is being bullied . Amber develops a crush on Chris and he is forced to tell her that nothing will ever happen between them . Chris begins dating competitive swimmer Hudson Walsh ( Remy Hii ) . Chris breaks up with Hudson when he learns that he is taking performance @-@ enhancing drugs . Chris and Hudson later get back together . Hudson confesses to running down Amber 's ex @-@ boyfriend Robbo Slade ( Aaron Jakubenko ) . He apologises to Chris and then refuses to see him again .
When he has trouble sleeping , Chris gets a prescription for sleeping pills . Kyle and his grandmother , Sheila ( Colette Mann ) , later find Chris collapsed in the garden and Karl tells Chris to stop taking the sleeping pills . Chris ignores his advice and starts sleepwalking . Chris also has a series of one @-@ night stands and gets two warnings at work from his new boss , Danni Ferguson ( Laura McIntosh ) . Chris is arrested when he punches Josh Willis , who spoke to a journalist about Chris and Hudson 's relationship . Kate Ramsay ( Ashleigh Brewer ) drives Chris to the prison , so he can see Hudson and sort things out . Hudson tells Chris that he cut off contact as he needed time to prepare himself for prison . Chris asks Hudson to give their relationship another go and he agrees . Chris keeps Hudson 's incarceration a secret from his parents , so he is angered when Sonya Rebecchi ( Eve Morey ) inadvertently reveals his secret to his mother , Patricia ( Katerina Kotsonis ) . When Patricia is later arrested for theft , Chris learns that she is a gambling addict and Sonya knew .
Chris 's knee is badly injured when Danni 's ex @-@ boyfriend Stephen Montague ( Damian Hill ) attacks him . He undergoes surgery and the flirts with nurse Will Dempier ( Christian Heath ) when he suffers a reaction to the analgesic . Chris becomes frustrated when Hudson is not there for him , and questions how he can be in a relationship and feel so alone . He decides to ask Will out for a drink , but later cancels . Chris collapses due to complications from his surgery and is readmitted to hospital . He apologises to Will for cancelling on him and then tells him about Hudson . During Chris 's next visit to Hudson , he appears distracted and when Hudson asks him if he is seeing someone else , Chris hesitates and Hudson breaks up with him . Chris tells Hudson about Will and how lonely he is . Hudson does not want Chris to date him out of guilt , and they say goodbye . Chris spends some time with Will and they begin dating , but the relationship ends when Will 's dog , Napoleon , bites Kyle 's dog Bossy , and Will refuses to accept responsibility or apologise .
Chris befriends Lucy Robinson ( Melissa Bell ) and she asks him to father her child , to which Chris replies that he needs time to decide . Chris meets Nate Kinski and they arrange to go a picnic for their first date . Chris is shocked when Nate attacks a drunk guy for harassing Paige Smith ( Olympia Valance ) , but Susan Kennedy ( Jackie Woodburne ) convinces him to give Nate a second chance . When Chris asks Nate to open up about his time in the army and Afghanistan , Nate gets physical with him . Nate promises that it will not happen again and asks Chris not to push him about opening up until he is ready . During Georgia and Kyle 's joint hen and bucks night , Chris is punched by an unseen assailant and he hits his head . Kyle and Georgia find him and he is rushed to hospital , and placed in an induced coma . Josh later confesses to punching Chris . When Chris wakes up , he struggles to remember words and his right side is weakened . Chris is allowed leave from the hospital to attend Georgia and Kyle 's wedding . After he is discharged from hospital , Nate becomes Chris 's carer . Chris decides to return to work at the garage but is unable to do the work and is sent home . Chris later suffers a seizure and is admitted to hospital . He is forced to quit his job as he can no longer handle the workload due to his injuries . Josh 's mother , Terese ( Rebekah Elmaloglou ) , offers Chris a job as a trainee manager at Lassiter 's Hotel , which Nate persuades him to accept .
Lucy returns and Chris rejects her offer of being father to her child when Nate confesses he does not want children ; however , Chris changes his mind when Nate supports him . Nate later helps Chris and Lucy see that they need to think the idea through more thoroughly , and they draw up a contract detailing how their child will be raised . When they learn that they are both carriers of spinal muscular atrophy , Chris tells Lucy that she should find another donor . But when Chris sees how down Lucy is , he changes his mind and they go ahead with the insemination . A couple of weeks later , Lucy calls Chris to tell him that she is pregnant . Chris plans to visit New York for the scan , but Nate confesses he is banned from the States for overstaying his visa there previously . Toadfish Rebecchi ( Ryan Moloney ) agrees to help lift the ban , but Nate misses a meeting and Chris accuses him of not taking it seriously . Lucy returns for a visit and Chris decides he wants to split his time between Erinsborough and New York when the baby comes , although Nate is against this idea . Nate realises that they want different things , and they break @-@ up . Chris then decides to move to New York with Lucy and leaves after a farewell party at The Waterhole . A few months later , Amber contacts Chris and Lucy via video call after learning that they have had a daughter . Chris and Lucy introduce her to Anne , and Chris asks Amber to say hello to Nate for him .
= = Reception = =
For his portrayal of Chris , Mason was nominated for the Most Popular New Male Talent accolade at the 2012 Logie Awards . In 2014 , Mason won the Soap Extra Award for Most Topical Storyline for Chris ' coward punch storyline with Josh Willis . The character 's inclusion in Neighbours and his storyline has received a positive reaction from the public , television critics and LGBT websites . Chris 's coming out episode , which was broadcast on 10 August 2010 , was seen by 679 @,@ 000 viewers in Australia . David Knox of Citysearch Melbourne said that the inclusion of Chris in the show is " a positive step with its juvenile audience " . Knox added that following the " gay kiss scandal " on Home and Away , " the test for Neighbours will be not just the coming out , but whether he remains in the show after this storyline subsides " . Of Chris , SX News said " One could simply dismiss the gay character as simply just another plot line , but there 's no denying its significance , especially with a show as enduring and mainstream as Neighbours . If anything , it 's a small reflection of the changing attitudes in society " . They also praised Neighbours for focusing on Chris 's coming out and the issue of homophobia , instead of letting Chris " explode out of the closet and leave Ramsay Street glittering in sequins " .
The ATV News Network said the Chris 's coming out should be praised for the way it has been handled . They added that the decision to play it out at a school would have viewers in a similar situation identifying with the storyline . Alan McKee , a university film and television professor , said that usually subscription television channels take risks in portraying storylines like Chris 's . He added " Commercial TV is not about risk taking , it is about entertainment for the broadest possible audience . But attitudes have changed and commercial networks like to reflect that " . Holy Soap said Chris 's most memorable moment was " Announcing to his entire class that he was gay . " Anthony D. Langford from website , AfterElton said he found it " humorous " that Neighbours emphasizes what a gentleman Chris is compared to Andrew . He said " It 's like they 're almost saying if you 're a nice guy who 's not all over your girlfriend you must be gay . But on television that 's usually the case " . Langford hoped that Chris would not vanish and that he would not be relegated to monitoring the relationship between Andrew and Summer and not having a romance of his own .
Langford later said that Neighbours is doing a " fairly decent job " with Chris '
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including other fronts of the Revolutionary Wars , the War in the Vendée and the parlous state of the French Navy . This latter problem was a major cause for concern : the Navy had suffered heavily from the removal of its officer corps during the Revolution and then endured a series of military setbacks , culminating in the tactical defeat at the Glorious First of June in 1794 and the disastrous Croisière du Grand Hiver in 1795 . After securing peace on several fronts in 1795 , the new French Directory decided that Britain was one of their most dangerous remaining opponents , and they determined to defeat it through invasion .
The applications from Tone intrigued the Directory , which understood that by attacking Ireland they would be striking at the least defensible part of the British Isles . Support for the British government was weakest there and the United Irishmen optimistically claimed to be able to raise an irregular army of as many as 250 @,@ 000 waiting to join the French once they had landed , with the additional attraction that a successful establishment of an Irish Republic would prove an ideological coup for the French Republic . Finally and most significantly , a large expeditionary force in Ireland could provide an ideal springboard for an invasion of Britain , especially in combination with a plan then under development to land 2 @,@ 000 uniformed criminals in Cornwall , who would distract the British Army during the invasion of Ireland and could potentially provide a beachhead for future operations .
= = Preparation = =
With the end of the War in the Vendée and peace with Spain , substantial French forces were made available for the operation , to be led by General Hoche and scheduled for the end of October 1796 . Hoche was a successful military commander , who had defeated the Vendée Royalists and been subsequently engaged in planning the Cornish invasion . A body of veteran soldiers and the entire French Atlantic Fleet were placed at his disposal , based in the major Atlantic seaport of Brest . The number of soldiers earmarked for the invasion is uncertain : the French Directory suggested 25 @,@ 000 men would be required , the Irish delegates insisting that 15 @,@ 000 would be sufficient . Estimates of the number of soldiers eventually embarked range between 13 @,@ 500 and 20 @,@ 000 . [ Note A ]
By August the plan was already behind schedule : severe shortages of stores and wages slowed work at the Brest shipyards , while the troops set aside for the invasion of Cornwall proved unreliable , deserting in large numbers . A practice voyage of the Cornish invasion fleet ended in total failure , as the small ships intended for the operation proved unable to operate in open water . The plan was dropped and the reliable soldiers from the unit were merged into the Ireland expeditionary force and the rest returned to prison . Reinforcements from the Mediterranean Fleet were also delayed : seven ships under Contre @-@ amiral Joseph de Richery had to shelter from the British blockade squadron in Rochefort , only arriving in Brest on 8 December , while a second fleet under Contre @-@ amiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve did not arrive until after the expeditionary force had departed .
Throughout late 1796 , progress on the expedition faltered . Hoche publicly blamed the naval command and specifically Vice @-@ amiral Villaret de Joyeuse for the delay , whom he accused of being more interested in the planning of a proposed invasion of India . In October , Villaret was replaced by Vice @-@ amiral Morard de Galles and the India plans were cancelled , while Hoche was placed in direct command of discipline within the fleet . By the second week of December the fleet was ready , consisting of 17 ships of the line , 13 frigates and 14 other vessels , including several large transports created made by removing the cannon from old frigates to maximise cargo space . Each ship of the line carried 600 soldiers , the frigates 250 and the transports approximately 400 . Included were cavalry units , field artillery and substantial military stores with which to arm the thousands of anticipated Irish volunteers . Hoche was still dissatisfied , announcing to the Directory on 8 December that he would rather lead his men in any other operation than the planned attack on Ireland . He was supported by Morard de Galles , who admitted that his men were so inexperienced at sea that encounters with the enemy should be avoided wherever possible .
= = Departure = =
Despite the misgivings of the expedition 's commanders , the fleet left Brest as scheduled on 15 December 1796 , one day ahead of a message from the Directory calling off the entire operation . De Galles knew that the British would be watching Brest harbour : their frigates were a constant presence as part of the Inshore Squadron of the blockade . In an effort to disguise his force 's intentions , he first anchored in Camaret Bay and issued orders for his ships to pass through the Raz de Sein . The Raz was a dangerous narrow channel littered with rocks and sandbanks and subject to heavy surf during bad weather , but would also obscure the size , strength and direction of the French fleet from the British squadron offshore , which French scouts claimed consisted of 30 ships .
Despite the French reports , the principal British blockade squadron was absent from the approaches to Brest during the night of 15 December . Most of the fleet had retired to one of the British Channel Ports to avoid the winter storms , while the remaining squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral John Colpoys had been forced to retreat 40 nautical miles ( 74 km ) into the Atlantic to avoid the risk of being driven onto the rocky French Biscay shoreline during a storm . The only British ships within sight of Brest were a frigate squadron , consisting of HMS Indefatigable , HMS Amazon , HMS Phoebe , HMS Révolutionnaire and the lugger HMS Duke of York , under the command of Captain Sir Edward Pellew in Indefatigable . Pellew had noted French preparations on 11 December and immediately sent Phoebe to warn Colpoys and Amazon to Falmouth , to alert the Admiralty . He remained off Brest with the rest of the squadron , and sighted the main French fleet at 15 : 30 on 15 December , bringing his frigates inshore towards Camaret Bay to establish its size and purpose . At 15 : 30 on 16 December , the French sailed from the Bay , Pellew observing closely and despatching Revolutionnaire to assist in the search for Colpoys .
Morard de Galles had spent most of 16 December preparing for passage through the Raz de Sein , situating temporary lightships in the channel to warn of hazards and giving instructions on the use of signal rockets during the passage . The fleet was so delayed in this work that darkness began to fall before preparations were complete and he abandoned the plan at approximately 16 : 00 and signalled for the fleet to leave via the main channel from the port , leading the way in his flagship , the frigate Fraternité . It was so dark by the time the signal was made that most ships failed to see it , Fraternité and the corvette Atalante attempting to notify them by rocket signal . These signals were confusing and many ships failed to understand , sailing for the Raz de Sein rather than the main channel . Pellew added to the problem by weaving ahead of the fleet shining blue lights and firing rockets , further confusing the French captains as to their location .
When dawn broke on 17 December , most of the French fleet was scattered across the approaches to Brest . The largest intact group was that under Vice @-@ amiral François Joseph Bouvet , which had come through the Raz de Sein with nine ships of the line , six frigates and one transport . The other ships , including Fraternité , which also carried General Hoche , were alone or in small groups , the captains forced open their secret orders to discover their destination , in the absence of instructions from any commanding officers . One ship had been lost : , the 74 @-@ gun ship of the line Séduisant had driven onto the Grand Stevenent rock during the night and sank with the loss of 680 lives . She too had fired numerous rockets and signal guns in an effort to attract attention , succeeding only in compounding the confusion in the fleet . Pellew , unable now to affect the large French force , sailed for Falmouth to telegraph his report to the Admiralty and replenish his supplies .
= = Voyage to Ireland = =
By 19 December , Bouvet had gathered 33 ships together and set a course for Mizen Head in southern Ireland , the designated rendezvous point where he was instructed by his sealed orders to wait five days for further instructions from France . One of the ships still missing was the Fraternité . Despite the disappearance of its commanders the French fleet continued to Bantry Bay , sailing through both high winds and thick fog , which delayed its arrival until 21 December . While Bouvet sailed for Ireland , Fraternité crossed the Western Approaches in search of the fleet , accompanied by Nestor , Romaine and Cocarde . Unwittingly passing Bouvet 's fleet in the fog , de Galles separated from his small squadron near the rendezvous on 21 December , only to discover a British frigate immediately ahead . Retreating from the threat , Fraternité was chased far into the Atlantic before she could escape the unidentified pursuer . On the return journey de Galle found the winds against him , and it took eight days to regain Mizen Head .
Phoebe did not find Colpoys until 19 December , deep in the Bay of Biscay . The following day he sighted the delayed French squadron under Villeneuve and gave chase , but Villeneuve was able to outrun Colpoys ' pursuit in a gale , reaching Lorient ahead of the British , whose ships were badly damaged by the storm . Unable to continue operations , Colpoys was forced to retreat to Spithead for repairs . The response from the Channel Fleet under Lord Bridport was similarly ineffective . News of the French departure from Brest did not arrive in Plymouth , the most westerly of the British fleet ports , until 20 December . Many of Bridport 's ships , based at Spithead , were not ready for sea and it was several days before enough vessels were manned and equipped for service . The order to leave port was issued on 25 December , but the fleet was almost immediately thrown into chaos when the large second @-@ rate HMS Prince swung out of control and collided with the 80 @-@ gun HMS Sans Pareil . At almost the same time , another second @-@ rate , HMS Formidable , was driven into the 100 @-@ gun first @-@ rate HMS Ville de Paris by strong winds while the 98 @-@ gun HMS Atlas grounded . All five ships were required to enter dock for extensive repairs , denying Bridport his strongest vessels and delaying his departure further . When he eventually reached St Helens , the departure point from the Solent , the wind was blowing from the west and his remaining eight ships were rendered immobile until 3 January .
In the absence of Morard de Galles and Hoche , Bouvet and his army counterpart , General Emmanuel de Grouchy , gave orders on 21 December for the fleet to anchor in preparation for landings the following day . Local maritime pilots , believing the fleet to be British , rowed out to the ships and were seized , providing the French with guides to the best landing sites . During the night of 21 December , the weather suddenly and significantly worsened , Atlantic gales bringing blizzards that hid the shoreline and forced the fleet to anchor or risk being wrecked . For four days they remained in the Bay , the inexperienced French sailors , lacking any winter clothing , unable to operate their ships in the coldest winter recorded since 1708 . On 24 December the wind slackened and a council of war was convened among the expedition 's senior officers . Together they resolved to force a landing despite the weather , identifying a nearby creek as the safest point and giving orders for the operation to go ahead at first light on 25 December . During the night the weather deteriorated once more , and by morning the waves were so violent that they were breaking over the bows of many ships . Anchors dragged and a number of vessels were blown right out of the Bay and into the Atlantic , unable to return against the wind . In the storm , the largest ship of the line , the Indomptable , collided with the frigate Résolue and both suffered severe damage .
= = = Collapse of the expedition = = =
For four more days Bouvet 's ships were battered by the high winds , none able to approach the shore without severe risk of being destroyed on the rocky coast . Losing their anchors as the cables snapped , many ships were forced to run before the wind and scatter into the Western Approaches . Others were destroyed : an American ship named Ellis , passing close to Crookhaven on 29 December , encountered a vessel wallowing in the waves , dismasted and with the deck strewn with bodies . The American captain , Harvey , reported that he approached the ship but was unable to assist her due to the storm and as he watched , the ship was driven ashore and destroyed . This was the 44 @-@ gun frigate Impatiente , of which only seven men survived from her complement of 550 crew and passengers . Harvey also recounted coming across the Révolution and frigate Scévola . Captain Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley was in the process of removing the crew and passengers from Scévola before she foundered , the heavy weather having reduced the 40 @-@ gun razee frigate to a sinking condition . Ellis was not the only ship to discover Révolution ; the long @-@ delayed Fraternité encountered the ships and observed the destruction of the Scévola , which was burnt once she had been abandoned .
Bouvet had been driven offshore in his flagship Immortalité during the storm , and when the wind fell during 29 December he decided to abandon the operation . Signalling to the ships within view , he ordered his remaining squadron to sail southeast towards Brest . Some ships failed to receive the message and continued to the second rendezvous off the River Shannon , but they were few and scattered and in the continuing storms no landing was possible . With provisions running low , these ships also turned and sailed for Brest , as the weather worsened once more . As their expeditionary force sailed home , Morard de Galles and Hoche arrived in Bantry Bay on 30 December , discovering that the fleet had gone . With their own provisions almost exhausted , Fraternité and Révolution were forced to return to France as well . The British response to the attempted invasion continued to be inadequate , Colpoys arriving at Spithead on 31 December with only six of his ships still in formation . Only a handful of ships based at Cork under Rear @-@ Admiral Robert Kingsmill , principally HMS Polyphemus under Captain George Lumsdaine and a frigate squadron , interfered with the French fleet : Polyphemus seized the transport Justine on 30 December and HMS Jason captured the transport Suffren shortly afterwards , although she was later recaptured by the French frigate Tartu .
= = Retreat = =
The first French ships to return to Brest arrived on 1 January , including Bouvet 's flagship Immortalité accompanied by Indomptable , Redoutable , Patriote , Mucius , Fougueux and some smaller ships . They had avoided any contact with British warships and had been able to make good speed in a period of relatively calm weather . During the following days , the French ships that had gathered off the Shannon limped home , all badly damaged due to the increasingly rough seas and high winds . Several ships did not return to France at all , including the frigate Surveillante , which was scuttled in Bantry Bay on 2 January ; many of those aboard , including General Julien Mermet and 600 cavalrymen , were rescued by boats from the remaining French fleet while others scrambled ashore to become prisoners of war . On 5 January , Polyphemus outran and captured the frigate Tartu , of 44 guns and 625 men ( including troops ) , after four hours of intermittent combat . The Royal Navy later took her into service as HMS Uranie . Polyphemus also captured another transport , but the weather being bad and night falling , she did not take possession . Captain Lumsdaine of Polyphemus reported that the transport was leaky and making distress signals , but that he was unable to assist . He thought it highly likely that she had sunk . This may have been the transport Fille @-@ Unique , which sank in the Bay of Biscay on 6 January , although the fate of the 300 soldiers aboard is unknown .
On 7 January , the British frigates HMS Unicorn under Captain Sir Thomas Williams , HMS Doris under Captain Charles Jones and HMS Druid under Captain Richard King , captured the transport Ville de Lorient , Druid escorting the prize back to Cork . The following day Unicorn and Doris encountered some of the force that had attempted to land at the Shannon . Outnumbered , the frigates retreated westwards and encountered the battered Révolution and Fraternité , which withdrew before them . This prevented Morard de Galles and Hoche from belatedly joining their squadron and took them away from the route back to France . When Unicorn and Doris reappeared the following morning , they were operating as scouts for Bridport 's fleet , which had finally left port at the start of the new year and had encountered the frigates during the night . Escaping pursuit in a fog , Révolution and Fraternité sailed directly for France and arrived at Rochefort on 13 January .
The majority of the remaining French ships had reached Brest on 11 January , including Constitution , Trajan , Pluton , Wattignies and Pégase , the latter towing the dismasted Résolue . On 13 January most of the remainder returned , including Nestor , Tourville , Éole and Cassard with their attendant frigates , while the frigate Bravoure arrived at Lorient alone . Losses had continued as the French neared Brest , the disarmed Suffren recaptured by HMS Daedalus off Ushant and burnt on 8 January , while Atalante was outrun and captured by HMS Phoebe on 10 January . On 12 January , the storeship Allègre was captured by the brig HMS Spitfire .
= = = Droits de l 'Homme = = =
By 13 January , all of the French fleet had been accounted for except the small brig Mutine , which was blown all the way to Santa Cruz and was captured there in July , and the 74 @-@ gun Droits de l 'Homme . Droits de l 'Homme had been among the ships under Bouvet in Bantry Bay and then with those that carried on to the Shannon , but as the fleet broke up she became separated . With provisions running low and landings still impossible , Captain Jean @-@ Baptiste Raymond de Lacrosse determined to return to France independently . Progress was slow as Droits de l 'Homme was overloaded with 1 @,@ 300 men , including 800 soldiers under General Jean Humbert . She was further delayed when she encountered and captured a small British privateer named Cumberland . As a result , La Crosse had only reached Ushant by 13 January , where he encountered the same fog that had enabled Révolution and Fraternité to reach safety .
At 13 : 00 , two ships emerged from the gloom to the east and Lacrosse turned away rather than risk his passengers in a pointless engagement . The ships persisted and were soon revealed to be the frigates Indefatigable under Captain Sir Edward Pellew , and Amazon under Captain Robert Carthew Reynolds , which had taken on supplies at Falmouth and then returned to their station off Brest . As Droits de l 'Homme steered southwest , the winds increased once more and the sea became choppy , preventing Lacrosse from opening the gunports on his lower deck without severe risk of flooding and snapping his topmasts , which reduced his ship 's stability . Realising his opponent 's difficulties , Pellew closed with the larger ship and began a heavy fire . At 18 : 45 , Amazon came within range and the frigates combined to repeatedly rake the French ship . The combat continued throughout the night , punctuated by short breaks in which the more mobile British ships repaired their battle damage out of range of Lacrosse 's guns .
At 04 : 20 on 14 January , lookouts on all three ships sighted waves breaking immediately eastwards . Desperate to escape the heavy surf , Indefatigable turned north and Amazon turned south , while the battered Droits de l 'Homme was unable to make any maneuvre and drove straight onto a sandbar near the town of Plozévet , the force of the waves rolling her onto her side . Amazon too was wrecked , although in a more sheltered position which enabled the frigate to remain upright . The only surviving ship was Indefatigable , which was able to round the Penmarck rocks and reach open water . While Reynolds fashioned rafts to bring his men safely to shore , the French officers on Droits de l 'Homme were unable to launch their boats , their exposed position in the heavy surf destroying every attempt to reach shore and drowning hundreds of men . Losses on board the wreck mounted as the storm continued , breaking open the stern of the ship and flooding the interior . On the morning of 15 January a group of prisoners from Cumberland reached the shore in a small boat , but subsequent attempts failed and it was not until 17 January that the sea calmed enough for the small naval vessel Arrogante to approach the wreck and remove the remaining 290 survivors .
= = Aftermath = =
The French attempt to invade Ireland had ended in total failure . With the exception of a handful of prisoners of war , not one French soldier had successfully landed in Ireland , despite some ships remaining off the coast for almost two weeks . Twelve ships had been lost and over two thousand soldiers and sailors drowned . The invasion was abandoned , Hoche and his remaining men were returned to the army for service in Germany , and the general died nine months later from natural causes . The French Navy , although criticised for failing to land the expeditionary force , was also praised for successfully reaching Ireland and returning without encountering the main body of the British fleet . This achievement encouraged further invasion attempts , including a landing at Fishguard in Wales in February 1797 and a second invasion of Ireland in mid @-@ 1798 .
In Britain , the Royal Navy 's response to the French campaign was heavily criticised : both fleets assigned to intercept the invasion fleet had failed , the only losses inflicted on the French coming from the small Cork squadron or Pellew 's independent frigates . Colpoys was replaced in command of the blockade of Brest by Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Roger Curtis , and extensive deployments to the Bay of Biscay were made in February and March to prevent any further French operations . In addition , reinforcements were also sent to the fleet off Cadiz under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Jervis , who had won the Battle of Cape St Vincent on 14 February . These extended deployments were unpopular with the regular seamen and in April the Spithead Mutiny broke out , paralysing the Channel Fleet . The French , still recovering from their losses in the winter campaign , were unable to respond .
In Ireland , the failure of the French expeditionary force was the source of great frustration : Wolfe Tone , who was aboard Indomptable throughout the voyage , reported that he felt that he could have touched either side of the bay with both hands . Postponing the uprising , Tone continued to rally support in Europe , raising a fleet in the Netherlands for an attempted invasion that ended in destruction at the Battle of Camperdown . In May 1798 , a British crackdown arrested the leaders of the United Irishmen in Ireland and provoked the Irish Rebellion . By the time the French had managed to gather a small force and reach Ireland in August , the rebellion was almost over and the inadequate French army , led by Jean Humbert , surrendered in September at the Battle of Ballinamuck . A subsequent invasion attempt the following month also ended in failure , when the invasion squadron was intercepted and defeated at the Battle of Tory Island . Wolfe Tone was captured at the action off Tory Island and committed suicide in prison . His death , combined with military defeat and reprisals against the Irish rebels , ended both the Society of United Irishmen and French invasion plans .
= Maryland Route 743 =
Maryland Route 743 ( MD 743 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 1 @.@ 00 mile ( 1 @.@ 61 km ) from MD 36 in Frostburg east to U.S. Route 40 Alternate ( US 40 Alternate ) in Eckhart Mines . MD 743 is the original alignment of US 40 through Eckhart Mines . The state highway was designated when US 40 bypassed Eckhart Mines around 1950 .
= = Route description = =
MD 743 begins at an intersection with MD 36 ( New Georges Creek Road ) in Frostburg just south of MD 36 's southern intersection with US 40 Alternate . The state highway heads east into the unincorporated village of Eckhart Mines as a winding two @-@ lane road . After intersecting MD 638 ( Parkersburg Road ) at an acute angle , MD 743 reaches its eastern terminus at US 40 Alternate ( National Pike ) .
= = History = =
MD 743 is the original alignment of US 40 and , before that , the National Road through Eckhart Mines . The highway was one of the original state roads scheduled for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . The state road was paved through the village in 1911 . MD 743 was designated through Eckhart Mines shortly after the US 40 ( now US 40 Alternate ) bypass of the village was completed in 1950 . MD 743 originally extended west to US 40 , meeting the highway on a tangent in front of Beall High School at the city limit of Frostburg . The western end of the state highway was truncated when MD 36 was moved to its present alignment between Midland and Frostburg in 1972 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Allegany County .
= Night Terrors ( Doctor Who ) =
" Night Terrors " is the ninth episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , and was first broadcast on BBC One and BBC America on 3 September 2011 . It was written by Mark Gatiss and directed by Richard Clark .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory ( Arthur Darvill ) decide to make a " house call " to an eight @-@ year @-@ old boy named George ( Jamie Oram ) who is terrified of almost everything , and especially dreads the cupboard in his bedroom . While the Doctor discusses this with George 's father Alex ( Daniel Mays ) , Amy and Rory become trapped in a doll house with terrifying life @-@ size peg dolls .
" Night Terrors " was inspired by Gatiss 's fear of dolls , and the ones in the episode were designed to be scary and crude @-@ looking . The episode was moved from the first half of the series to the second , which necessitated changes to make it fit into the series ' story arc . It was the first to be filmed , with production taking place in September 2010 at a council estate in Redcliffe , Bristol and at Dyrham Park , where the doll 's house interior scenes were filmed . The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 07 million viewers in the UK and received generally positive to mixed reviews from critics , though some were critical of how it fitted into the overarching story as it came after a heavy story @-@ arc episode .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
The Doctor decides to make a " house call " after his psychic paper receives a message from George , a frightened 8 @-@ year @-@ old child , asking his help in getting rid of the monsters in his bedroom . On arrival at a council estate on present @-@ day Earth , the Doctor , Amy , and Rory split up to try to locate the child . The Doctor , taking the guise of a social services worker , finds the right flat , and meets George 's father , Alex , while his mother Claire is working a night shift . Through Alex 's photo album , the Doctor learns that George has been frightened all his life , fearing many of the sounds and people around the flat and is helped to cope by various habits , including metaphorically placing his fears in his wardrobe .
Meanwhile , Amy and Rory , while taking the lift down , suddenly find themselves in what appears to be an eighteenth @-@ century house , but shortly discover most of the furnishings are wooden props . Other residents of the estate appear in the house , but are caught by life @-@ sized peg dolls that laugh and sing like children , and transform the residents into more dolls . Amy and Rory witness one transformation and try to flee , but Amy is caught and becomes a doll herself , joining the others in chasing Rory .
The Doctor , suspecting that the wardrobe contains the evil George fears , opens it to find its contents are simply clothes and toys , including a doll house . The Doctor suddenly recalls from Alex 's photo album that Claire did not appear pregnant in the weeks leading up to George 's supposed birth , causing Alex to remember the fact that Claire was unable to have children . The Doctor asserts that George is a Tenza child , an empathic alien who took on the form of Alex and Claire 's desired child through a perception filter , and has the ability to literally lock away his fears in the wardrobe . George begins to panic from this revelation and the Doctor and Alex are pulled into the wardrobe , joining Rory in the dollhouse . As the dolls descend on the three , the Doctor calls out to George to face his fears ; George is able to open the wardrobe and appears in the dollhouse , but the dolls turn to advance on him . The Doctor realises that George is still frightened that Alex and Claire plan to send him away , having mistakenly interpreted a conversation they had earlier that night ; Alex rushes through the dolls to embrace George as his son . They all soon find themselves back at the estate , restored to normal . Claire returns the next morning to find George no longer scared while Alex and the Doctor make him breakfast . After being thanked , the Doctor rejoins his companions to set off for their next adventure .
At the end , a nursery rhyme foreshadowing the Doctor 's death is heard , and a screen in the TARDIS displays details of the Doctor 's death : the date and time he is to die , and the location of his death .
= = = Continuity = = =
The Doctor refers to " Snow White and the Seven Keys to Doomsday " , " The Three Little Sontarans " and " The Emperor Dalek 's New Clothes " as being among his childhood nursery stories , referencing the 1974 stage play Seven Keys to Doomsday and the Sontarans and the Emperor Dalek , two of the series ' recurring monsters . He also repeats his predilection for tea and Jammie Dodgers from another Gatiss @-@ written episode , " Victory of the Daleks " .
= = Production = =
Episode writer Mark Gatiss told Radio Times that he had always been scared of dolls , and was surprised that Doctor Who had never used them before . He was especially interested in peg dolls , which he said were " the stuff of proper nightmares " . Gatiss had previously worked with guest actor Daniel Mays in the BBC serial Funland and purposely inserted the line " Maybe later " into the script as it had been " a bit of a catchphrase " for the two on Funland . However , Mays did not notice the reference . The episode was originally given the title of " What Are Little Boys Made Of ? "
To achieve a greater variety of stories in the first half of series 6 " Night Terrors " was moved to the second block of episodes , having been filmed as episode four and showing up in promos for the first half of the season . This necessitated minor changes to the episode , including the removal of a recurring sequence featuring the appearance of Madame Kovarian . The original last scene was dropped , and a new one was written so it would make sense at that point in the series . This scene consisted of nursery rhyme ; lead writer Steven Moffat wanted to foreshadow the Doctor 's death and asked Gatiss to write a nursery rhyme , which he described as " rather wonderful " . Variations of the rhyme are heard in " Closing Time " and the series finale " The Wedding of River Song " .
The episode was the first to be filmed , in September 2010 . It was mainly filmed on a council estate in Bath , Somerset , while the scenes in the dollhouse were filmed in Dyrham Park . The Bristol estate was chosen because of its " crisp architecture " . The country house of Dyrham Park was chosen because of its staircase and checked flooring . The antiques were stripped out of the building and replaced with " child @-@ like " furniture that was placed to look as though it had been played with . Several designs of the dolls were made , trying to achieve the desired balance of a normal doll and a scarier , more " crude " -looking one . The actors portraying the dolls were choreographed to move with stiff legs but swing their arms . In the scene in which Alex and the Doctor are in the kitchen they open and close the fridge as they are talking ; this was not in the script , but improvised by Smith and Mays on set . Mays was invited to guest @-@ star in the episode , and was drawn to the story because of the family element ; he has a young son like George . The scene in which Purcell sinks into the carpet was filmed with actor Andrew Tiernan on a hydraulic platform that lowered him into green @-@ coloured liquid .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Night Terrors " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 3 September 2011 . The episode achieved an overnight figure of 5 @.@ 5 million viewers , making it the fourth most @-@ watched programme for the day . Final consolidated figures showed it picked up 1 @.@ 6 million timeshifted viewers , bringing the total up to 7 @.@ 07 million viewers . It received an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered " excellent " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Reception to the episode has been generally positive to mixed . Dan Martin of the Guardian commented that the episode was an improvement on Gatiss 's previous three episodes – " The Unquiet Dead " , " The Idiot 's Lantern " and " Victory of the Daleks " . He complimented it overall as " a classy , creepy episode of retro Doctor Who " in comparison to " Let 's Kill Hitler " , though he saw its plot as over @-@ similar to " The Empty Child " and other episodes written by Steven Moffat . Martin later rated it the tenth best episode of the series , though the finale was not included in the list . Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph praised the dolls for " stealing the show " , as well as the concept of the doll 's house .
IGN 's Matt Risley rated the episode 8 out of 10 , praising Gatiss 's script which " moved the drama and horror straight into the miniaturised heart of a rickety creepy dolls house , with a set of villains that — while never as memorable or scary as their look may suggest — used sound design to its most effective " . He said that the main story " soared " , though the sidelined Amy and Rory left " little impact " in relation to the Doctor , George , and Alex . Russell Lewin of SFX gave " Night Terrors " three and a half out of five stars , saying that it had " many great things going for it but perhaps hasn 't quite got that little extra something that would have turned it into a classic " and that nothing seemed especially unexpected . However , he praised the shots of the doll house and apartment buildings , the sound , dolls , the acting of Matt Smith and Daniel Mays , and the idea of George being alien who created the reality .
Blair Marnell of Crave Online noted that " Night Terrors " was reminiscent of the second series episode " Fear Her " , but said that this episode " fared a little bit better because it didn 't rely on Jamie Oram 's George to be anything more than a scared little boy " . She also praised Matt Smith 's performance and Arthur Darvill 's Rory , who was " quickly becoming one of the funniest companions of the new Doctor Who " , though she commented that Amy 's transformation into a doll was " kind of glossed over within the story itself " and " there was never any doubt that it would be reversed " . Overall , the episode was given a 7 out of 10 rating . Sam McPherson , writing for Zap2it , called " Night Terrors " the " worst episode of series 6 so far " that was an " incoherent mess of an episode that was utterly unenjoyable " and gave it an overall grade of a C + . He criticised the idea to follow up a story arc @-@ heavy episode with a standalone one , as he felt it " served as a speed bump for the forward momentum started in " A Good Man Goes to War " and continued through " Let 's Kill Hitler " . He thought that its " biggest flaw " was that George was sidelined in favour of Alex , which missed an opportunity to make it a story " about little boys overcoming fear and fighting off the monsters in their closets " . However , he did praise dialogue delivered by Smith and Darvill .
Because the episode was originally planned to be in the first half of the series , many of the reviewers mentioned that it was strange that Amy and Rory did not comment upon what had happened previously , such as what had happened to their child . McPherson noted the " tacked @-@ on " nursery rhyme foreshadowing the Doctor 's death was included , though he thought it was " unintelligible " and did not count .
= Liberty Head nickel =
The Liberty Head nickel , sometimes referred to as the V nickel because of its reverse ( or tails ) design , is an American five @-@ cent piece . It was struck for circulation from 1883 until 1912 , with at least five pieces being surreptitiously struck dated 1913 . The obverse features a left @-@ facing image of the goddess of Liberty .
The original copper – nickel five @-@ cent piece , the Shield nickel , had longstanding production problems , and in the early 1880s , the United States Mint was looking to replace it . Mint Chief Engraver Charles Barber was instructed to prepare designs for proposed one- , three- , and five @-@ cent pieces , which were to bear similar designs . Only the new five @-@ cent piece was approved , and went into production in 1883 . For almost thirty years large quantities of coin of this design were produced to meet commercial demand , especially as coin @-@ operated machines became increasingly popular .
Beginning in 1911 , the Mint began work to replace the Liberty head design , and a new design , which became known as the Buffalo nickel , went into production in February 1913 . Although no 1913 Liberty head nickels were officially struck , five are known to exist . While it is uncertain how these pieces originated , they have come to be among the most expensive coins in the world , with one selling in 2010 for $ 3 @,@ 737 @,@ 500 .
= = Origin = =
Industrialist Joseph Wharton , who had interests in nickel mining and production , had been influential in the decision to use the metal in coinage in the mid @-@ 1860s , leading to the introduction of the Shield nickel in 1866 . The Shield nickel presented difficulties through its life : the intricate design made the coins not strike well . Modification to the design failed to solve the technical problems , and the mint had considered replacing the design as early as 1867 . Nevertheless , the Shield nickel remained in production . With production of copper – nickel five @-@ cent pieces lagging in the late 1870s , and with production of copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent pieces nearly moribund , Wharton sought to increase his sales of nickel to the United States Mint . Although copper @-@ nickel coins were struck only in small numbers , the bronze cent represented a major portion of the Mint 's production , and Wharton began to lobby for the piece to be struck in copper @-@ nickel .
In 1881 , this lobbying led Mint Superintendent Archibald Loudon Snowden to order Mint Chief Engraver Charles Barber to produce uniform designs for a new cent , three @-@ cent nickel , and five @-@ cent piece . Snowden informed Barber that the proposed designs were to feature on the obverse ( or heads side ) a classic head of Liberty with the legend " Liberty " and the date . The reverse ( or tails side ) was to feature a wreath of wheat , cotton , and corn around a Roman numeral designating the denomination of the coin ; thus the five @-@ cent piece was to have the Roman numeral " V " . The proposal for the cent would decrease its size to 16 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) and its weight to 1 @.@ 5 grams ( 0 @.@ 053 oz ) , and the modifications to the three @-@ cent piece would increase its size to 19 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) and its weight to 3 grams ( 0 @.@ 11 oz ) . The nickel would retain its weight of 5 grams ( 0 @.@ 18 oz ) , but its diameter would be increased to 22 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) .
Barber duly produced the required designs . Fairly large numbers of pattern coins were struck . Barber 's design for the nickel showed a portrait similar to that eventually adopted for the obverse , with " United States of America " and the date . The reverse featured the required wreath surrounding the " V " , and no other lettering . A modified pattern design later that year added the words " In God We Trust " to the reverse . Snowden decided that the proposed cents and three @-@ cent pieces would be too small for effective use , but Barber continued work on the nickel , with the size adjusted to 21 @.@ 21 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 835 in ) . Barber reworked the design in 1882 , adding " E Pluribus Unum " to the reverse . One variant that was struck as a pattern , but was not adopted , was a coin with five equally spaced notches in the rim of the coin . This " Blind Man 's nickel " was struck at the request of Congressman and former Union General William S. Rosecrans , who stated that many of his wartime colleagues had been blinded by combat or disease .
Late that year , Barber 's 1882 design was endorsed by Mint authorities , and 25 specimens were sent to Washington for routine approval by Treasury Secretary Charles J. Folger . To Snowden 's surprise , Folger rejected the design . The secretary , on review of the coinage statutes , had realized that the laws required " United States of America " to appear on the reverse , not the obverse . Folger had then consulted with President Chester Arthur , who confirmed Folger 's opinion . Snowden suggested that an exception should be made , but Folger refused , and Barber modified his design accordingly . The revised design was approved , and the coin was ready for striking in early 1883 .
= = Release = =
Striking of the new coins began on January 30 , 1883 , and the Mint placed the first pieces in circulation on February 1 . Snowden , concerned about reports of speculation in 1883 Shield nickels , received permission on February 6 to continue striking Shield nickels for several months alongside the new pieces .
It had not been thought necessary to inscribe the word " cents " on the nickel ; the silver and copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent pieces had circulated for years with only a Roman numeral to indicate the denomination . Enterprising fraudsters soon realized that the new nickel was close in diameter to that of the five @-@ dollar gold piece , and if the new coin was gold @-@ plated , it might be passed for five dollars . They soon did so , and had success in passing the coin . Some coins were given a reeded edge by the fraudsters , to make them appear more like the gold coins . A widespread tale is that one of the perpetrators of this fraud was a man named Josh Tatum , who would go into a store , select an item costing five cents or less , and offer the gold @-@ plated piece in payment — and many clerks gave him $ 4 @.@ 95 in change . According to the tale , the law had no recourse against Tatum , as he had tendered the value of his purchase and had merely accepted the change as a gift . By some accounts , Tatum could not have misrepresented the value of the coin as he was a deaf @-@ mute .
The plating of the nickels caused consternation at the Mint , and brought production of Liberty Head nickels to a sudden stop . Barber was told to modify his design , which he did , moving other design elements to accommodate the word " cents " at the bottom of the reverse design . The revised nickel was issued on June 26 , 1883 , the date on which production of the Shield nickel was finally stopped . The public responded by hoarding the " centless " nickels , egged on by reports that the Treasury Department intended to recall those nickels , and that they would become rare .
= = Production = =
After heavy mintages of the nickel in 1883 and 1884 , production was much lower in 1885 and 1886 . This was due to an economic downturn which lowered demand for the coins . The 1886 production was also depressed by the Treasury 's decision to reissue large numbers of worn minor coins . It was not until September 1886 that the Mint resumed full production of the coin . By 1887 , however , the Mint was overwhelmed by orders , melting down large quantities of older copper @-@ nickel coins to meet the demand . Despite these efforts , the Mint was forced to return many orders unfilled . Demand remained strong until 1894 , when the Mint temporarily suspended production as it had accumulated a surplus during the Panic of 1893 .
The Coinage Act of 1890 retired a number of obsolete denominations , including the three @-@ cent piece . Another Act of Congress , also enacted on September 26 , 1890 required that coinage designs not be changed until they had been in use 25 years , unless Congress authorized the change . However , the second act indicated that nothing in the law was to prevent the redesign of the current five @-@ cent piece and silver dollar " as soon as practicable after the passage of this act " . In 1896 , pattern nickels were struck for the first time since 1885 , when experimental , holed coins had been tested . The 1896 pieces , which featured a simple shield with arrows crossed behind it , were struck in response to a resolution of the House of Representatives asking the Secretary of the Treasury to report to it on the advantages and disadvantages of using various alloys in coinage . Pattern nickels would not be struck again until 1909 .
The turn of the century saw unprecedented demand for nickels , due to a booming economy and the use of nickels in coin @-@ operated machines . In 1900 , Mint Director George E. Roberts called on Congress to grant the Mint a larger appropriation to purchase base metals , allowing for greater production of nickels and cents . The same year , the design was modified slightly , lengthening some of the leaves on the reverse . This change occurred with the introduction of a new hub , from which coining dies were made . Demand for the coins remained heavy ; in March 1911 , Mehl 's Numismatic Monthly reported that the Mint was working twenty @-@ four hours a day to produce cents and nickels , and even so was failing to satisfy demand .
Mint directors , in their annual reports , had long called for the authority to strike cents and nickels at all mints ; by law they could then only be struck at Philadelphia . On April 24 , 1906 , this restriction was removed , although the first base metal coins , cents in both cases , were not struck at San Francisco until 1908 and Denver until 1911 . In 1912 , nickels were coined for the first time at each of the two branch mints . The 1912 @-@ S ( for San Francisco ) nickel was not struck until Christmas Eve , and was only struck for four business days . A 1912 @-@ S nickel , one of the first forty coined , was used by former San Francisco Mayor James D. Phelan to pay the first fare on the city 's first streetcar on December 28 , 1912 . Excluding the 1913 nickel , the 1912 @-@ S , with only 238 @,@ 000 struck , is by far the rarest in the series .
= = Replacement = =
In 1909 , consideration was given to the replacement of the Liberty Head nickel by a new design . In an attempt to modernize the coinage , the cent and the gold pieces had been redesigned . Prominent artists from outside the Mint had been contracted to provide the designs of the new coins , much to Barber 's disgruntlement . Mint Director Frank A. Leach was an admirer of Barber 's work , and had him prepare designs to be struck as patterns . Barber , at Leach 's request , prepared a design showing Washington 's head , and newspapers reported that new coins might be issued by the end of 1909 . In July 1909 , however , Leach resigned , putting an end to the matter for the time being .
On May 4 , 1911 , Eames MacVeagh , son of Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh wrote to his father :
A little matter that seems to have been overlooked by all of you is the opportunity to beautify the design of the nickel or five cent piece during your administration , and it seems to me that it would be a permanent souvenir of a most attractive
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sort . As possibly you are aware , it is the only coin the design of which you can change during your administration , as I believe there is a law to the effect that the designs must not be changed oftener than every twenty @-@ five years . I should think also it might be the coin of which the greatest numbers are in circulation .
Soon afterwards , Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Abram Andrew announced that the Mint would be soliciting new designs . Well @-@ known sculptor James Earle Fraser approached Treasury officials , who were impressed by his proposals . Mint Director Roberts initially asked Fraser for a design featuring a bust of Lincoln , which he produced , mainly to please Roberts , but Fraser also developed a design featuring a Native American on the obverse , with an American bison on the reverse . This design was given preliminary approval by MacVeagh on January 13 , 1912 , and would come to be known as the Buffalo nickel . In late June , Fraser completed the model of the final design . The specifications of the new nickel were provided to the Hobbs Manufacturing Company , a maker of vending machines , which , following a meeting with Fraser in early November , opined that the new coins would likely jam its machines . At the company 's request , Fraser prepared a revised version , but Secretary MacVeagh rejected it on the grounds that the changes compromised the design , which he greatly admired .
On December 13 , 1912 , Roberts warned the Mint staff to take no action in preparation for the 1913 five @-@ cent coinage until the new designs were ready . He ended production of the Liberty Head nickel at the Philadelphia Mint the same day . A minor change was made to the Buffalo design in an attempt to satisfy the Hobbs Company , which promptly provided a lengthy list of changes it wanted made to the coin . On February 15 , 1913 , with less than three weeks until he would have to leave office on the advent of the Wilson administration , McVeagh wrote to Roberts , noting that no other vending or slot machine maker had complained about the new design . The Secretary concluded that everything possible had been done to satisfy the Hobbs Company , and ordered the new nickel put into production .
= = 1913 = =
The first information that a 1913 Liberty head nickel might have been struck came in December 1919 , when coin dealer Samuel W. Brown placed advertisements in numismatic publications , offering to buy any such nickels . In August 1920 , Brown displayed one such coin at the annual American Numismatic Association ( ANA ) convention . Brown related that a master die had been prepared for the 1913 Liberty head nickels , and a few pieces had been run off to test the die . As it turned out , Brown possessed five coins , which he eventually sold . After spending fifteen years in the hands of the eccentric Col. E.H.R. Green , the famous Fort Worth , Texas , area collector , the coins were finally dispersed in 1943 . Since then , the coins have had several owners each . Today , two are on public display — at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the ANA 's Money Museum in Colorado Springs , while three are owned privately . The highest price recorded for a 1913 Liberty Head nickel was in January 2010 , when one sold for $ 3 @,@ 737 @,@ 500 in an auction . The most recent sale of a 1913 Liberty Head nickel was in April 2013 for more than $ 3 @.@ 1 million .
It is uncertain how the 1913 nickels came to be made . The Mint 's records show no production of 1913 Liberty head nickels , and none were authorized to be made . Dies were prepared in advance and sent to California for a 1913 @-@ S Liberty Head nickel coinage , but upon Roberts 's instruction to stop coinage , they were ordered returned to Philadelphia . They were received by December 23 , and were almost certainly destroyed routinely by early January . Brown had been an employee at the Philadelphia Mint ( although this was not known until 1963 ) and many theories focus suspicion on him .
= = Mintage figures = =
= Series 8 , Episode 8 ( Spooks ) =
The series eight finale of the British espionage television series Spooks was originally broadcast on BBC One on 23 December 2009 , and is the 72nd episode in the overall series . The episode was written by Ben Richards and directed by Alrick Riley . The episode continues the " Nightingale " story @-@ arc , a shadow organisation bent on changing the geopolitical map . In the finale , Nightingale attempt to provoke a nuclear war between India and Pakistan , and Section D have a week to prevent it .
The episode was based on actual reports of conflict between the two nations . Hermione Norris made her final appearance as Ros Myers ; the producers intended to leave her fate open in order for the audience to debate whether or not she survived the hotel explosion at the end of the episode . It was viewed by under six million viewers after its original broadcast , and received overwhelmingly positive reviews , particularly due to the reveal of Nightingale 's plot and the cliffhanger , questioning whether or not Ros survived the hotel explosion .
= = Background = =
The finale continues the story @-@ arc involving a multinational shadow organisation bent on changing the geopolitical map . Referred to as " Nightingale " , actor Richard Armitage has said that " India , Pakistan and China feature heavily . But everyone , including Russia , America and Britain have a finger in the pie . " In the sixth episode it is revealed that CIA liaison and Lucas North 's ( Armitage ) lover Sarah Caufield ( Genevieve O 'Reilly ) is part of the organisation , and flees when Lucas confronts her . In the previous episode , Section D discover that Nightingale is manipulating Hindus and Muslims to attack each other in an attempt to further tarnish relations between India and Pakistan ; Section D is able to prevent the attacks in the UK , but it is later revealed that Nightingale succeeded in setting up similar attacks throughout the rest of Europe and the United States .
= = Plot = =
An Indian submarine is forced into port at Karachi by the Pakistan Navy . Knowing it is a Nightingale plot – Pakistani General Azim Ali is a member – Section D learn they have a week to stop a nuclear war between India and Pakistan . News of this shocks the team , particularly Tariq Masood ( Shazad Latif ) , who has family in Lahore . Ruth Evershed ( Nicola Walker ) discovers the name of a prominent Nightingale operative , Hans Lindemann . While Lucas North and Ros Myers work to bug Lindemann 's office , Sarah Caufield returns , having been ordered by CIA Head of European Operations Russell Price ( Mark Aiken ) , also a Nightingale member , to kill Lucas . Instead , Sarah warns him to leave the country before escaping .
Ruth meets a Chinese contact , Heng ( Roger Yuan ) , who tells her that both countries will fail the negotiations and that war is inevitable . He is shot dead by an assassin in front of her . Tariq finds Sarah staying at a hotel under an assumed name . Lucas and Ros apprehend her after Lucas distracts her and Ros shoots her in the leg . At a hospital , Sarah reveals to Lucas that Nightingale wants India and Pakistan to go to war in order to " contain " the future , where Nightingale believes the Taliban will take over Pakistan and gain control of nuclear weapons , though the war will kill several million innocent lives in the process . As Lucas leaves the room momentarily to call Ros , an assassin kills Sarah ; Lucas captures him and learns that Price arranged the hit .
To prevent negotiations from succeeding , Price rigs the Summit hotel with explosives . To prevent Pakistani President Mudasser ( Nicholas Khan ) and Home Secretary Andrew Lawrence ( Tobias Menzies ) from escaping , he paralyses both of them . Learning Price is in the hotel , Lucas and Ros arrive and capture him . Since disarming the bomb is impossible , Ros threatens to leave Price behind when the bomb explodes unless he divulges the room both politicians are held . Although Price eventually discloses the room number , Ros leaves him in the room where the bomb is anyway . Lucas is able to carry Mudasser safely out of the hotel , where he recovers and orders the release of the Indian submarine , preventing the war . However , Ros is still in the hotel , struggling to pull Lawrence to safety . As Lucas runs back to aid her , the hotel explodes , killing Lawrence , Price and Ros .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and pre @-@ production = = =
Before the episode aired there was speculation that Hermione Norris will leave the series following the " explosive finale explosive cliffhanger . " When questioned whether she will leave the series , Norris would not comment . In June 2010 , co @-@ star Richard Armitage confirmed that Norris has left the series , meaning the series eight finale was her final episode as Ros . The producers left the episode end with a cliffhanger to have the audience debate whether or not Ros and Lawrence survived the hotel explosion . Casting an actor as Russell Price was initially a problem for the producers , but they decided to cast Mark Aiken for the role following his work in American television . An actual news reporter was cast to record a news story . The reporter runs the dialogue with the producers at 4 : 30 in the morning , and then record the story before 6am , the time reporters start their work on actual news stories .
The episode was written by Ben Richards . The general plot of India and Pakistan on the verge of nuclear war is based on actual reports of conflict between the two nations . The beginning was not originally in the script ; Richards wanted to feature a submarine crisis , but the producers were not sure what the crisis would be . They eventually decided to have an Indian submarine " taken hostage " by the Pakistanis . They wanted to add a personal stake towards Tariq , by revealing that members of his family live in Pakistan . The intent was to include and develop a potential relationship between Ros and Lawrence to the point where they bond during their final scenes before the hotel explosion . They also wanted to touch up on the Harry / Ruth relationship , which was not in the original script ; so Ben Richards added the scenes as additional dialogue .
Despite the seriousness of the episode , Richards included some wit and humour . For instance , the scene where Lucas bugs Lindemann 's office and " small talks " Ros ; the producers wanted the scene to be different from similar scenes from movies involving secret agents planting bugs in offices and homes . The producers also wanted to have Ruth return her confidence in her work , back to how she was before her departure . The finale also includes Lucas being confused over Sarah . The writing team wanted him to despise her as a villain , but at the same time , still maintain feelings for her . Following her death , they did not want Lucas to be calm and calculating when confronting the assassin , but instead make him " lose it " and then have him broken afterward .
= = = Filming = = =
A scene in the pre @-@ title sequence was filmed during the same block as episodes three and four , which were directed by Sam Miller . The rest of the finale was filmed several weeks later . The inside of a surveillance van used in a few scenes were shot at a set right next to the Grid set ; using a set would be more manageable for the filming crew . A military school in Belgravia was used to film two separate locations ; the Home Office and Lindemann 's office . Other scenes at the Home Office were filmed in a separate building in Roehampton .
The hospital Sarah was held was filmed at a new private hospital in Hammersmith that was closed down at the time . A Radisson Edwardian Hotel in the London Docklands served as the filming location for the Summit Hotel ; the management of the hotel were cooperative and allowed the filming crew access to several rooms and facilities . The scene where Ruth meets Heng was filmed at Dollis Hill ; it was the last scene of the episode to be shot , and was completed in one afternoon . In the fight scene between Ros and Sarah at Lindemann 's office , Hermione Norris played herself , and a stunt double stood in for Genevieve O 'Reilly , because her character was getting " thrown about a lot " . The fight scene between Lucas and Sarah 's assassin were performed by Armitage and stunt coordinator Crispin Layfield respectively .
The scene where the Pakistanis take control of the Indian submarine were archival footage taken from the BBC Motion Gallery . Split screen sequences were placed towards the end more than the rest of the episode to show the audience there is a bomb at the hotel with several police officers outside the building and Lucas and Ros looking around the hotel for Lawrence and Mudasser . The sequence where the hotel exploded was made through the medium of visual effects , produced by Darkside Animation .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The episode originally aired on BBC One at 9pm on 23 December 2009 , and later repeated on BBC Three at 12 : 45am on 24 December . After its original broadcast , the series finale drew 5 @.@ 5 million viewers , earning the series a 23 % audience share during its time slot . It won the time slot against BBC Two 's Grumpy Guide to Christmas , ITV1 's Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason , and Channel 4 's The Family . According to the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board , the episode received final viewing figures of 5 @.@ 91 million , placing Spooks the 25th most seen programme on BBC One , and the 36th most seen programme overall during the week it aired .
Reviews of the episode were very positive . In a preview for the episode , Vicky Power of The Daily Telegraph said that " as usual there 's a large body count and fist @-@ fights , but these are tempered by scenes of high emotion " , and if the episode were Ros ' last , " it is a fitting send @-@ off " . David Chater of The Times was positive towards the episode , stating " just in case you think you 're having an exhausting time in the run @-@ up to Christmas , spare a thought for Lucas North [ who found out ] his lover is a liar , a murderer and a traitor " , and also noted that " the great thing about Spooks is that they will always stop and explain how serious things are " .
The Guardian published two separate reviews for the episode . Sam Wollaston started by saying " they never listen " , noting the " prisoner either disappears or is killed " and that Section D " need to rethink the whole prisoner thing , or hire less rubbish guards " ; however , Wollaston also noted that since it was Sarah who was killed , " mo one 's really going to miss snaky Sarah much " . Plot @-@ wise , Wollaston liked the phrase " getting pretty Finding Nemo about it " , and said that Ros " better had " survived the cliffhanger , claiming " Spooks without Ros would be like Christmas without presents " . Vicky Frost called the episode a " cracking finale " , stating that after " weeks of build @-@ up , it feels almost a relief to have the Nightingale plot finally revealed " . In regards to the cliffhanger , Frost commented that Spooks has " passed its peak but not sunk so low as to be embarrassing , it still goes out on something of a high , and it 's remembered as a decent example of its type " . She was also receptive of Norris ' portrayal as Ros in her likely final appearance , but felt the Harry and Ruth relationship was " wolly " .
= Westhay Moor =
Westhay Moor ( sometimes , historically , referred to as West Hay Moor ) is a 513 @.@ 7 @-@ hectare ( 1 @,@ 269 @-@ acre ) biological Site of Special Scientific Interest 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) north @-@ east of Westhay village and 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from Wedmore in Somerset , England , notified in 1971 . Westhay Moor is also notified as part of the Somerset Levels and Moors Special Protection Area under the EU Birds Directive and as a Ramsar Site , and a National Nature Reserve .
The low @-@ lying swampy area of Westhay Moor has had peat laid down over older rocks for the last 10 @,@ 000 years . The Neolithic people lived on the areas of slightly higher ground but exploited the reed beds for materials and built wooden trackways to cross the raised bog . Peat extraction on the Somerset Levels has occurred since the area was first drained by the Romans . Measures to improve the drainage were carried out in the Middle Ages largely by Glastonbury Abbey . In the 17th and 18th centuries further drainage work was undertaken including digging a series of rhynes , or ditches and larger drainage canals . Peat extraction peaked in the 1960s but has since declined .
The geology of the moor and prolonged peat extraction has provided a unique environment which provides a habitat for a range of flora and fauna . Much of the nature reserve managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust is based around abandoned peatworkings which have now become flooded . It is particularly noted for the millions of starlings which congregate at the site .
= = Location = =
Although underlain by much older Triassic age formations that protrude to form what would once have been islands — such as Athelney , Brent Knoll , Burrow Mump and Glastonbury Tor , which is composed of Blue Lias , the lowland landscape was formed only during the last 10 @,@ 000 years , following the end of the last ice age . As the sea level changed following the Pliocene era , vegetation was laid down which was later converted into peat . The peak of the peat formation took place in swamp conditions around 6 @,@ 000 years ago , although in some areas it continued into medieval times .
Westhay Moor forms part of the Somerset Levels and Moors which is important for its grazing and ditch system , and is crossed by the River Brue and Galton 's Canal . Over much of the moor , the water table is high throughout the year with extensive winter flooding occurring regularly . The level of the water tables can be artificially lowered during active working of the peat excavations , but for much of the year these are often filled with water .
= = History = =
Westhay Moor originally lay at the centre of the most northerly of the two lowland raised bogs that formed in the lower Brue Valley . They reached their greatest extent at the end of the Iron Age . The Neolithic people exploited the reedswamps for their natural resources and started to construct wooden trackways such as the Sweet and Post Tracks . The Sweet Track , named after the peat digger who discovered it in 1970 and dating from the 3800s BCE , is the world 's oldest timber trackway , once thought to be the world 's oldest engineered roadway . The track was built between what was in the early 4th millennium BCE an island at Westhay and a ridge of high ground at Shapwick , close to the River Brue . The remains of similar tracks have been uncovered nearby , connecting settlements on the peat bog including the Honeygore , Abbotts Way , Bells , Bakers , Westhay and Nidons trackways . The archaeology , history and geology of the Somerset Levels was displayed at the Peat Moors Centre until its closure in 2009 . The centre also included reconstructions of some of the archaeological discoveries , including a number of Iron Age round houses from Glastonbury Lake Village , and the Sweet Track .
The eastern part of the Moor was covered by Meare Pool which was formed by water ponding @-@ up behind the raised peat bogs between the Wedmore and the Polden Hills , and coring has shown that it is filled with at least 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) of detritus mud , mainly dating from the Subatlantic climatic period ( 1st millennium BC ) . In prehistoric times there were two Meare Lake Villages situated within the lake , occupied at different times between 300 BCE and 100 CE , similar to the nearby Glastonbury Lake Village .
Early drainage work was carried out in the later years of the 12th century , with the responsibility for maintaining all the watercourses between Glastonbury and the sea being placed on named individuals among whom were Ralph de Sancta Barbara of Brentmarsh . Drainage of the surrounding area by monks of Glastonbury Abbey had reduced the size of the lake to 500 acres ( 200 ha ) at the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Meare Pool had disappeared from maps by 1749 . The Meare Pool originally collected the waters of the rivers Brue and Sheppey , and discharged in a northerly direction into the Lower River Axe . In the later years of the 12th century the Abbey diverted the Brue to flow westwards , perhaps largely through natural channels , from Meare Pool to join the river Parrett .
In the early 17th century plans were made to drain and enclose much of Sedgemoor . Further reclamation was carried out in stages between about 1620 and 1740 , with the " new Cutts " ( or Decoy Rhyne ) being built about 1660 . The rivers Sheppey and Hartlake were canalised into the River James Wear and Division Rhyne sometime in the late 1730s . In 1795 , John Billingsley advocated enclosure and the digging of rhynes ( a local name for drainage channels , pronounced " reens " in the east and rhyne to the west ) between plots , and wrote in his Agriculture of the County of Somerset that 18 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 400 acres ) had been enclosed in the last 20 years in Wedmore and Meare , 1 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 350 acres ) at Nyland , 3 @.@ 64 square kilometres ( 900 acres ) at Blackford , 8 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 000 acres ) at Mark , 0 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 100 acres ) in Shapwick , and 7 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 700 acres ) at Westhay .
In the 1810s Samuel Galton , Jr. showed that bogs could be drained and dressed with clay and other soil , and built Galton 's Canal . The character of the soil was also changed by the spreading of clay and silt from the digging of King 's Sedgemoor Drain . Galton 's Canal was a 2 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) canal with one lock , connecting the River Brue to the North Drain . It was operational by 1822 , and ceased to be used after the 1850s . The land is drained by a series of rhynes , or ditches with water levels ( and hence the level of the water table ) being controlled by a system of sluice gates and pumps . The water resource management operations are managed by the Somerset internal drainage board .
In the early 18th century several duck decoys were built on the moor . These consisted of a pool of water leading from which are from one to eight curving , tapering ditches . Over each ditch is a series of hoops , initially made from wood , later from iron , which diminish in size as the ditch tapers . The hoops are covered in netting . The combination of ditch and net @-@ covered hoops is known as a pipe .
= = = Peat extraction = = =
Large areas of peat were laid down on the Somerset Levels , particularly in the River Brue Valley , during the Quaternary period after the ice sheets melted . Peat extraction on the Somerset Levels has occurred since the area was first drained by the Romans . The raised bogs were extensively dug for peat for use as fuel up until the end of World War II after which the primary market was for horticulture . Large parts of Westhay Moor have now been dug back to the underlying clay exposing estuarine deposits dating from about 6000 BP before isolation from the sea and peat formation began . The introduction of plastic packaging in the 1950s allowed the peat to be packed without rotting , which led to the industrialisation of peat extraction during the 1960s as a major market in horticultural peat was developed . However , the resultant reduction in water levels that resulted put local ecosystems at risk ; peat wastage in pasture fields was occurring at rates of 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 1 – 3 ft ) over 100 years .
In 1970 the Somerset Wildlife Trust bought the first part of the last 12 hectares ( 30 acres ) of acid raised bog vegetation left on the Somerset Moors undamaged by peat digging or agriculture . Since then SWT have bought or been given 100 hectares of former peatworkings . These were sculpted and restored to wetland as the experimental area for the Avalon Marshes . This was the term given in the late 1980s to describe the wetland restored from peat workings in the Brue Valley . The wetland on the clay is dominated by Phragmites reed , catstail and open water . The wetland restoration has been a great success and was declared a National Nature Reserve in 1995 . Peat working is now beginning to draw to a close on Westhay Moor and the majority of the remaining peatworkings are now being restored to wetland as they are completed . In 2014 two land owners unsuccessfully appealed against changes in planning permission which removed their rights to dig peat from Westhay Moor .
= = Ecology = =
Westhay Moor supports a nationally outstanding community of terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates . At least 28 nationally notable invertebrate species also occur on the moor . The meadows , ditches , abandoned peat workings and hedgerows provide suitable breeding habitats for a diverse and nationally important breeding bird community .
It is part of the Brue Valley Living Landscape conservation project . The project commenced in January 2009 and aims to restore , recreate and reconnect habitats ; joining together protected areas into a network to enable plant and animal movement . It aims to ensure that wildlife is enhanced and capable of sustaining itself in the face of climate change while guaranteeing farmers and other landowners can continue to use their land profitably . It is one of an increasing number of landscape scale conservation projects in the UK .
Part of the moor has been designated as a nature reserve , covering 106 hectares ( 261 acres ) , which is managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust . In addition to open water and reedbeds , it contains a fragment of acid mire , the largest to have survived in the south west of England . The reserve provides habitat for many varieties of birds , which includes millions of starlings between November and January , along with osprey and bittern . Otters and Banded demoiselle are among other species which have made their home on the moor . A large bird hide , reached via a raised boardwalk , has been erected . Westhay Moor is also notified as part of the Somerset Levels and Moors Special Protection Area under the EU Birds Directive and as a Ramsar Site , and a National Nature Reserve .
= Eat a Peach =
Eat a Peach is the third studio album by American rock band the Allman Brothers Band . Produced by Tom Dowd , the album was released on February 12 , 1972 , in the United States by Capricorn Records . Following their artistic and commercial breakthrough with the release of the live album At Fillmore East ( 1971 ) , the Allman Brothers Band got to work on their third studio album . Many in the band were struggling , however , with heroin addictions , and checked into rehab to confront these problems . Shortly after leaving rehab , group leader and founder Duane Allman was killed in a motorcycle accident in the band 's home of Macon , Georgia thus making it the final album to feature the guitarist .
Eat a Peach was a mix of studio recordings — both with and without Duane Allman — and recordings from the band 's famed 1971 Fillmore East performances . The album contains the extended , half @-@ hour @-@ long " Mountain Jam , " as well as vocalist Gregg Allman 's performance of his brother 's favorite song , " Melissa , " plus Dickey Betts ' " Blue Sky " , which became a radio staple . Album artwork was created by W. David Powell and J. F. Holmes at Wonder Graphics , and depicts the band 's name on a peach truck , in addition to a large gatefold mural of mushrooms and fairies . The album 's title came from a quote by Duane Allman : " You can 't help the revolution , because there 's just evolution ... Every time I 'm in Georgia , I eat a peach for peace ... the two @-@ legged Georgia variety . "
Issued as a double album in February 1972 , Eat a Peach was an immediate success and peaked at number four on Billboard 's Top 200 Pop Albums chart . The album was later certified platinum and remains a top seller in the band 's discography .
= = Background = =
The Allman Brothers Band had struggled to achieve commercial success in their two and a half years on the touring circuit ; their first two studio albums , The Allman Brothers Band ( 1969 ) and Idlewild South ( 1970 ) , had debuted to only modest sales . Despite this , they had achieved significant acclaim due to their live performances , which included extended jam renditions of songs . The band 's third release was a live album , titled At Fillmore East , and represented their artistic and commercial breakthrough : it immediately received solid sales upon its July 1971 release and went gold some months later . In about a " three @-@ or @-@ four @-@ week period , " the band quite literally went from " rags to riches , " and were able to pay their debts to manager Phil Walden and record label Capricorn Records .
Although suddenly very wealthy and successful , much of the band and its entourage now struggled with heroin addiction . Four individuals — group leader Duane Allman , bassist Berry Oakley , and roadies Robert Payne and Joseph " Red Dog " Campbell — checked into the Linwood @-@ Bryant Hospital for rehabilitation in October 1971 . Their addictions had begun to affect their performances and matters seemed to only be getting worse , according to many involved . The clinic was deemed a " joke " and a " nuthouse " by Payne and Red Dog , and was later described as more of a psychiatric ward , as true rehabilitation clinics were several years away . All involved ( including Duane ) struggled to keep off the substance in the ensuing days . Despite this , Duane fueled the band 's passion to get better and end their addictions : " Duane was so happy and full of positive energy . He was always like that unless he was just totally wasted . He was the leader , the great soul , and he kept saying , ' We are on a mission and it 's time for this thing to happen , ' " said Linda Oakley . " He was moving forward , and that energized everyone else . Everyone fed off of that . "
On October 29 , 1971 , Duane Allman , aged 24 , was killed in a motorcycle accident a day after returning to the band 's home of Macon , Georgia . Allman was riding at a high speed in his motorcycle at the intersection of Hillcrest Avenue and Bartlett Street as a flatbed truck carrying a lumber crane approached . The flatbed truck stopped suddenly in the intersection , forcing Allman to swerve his Harley @-@ Davidson Sportster motorcycle sharply to the left to avoid a collision . As he was doing so , he struck either the back of the truck or the ball on the lumber crane and was immediately thrown from the motorcycle . The motorcycle bounced into the air , landed on Allman and skidded another 90 feet with Allman pinned underneath , crushing several internal organs . Though he was alive when he arrived at the hospital , despite immediate emergency surgery , he died several hours later from massive internal injuries . The loss devastated all who knew Allman , just as At Fillmore East climbed into the top 15 of the national album charts .
= = Recording and production = =
Several weeks before the gold certification and their rehabilitation , the band headed to Miami 's Criteria Studios with producer Tom Dowd to work on their third studio album . The band first began recording the album one month prior , when they laid down the initial tracks for " Blue Sky " . The band saved money on studio time by writing and debuting songs on the road . The band worked on three songs : " Blue Sky " , an instrumental titled " The Road to Calico " ( which would eventually develop into " Stand Back " , with added vocals ) and " Little Martha " , the only song solely credited to Duane Allman . The band laid down these three songs and went back on the road for a short run of shows , and at this point several checked into rehab . After Duane 's death , the band held a meeting on their future ; it was clear all wanted to continue , and after a short period , the band returned to the road . Drummer Butch Trucks later said , " We all had this thing in us and Duane put it there . He was the teacher and he gave something to us — his disciples — that we had to play out " .
Following these tragic events , lead guitarist Dickey Betts gradually took over the role as group leader . The band returned to Miami in December to complete work on the album . Twiggs Lyndon , a friend of the band , joined them ; he had just completed a stay in a psychiatric hospital stemming from his 1970 arrest for the murder of a concert promoter . Lyndon became the band 's production manager . The band recorded four more tracks with Dowd , including " Melissa , " " Les Brers in A Minor , " and " Ain 't Wastin ' Time No More . " Allman 's death provided the band with motivation ; " We were all putting more into it , trying so hard to make it as good as it would have been with Duane . We knew our driving force , our soul , the guy that set us all on fire , wasn 't there and we had to do something for him , " said Trucks . The heroin addictions had taken their toll on the band members ; Gregg Allman later said , " We were taking vitamins , we had doctors coming over and sticking us in the ass with B12 shots every day . Little by little by little , we crawled back up to the point where we were standing erect " .
The other material on Eat a Peach comes from live recordings . Dowd later said , " When we recorded At Fillmore East , we ended up with almost a whole other album 's worth of good material , and we used [ two ] tracks on Eat a Peach . Again , there was no overdubbing " . Dowd started the mixing process for Eat a Peach but had run overtime and was called to commitments with Crosby , Stills and Nash ; longtime Allman friend and colleague Johnny Sandlin took over for the remaining mixes . Sandlin later said of the mixing process , " As I mixed songs like " Blue Sky , " I knew , of course , that I was listening to the last things that Duane ever played and there was just such a mix of beauty and sadness , knowing there 's not going to be any more from him " . He was particularly proud of his mixing work on the album , but was angry because he did not receive credit , only a " special thanks . "
Completing the recording of Eat a Peach raised each members ' spirits ; Allman said , " The music brought life back to us all , and it was simultaneously realized by every one of us . We found strength , vitality , newness , reason , and belonging as we worked on finishing Eat a Peach " . " Those last three songs ... just kinda floated right on out of us ... The music was still good , it was still rich , and it still had that energy — it was still the Allman Brothers Band . "
= = Composition = =
Much of the music on Eat a Peach that was recorded after Duane 's death directly dealt with the tragedy . " Ain 't Wastin ' Time No More " was written by Gregg Allman for his brother , Duane , immediately following his death . The song was composed on an 110 @-@ year @-@ old Steinway piano in Studio D of Criteria . " Ain 't Wastin ' " was composed when Duane was still alive , but the lyrics deal with his passing , as well as veterans coming home from the Vietnam War . The song relates to the theme that " death is an inescapable inevitability — that every day is precious . " " Les Brers in A Minor " is an instrumental penned by Dickey Betts , and its title is " bad French " for " less brothers . " When writing the song , all in the band felt something was familiar about the song ; it turned out to be a solo of Betts 's from live renditions of " Whipping Post . " It resurfaced many years later on a bootleg recording . " Les Brers " began recording in the newly constructed Studio C of the recording complex at Criteria , but the band disliked the sound captured in the room and moved to Studio A. As a result , the recording contains a slight pitch variation due to the difficulty of matching the original speed of the instruments when the intro was spliced onto the master tape .
Gregg Allman recorded " Melissa " primarily as a tribute to his brother , who adored the song ; the song was written in 1967 while staying in a hotel in Pensacola , Florida and was one of the first he saved after dozens of writing attempts . Allman had previously not shown it to other members of the band ( " I thought it was too soft for the Allman Brothers , " he said ) , and was saving it for a possible solo album he assumed he would one day record . " One Way Out " was recorded on June 27 , 1971 at the band 's final concert at the Fillmore East , which was shut down after that date , and " Trouble No More " and " Mountain Jam " were culled from the band 's March performances . " Mountain Jam " was always intended for inclusion on the band 's next album ; the band teased its appearance by including the opening seconds on the fade @-@ out of the final song on At Fillmore East . The band considered it a signature song of the group , but they deemed the performance that was recorded relatively mediocre .
= = Artwork and title = =
The album 's artwork was created by W. David Powell at Wonder Graphics . He had seen old postcards at a drugstore in Athens , Georgia , one depicting a peach on a truck and a watermelon on a rail car . Believing them perfect for an Allman Brothers album , he purchased them and " bought cans of pink and baby @-@ blue Krylon spray paint and created a matted area to make the cards on a twelve @-@ by @-@ twenty @-@ four LP cover . " He envisioned the album having " an early @-@ morning @-@ sky feel . " He hand @-@ lettered the band name and photographed it with a small Kodak camera , developing the photos at the drugstore . He then cut and pasted the letters on the side of the truck , underneath the peach .
The album includes an elaborate gatefold mural featuring a fantasy landscape of mushrooms ( referencing the psychedelic drug ) and fairies , drawn by Powell and J. F. Holmes . " It told a story of happy , mystical brotherhood that was receding ever further into fantasy as the band grappled with the tragedy of Duane 's death , " according to biographer Alan Paul . There was very little planning involved in the piece , which was created when the duo were in Vero Beach , Florida . When one would be drawing or painting the image , another would be swimming in the ocean . " We swapped off this way with virtually no conversation about the drawing , just fluid trade @-@ offs , " said Powell . The art was created on a large illustration board , " on a one @-@ to @-@ one scale — it was the size of the actual spread , " according to Powell . Holmes ' work is featured largely on the left , with Powell 's on the right . Both were " profoundly influenced " by Early Netherlandish painter Hieronymous Bosch on the piece .
At the time the artwork was finalized , Duane Allman was still alive and the title had not been finalized . As a result , the album lacks a title on the cover , which was an unusual approach for bands at the time . Powell later said , " When we showed it to someone at the label , he said , ' They are so hot right now , we could sell it in a brown paper bag ' " . Atlantic initially intended to title the album The Kind We Grow in Dixie , but the band refused . The title was the label of the postcard series Powell had seen in Athens . Trucks suggested they name the album Eat a Peach for Peace , after a quote from Duane Allman . When the writer Ellen Mandel asked Allman what he was doing to help the revolution , he replied :
I 'm hitting a lick for peace — and every time I 'm in Georgia , I eat a peach for peace . But you can 't help the revolution , because there 's just evolution . I understand the need for a lot of changes in the country , but I believe that as soon as everybody can just see a little bit better , and get a little hipper to what 's going on , they 're going to change it . Everybody will — not just the young people . Everybody is going to say , ' Man , this stinks . I cannot tolerate the smell of this thing anymore . Let 's eliminate it and get straight with ourselves . ' I believe if everybody does it for themselves , it 'll take care of itself .
According to some sources , the peach being " eaten " was " the two @-@ legged Georgia variety " . Drummer Butch Trucks also considered Allman 's comment a sly reference to the poem " The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock " by T. S. Eliot , one of Allman 's favorite poets . An untrue story persisted for many years after the album 's release that it was named after the truck Allman crashed into , purported to be a peach truck . The album art was later selected by Rolling Stone magazine in 1991 as one of the 100 greatest album covers of all time .
= = Release = =
Before the release of Eat a Peach , industry talk suggested the demise of the group after the death of Duane Allman . The record 's promotional campaign was coordinated by Dick Wooley , the former head of promotion for Atlantic Records . He had recently quit his position there and was contacted by Walden to help Capricorn in its efforts . ( Capricorn Records had recently separated from Atlantic Records as well ; Eat a Peach would be among the first Capricorn albums released under a new distribution deal with Warner Bros. Records . ) " They needed help because the buzz in the record business and on the street was that the ABB was finished as a band and would never survive without Duane , " said Wooley . After being played some songs from Eat a Peach by Sandlin , Wooley was " blown away " and accepted the offer at half his usual salary . He arranged to have the band 's New Year 's Eve performance at New Orleans ' Warehouse live simulcast on radio . " I took a gamble and cobbled together a network of radio stations in the Southeast via Ma Bell phone lines , " said Wooley . The stunt helped launch Eat a Peach , which was issued by Capricorn in February 1972 and became an instant success . The album shipped enough copies to be certified by the RIAA as gold and peaked at number four on Billboard 's Top 200 Pop Albums chart . " We 'd been through hell , but somehow we were rolling bigger than ever , " said Gregg Allman .
Rolling Stone 's Tony Glover wrote that , even without their leader , " the Allman Brothers are still the best goddamned band in the land ... I hope the band keeps playing forever — how many groups can you think of who really make you believe they 're playing for the joy of it ? " Robert Christgau gave the album a B but criticized " Mountain Jam " ' s length : " I know the pace of living is slow down there , but this verges on the comatose . And all the tape in the world isn 't going to bring Duane back . " In a retrospective review , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the record a solid five stars , calling the record a showcase of " the Allmans at their peak . " David Quantick of BBC Music also considered it their " creative peak , " praising the album 's " well @-@ played , surprisingly lean bluesy rock . " The album is mentioned as the band 's top studio recording in the 2008 book 1 @,@ 000 Recordings To Hear Before You Die ( 2008 ) , with author Tom Moon praising the record 's " sedate , beautifully contemplative studio material . "
" Melissa " was the album 's most successful single , peaking at number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Ain 't Wastin ' Time No More " and " One Way Out " were also singles , charting at numbers 77 and 86 , respectively .
= = Touring = =
Biographer Alan Paul notes that the band ’ s members " all profoundly felt the absence of their guiding light " during the touring cycle for Eat a Peach . Dickey Betts had to convince the band members to tour , since all other members were reluctant . Despite rumors , the band did not replace Duane Allman , and simply toured as a five @-@ piece . The Allman Brothers Band played 90 shows in 1972 in support of the record . " We were playing for him and that was the way to be closest to him , " said Trucks . Allman and Oakley took turns introducing songs , which was traditionally Duane ’ s role . Betts learned Duane 's slide guitar parts , but put his own spin on it . Oakley had a downward spiral following Duane 's death and was significantly inebriated for many shows on the tour . " He wasn ’ t playing like he used to — instead , he 'd hit maybe every fifth note , " recalled Allman . Occasionally , the band would have bassist Joe Dan Petty , later of Grinderswitch , cover for Oakley for the show . After nearly a year of severe depression , Oakley was killed in a motorcycle accident not dissimilar from his friend 's in November 1972 .
The band were headliners for the first time
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well as yellowfin and bigeye tuna in the 100 @-@ lb range . Conversely , they are also capable of feeding on small but numerous prey such as filefish and snipefish .
Scientists and fishermen have long debated the extent to which blue marlin and other billfish use their elongated upper jaw in feeding . A 2007 Japanese study of stomach contents of fish captured in a commercial trolling fishery found that 130 undigested prey items obtained from 227 blue marlin had spearing , slashing , and other injuries that were judged to have been inflicted by the bill .
= = Economic importance = =
= = = Commercial fishery = = =
Marlin has commercial value throughout the world , with landings totalling 3 @,@ 064 metric tons in 2000 . It is particularly valued in Japan for sashimi . In Hawaii , where the fish is known as a 'u , blue marlin meat is sometimes smoked and sold by roadside vendors .
Blue marlin are often caught as bycatch in tuna longline fisheries .
= = = Recreational fishery = = =
Sport fishermen first encountered blue marlin in the Bahamas in the 1920s and early 1930s , when pioneering big @-@ game fishermen such as Van Campen Heilner and S. Kip Farrington began exploring the waters offshore of Bimini and Cat Cay . In the Pacific , blue marlin ( then known as silver marlin or often misidentified as the related black marlin ) were caught by author / angler Zane Grey in Tahiti in the 1930s . Since then , blue marlin have been renowned as one of the world 's greatest game fishes . The sportfishing pursuit of marlin and other billfish has developed into a multimillion dollar industry that includes hundreds of companies and thousands of jobs for boat operators , boat builders , marinas , dealerships , and fishing tackle manufacturers and dealers .
The most established sport fisheries for blue marlin are found along the eastern seaboard and the Gulf Coast of the United States , Bermuda , the Bahamas. and several other Caribbean islands ( notably St Thomas and Puerto Rico ) . Recreational fishing for blue marlin also takes place in Brazil , Venezuela , and the Atlantic coast of Mexico , particularly the Yucatan peninsula . In the eastern Atlantic , blue marlin sport fisheries exist from the Algarve coast of Portugal in the north to Angola in the south and include the islands of the Azores , Canaries , Cape Verde , Madeira , and Ascension Island .
The International Game Fish Association all @-@ tackle world record for blue marlin currently stands at 1 @,@ 402 lb 2 oz ( 636 kg ) . This fish was captured in Vitoria , Brazil .
= = Conservation = =
The blue marlin is under intense pressure from longline fishing . In the Caribbean region alone , Japanese and Cuban fishermen annually take over a thousand tons . All vessels within 200 mi ( 320 km ) of the U.S. coastline are required to release any billfish caught . However , the survival rate of released fish is low because of damage during capture .
Makaira nigricans is listed as a threatened species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . In 2010 , Greenpeace International added the blue marlin to its seafood red list .
Sport fishermen have been at the forefront of efforts to conserve blue marlin populations . The initial efforts to develop electronic tags for tracking highly migratory fish were carried out on marlin in Hawaii , in collaboration with anglers in the Hawaiian International Billfish Tournament .
= = In popular culture = =
Both Zane Grey and Ernest Hemingway , who fished for blue marlin off the Florida Keys , the Bahamas , and most famously in Cuba , wrote extensively about their pursuit .
In Ernest Hemingway 's novella The Old Man and the Sea , a fisherman named Santiago battles a blue marlin for three days off the coast of Cuba .
= Sitakunda Upazila =
Sitakunda ( Bengali : সীতাকুণ ্ ড Shitakunḍo , IPA : [ ʂit ̪ akunɖo ] ) is an upazila , or administrative unit , in the Chittagong District of Bangladesh . It includes one urban settlement , the Sitakunda Town , and 10 unions , the lowest of administrative units in Bangladesh . It is one of the 14 upazilas , the second tier of administrative units , of the Chittagong District , which also includes 12 thanas , the urban equivalent of upazilas . The district is part of the Chittagong Division , the highest order of administrative units in Bangladesh . Sitakunda is the home of the country 's first eco @-@ park , as well as alternative energy projects , specifically wind energy and geothermal power .
Sitakunda is one of the oldest sites of human habitation in Bangladesh . During much of its history , it was ruled alternatively by various Buddhist rulers of Myanmar in the east and Muslims rulers of Bengal in the west . For a brief period in the 8th century , it was ruled by the Buddhist Pala Empire of India . The eastern rulers originated from the Kingdom of Arakan , the Mrauk U dynasty , Arakanese pirates and the Pagan Kingdom . The western rulers came from the Sultanate of Bengal and the Mughal province ( Suba ) of Bangala . European rule of Sitakunda was heralded by Portuguese privateers in 16th and 17th centuries , who ruled together with the pirates ; and the British Raj in 18th and 19th centuries , who unified Sitakunda into the rest of the Chittagong District .
Economic development in Sitakunda is largely driven by the Dhaka @-@ Chittagong Highway and the railway . Though Sitakunda is predominantly an agricultural area , it also has the largest ship breaking industry in the world . The industry has been accused of neglecting workers ' rights , especially concerning work safety practices and child labor . It has also been accused of harming the environment , particularly by causing soil contamination . Sitakunda 's ecosystems are further threatened by deforestation , over @-@ fishing , and groundwater contamination . The upazila is also susceptible to natural hazards such as earthquakes , cyclones , and storm surges . It lies on one of the most active seismic faults in Bangladesh , the Sitakunda – Teknaf fault .
Sitakunda is renowned for its numerous Islamic , Hindu and Buddhist shrines . It has 280 mosques , 8 mazars , 49 Hindu temples , 4 ashrams , and 3 Buddhist temples . Among its notable religious sites are the Chandranath Temple ( a Shakti Peetha or holy pilgrimage site ) , Vidarshanaram Vihara ( founded by the scholar Prajnalok Mahasthavir ) , and the Hammadyar Mosque ( founded by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah ) . The attraction of Sitakunda as a tourist destination is elevated by these pilgrimage sites along with the hill range and the eco @-@ park . Despite its diverse population , the area has gone through episodes of communal strife , including attacks on places of worship . There have been reports of activity by the Islamic militant group Jama 'atul Mujahideen Bangladesh since the early 2000s .
= = History = =
The legends of the area state the sage Bhargava created a pond ( kunda ) for Sita to bathe in when her husband Lord Ramchandra visited during his exile in the forests . Sitakunda derived its name from this incident .
Sitakunda has been occupied by humans since the Neolithic era ; tools associated with the prehistoric Assam group have been found throughout the area . In 1886 , shouldered celts manufactured from petrified wood were discovered , as reported by Indian archaeologist Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay in his book Banglar Itihas , or History of Bengal , ( volume I , 1914 ) . In 1917 , British mineralogist Dr. J. Coggin Brown uncovered more prehistoric celts . Large quantities of pebbles have also been found , but archaeologists have not determined whether they were used in the construction of prehistoric tools .
During the 6th and 7th centuries CE , the Chittagong region was ruled by the Kingdom of Arakan . In the next century , it was briefly ruled by Dharmapala ( reign : 770 – 810 ) of the Pala Empire . The area was conquered in 1340 by Sultan Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah ( reign : 1338 – 1349 ) of Sonargaon , who founded the first dynasty of the Sultanate of Bengal . When Sultan Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah ( reign : 1533 – 1538 ) of the last dynasty of the Sultanate of Bengal was defeated in 1538 by Sher Shah Suri of the Sur Dynasty , the Arakanese captured the region again . Batsauphyu ( reign : 1459 – 1482 ) of the Mrauk U dynasty took advantage of the weakness of Sultan Barbak Shah of Bengal to lead the invasion . In this period , Keyakchu ( or Chandrajyoti ) , a prince of Arakan , established a monastery in Sitakunda . Between 1538 and 1666 , Portuguese privateers ( known as Firinghis or Harmads ) made inroads into Chittagong and ruled the region in alliance with Arakanese pirates . During those 128 years , the eastern coast of Bengal became a home to pirates of Portuguese and Arakanese origins . For a brief period in 1550 , it was taken over by Pagan invaders . In 1666 , Mughal commander Bujurg Umed Khan conquered the area .
Along with the rest of Bengal , Sitakunda came under the rule of the British East India Company after the company 's defeat of the Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 . Rapid growth in the Bengali population since then resulted in an exodus of non @-@ Bengali people from Sitakunda and its vicinity to the Chittagong Hill Tracts . During the Ardhodaya Yog movement , a part of the Swadeshi Indian independence movement , the governance of Sitakunda was briefly in the hands of Indian nationalists when , in February 1908 , they took over the central government in Kolkata . In 1910 , Indian Petroleum Prospecting Company drilled here for hydrocarbon exploration , the first such activity in East Bengal . In 1914 , the first onshore wildcat well in Bangladesh was drilled at Sitakunda anticline to a depth of 762 metres ( 2 @,@ 500 ft ) . By 1914 , however , all four of the wells drilled had proven to be failures .
After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , the British colonial government ( British Raj ) replaced the governance of the East India Company . When the British withdrew in 1947 , after creating the independent states of India and Pakistan , Sitakunda became a part of East Pakistan . The potential for a ship breaking industry first appeared in 1964 when Chittagong Steel House started scrapping MD Alpince , a 20 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 19 @,@ 684 long tons ) Greek ship that had been accidentally beached near Fouzdarhat by a tidal bore four years earlier . During the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 , Sitakunda was part of Sector 1 , led by Ziaur Rahman and Major Rafiqul Islam of the Mukti Bahini , the forces fighting for the independence of Bangladesh . The ship breaking industry began in earnest in 1974 when Karnafully Metal Works started scrapping Al Abbas , a Pakistani ship damaged in 1971 , and flourished in the 1980s . As of 2007 , Sitakunda had overtaken the ship breaking industries of India and Pakistan to become the largest in the world .
In the early 2000s , Islamic militant organization Jama 'atul Mujahideen Bangladesh ( JMB ) leader Siddikul Islam ( also known as Bangla Bhai ) ran militant training centers in the upazila at which participants learned to make bombs and handle firearms . One of his followers , Mahfuzul Huq , was captured on 21 February 2006 .
= = Geography and climate = =
Sitakunda Upazila occupies an area of 483 @.@ 97 square kilometres ( 186 @.@ 86 sq mi ) , which includes 61 @.@ 61 square kilometres ( 23 @.@ 79 sq mi ) of forest . It is bordered by Mirsharai to the north , Pahartali to the south , Fatickchhari , Hathazari and Panchlaish to the east , and the Sandwip Channel in the Bay of Bengal to the west . The Sitakunda range is a 32 @-@ kilometre ( 20 mi ) long ridge in the center of the upazila , which reaches an altitude of 352 metres ( 1 @,@ 155 ft ) above sea level at Chandranath or Sitakunda peak , the highest peak in Chittagong District . Part of Sitakunda is covered by the low hill ranges , while the rest is in the Bengal flood plain . To the north , Rajbari Tila at 274 metres ( 899 ft ) and Sajidhala at 244 metres ( 801 ft ) are the highest peaks in this range , which drops abruptly to a height of less than 92 metres ( 302 ft ) in the vicinity of Chittagong City to the south . About 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) north of Sitakunda Town is the Labanakhya saltwater hot spring , which has been proposed as a source of geothermal energy . There are two waterfalls in the hills : Sahasradhara ( thousand streams ) and Suptadhara ( hidden stream ) . Both have been identified as sites requiring special attention for protection and preservation by the National Heritage Foundation of Bangladesh .
An area prone to cyclones and storm surges , Sitakunda was affected by cyclones in 1960 , 1963 , 1970 , 1988 , 1991 , 1994 and 1997 ; the cyclones of 29 May 1963 , 12 November 1970 , 29 April 1991 made landfall . The intra @-@ deltaic coastline is very close to the tectonic interface of the Indian and Burmese plates , as well as the active Andaman – Nicobar fault system , and is often capable of generating tsunamis . Cyclone preparedness measures are inadequate for the 200 @,@ 000 residents of Sitakunda who were estimated to be living in high risk areas after the 1991 cyclone . For every 5 @,@ 000 people , Sitakunda has only one cyclone shelter , each of which is capable of holding 50 to 60 people . Syedpur Union has eleven , Muradpur eight , Baraiyadhala seven , and Kumira five . Sitakunda municipality , Barabkunda , Bhatiary and Bansbaria have four shelters each . Salimpur has three and Sonaichhari Union has two shelters .
The Chittagong Coastal Forest Department developed the river bars ( char in Bengali ) on the bank of the Sonaichhari channel adjacent to the Sitakunda coast into a kilometer @-@ wide coastal mangrove plantation during 1989 – 90 , to reduce the impact of cyclones . Although the site was initially unstable , rapid sediment accretion stabilised the soil , providing the coast with some protection . The cyclone of 1990 smashed about 25 % of a 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 mi ) sea @-@ wall built using two @-@ ton steel @-@ reinforced concrete blocks , some of which were carried up to 100 metres ( 328 ft ) inland . In contrast , a mangrove plantation just south of the sea @-@ wall sustained damage to less than 1 % of its trees , most of which recovered within six months . The planted mangrove forest that helped Sitakunda to escape as one of the least damaged areas during the devastating 1991 Bangladesh cyclone is under threat from illegal tree @-@ cutting by ship @-@ breakers in the area .
Annual average temperature is between 32 @.@ 5 ° C ( 91 ° F ) and 13 @.@ 5 ° C ( 56 ° F ) , with an annual rainfall of 2 @,@ 687 millimetres ( 106 in ) . Along with Chittagong and Hathazari , in June 2007 Sitakunda was badly affected by mudslides caused by heavy rainfall combined with the recent practice of hill @-@ cutting . The mean annual wind speed recorded in Sitakunda between 1991 and 2001 was 1 @.@ 8 knots ( 2 mph ) , as measured by the wind monitoring station built as part of a wind energy exploration project jointly run by the Local Government Engineering Department and the Bangladesh Center for Advanced Studies . A small 300 @-@ watt wind turbine , built by the government , provides electricity to fish farms .
= = Geology = =
The geological structure of Sitakunda , 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) long and 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) wide , is one of the westernmost structures of Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts , delimited by the Feni River in the north , the Karnaphuli River in the south , the Halda River in the east and the Sandwip Channel in the west . The Sitakunda Range acts as a water divide between the Halda Valley and the Sandwip Channel . The 88 kilometres ( 55 mi ) -long Halda flows from Khagrachari to the Bay of Bangal , and is one of the six tributaries of Karnafuli , the major river in the area . Sandwip Channel represents the northern end of the western part of the Chittagong @-@ Tripura Folded Belt .
The structure contains a thick sedimentary sequence of sandstone , shale and siltstone . The exposed sedimentary rock sequences except limestone , 6 @,@ 500 metres ( 21 @,@ 325 ft ) thick in an average , provide no difference in overall lithology of Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts . The Sitakunda fold is an elongated , asymmetrical , box @-@ type double plunging anticline . Both the gently dipping eastern and steeper western flanks of the anticline are truncated abruptly by the alluvial plain of the Feni River . For a lack of infrastructure in Bangladesh , this anticline is one of the few regularly surveyed structures in the country . The syncline from Sitakunda separates the eastern end of the Feni Structure located in the folded flank of the Bengal Foredeep .
Local experts consider the Sitakunda – Teknaf fault to be one of the two most active seismic faults in Bangladesh . After the earthquake of 2 April 1762 , which caused a permanent submergence of 155 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 60 @.@ 0 sq mi ) of land near Chittagong and the death of 500 people in Dhaka , two volcanoes are said to have opened in the Sitakunda hills . During a seismic tremor on 7 November 2007 , fire broke out at the Bakharabad Gas Systems Limited in the Faujderhat area of the upazila when a pipeline was fractured . The Girujan Clay Formation runs through Sitakunda at a thickness of 168 metres ( 551 ft ) . In the Sitakunda hills , the Boka Bil Shale Formation contains Ostrea digitalina , Ostrea gryphoides and numerous plates of Balanus ( a type of Barnacles ) , fragments of Arca , Pecten , Trochus , Oliva and corals . Both formations were identified and named by early 20th @-@ century British petroleum geologist P. Evans .
= = Demography = =
According to the census of 2001 , Sitakunda had a population of 298 @,@ 528 distributed to 55 @,@ 837 units of households ( average household size 5 @.@ 3 ) , including 163 @,@ 561 men and 134 @,@ 967 women , or a gender ratio of 121 : 100 . The average population of component administrative units of the upazila are 4 @,@ 072 for wards , 1 @,@ 666 for mahallas , 29 @,@ 853 for unions , 5 @,@ 060 for mouzas ( revenue villages ) and 5 @,@ 060 for villages reported by the census . Out of the 69 mauzas here , 8 have less than 50 households , while 27 have more than 600 households . Of the villages , 8 have a population of less than 250 , while 29 have more than 2 @,@ 500 . As of 2001 , the population density of Sitakunda was 692 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 1 @,@ 792 / sq mi ) .
Apart from the Bengali majority , there are a number of small communities of ethnic minorities in the area . Many of the resident Rakhine people are believed to have settled here during the Arakanese rule of Chittagong ( 1459 – 1666 ) , though the event is not historically traceable . The Rakhine population in Khagrachari District migrated from the surrounding area and built up their permanent abode at Ramgarh in the 19th century . Other ethnic groups include the recently migrated Tripuri people . In the District of Chittagong that includes Sitakunda , the population ratio by religion in 2001 was Muslim 83 @.@ 92 % , Hindu 13 @.@ 76 % , Buddhist 2 @.@ 01 % and Christian 0 @.@ 12 % , with 0 @.@ 19 % following other religions . In 1981 , it was Muslim 82 @.@ 79 % , Hindu 14 @.@ 6 % , Buddhist 2 @.@ 23 % and Christian 0 @.@ 21 % , with 0 @.@ 19 % following other religions . Chittagonian , a derivative of Bengali spoken by 14 million people mainly in the Chittagong district , is the dominant language .
= = Administration = =
Sitakunda as a thana came into existence in 1879 , and was renamed to Sitakunda Upazila in 1983 . It ranks third in area and sixth in population out of the 26 upazilas and thanas of Chittagong . Sitakunda Town , with an area of 28 @.@ 63 square kilometres ( 11 @.@ 05 sq mi ) and a population of 36 @,@ 650 , is the administrative center and the sole municipality ( Pourashabha ) of Sitakunda Upazila . Shafiul Alam is the mayor of the town , gaining a landslide win over his nearest contender M Abul Kalam Azad in the 2008 mayoral election . The rest of the area is rural and organized into 10 Union Committees ( Union Parishads ) , namely Banshbaria , Barabkunda , Bariadyala , Bhatiari , Kumira , Muradpur , Salimpur , Sonaichhari , Saidpur and Bhatiari Cantonment Area . The area is divided into 69 mauzas and 59 villages . Along with neighboring towns such as Hathazari , Fateyabad , Patiya and Boalkhali , Sitakunda Town was developed as a satellite town to relieve the increasing population pressure on Chittagong , with Bhatiari and Sadar unions selected as zones for industrialization , like South Halishahar and Kalurghat . In the 2009 Upazila elections , Abdullah Al Baker Bhuiyan was elected the Upazila Chairman , while Advocate MN Mustafa Nur and Nazmun Nahar were elected vice chairmen .
Sitakunda Upazila makes the 280th electoral district in Bangladesh , identified as Chittagong @-@ 3 . In the 2008 general election , A.B.M. Abul Kashem Master of Bangladesh Awami League ( AL ) was elected as the member of parliament , defeating his nearest opponent Mohammad Aslam Chowdhury of Bangladesh Nationalist Party ( BNP ) . In the previous election held in 2001 , Siddiki had defeated Kasem . M Akteruzzaman is the Upazila Nirbahi Officer , the chief executive of the upazila . The upazila is served by a court presided over by a first @-@ class magistrate . The Power Development Board is responsible for supplying electricity to the upazila , but due to power outages the industries in the area are strictly constrained . Anwarul Kabir Talukder , the State Minister for Power , lost his job on 29 September 2006 after hundreds of demonstrators in Sitakunda blocked the Dhaka – Chittagong highway in protest at the lack of electricity ; violence also erupted elsewhere in Bangladesh . In case of fire , the services are brought in from the neighboring city of Chittagong . A proposed Kumira – Sitakunda Hill Water Reservoir Project to supply safe drinking water is to be undertaken by the government .
= = Economy = =
The ship breaking industry in Sitakunda has surpassed similar industries in India and Pakistan to become the largest in the world . As of August 2007 , over 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 476 @,@ 310 long tons ) of iron had been produced from the scrapping of about 20 ships in the 19 functional ship yards scattered over 8 square kilometres ( 3 sq mi ) along the coast of Sitakunda 8 – 10 kilometres ( 5 – 6 mi ) from Chittagong , near Fouzderhat . Local re @-@ rolling mills , as well as similar mills , process the scrap iron . Bangladesh , with no local metal ore mining industry of its own , is dependent on ship @-@ breaking for its domestic steel requirements ; the re @-@ rolling mills alone substitute for import of about 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 181 @,@ 048 long tons ) of billets and other raw materials . There are 70 companies registered as ship breakers in Chittagong , employing 2 @,@ 000 regular and 25 @,@ 000 semi @-@ skilled and unskilled workers . Organized under the Bangladesh Ship Breakers Association , ( BSBA ) , these include companies within large local conglomerates that sought ISO certificates .
The industry has come under threat , both from a decline in the number of ships scrapped annually – down from 70 – 80 to about 20 – and because of environmental and work safety concerns . There have been complaints that journalists and human rights activists are being barred from the ship breaking yards . The ship breaking industry is purportedly damaging the local ecology as well , taking a toll on the fish population and soil quality . A survey conducted by students of the Institute of Marine Science of Chittagong University in 2007 revealed that the soil of the locality is polluted by heavy metals including mercury ( 0 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 7 ppm ) , lead ( 0 @.@ 5 to 21 @.@ 8 ppm ) , chromium ( 220 ppm ) , cadmium ( 0 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 9 ppm ) , iron ( 2 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 6 ppm ) , calcium ( 5 @.@ 2 to 23 @.@ 2 ppm ) and magnesium ( 6 @.@ 5 to 10 @.@ 57 ppm ) . Safety standards in the industry are low ; between 1995 and 2005 , 150 workers were killed and 576 were maimed or injured . The main causes of death were fire or explosion , suffocation and inhaling CO2 . These old ships also contain hazardous substances like asbestos , lead paint , heavy metals and PCBs . The workers are paid US $ 1 @.@ 75 a day and have little access to medical treatment . Among the workers , 41 % of are aged between 18 and 22 years , and many are reported to be as young as 10 years of age . There have also been allegations of large quantities of steel and non @-@ ferrous items , such as bronze , aluminum , copper , and bronze @-@ amalgam recovered from ship breaking being smuggled out of Bangladesh . There also are reports of pirates targeting tugboats pulling ships in .
Employment of local people is low in the industrial facilities . The main occupations of the local people by industry are service ( 28 @.@ 76 % ) , commerce ( 21 @.@ 53 % ) , and agriculture ( 24 @.@ 12 % ) . Out of 12 @,@ 140 @.@ 83 hectares ( 30 @,@ 000 @.@ 64 acres ) of cultivable land 25 @.@ 46 % yield a single crop , 57 @.@ 95 % yield double and 16 @.@ 59 % a treble crop annually . Bean , melon , rubber and betel leaf are the main agricultural exports . Fishing has traditionally been an industry restricted to low caste Hindus belonging to the fisher class , although since the last decades of the 20th century an increasing number of Muslims have joined the sector . Due to the introduction of engine @-@ powered boats and gill nets , there was a rise in fish catches between the 1970s and 1990s , especially in the major fishing season ( mid @-@ July to mid @-@ November ) . Over @-@ fishing , however , has depleted the fish population and some fish species are facing extinction in the area , leading to seasonal food insecurity ( February to April ) . According to a 2001 survey , 4 @,@ 000 people in Sitakunda were engaged in wild shrimp fry collection , harvesting an average of five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half million fries a year .
Sitakunda has a cement factory , 12 jute mills , 6 textile mills , 10 re @-@ rolling mills , and 79 functional and defunct shipyards . Two of the operational jute mills are run by the Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation , and one has been sold to a private sector company . To protest against privatization , workers of Hafiz Jute Mill , Gul Ahmed Jute Mill , MM Jute Mill and RR Jute Mill blocked the Dhaka – Chittagong Highway for seven hours in September 2007 . As early as 1953 , Sitakunda was described as the location for one of only five poultry farms in East Pakistan , along with Tejgaon ( Dhaka ) , Narayanganj ( Dhaka ) , Jamalpur ( Bogra ) , and Sylhet . Some mining for sand from agricultural lands is carried out along the eastern side of the Dhaka – Chittagong road . Operators of local brick kilns are engaged in illegal hill cutting , a practice that was responsible along with heavy rainfall for the 2007 Chittagong mudslide . The rural poor are supported by Grameen Bank and NGOs such as CARE , BRAC and ASA .
= = Transport and communication = =
The Dhaka – Chittagong Highway runs through Sitakunda , connecting the two largest cities in Bangladesh . A workshop conducted by Asian Development Bank ( ADB ) estimated that improving the highway would increase Bangladesh 's GDP by 1 % and its foreign trade by 20 % . This roadlink between the two cities existed in the pre @-@ railway days and has been identified as a part of the medieval southern Silk Road . In 2006 , ADB and the World Bank announced a plan to help Bangladesh build a second highway between Dhaka and Chittagong , which would be a part of the Asian Highway Network .
Historically , the rail transportation system drove developments in Chittagong and the surrounding areas , including Sitakunda . The rail tracks were established as part of the Bengal Assam Railway in 1898 , originally running from Chittagong to Badarpur , with branches to Silchar and Laksam . In September 1878 , Sitakunda was included in the East Bengal Circle of Railway Mail Service ( RMS ) along with rest of the district . By 1904 , the track system was extended to Chandpur to connect river boat traffic between Goalanda and Kolkata . Approximately 37 kilometres ( 23 mi ) of railroads stop at six rail stations . Currently , there is no express train service between Sitakunda and Chittagong , though intercity expresses ( Sylhet – Chittagong , Chandpur – Chittagong , and Dhaka – Chittagong ) stop at Sitakunda station and carry a small share of the commuter traffic load . By 2003 , there were a total of 112 kilometres ( 70 mi ) of paved roads in the upazila , along with 256 kilometres ( 159 mi ) of mud roads , as well as five ferry @-@ gauts or river docks for the use of barge @-@ type ferryboats . The traditional bullock carts are now rarely seen in the upazila .
Sitakunda was to be the landing station for a submarine communications cable , but the cable now comes ashore at Cox 's Bazaar . The cable has frequently been severed by miscreants , often in the Sitakunda area , since its installation on 21 May 2006 . Bangladesh NGOs Network for Radio and Communication ( BNNRC ) has brought internet services to the upazila by establishing Rural Knowledge Centres ( RKC ) . BTTB and RanksTel run telephone services in the upazila . The telephone area code for Sitakunda is 3028 , which has to be added to Bangladesh area code + 880 when making overseas calls , and the subscriber numbers consist of four digits locally .
= = Pilgrimage sites = =
Sitakunda is a major site for pilgrimage in Bangladesh , as it features 280 mosques ( including the Shah Mosque ) 8 mazars ( including Baro Awlias Mazar , Kalu Shah Mazar , Fakir Hat Mazar , Shahjahani Shah Mazar ) , 49 Hindu temples ( including Labanakhya Mandir , Chandranath Mandir , Shambunath Mandir ) , 3 ashrams ( including Sitakunda Shankar Math ) , and 3 Buddhist temples . The Hammadyar Mosque , located at the village of Masjidda on the banks of a tank known as the Hammadyar Dighi , was built during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah , the last Husain Shahi sultan of Bengal , as recorded by the inscription above the central entrance . The Sudarshan Vihara at village Mayani here , as well as the Vidarshanaram Vihara at village Mayani in Patiya were both established in 1922 by Prajnalok Mahasthavir ( 1879 – 1971 ) , an eminent Bangladeshi Buddhist preacher .
According to legend , Shiva 's wife Sati immolated herself in the yajna @-@ fire of her father Daksha , as a protest against Shiva 's dishonor . The God became furious and started to dance the Tāndava with Sati 's body on his shoulders . Knowing that the dance of destruction was about to annihilate the world , Vishnu cut the body of Sati to pieces with Sudarshana Chakram , his celestial weapon , thereby appeasing Shiva . Each of 51 pieces of the body fell to earth , and the place where each piece fell became a holy center of pilgrimage or Shakti Peetha . The legend goes that Sati 's right arm fell near a now @-@ extinct hot spring at the Chandranth peak in Sitakunda . The site is marked by the temple of Sambhunath just below the Chandranath temple on top of the peak , and it is a major tirtha for Hindus in Bangladesh .
According to Rajmala , the temple of Chandranath received considerable endowments from the Twipra Kingdom in the time of king Dhanya Manikya , who once attempted to remove the lingam from the temple to his kingdom . Poets from across the ages – from Jayadeva ( circa 1200 AD ) to Nabinchandra Sen ( 1847 – 1909 ) – were said to be devoted to the temple . Chandranath is within the jurisdiction of Gobardhan Math , which was founded , according to legends , by Padmacharya , a disciple of Shankaracharya and founder of Vana and Aranya sects of the Dashanami Sampradaya . An International Vedic Conference was held from 15 to 17 February 2007 at Sitakunda Shrine ( Tirtha ) Estate in Sitakunda Chandranath Dham , on the occasion of the great Shiva Chaturdarshi ( a Hindu festival in worship of Lord Shiva ) . These temples have been subject to repeated attack and violation by Muslims , and Bangladesh Hindu Bouddha Christian Oikya Parishad has asked for the pilgrims to be protected .
= = Flora and fauna = =
While returning to Kolkata after completing a floral survey , Joseph Dalton Hooker ( 1817 – 1911 ) carried out the first survey of Sitakunda 's local flora , as recorded in his Himalayan Journals , in January 1851 ( published by the Calcutta Trigonometrical Survey Office and Minerva Library of Famous Books ; Ward , Lock , Bowden & Co . , 1891 ) .
The forests of the region are known to be evergreen type with a preponderance of deciduous species with a levelled distribution . The topmost level consists of Garjan ( Dipterocarpus alatus ) , Telsur ( Hopea odorata ) , Chapalish ( Artocarpus chaplasha ) , Chundul ( Tetrameles nudiflora ) and Koroi or the Moluccan albizia ( Falcataria moluccana ) . The lower level consists of species of Jarul ( Lagerstroemia speciosa ) , Toon ( Toona ciliata ) , Jam ( Syzygium cumini ) , Jalpai ( Elaeocarpus robustus ) and Glochidion . Lianas , epiphytes ( mostly of orchids , asclepiads , ferns and leafy mosses ) and herbaceous undergrowths are abundant . Savannah formations are found in the open , along the banks of rivers and swamps with common tall grasses like Kans ( Saccharum spontaneum ) , Shon ( Imperata cylindrica and I. arundincca ) and Bena ( Vetiveria zizanoides ) . Several species of Bamboo are cultivated that are common in Bangladesh including Bambusa balcooa ( which is also common in Assam ) , B. vulgaris , B. longispiculata , B. tulda and B. nutans ; the latter two also being common in the hills of the region .
A number of fish species have become endangered in the area due to overfishing . They include Bhoal ( Raiamas bola ) , Lakkhya ( Eleutheronema tetradactylum ) , Chapila ( Gudusia chapra ) , Datina ( Acanthopagrus latus ) , Rupchanda ( Pampus argenteus ) , Pungash ( Pangasius pangasius ) , Chhuri ( Trichiurus lepturus ) , Ilsha Chandana ( Tenualosa toli ) , Hilsha ( Tenualosa ilisha ) , Faishya ( Anchoviella commersonii ) , Maittya ( Scomberomorus commerson ) , Gnhora ( Labeo gonius ) , Kata ( Nemapteryx nenga ) , Chewa ( Taenioides cirratus ) , Sundari bele ( Glossogobius giuris ) , Bnata ( Liza parsia ) , Koral ( Etroplus suratensis ) and Kawoon ( Anabas testudineus ) , as well as crustaceans like tiger shrimps .
The first eco @-@ park in Bangladesh , Sitakunda Botanical Garden and Eco Park , was established in 2001 along with a botanical garden , under a five @-@ year ( 2000 – 2004 ) development project at a cost of Tk 35 @.@ 7 million on 808 hectares ( 1 @,@ 997 acres ) of the Chandranath Hills in Sitakunda . The eco @-@ park was established to facilitate biodiversity conservation , natural regeneration , new plantations and infrastructure development , as well as to promote nature @-@ based tourism to generate income . The park , 405 hectares ( 1 @,@ 001 acres ) , and the garden , 403 hectares ( 996 acres ) , under the Bariadhala Range of Chittagong Forest Division , are rich with natural Gymnosperm tree species including Podocarpus neriifolius and species of Gnetum and Cycas . The park is reported to be able to receive 25 @,@ 000 visitors in a single weekend . With the botanical garden included , the number of visitors can reach up to 50 @,@ 000 . According to the International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management , however , " ignoring the dependence of local people on park resources created conflicts between local communities and the park authority " and " prohibition on the extraction of forest products from the park ... make the livelihoods of surrounding villagers vulnerable " .
= = Society = =
The educational institutions of the upazila include Faujdarhat Cadet College ( founded in 1958 ) , 4 regular colleges ( including Sitakunda Degree College founded in 1968 ) , 24 high schools ( including Sitakund Government Model High School founded in 1913 and Madam Bibir Hat Shahjania High School founded in 1905 ) , 10 madrasas , and 76 junior and primary schools . All the secondary schools and regular colleges are under the Chittagong Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education split from the Comilla Board in May , 1995 . Dr. Muhammad Shahidullah ( 1885 – 1969 ) , an eminent Bangladeshi linguist , served as the headmaster of the Government High School from 1914 to 1915 . On 24 July 1996 , members of Bangladesh Chhatra League and Bangladesh Islami Chhatra Shibir ( ICS ) in Sitakunda Degree College fought with guns and bombs over a minor dispute . On 29 July 1996 , two ICS members of the college were abducted and killed . Faujdarhat Cadet College and Bangladesh Military Academy are also situated in this upazila . As of 2001 , average literacy of Sitakunda Upazila for people of 7 years of age or more is 54 @.@ 6 % , while the average literacy of Sitakunda Pourashabha is 53 @.@ 9 % . There has been an overall growth of 32 @.@ 9 % between 1991 and 2001 , which for men was 20 @.@ 5 % and for women 59 @.@ 2 % . 70 @,@ 315 people of the Upazila between the ages of 5 and 24 years attend schools , an overall increase of 35 @.@ 6 % between 1991 and 2001 , which for men was 28 @.@ 1 % and for women 45 @.@ 4 % . The highest school attendance rate is observed in age group 10 – 14 years .
The health service centers in the upazila include a health complex , an infectious diseases hospital , a railway TB hospital , 11 family planning centres and a veterinary treatment centre . Bangladesh Railway set up the hospital at Kumira in 1952 with a capacity of 150 beds . The capacity was reduced to 50 beds in 1994 as some focus was redirected to the Railway Hospital at Central Railway Building in Chittagong . Originally built to treat railway employees , the hospital now also treats people from the wider community . Malaria , dengue and other fevers , hepatitis , as well as respiratory infections including tuberculosis are some of the major health threats . The percentage of disabled in Sitakunda is reported to be the highest in Bangladesh , at 17 % compared to the national average of 13 % .
Banshbaria Union has been declared as 100 % sanitized , as all households in the union adopted sanitary latrines , while the upazila has only 16 % sanitation coverage . A survey published in 2006 by the Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project found that of the 18 @,@ 843 tube wells surveyed , 24 @.@ 7 % were found to be contaminated . Visible signs of arsenic poisoning were found in 47 people .
National newspapers published in Dhaka including Prothom Alo , Ajker Kagoj , Janakantha and The Daily Ittefaq are available in Sitakunda , as well as regional newspapers published in Chittagong Azadi and Purbakon . It also has its own local newspapers and a journalist community . In 2003 , Atahar Siddik Khasru , the president of the local Press Club , went missing on 30 April and was rescued on 21 May . He was abducted and tortured by unidentified men allegedly on charges of protesting against the harassment of Mahmudul Haq , editor of local magazine Upanagar . On 6 May , about 30 local journalists working for national and local press took to the streets in protest . The other weekly newspaper is Chaloman Sitakunda . Television channels available in the upazila include satellite television channels like Channel i , ATN Bangla , Channel One , NTV , as well as terrestrial television channel Bangladesh Television .
The festivals of Shiva Chaturdashi in middle of the month of Falgun ( end of February ) and Chaitra Sankranti at end of the month of Chaitra ( mid April ) are observed with much fanfare , featuring the largest Hindu fair of the district . The Sitakunda Upazila Krira Sangstha ( Sports Club ) is noted for its participation in soccer . There are 151 clubs , a public library and two cinema halls in the upazila .
= Forestry in the United Kingdom =
Forestry is the management of trees and forests for environmental or economic gain . The United Kingdom , being in the British Isles , is ideal for tree growth , thanks to its mild winters , plentiful rainfall , fertile soil and hill @-@ sheltered topography . Growth rates for broadleaved ( hardwood ) trees exceed those of mainland Europe , while conifer ( softwood ) growth rates are three times those of Sweden and five times those of Finland . In the absence of people , much of Great Britain would be covered with mature oaks , except for Scotland . Although conditions for forestry are good , trees do face damage threats arising from fungi , parasites and pests .
Nowadays , about 12 @.@ 9 % of Britain 's land surface is wooded and this area is increasing . The country 's supply of timber was severely depleted during the First and Second World Wars , when imports were difficult , and the forested area bottomed out at under 5 % of Britain 's land surface in 1919 . That year , the Forestry Commission was established to produce a strategic reserve of timber . However , the recovery is still very much in progress . Other European countries average from 25 % to 37 % of their area as woodland .
Of the 31 @,@ 380 square kilometres ( 12 @,@ 120 sq mi ) of forest in Britain , around 30 % is publicly owned and 70 % is in the private sector . More than 40 @,@ 000 people work on this land . Broadleaves account for 29 % of Britain 's woodlands , the rest being conifers , but considering only England , the figures are 55 % broadleaf and 45 % conifer . Britain 's native tree flora comprises 32 species , of which 29 are broadleaves . Britain 's industry and populace uses at least 50 million tonnes of timber a year . More than 75 % of this is softwood , and Britain 's forests cannot supply the demand ; in fact , less than 10 % of the timber used in Britain is home @-@ grown . Paper and paper products make up more than half the wood consumed in Britain by volume .
In October 2010 , the new coalition government of the UK suggested it might sell off around half the Forestry Commission @-@ owned woodland in the UK . A wide variety of groups were vocal about their disapproval , and by February 2011 , the government abandoned the idea . Instead , it set up the Independent Panel on Forestry led by Rt Rev James Jones , then the Bishop of Liverpool . This body published its report in July 2012 . Among other suggestions , it recommended that the forested portion of England should rise to 15 % of the country 's land area by 2060 .
= = History = =
Throughout most of British history , the trend has been to create farmland at the expense of forest . Furthermore , variations in the Holocene climate have led to significant changes in the ranges of many species . This makes it complex to estimate the likely extent of natural forest cover . For example , in Scotland four main areas have been identified : oak dominated forest south of the Highland Line , Scots Pine in the Central Highlands , hazel / oak or pine / birch / oak assemblages in the north @-@ east and south @-@ west Highlands , and birch in the Outer Hebrides , Northern Isles and far north of the mainland . Furthermore , the effects of fire , human clearance and grazing probably limited forest cover to about 50 % of the land area of Scotland even at its maximum . The stock of woodland declined alarmingly during the First World War and " a Forestry Subcommittee was added to the Reconstruction Committee to advise on policy when the war was over . The Subcommittee , better known as the Acland Committee after its chairman Sir A. H. D. Acland , came to the conclusion that , in order to secure the double purpose of being able to be independent from foreign supplies for three years and a reasonable insurance against a timber famine , the woods of Great Britain should be gradually increased from three million acres to four and three quarter millions at the end of the war " . Following the Acland Report of 1918 the Forestry Commission was formed in 1919 to meet this need . State forest parks were established in 1935 .
Emergency felling controls had been introduced in the First and Second World Wars , and these were made permanent in the Forestry Act 1951 . Landowners were also given financial incentives to devote land to forests under the Dedication Scheme , which in 1981 became the Forestry Grant Scheme . By the early 1970s , the annual rate of planting exceeded 40 @,@ 000 hectares ( 99 @,@ 000 acres ) per annum . Most of this planting comprised fast @-@ growing conifers . Later in the century the balance shifted , with fewer than 20 @,@ 000 hectares ( 49 @,@ 000 acres ) per annum being planted during the 1990s , but broadleaf planting actually increased , exceeding 1 @,@ 000 hectares ( 2 @,@ 500 acres ) per year in 1987 . By the mid @-@ 1990s , more than half of new planting was broadleaf .
In 1988 , the Woodland Grant Scheme replaced the Forestry Grant Scheme , paying nearly twice as much for broadleaf woodland as conifers . ( In England , the Woodland Grant Scheme was subsequently replaced by the English Woodland Grant Scheme , which operates six separate kinds of grant for forestry projects . ) That year , the Farm Woodlands Scheme was also introduced , and replaced by the Farm Woodland Premium Scheme in 1992 . In the 1
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87 ) , and King Pepito ( 1889 ) . From the mid @-@ 1880s to the mid @-@ 1890s Evans printed , and Greenaway illustrated , nine almanacs — one each year . Greenaway benefitted from her association with Evans . As the leading publisher of children 's books , Routledge provided Greenaway with a commercial base she may not have achieved without Evans ' influence . Children 's literature scholar Anne Lundin claims the distinctive quality of Evans ' printing , as wells as his popularity as a children 's book printer , linked Greenaway 's name with his , thereby increasing her commercial appeal . Greenaway often visited the Evans family , played with their three daughters and continued to visit Evans after his move to Ventnor . During her career as an illustrator , Greenaway used Evans as sole engraver and printer .
= = Later work and retirement = =
Evans eventually converted to the three @-@ colour printing technique . In 1902 he used the " recently developed Hentschel three @-@ colour process " , at Beatrix Potter 's request , to print her watercolour illustrations for her first book , The Tale of Peter Rabbit . Towards the end of his career , not all of his work was devoted to the three @-@ colour process ; in 1902 he engraved and printed Old English Songs and Dances for W. Graham Robertson , which was described as " harmonious " and " delicate " .
In 1892 , Evans moved to Ventnor on the Isle of Wight , and turned the printing business over to his sons Wilfred and Herbert , although when he stopped engraving wood is unknown . During his last decade he wrote The Reminiscences of Edmund Evans , a short volume he described as " the rambling jottings of an old man " . In that book Evans includes few details of his business practices and processes , and is significant because it adds to the scant information available on the colour printers of the era . In the 1960s , Ruari McLean edited the unrevised 102 @-@ page typescript released to him by Evans ' grandson which was published by the Oxford University Press in 1967 .
Evans died in 1905 , and is buried in Ventnor cemetery . He was survived by his two sons and three daughters . The firm was bought in 1953 by W. P Griffith , Ltd ; Evans ' grandson Rex became managing director . Before his death Evans offered Beatrix Potter an interest in the company which she refused , having recently bought a farm in the Lake District .
= = Additional Evans images = =
= = Detail of John Gilpin = =
= HMS Tiger ( 1913 ) =
HMS Tiger was a battlecruiser of the Royal Navy and the eleventh ship to bear that name . She was built by John Brown and Company of Clydebank , Scotland , and launched in 1913 . Tiger was the most heavily armoured battlecruiser of the Royal Navy at the start of the First World War , but was not yet ready for service . The ship was assigned to the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron ( 1st BCS ) for the duration of the war and participated in the Battle of Dogger Bank in early 1915 , though she was still shaking down and did not perform well . Tiger next participated in the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , where she was only lightly damaged despite suffering many hits by German shells . Apart from providing distant cover during the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in 1917 , she spent the rest of the war on uneventful patrols in the North Sea .
Tiger was the oldest battlecruiser retained by the Royal Navy after the tonnage limits of the Washington Naval Treaty came into effect in 1922 . She became a gunnery training ship in 1924 and then joined the Battlecruiser Squadron in 1929 when its flagship , HMS Hood , underwent a lengthy refit . Upon Hood 's return to service in 1931 , Tiger was decommissioned and sold for scrap in 1932 in accordance with the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930 .
= = Design and description = =
Tiger was the sole battlecruiser authorised in the 1911 – 12 Naval Programme . According to naval historian Siegfried Breyer , a sister ship named Leopard was considered in the 1912 – 13 Programme and deferred until 1914 as a sixth member of the Queen Elizabeth class , but there is no record of any additional battlecruiser being provided for in any naval estimates before 1914 .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Tiger had an overall length of 704 feet ( 214 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 90 feet 6 inches ( 27 @.@ 6 m ) , and a mean draught of 32 feet 5 inches ( 9 @.@ 88 m ) at deep load . She normally displaced 28 @,@ 430 long tons ( 28 @,@ 890 t ) and 33 @,@ 260 long tons ( 33 @,@ 790 t ) at deep load . Although Tiger was only 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) longer and 1 foot 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 0 @.@ 4 m ) wider than the previous battlecruiser , HMS Queen Mary , she displaced almost 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) more than the older ship . She had a metacentric height of 6 @.@ 1 feet ( 1 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . In September 1914 , her complement consisted of 1 @,@ 112 officers and enlisted men ; in April 1918 , they totalled 1 @,@ 459 .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Tiger had two paired sets of Brown @-@ Curtis direct @-@ drive steam turbines housed in separate engine @-@ rooms . Each set consisted of high @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines driving an outboard shaft and low @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines , housed in the same casing , driving an inner shaft . Her three @-@ bladed propellers were 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 11 m ) in diameter . The turbines were powered by 39 Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers in five boiler rooms at a working pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 85 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 63 @,@ 000 kW ) and a maximum of 108 @,@ 000 shp ( 81 @,@ 000 kW ) when forced , but only achieved 104 @,@ 635 shp ( 78 @,@ 026 kW ) during her sea trials , although she managed to exceed her maximum designed speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) by over a knot .
The ship 's fuel stowage capacity was 3 @,@ 800 long tons ( 3 @,@ 900 t ) of fuel oil and 3 @,@ 340 long tons ( 3 @,@ 390 t ) of coal , giving a total fuel supply of 7 @,@ 140 long tons ( 7 @,@ 250 t ) — much more than Queen Mary 's total of 4 @,@ 800 long tons ( 4 @,@ 900 t ) . The sole ( unofficial ) figure for Tiger 's daily fuel consumption of 1 @,@ 245 long tons ( 1 @,@ 265 t ) a day at 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) would have given a maximum endurance of 3 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 100 km ; 3 @,@ 800 mi ) . The equivalent figure for Queen Mary was roughly 2 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 400 km ; 2 @,@ 800 mi ) . Four direct current electric dynamos with a total capacity of 750 kilowatts ( 1 @,@ 010 hp ) supplied the common ring main at 220 volts .
= = = Armament = = =
Tiger mounted eight 45 @-@ calibre BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk V guns in four twin hydraulically powered turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' and ' Y ' from front to rear . The guns could be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to + 20 ° , although the directors controlling the turrets were limited to 15 ° 21 ' until superelevating prisms were installed before the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 to allow full elevation . They fired 1 @,@ 250 @-@ pound ( 567 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) ; at 20 ° elevation , this provided a maximum range of 23 @,@ 820 yards ( 21 @,@ 780 m ) . The rate of fire of these guns was approximately 2 rounds per minute . The ship carried a total of 1040 rounds during wartime for 130 shells per gun .
Her secondary armament consisted of twelve BL 6 @-@ inch Mk VII guns in casemates . The guns could depress to − 7 ° and had a maximum elevation of 14 ° . They fired 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of approximately 2 @,@ 770 ft / s ( 840 m / s ) ; this gave a maximum range of 12 @,@ 200 yd ( 11 @,@ 200 m ) at + 14 ° elevation . They were provided with 120 rounds per gun . The ship mounted a pair of QF 3 inch 20 cwt Mk I anti @-@ aircraft guns on high @-@ angle Mark II mounts . The gun had a maximum elevation of + 90 ° and fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 604 ft / s ( 794 m / s ) . It had a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 000 ft ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) . Originally Tiger carried 300 rounds per gun , but this was reduced during the war to 150 rounds per gun .
Four 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted on the beam , one pair port and starboard forward of ' A ' barbette and aft of ' X ' barbette . The ship carried 20 Mark II * * * torpedoes , each with a warhead of 400 pounds ( 181 kg ) of TNT . They had two speed settings which governed their range ; at 45 knots ( 83 km / h ; 52 mph ) they could reach 4 @,@ 500 yards ( 4 @,@ 100 m ) , or 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 830 m ) at 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) .
= = = Fire control = = =
The main guns of Tiger were controlled from either of the two fire @-@ control directors . The primary director was in the fore @-@ top on the foremast and the other was mounted on the aft superstructure in the torpedo control tower . Data from 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinders in the armoured hood above the conning tower and in ' B ' and ' Q ' turrets was transmitted to the Mk IV Dreyer Fire Control Table located in the transmitting station below the waterline . The observations were then plotted and converted into range and deflection data for use by the director and guns . A Mark VII * Dumaresq in the armoured tower was trained on the target to supply bearing data to one transmitting station for use in plotting and calculations , and a second station was fitted for the ship 's secondary armament , although a pair of fire @-@ control directors for those guns , one for each broadside , were not fitted until 1915 .
Fire @-@ control technology advanced quickly during the years immediately preceding the First World War and the development of the director firing system was a major advance . This consisted of a fire @-@ control director mounted high in the ship which electrically provided elevation and training angles to the turrets via pointers , which the turret crewmen had only to follow . The director layer fired the guns simultaneously by an electrical trigger which aided in spotting the shell splashes and minimised the effects of the roll on the dispersion of the shells .
During the war Tiger 's rangefinders had increased in number and in size . By the end of the war ' A ' and ' Q ' turrets mounted 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) rangefinders while ' X ' turret , the armoured hood above the conning tower ( also known as the gun control tower ) , and the torpedo control tower had 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) instruments . A 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinder was fitted in the fore @-@ top and three 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) instruments were fitted on ' B ' turret , the gun control tower and above the compass platform . A high @-@ angle 6 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) rangefinder was mounted above the roof of the fore @-@ top for use by the anti @-@ aircraft guns .
= = = Armour = = =
Tiger 's armour protection was similar to that of Queen Mary ; her waterline belt of Krupp cemented armour measured 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick amidships . It thinned to four inches towards the ship 's ends , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . The depth of the main belt below the waterline was reduced from 36 to 27 inches ( 914 to 686 mm ) , although a strake of three @-@ inch armour 3 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 14 m ) tall was added below the main belt that stretched from the front of ' A ' barbette to the rear of ' B ' barbette . It was based on that used on the Japanese battlecruiser Kongo , the only design influence on Tiger that can be attributed to the Japanese ship .
Like the Lion @-@ class ships and Queen Mary , Tiger was given an upper armour belt with a maximum thickness of six inches over the same length as the thickest part of the waterline armour and thinned to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) abreast the end turrets . Unlike those ships , Tiger had an additional strake of 6 @-@ inch armour above the upper belt protecting her secondary armament . Four @-@ inch transverse bulkheads closed off the ends of the armoured citadel . High @-@ tensile steel was used for the protective decks . They generally ranged from 1 to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 25 to 38 mm ) in thickness .
The gun turrets had 9 @-@ inch front and sides while their roofs were 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 64 to 83 mm ) thick . The barbettes were protected above the citadel by 8 to 9 inches ( 203 to 229 mm ) of armour , thinning to three to four inches inside the citadel . The main conning tower had a three @-@ inch roof and sides 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick . The walls of the communication tube were three to four inches thick . The aft conning tower had 6 @-@ inch walls and a 3 @-@ inch cast steel roof . High @-@ tensile steel torpedo bulkheads 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 to 64 mm ) thick were fitted abreast the magazines and shell rooms . After the Battle of Jutland revealed the ship 's vulnerability to plunging shellfire , around 295 long tons ( 300 t ) of additional armour was added to the turret roofs , the decks over the magazines , and the bulkheads separating the 6 @-@ inch guns .
= = First World War = =
Tiger was laid down at the John Brown and Company shipyard in Clydebank on 6 June 1912 . She was launched on 15 December 1913 and commissioned into the Royal Navy on 3 October 1914 , at the cost of £ 2 @,@ 593 @,@ 100 , including armament . The ship was still under construction when the First World War broke out in August 1914 . On 3 August 1914 Captain Henry Bertram Pelly was appointed to command the incomplete ship . Beatty described Pelly at the time as " a very charming person and , what is more important just now , a very efficient officer " . After the Battle of Coronel and the deployment of three battlecruisers to hunt for the German East Asia Squadron , Tiger was ordered to cut short her firing trials off Berehaven and was commissioned into the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron ( 1st BCS ) two months later , on 3 October , and began trials and working up . Beatty described Tiger to the First Sea Lord , Admiral of the Fleet Lord Fisher of Kilverstone , as " not yet fit to fight . Three out of her four dynamoes are out of action for an indefinite period , and her training is impeded by bad weather , which might continue for many weeks at this time of year , and at present is quite unprepared and inefficient . "
= = = Battle of Dogger Bank = = =
On 23 January 1915 , a force of German battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Franz von Hipper sortied to clear the Dogger Bank of any British fishing boats or small craft that might be there to collect intelligence on German movements . However , the British were reading their coded messages and sailed to intercept them with a larger force of British battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Beatty . Contact was initiated at 7 : 20 a.m. on the 24th when the British light cruiser Arethusa spotted the German light cruiser SMS Kolberg . By 7 : 35 the Germans had spotted Beatty 's force and Hipper ordered a turn to the south at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , believing that this would suffice if the ships that he saw to his north @-@ west were British battleships and that he could always increase speed to Blücher 's maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) if they were British battlecruisers .
Beatty ordered his battlecruisers to make all practicable speed to catch the Germans before they could escape . The leading ships , Lion , Princess Royal and Tiger , were doing 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) in pursuit and Lion opened fire at 8 : 52 at a range of 20 @,@ 000 yards ( 18 @,@ 000 m ) . The other ships followed a few minutes later but , hampered by the extreme range and decreasing visibility , they did not score their first hit on Blücher until 9 : 09 . The German battlecruisers opened fire themselves a few minutes later at 9 : 11 , at a range of 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) , and concentrated their fire on Lion . At 9 : 35 Beatty signalled " Engage the corresponding ships in the enemy 's line " , but Captain Pelly , believing that Indomitable was already engaging Blücher , fired at Seydlitz , as did Lion , which left Moltke free to continue attacking Lion without risk .
In the meantime Blücher had been heavily damaged by fire from all the other battlecruisers ; her speed had dropped to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) and her steering gear had been jammed . Beatty ordered Indomitable to attack her at 10 : 48 a.m. Six minutes later Beatty spotted what he thought was a submarine periscope on the starboard bow and ordered an immediate 90 ° turn to port to avoid the submarine , although he failed to hoist the " Submarine Warning " flag because most of Lion 's signal halyards had been shot away . Shortly afterward Lion lost her remaining dynamo to the rising water which knocked out all remaining light and power . He ordered " Course north @-@ east " at 11 : 02 to bring his ships back to their pursuit of Hipper . He also hoisted " Attack the rear of the enemy " on the other halyard although there was no connection between the two signals . Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Gordon Moore , temporarily commanding in New Zealand , thought that the signals meant for him to attack Blücher , which was about 8 @,@ 000 yards ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) to the north @-@ east , which he did , turning away from Hipper 's main body . Beatty tried to correct the mistake , but he was so far behind the leading battlecruisers that his signals could not be read amidst the smoke and haze .
He transferred his flag to the destroyer Attack at 11 : 50 and set off in pursuit of his battlecruisers . He caught up to them shortly before Blücher sank and boarded Princess Royal at 12 : 20 . He ordered the pursuit of the German battlecruisers to be resumed , but rescinded the order when it became clear that too much time had been wasted sinking Blücher and Hipper 's ships would be able to reach German waters before the British could catch them . Lion was headed home at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) when the rest of the battlecruisers caught up with her around 12 : 45 .
During the action , Tiger was hit by six German shells , the most significant of which was a 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) shell that burst on the roof of ' Q ' turret . Although most of the shell was deflected overboard , fragments penetrated the roof , damaged the left gun 's breech mechanism and jammed the training gear , knocking the turret out of action . Ten men were killed during the battle and 11 wounded . Tiger 's repairs were completed on 8 February . Like the rest of the battlecruisers , Tiger 's own gunnery was rapid , but inaccurate , and she achieved only two hits out of 355 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) shells fired , scoring one hit each on Seydlitz and Derfflinger . Her performance was noted and commented upon by the senior leadership of the Royal Navy : Lord Fisher criticised Pelly 's performance , calling him a " poltroon " and adding " The Tiger 's gunnery seems to have been villainously bad on January 24 , yet she seems to have had a lot of practice . " . In a memorandum of 11 February 1915 Beatty explained to Pelly where the latter had misconstrued the standing orders , going through Tiger 's part in the battle blow by blow and comparing it to that of other ships . His final paragraph was conciliatory however : " In making these remarks I have no wish to express censure in any form . I realise that a newly @-@ commissioned ship in her first action has many difficulties to contend with , and I am quite ready to make the fullest allowance for them . My chief aim is to ensure that our next action shall be a complete success . " The ship was given a refit in December 1915 .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
On 31 May 1916 , Tiger and the 1st BCS had put to sea with the rest of the Battlecruiser Fleet , under Beatty 's overall command , to intercept a sortie by the High Seas Fleet into the North Sea . The British had decoded the German radio messages , and left their bases before the Germans put to sea . Hipper 's battlecruisers spotted the Battlecruiser Fleet to their west at 3 : 20 p.m. , but Beatty 's ships did not see the Germans to their east until 3 : 30 . Two minutes later , Beatty ordered a course change to east @-@ southeast , positioning the British ships to cut off the German 's line of retreat , and signalled action stations . Hipper ordered his ships to turn to starboard , away from the British , to assume a south @-@ easterly course , and reduced speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) to allow three light cruisers of the 2nd Scouting Group to catch up . With this turn , Hipper was falling back on the High Seas Fleet , 60 miles ( 97 km ) behind him . Beatty altered course to the east , as he was still too far north to cut Hipper off .
This was later characterised as the " Run to the South " as Beatty changed course to steer east @-@ southeast at 3 : 45 , now paralleling Hipper 's course less than 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) away . The Germans opened fire first at 3 : 48 , followed by the British . The British ships were still in the process of making their turn as only the two leading ships , Lion and Princess Royal , had steadied on their course when the Germans opened fire . The 1st BCS was echeloned to the right with Tiger in the rear and the furthest to the west , closest to the Germans . Tiger missed Beatty 's fire distribution order , as had Queen Mary , and Tiger engaged Moltke , instead of Seydlitz as Beatty intended . The German fire was accurate from the start , with Tiger hit six times by Moltke within the first seven minutes ; although two of these hits temporarily disabled both ' Q ' and ' X ' turrets , she was not seriously damaged . By 3 : 54 , the range was down to 12 @,@ 900 yards ( 11 @,@ 800 m ) ; Beatty ordered a course change two points to starboard to open up the range at 3 : 57 .
The range gradually increased until the distance between the British and German ships was too great for accurate fire , so Beatty altered course four points to port between 4 : 12 and 4 : 15 to close the range . By 4 : 25 , the range was down to 14 @,@ 400 yards ( 13 @,@ 200 m ) and Beatty turned two points to starboard to open the range again . Around this time , Queen Mary was hit multiple times in quick succession and her forward magazines exploded . Tiger , following in Queen Mary 's wake at a distance of only 500 yards ( 460 m ) , had to put her helm hard @-@ a @-@ starboard to avoid colliding with the wreckage . At 4 : 30 , the light cruiser Southampton , scouting in front of Beatty 's ships , spotted the lead elements of the High Seas Fleet coming north at top speed . Three minutes later , she sighted the topmasts of Vice @-@ Admiral Reinhard Scheer 's battleships , but did not report this for another five minutes . Beatty continued south for another two minutes to confirm the sighting before ordering his force to turn north . By this time Tiger had been hit a total of 17 times , all but one fired by Moltke , but she remained fit to fight .
The German battlecruisers made their own turn north in pursuit , but Beatty 's ships maintained full speed , and gradually moved out of range . The British battlecruisers turned north , then north @-@ east , to try to rendezvous with the main body of the Grand Fleet , and at 5 : 40 p.m. opened fire again on their German counterparts . The setting sun blinded the German gunners and they could not make out the British ships and turned away to the north @-@ east at 5 : 47 . Beatty gradually turned towards the east so his ships could cover the Grand Fleet as it deployed into battle formation , but he mistimed his manoeuvre and forced the leading British division further from the Germans . By 6 : 35 , Beatty was following the 3rd BCS as they were leading the Grand Fleet east @-@ southeast , and continuing to engage Hipper 's battlecruisers to their south @-@ west . A few minutes earlier , Scheer had ordered a simultaneous 180 ° starboard turn , and Beatty lost sight of them in the haze . At 6 : 44 , Beatty turned his ships south @-@ east , then south @-@ southeast four minutes later , to find Hipper 's force . He then ordered the two surviving ships of the 3rd BCS to take position astern of New Zealand , while slowing to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) and altering course to the south to stay close to the Grand Fleet . At this moment Lion 's gyrocompass failed and she , followed by the rest of the battlecruisers , made a complete circle before her steering was brought back under control . At 6 : 55 , Scheer ordered another 180 ° turn , which put the German ships on a converging course again with the Grand Fleet . However , the British had altered course to the south , allowing the Grand Fleet to cross Scheer 's " T " and inflict damage on the leading German ships . Scheer ordered yet another 180 ° turn at 7 : 13 , and successfully extricated the High Seas Fleet from the trap his manoeuvring caused .
The British lost sight of the Germans until HMS Castor spotted smoke to the west @-@ northwest at 8 : 05 p.m. , then identified and engaged several German torpedo boats . On hearing the sound of gunfire , Beatty ordered his ships west , and spotted the German battlecruisers only 8 @,@ 500 yards ( 7 @,@ 800 m ) away . Inflexible opened fire at 8 : 20 , followed almost immediately by the rest of the battlecruisers . Shortly after 8 : 30 , the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of Rear Admiral Franz Mauve 's II Battle Squadron were spotted . The British battlecruisers and German pre @-@ dreadnoughts exchanged fire ; the Germans only fired a few times before turning away to the west because of poor visibility and the more accurate British gunnery , and disappeared into the mist around 8 : 40 . Beatty 's battlecruisers sailed south @-@ southeast , ahead of both the Grand Fleet and the High Seas Fleet , until the order to reverse course for home was given at 2 : 55 a.m.
Tiger and the rest of the battlecruisers reached Rosyth Dockyard in Scotland on the morning of 2 June . Docked the next day for repairs which took until 1 July , she was the first of the " Splendid Cats " to be repaired . Tiger was hit a total of 18 times during the battle , mostly by shells fired by Moltke , suffering 24 men killed and 46 wounded . The battlecruiser fired 303 shells from her main guns during the battle and is credited with one hit on Moltke and two on Von der Tann . The ship also fired 136 rounds from her 6 @-@ inch guns at the light cruiser Wiesbaden and German destroyers .
= = = Post @-@ Jutland service = = =
After her repairs were completed , Tiger served as the temporary flagship of the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron while Lion was under repair . In the meantime , on the evening of 18 August the Grand Fleet put to sea in response to a message deciphered by Room 40 which indicated that the High Seas Fleet , less the II Squadron , would be leaving harbour that night . The German objective was to bombard Sunderland on the 19th , with extensive reconnaissance provided by airships and submarines . The Grand Fleet sailed with 29 dreadnought battleships and six battlecruisers . Throughout the 19th , Jellicoe and Scheer received conflicting intelligence , with the result that having reached its rendezvous in the North Sea , the Grand Fleet steered north in the erroneous belief that it had entered a minefield before turning south again . Scheer steered south @-@ eastward pursuing a lone British battle squadron reported by an airship , which was in fact the Harwich Force under Commodore Tyrwhitt . Having realised their mistake the Germans then steered for home . The only contact came in the evening when Tyrwhitt sighted the High Seas Fleet but was unable to achieve an advantageous attack position before dark , and broke off contact . Both the British and the German fleets returned home ; the British had lost two cruisers to submarine attacks , and a German dreadnought had been damaged by a torpedo .
The ship received a lengthy refit from 10 November 1916 to 29 January 1917 at Rosyth where her deck and turret roof armour were reinforced and additional rangefinders were added over her conning tower and the rear of ' X ' turret . For the remainder of the war , Tiger uneventfully patrolled the North Sea , as both fleets were essentially forbidden to risk any more losses . She provided support for British light forces involved in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight on 17 November 1917 , but never came within range of any German forces . The same year saw her undergo a minor refit during which a flying @-@ off platform for a Sopwith Camel was mounted on ' Q ' turret and a searchlight platform was added to her third funnel . She underwent a more extensive refit in 1918 which saw her topmast shifted to the top of the derrick @-@ stump and a more substantial observation platform added to the foremast . Some of her short rangefinders were replaced by longer ones as well .
= = Post @-@ war service = =
Tiger remained in service with the Royal Navy after the Armistice with Germany and she had a flying @-@ off platform added on ' B ' turret 's roof in 1919 . The ship collided with the battleship Royal Sovereign in late 1920 while assigned to the Atlantic Fleet . Tiger survived the culling of older capital ships following the Washington Naval Treaty , although she was placed in reserve on 22 August 1921 . The ship was refitted in March 1922 with a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) rangefinder fitted on ' X ' turret , her original pair of 3 @-@ inch AA guns replaced by four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns , and the flying @-@ off platform on ' Q ' turret was removed . On 14 February 1924 , Tiger was recommissioned and became a seagoing training ship , a role she served in throughout the 1920s . Her last major period of activity came in 1929 , when Hood went into dockyard hands for refit . While Hood was out of commission , Tiger returned to active service to keep the Royal Navy 's three @-@ ship Battlecruiser Squadron ( normally made up of Hood plus the smaller Renown and Repulse ) up to strength . Although by the 1930s Tiger was still in reasonable condition , the decision was taken to discard her following the London Naval Conference of 1930 as part of an overall reduction in world battleship fleets . Under the command of Captain Kenneth Dewar from 1928 to 1929 , her final commander was Arthur Bedford , and she remained in service with the fleet until Hood came out of refit in early 1931 , at which time she was taken out of commission in accordance with the terms of the London Naval Treaty .
Tiger took the cheers of the Atlantic Fleet on 30 March 1931 at Devonport . She paid off on 15 May 1931 at Rosyth , before being sold to T. W. Ward of Inverkeithing for breaking up in February 1932 .
= HD 154672 b =
HD 154672 b is an extrasolar planet located approximately 210 light @-@ years away in the constellation of Ara , orbiting the metal @-@ rich and aged star HD 154672 . This planet has a minimum mass five times that of Jupiter and orbits at about 60 % the distance between the Earth to the Sun . Its orbit is very elliptical , which causes temperatures on the planet to vary significantly as it proceeds along its orbit . This planet was discovered in Las Campanas Observatory on September 5 , 2008 using the radial velocity method ( Doppler spectroscopy ) . Along with HD 205739 b , the planets were the first to be discovered by the N2K Consortium using the Magellan Telescopes .
= = Discovery = =
Astronomers hoped to implement a survey called the N2K Consortium , a collaboration which uses Doppler spectroscopy to find radial velocity measurements of stars that hadn 't been previously surveyed . The project searched particularly for gas giants with short orbits around metal @-@ rich stars to find how the metallicity of the star and the mass of the planet are related .
Radial velocity observations had been taken by the N2K program using the Magellan Telescopes ' Magellan Inamori Kyocera Echelle spectrograph ( MIKE ) at Las Campanas Observatory in Chile since 2004 . Based on these observations , the stars HD 154672 and HD 205739 were among those flagged as potential planetary host stars . The two stars were identified originally as having short @-@ orbit hot Jupiter planets , but 3 @.@ 5 years of additional observations revealed that the planetary candidates ' orbits were far longer than initially anticipated . HD 154672 b 's discovery was reported in the Astronomical Journal by the American Astronomical Society , appearing in the journal on October 7 , 2008 alongside the planet HD 205739 b . The two planets were the first to be discovered by the N2K program that worked out of the Magellan telescopes .
HD 154672 b was later observed by a different team of astronomers investigating the role of metallicity , or the amount of metal present in a star , in the formation of planets . Six radial velocity measurements of the host star , collected using the HARPS instrument at Chile 's La Silla Observatory . The team used the radial velocity data to refine the parameters of HD 154672 b from what was published in its discovery paper a year earlier .
= = Host star = =
HD 154672 is a G @-@ type star like the Sun . The star has a mass that is 1 @.@ 06 times that of the Sun , and a radius 1 @.@ 27 times the solar radius . The effective temperature , or the temperature it would emit if it were a black body , is 5714 K , slightly cooler than that of the Sun . However , with an [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 26 and an age of 9 @.@ 28 billion years , HD 154672 has 182 % more iron than the Sun , and is over two times older than the Sun . Based on its spectrum , HD 154672 is not a very active star .
The apparent magnitude ( v ) of HD 154672 is 8 @.@ 22 , which means that it is not visible to the naked eye . It is slightly dimmer than Neptune , which has an apparent magnitude of 7 @.@ 78 at its brightest .
= = Characteristics = =
HD 154672 b is a closely orbiting planet that is larger than Jupiter . Its mass was estimated as 5 @.@ 02 that of Jupiter . HD 154672 b also orbits its host star at a distance of 0 @.@ 6 AU every 163 @.@ 91 days . Earth , in comparison , orbits the Sun at a distance of 1 AU every 365 @.@ 25 days . However , HD 154672 b has an orbital eccentricity of 0 @.@ 61 , which indicates a very elliptical orbit . Because HD 154672 b has such an eccentric orbit , the equilibrium temperature of the planet varies between 300 K and 600 K , which is significantly higher than that of Jupiter ( 124 K ) . If liquid water is present in the atmosphere of HD 154672 b , it could possibly convert between gaseous and liquid phases as the planet moves along its orbit .
The high eccentricity of the planet 's orbit suggests that either the Kozai mechanism ( there is an exchange between the inclination of a planet and its eccentricity ) is at work , or that the planet 's orbit was distorted by the unstable orbit of other planets that used to be part of the HD 154672 system .
HD 154672 b had , at the time of its 2008 discovery , an orbital period larger than 90 % of all discovered planets . It was the seventh planet known to have an eccentricity over 0 @.@ 6 and an orbit shorter than 300 days .
= Caleb V. Haynes =
Caleb Vance Haynes ( March 15 , 1895 – April 5 , 1966 ) was a United States Air Force ( USAF ) major general . The grandson of Chang Bunker , a famous Siamese Twin , he served in the Air Force as an organizer , able to create air units from scratch . He commanded a large number of groups , squadrons and task forces before , during and after World War II .
In the 1930s , Haynes , a rated command pilot , led experimental long @-@ range over @-@ water interception flights that were key to the development of U.S. air defense doctrine . Haynes demonstrated by piloting one of the bombers that intercepted the Italian liner SS Rex that enemy ships could be located and sunk by American aircraft . As well , Haynes helped promote air power by flying long range missions to various countries in South America .
Described as " a big , hulking mountaineer " , Haynes was a " pilot 's pilot " , the kind of air officer who led from the front . Fighting in China in 1942 , Haynes commanded a small force of bombers under Claire Chennault , and was known for his expert flying ability and his daring . Chennault said that " Haynes looked like a gorilla and flew like an angel . "
= = Early life = =
Caleb Vance Haynes was born in Dobson , the county seat of Surry County , North Carolina , on March 15 , 1895 . His paternal grandfather was Caleb Hill Haynes , who died at the end of April 1863 , two weeks after the birth of Caleb Hill Haynes , Jr . This son grew up and married Margaret Elizabeth " Lizzie " Bunker on January 10 , 1889 . The couple produced five daughters and four sons — Caleb Vance Haynes was the fourth child and the second son . At the time of his birth , his father was the County Registrar of Deeds . The father continued to rise in North Carolina Democratic Party politics , serving as one of the delegates to the Democratic National Convention in 1912 . A Mason , Caleb Hill Haynes , Jr. was the county sheriff for twenty years following which he was elected to the North Carolina General Assembly in 1931 .
On his mother 's side , Caleb Vance Haynes had Thai and Chinese ancestors through his grandfather Chang Bunker , one of the original Siamese Twins . The conjoined twins married sisters , with Chang Bunker marrying Adelaide Yates . The couple produced seven daughters and three sons , and lived west of Mount Airy , North Carolina . Three of their Anglo @-@ Chinese offspring , including Lizzie Bunker , Haynes 's mother , married into the local Haynes clan .
Young Caleb Vance Haynes grew up and went to school in Mount Airy . He moved some 140 miles ( 230 km ) to the southeast to attend Wake Forest College . There , he graduated in 1917 with a Bachelor of Laws degree .
= = World War I = =
Two months after receiving his law degree , Haynes entered the United States Army as a flying cadet on August 15 , 1917 . From August to November 1917 , he attended the School of Military Aeronautics at Georgia Polytechnic Institute , after which he sailed for France . He served at Saint @-@ Maixent @-@ l 'École until the following March and then entered the Machine Gun School at Gondrecourt @-@ le @-@ Château . In May 1918 , he was commissioned a temporary second lieutenant in the Air Service , and sent to Tours as a test pilot . In July of that year , he became an instructor at the Second Aviation Instructor Center at Issoudun and the following September was transferred to Orly as a test pilot . After the Armistice in November 1918 , he served as an aide to President Woodrow Wilson during the Paris Peace Conference .
= = Inter @-@ war period = =
= = = Air Service duty = = =
Returning to the U.S. in June 1919 , he was assigned to Mitchel Field on Long Island , New York . The following August he went to Speedway , Indiana , for duty as supply officer of the Aviation Repair Depot . In July 1920 , he was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Air Service of the Regular Army and in September became a test officer at the Fairfield , Ohio , Air Intermediate Depot . In May 1922 , he went to Washington , D.C. where he served as officer @-@ in @-@ charge of gasoline and oil supply systems in the Office of the Chief of Air Service . In 1923 , he piloted one of the six Army planes that flew from the U.S. to San Juan , Puerto Rico , on a goodwill tour .
Haynes was ordered to Crissy Field in San Francisco in August 1924 , and transferred to Camp Lewis , Washington , the following June where he served three months as commanding officer of the Air Corps detachment . In September 1925 , he returned to Crissy Field .
= = = Air Corps duty = = =
Under Major John T. " Jack " Fancher in March 1927 , Haynes became an instructor of the 116th Observation Squadron , the aerial component of the 41st Division of the Washington National Guard , stationed at Felts Field . Haynes was one of the directors of the 1927 Spokane National Air Derby and Air Races , September 21 – 25 , with finish lines established at Felts for air races starting from New York and also from San Francisco . Fancher died in April 1928 , and Haynes succeeded him in command of the 116th . Haynes married and became a father during his time in Spokane , and he improved Felts Field , adding a photography laboratory . In August 1931 after four years in Washington state , he entered the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field in Alabama , at the rank of first lieutenant .
Following graduation from the school in June 1932 , he went to Langley Field , Virginia , for duty as engineering officer of the Eighth Pursuit Group , a unit of fighter aircraft at which he attained the rank of captain . In February 1934 , he assumed command of the Second Station , Eastern Zone , for the Army Air Corps Mail Operation ( AACMO ) based at Bolling Field , Washington , D.C. ; Haynes was frustrated that his men in Richmond , Virginia were " forced to establish headquarters in rear of hangars , in tents , sheds , and other places " unsuited to winter operations . Haynes urgently requested air temperature thermometers to be supplied to all mail planes so that pilots could be warned of possible atmospheric icing conditions , but was forced to operate without them as procurement was to take two months . From July 1934 until January 1935 , Haynes was the commanding officer of the 37th Pursuit Squadron at Langley Field . This turned out to be Haynes 's last posting to a fighter unit .
Haynes went to Rockwell Field , California , for special training in air navigation and instrument flying . Returning to Langley field in March 1935 , he was appointed commanding officer of the 37th Attack Squadron there . He entered the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , in August 1935 , and graduated the following June . He returned to Langley Field , where he served as commanding officer of the 49th Bombardment Squadron of the 2nd Bombardment Group , and rose to the temporary rank of major .
The first YB @-@ 17 Flying Fortress service test aircraft were assigned in March 1937 to the 2nd Bombardment Group , commanded by Lt. Col. Robert Olds . Following Barney M. Giles in the first one , Haynes flew the second one to Langley . By early August , a squadron of 12 were gathered . On August 12 – 13 , 1937 , Haynes took part in a joint Army @-@ Navy exercise in which the battleship USS Utah was to be searched for off the coast of San Francisco , and hit with 50 @-@ pound ( 23 kg ) water bombs if found . The timing and location had been selected by Admiral William D. Leahy to provide the Utah with the greatest likelihood of fog and cloud cover in which to hide from air observation . The navy supplied the water bombs , but the airmen had never employed them , and were not practiced in their aerodynamics . Delos Carleton Emmons commanded the Air Corps units from his headquarters at Hamilton Field , and Curtis LeMay served as the main navigator for the bomber group , composed of thirty twin @-@ engine Martin B @-@ 10s , seven of the new YB @-@ 17s , four B @-@ 18 Bolos , and three amphibious aircraft . On the afternoon of August 12 , the Navy sent to the airmen directions which were off by one degree of latitude , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the east of the ship 's actual position , and the bombers did not find the battleship . The next morning , Haynes and Olds flew the lead YB @-@ 17 with LeMay as navigator , and General Headquarters Air Force commander General Frank M. Andrews as an observer to witness the results . Haynes descended below the fog to find the Utah , and commenced bombing at 11 : 47 a.m at a low altitude of 600 feet ( 180 m ) . At 11 : 59 , the last YB @-@ 17 dropped its bombs , for a total of three direct hits out of fifty water bombs dropped . The larger flight of B @-@ 10s arrived three minutes after noon , three minutes too late for the exercise .
In February 1938 , he participated in the Army flight from Langley Field to Buenos Aires , Argentina , commanded by Olds , and in August of that year took part in the Army flight to Bogotá , Colombia . The following January he returned to the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field to take a month 's course in Naval Operations .
= = = Interception of the Rex = = =
See main article Interception of the Rex
In May 1938 during Army maneuvers , bomber advocates wished to attempt an interception of a ship at sea , as far from land as the B @-@ 17 's practical range would allow . The U.S. Navy refused to cooperate — instead , Reserve Lieutenant Harris Hull suggested intercepting an ocean liner . The War Department agreed , and arranged for coordination with the Italian ocean liner SS Rex which would be crossing the Atlantic . Lieutenant Colonel Ira C. Eaker , head of Air Corps public relations , contacted major news agencies for national publicity . Haynes flew one of the three B @-@ 17s specially prepared for the task . Aboard Haynes 's aircraft were LeMay as navigator and the two theoretical war @-@ maneuver adversaries : Major Vincent L. Meloy , another squadron commander acting as the attacking force 's commander , and Olds as defending group commander . Positioned further back in the body of the bomber was one NBC radio announcer served by two broadcast engineers operating a powerful radio transmitter and a smaller transceiver tuned to the Rex . On May 12 through poor weather , the morning position report from the Rex placed the ship 725 miles ( 1 @,@ 167 km ) at sea and the three B @-@ 17s took off in a driving rain .
LeMay 's expert navigation plot resulted in visual contact with the ship at 12 : 25 pm some 620 miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km ) east of Sandy Hook . NBC began broadcasting to the U.S. on the main transmitter , while Meloy spoke over the other radio with Captain Cavellini of the Rex , who jokingly invited all of the airmen down for lunch at his table . Aboard another B @-@ 17 , USAAC 's top photographer , Major George W. Goddard , snapped a shot of Haynes and fellow pilot Archibald Y. Smith flying their two B @-@ 17s over the Rex " at smokestack level " — Goddard later enthused that the photo " made the front page of every newspaper around the world " .
= = = 1938 to Pearl Harbor = = =
Late in 1938 , Haynes commanded a provisional group of nine YB @-@ 17s that were to test bombing accuracy over Plum Tree Island , a bombing range near Langley at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay . Carrying two 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) bombs each , the aircraft flew at 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) in single file , and aimed at a single point , dropping their bombs in quick succession . Observation showed exactly half the bombs striking inside of a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 300 m ) diameter circle centered on the target .
Haynes received the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Order of the Merit of Chile for his role in February 1939 as commander of the experimental aircraft , the Boeing XB @-@ 15 , carrying 3 @,@ 250 pounds ( 1 @,@ 470 kg ) of American Red Cross emergency supplies to Santiago , Chile , to help the survivors of the 1939 Chillán earthquake . Haynes and his ten @-@ man crew won the Mackay Trophy for their part in the nearly 10 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 16 @,@ 000 km ) round trip voyage . The flight showed the world not only the lengths to which the U.S. could go to mount a humanitarian relief mission but also the range and payload capability of the new bomber .
Haynes piloted the XB @-@ 15 again on June 10 to return home the body of Mexican flier Francisco Sarabia who had died in a crash in the Potomac River . After flying back from Mexico City , Haynes and his copilot William D. Old undertook flight tests at Fairfield , Ohio , lifting very heavy loads . They used the XB @-@ 15 to lift 22 @,@ 046 pounds ( 10 @,@ 000 kg ) to 8 @,@ 228 feet ( 2 @,@ 508 m ) , and 31 @,@ 164 pounds ( 14 @,@ 136 kg ) to 6 @,@ 561 @.@ 6 feet ( 2 @,@ 000 @.@ 0 m ) , setting two world records . Haynes was awarded certificates issued by the National Aeronautics Association ( NAA ) for an international record for " the greatest payload carried to an altitude of 2 @,@ 000 metres " . The following month he received certificates from the NAA for the establishment of an international 5 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 100 mi ) speed record with a 2 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) payload . The latter performance also established a national closed circuit distance record of 3 @,@ 129 @.@ 241 miles ( 5 @,@ 036 @.@ 025 km ) . He was promoted to the permanent rank of major in November .
In February 1940 , he was named commanding officer of the 41st Reconnaissance Squadron ( Long Range ) flying modified bomber aircraft at Langley Field . From October to December 1940 , Haynes was an aide to Brigadier General Arnold N. Krogstad at that station . He then became training adviser of the 13th Composite Wing primarily flying Douglas B @-@ 18 Bolos at Borinquen Field , Puerto Rico .
From January 7 to June 1 , 1941 , Haynes was in command of the original 25th Bombardment Group at Borinquen Field and at that time organized the Puerto Rico Sector of the VI Bomber Command . He was promoted to the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel .
Haynes was called to Washington , D.C. in June to command a single B @-@ 24 Liberator to be used to test a northern Atlantic air route to Great Britain . On July 1 , 1941 , he took off from Bolling Field and refueled in Montreal , then again at Gander Lake , Newfoundland before arriving in Ayr , Scotland in the first B @-@ 24 delivered overseas . A total of 22 round trip flights were made by others in the next three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months , however , Haynes was directed to scout another air route across the southern Atlantic from the U.S. to Brazil to Africa , with the terminus in Cairo , Egypt . On August 31 with Major Curtis LeMay as his co @-@ pilot and Chief of the Air Corps Major General George H. Brett as a passenger , Haynes took off from Bolling Field to begin a 26 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 42 @,@ 000 km ) round trip journey to Egypt and beyond , conveying Brett to Basra , Iraq , on a special mission . Haynes and LeMay retraced their flight to land back in the U.S. on October 7 . With the southern route thus proved satisfactory , the UK agreed to purchase 16 B @-@ 24s to be delivered by this method to Cairo — one quarter of that number made the trip before the remainder were redirected into American service .
= = World War II = =
In December 1941 at the start of direct involvement of the U.S. in World War II , Haynes was made base commander of Borinquen Field , an important defensive stronghold in the Caribbean and the first refueling stop after Florida in the southern route to Cairo . The following February he returned to Washington , D.C. , to organize Force Aquila , the advance party of the Tenth Air Force , an operation that intended to bomb Tokyo using B @-@ 17s and B @-@ 24s flying from bases in the Zhejiang province of eastern China , supplied by C @-@ 47 Skytrains . In Florida , Haynes gathered a force of one B @-@ 24 , 12 B @-@ 17 bombers and a small group of C @-@ 47s . Haynes and his mixed unit flew individually to Brazil , then Africa , and on to Karachi , India ; landing in April 1942 with no losses . One of the B @-@ 17 pilots , Robert Lee Scott , Jr . , wrote about his view of the voyage in his autobiography , God Is My Co @-@ Pilot . Haynes began organizing the supply lines for HALPRO , beginning with aviation fuel deliveries to China . On April 9 , Colonel William D. Old piloted the first flight over the Hump ; Haynes the second . The airmen were chagrined to hear that , with the Doolittle Raid , other Americans had beaten them in being first to attack Tokyo . A further blow came in May 1942 when Japanese forces captured the Chinese bases HALPRO was to use . The project was canceled and its men and B @-@ 17s were reassigned by General Lewis H. Brereton to become part of the Tenth Air Force . The HALPRO group of B @-@ 24s never reached Karachi ; instead , the initial group was diverted to the Ninth Air Force in North Africa .
Brereton sent Haynes to Dinjan Airfield in the Indian state of Assam to continue his supply @-@ line work under the name Assam @-@ Burma @-@ China Ferry Command , or ABC Ferry Command , with the mission of supplying American forces in China . This air organization was formed to carry supplies over the Hump , the air route replacement for the enemy @-@ held Burma Road . At first , Haynes worked with only two C @-@ 47 transports , and was accompanied on some missions by just one P @-@ 40 Warhawk fighter flown by the outfit 's executive of operations , Colonel Robert Lee Scott , Jr . , who had shifted to flying a fighter once HALPRO was canceled . When Burma appeared to be falling to the Japanese , Haynes and a handful of other airmen of the Chinese National Aviation Corporation and the Royal Air Force flew hundreds of evacuation missions from April to mid @-@ June , bringing some 4 @,@ 500 passengers westward to safety in India . The American ferry aircraft would typically deliver supplies to China then stop in Burma on the way back to Assam .
On May 4 , 1942 , Haynes flew to rescue 30 members of General Joseph Stilwell 's mission when they got cut off in Northern Burma , though " Vinegar Joe " himself refused the lift , preferring to walk out with the remainder of his force . Haynes subsequently dropped supplies to Stilwell 's group as they made their way west through the jungle . On one such mission , a Japanese fighter attacking his C @-@ 47 was discouraged into retreat when the crewmen of the supposedly unarmed transport opened up on it with fire from Thompson submachine guns and 45 @-@ caliber M1911 pistols . Around this time Tokyo Rose announced on the radio about Haynes that the Japanese would no longer have anything to worry about because the Americans " made that old broken @-@ down transport pilot commander @-@ in @-@ chief " . Haynes , in command of no bombers with which to retaliate , instead loaded a transport with 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) fragmentation bombs and had some soldiers throw them out over enemy forces . He returned the next day to drop leaflets which read " Compliments of the Old Broken @-@ Down Transport Pilot " . For this action , Haynes was awarded the Silver Star .
In June 1942 , Haynes went to China to organize and command the Bomber Command of the China Air Task Force ( CATF ) under General Claire Chennault . His fighter group counterpart was Scott — the three air leaders were the subject of a Life magazine article in August which described them as like @-@ minded Southerners who " are quietly tough , despise the word can 't , eliminate all red tape and allow subordinates full range for individual initiative " . Haynes told Jack Belden , the Life journalist , that he " used to like pursuits better but now he likes bombers " , and other airmen confirmed to Belden that Haynes handled bombers as easily as fighters . Belden wrote that the open and frank bomber group leader " does not give a damn about playing Army politics " . Chennault , Haynes and Scott were said to " form just about the smartest , don 't @-@ give @-@ a @-@ damned @-@ est trio Asia has ever seen . " Rarely able to send out more than four or five B @-@ 25 Mitchell twin @-@ engine bombers at a time , supported by P @-@ 40s each carrying another bomb , Haynes constantly shifted his targets and kept the enemy guessing . Fuel and bomb scarcity limited the scope of operations . For instance , the only sortie on July 8 was Haynes piloting a single B @-@ 25 to bomb Japanese headquarters in Tengchong , China , near the border of Burma . Claims and losses in July proved the value of the strategy : One B @-@ 25 and five P @-@ 40s were lost in the destruction of 24 enemy fighters and 12 bombers . Supplies began to increase in the following months .
In October 1942 at the rank of brigadier general , he returned to India where he organized and commanded the India Air Task
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to challenge Japanese air superiority in Burma .
Haynes returned to Assam in June 1943 , to organize for Bissell the Assam @-@ American Air Base Command ( AAABC ) which he led as a mixed force composed primarily of Tenth Air Force units with some elements of the Fourteenth Air Force . Haynes was tasked with coordinating area defense and offensive destruction of the enemy , the emphasis on the former . For the first two months , Haynes was given fewer officers and men than he deemed necessary , and the AAABC made little headway in its mission . In mid @-@ August , large @-@ scale re @-@ organization of Allied forces in Asia resulted in the AAABC being renamed the American Air Base Command 1 , and placed under George E. Stratemeyer . Haynes led the group until September 1943 , when he returned to the U.S. after 18 months in Asia . Before he left , he told American reporters that his forces had helped deny the port of Rangoon to the enemy , and helped soften Burma for invasion . He stated that the highlight of his time in Asia was the air raid against Hong Kong . After his upcoming air crossing of the Atlantic , his eighth such , Haynes said that the first thing he intended to do was look up his 14 @-@ year @-@ old son in high school and his wife who was working in the drafting department at Sperry in Garden City , New York .
In October of that year , he became commanding general of the I Bomber Command of First Air Force at Mitchel Field , flying anti @-@ submarine warfare missions along the Eastern Seaboard . In July 1944 , he went to MacDill Field in Florida , where he took over the III Bomber Command , a bomber training group that also hunted for submarines .
= = Cold War = =
In December 1945 , he was assigned to headquarters of the Atlantic Division of Air Transport Command at Fort Totten , New York , and the following month was appointed commanding general of the Newfoundland Base command at Fort Pepperell , Newfoundland . There , he oversaw operations of American stations in Greenland , northern Quebec , Baffin Island and Labrador . Haynes told a National Geographic reporter that , even though the air stations were remote , " our troops ' morale is high " .
In July 1949 , Haynes became Inspector General , Military Air Transport Service ( MATS ) at Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland . He was appointed deputy commander for services of MATS two @-@ month later , at the rank of major general . In January 1951 , he assumed command of the 3750th Technical Training Wing at Sheppard Air Force Base , Wichita Falls , Texas . Haynes retired in 1953 .
= = Personal life = =
Haynes married Margery McLeod , born about 1899 in California , and the couple welcomed a child , Caleb Vance Haynes , Jr . , born in Spokane , Washington in 1928 . The son , known as Vance Haynes , served in the USAF 1951 – 1954 in special weapons , then studied archaeology and geology , earning a doctorate from the University of Arizona in 1965 . He became a professor of archaeology at universities in Texas and Arizona , and through his excavation work at Sandia Cave , helped establish the timeline of human migration through North America .
Haynes and his wife toured the American West after his retirement , indulging themselves while searching for a permanent residence . Some of the general 's friends suggested Wichita Falls , the city of his last military post , but he left to assess the possibility of living in Taos , New Mexico , where he and his airman son hiked and explored ancient human settlements . Deciding against Taos , Haynes and his wife continued in their tour , soon finding Carmel @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea , California , to their liking . There , he bought two adjoining lots on North Carmelo Street with one existing house . Rather than accepting any of the offers he received promising an executive career in the aeronautics industry , he relaxed by hunting and fishing .
Haynes joined a number of men 's clubs . He was a Freemason in the Granite Lodge of Mount Airy , a holder of the 32nd degree in the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite , and a Shriner . He was a member of the Quiet Birdmen , a secretive fraternal order of pilots , and he joined the American Legion . He enjoyed visits by friends , especially playing cards and sipping bourbon with his former military colleagues . He died at his home during the night of April 4 – 5 , 1966 , of acute peritonitis flaring up from a chronic duodenal ulcer . He was survived by his wife Margery , by his son who was living in Tucson , Arizona , and by his granddaughter Elizabeth Anne " Lisa " Haynes . He was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery on April 8 .
= = Recognition = =
Haynes was awarded :
Distinguished Service Medal
Silver Star with oak leaf cluster
Distinguished Flying Cross with two oak leaf clusters
Air Medal with oak leaf cluster
Commendation Medal with oak leaf cluster
Mackay Trophy
Order of the Merit of Chile
= = Effective dates of promotion = =
Private , First Class , Aviation Section , Signal Corps – August 15 , 1917
Second lieutenant ( temporary ) , Air Service – May 31 , 1918
Second lieutenant – June 1920
First lieutenant – July 1 , 1920
Captain – October 14 , 1932
Major ( temporary ) – August 27 , 1936
Major – November 1 , 1939
Lieutenant colonel ( temporary ) – March 21 , 1941
Colonel ( temporary ) – January 5 , 1942
Lieutenant colonel – March 4 , 1942
Brigadier general – September 5 , 1942
Major general – September 1949
= Dream Days at the Hotel Existence =
Dream Days at the Hotel Existence is the sixth studio album by Australian rock band Powderfinger , released by Universal Music on 2 June 2007 in Australia , 19 November 2007 in the United Kingdom , and 11 November 2008 in the United States on the Dew Process label . It was released in Australia with a limited edition bonus DVD , titled Powderfinger 's First XI , featuring eleven music videos spanning the band 's career , from the first single , " Tail " to " Bless My Soul " , the band 's latest single before the release of the album . A collector 's edition , including a CD and DVD , was released on 18 April 2008 .
Powderfinger reunited in late 2006 , after a three @-@ year hiatus , to write songs for Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , which was recorded in Los Angeles , California , in early 2007 by producer Rob Schnapf . The first single from the album , " Lost and Running " was released on 12 May 2007 , and reached number five on the ARIA singles chart . Three further singles were released ; " I Don 't Remember " , " Nobody Sees " , and " Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) " , though they failed to equal " Lost and Running " ' s chart performance .
The album received critical acclaim , with many reviewers commenting that the album was " consistent " and " distinctly Australian " . The album encountered controversy relating to the song " Black Tears " with claims that it may have influenced the Palm Island death in custody trial . Powderfinger released an abridged version of the song as a result of these accusations .
= = Background = =
Bernard Fanning stated in television interviews in 2006 that Powderfinger was working on a new album to be released the following year . On Powderfinger 's website , guitarist Ian Haug said that the upcoming album was an " exciting new direction " for the band 's music . After a month of recording , on 2 March 2007 , Fanning made an announcement on Australian radio station Triple J that tracking was complete , mixing the album was to follow , and the approximate release date was June . Fanning also stated that several of the tracks on the album feature session pianist Benmont Tench .
The title of the album was drawn from the book Brooklyn Follies by Paul Auster , which Fanning had read during the recording . He stated the concept of the title related to escapism , and that he felt it an appropriate sentiment to attach to the music of the album .
= = Recording and production = =
Following their hiatus , which commenced after the release of Fingerprints : The Best of Powderfinger , 1994 @-@ 2000 , the band reconvened in late 2006 to write songs for Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . The band sought a new sound on the album , causing the recording process to be different from prior albums ; Melbourne 's Sing Sing studios were not used and Nick DiDia was no longer the producer .
Dream Days at the Hotel Existence was recorded at Sunset Sound Studio , Los Angeles , California , in early 2007 by producer Rob Schnapf , best known for his work with Beck and The Vines . Powderfinger had already written most of the album before departing to the United States . In particular , Powderfinger wrote songs in parts and brought them together ; some songs were written in pairs or trios , while others were written in parts by different people , and then combined . According to the band , this brought a " diverse " and " fresh " approach to songwriting . The band used different methods in putting the album together as " it comes back to the sound the five of us can make together " . Powderfinger guitarist Darren Middleton commented that as a rule they preferred not to put together an album that was just " plain " . As the style of writing differed , the band identified the need for piano performances in many of their songs , enlisting veteran pianist Benmont Tench to play parts throughout .
= = Album and single releases = =
The album was released in Australia on 2 June 2007 , and in the United Kingdom on 19 November of the same year . A " limited edition " version of the album included a DVD featuring a collection of Powderfinger music videos , titled Powderfinger 's First XI . The music video for " Lost and Running " was also included , and was dubbed The Twelfth Man . A collector 's edition , including a CD and DVD , was released on 18 April 2008 .
Several songs from the album were launched to Perth fans as free music downloads via PerthNow , a Perth @-@ based newspaper . Fans were required to obtain a codeword from the newspaper , then submit it online to download the tracks .
The first single from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence was " Lost and Running " and the video clip , which was directed by Damon Escott and Stephen Lance of Head Pictures , began showing in Australia on 21 April 2007 . The single made its Australian radio debut on 16 April 2007 , but had been available for several days beforehand on the Powderfinger 's MySpace web page . An exclusive early release of the song was played by Triple J on 13 April 2007 . " Lost and Running " reached number five on the ARIA singles chart .
The second single from the album was " I Don 't Remember " . The film clip for the song was created by Fifty Fifty Films , who have created music videos for the group before including " Passenger " and " Like a Dog " . The song was aired on radio on 9 July 2007 , the music video was released in July , and the CD single was released for sales on 4 August 2007 . The video was shot at Samford State School in Powderfinger 's home city of Brisbane and features many of the school 's students .
On 16 November 2007 , it was announced that the third single from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence would be the album 's sixth track , " Nobody Sees " . A video was released on the same day as the announcement and the single is set to be released as a digital single on 1 December 2007 . In February 2008 , Powderfinger announced the release of the album 's fourth single , " Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) " . In late May , " Wishing On The Same Moon " was released as the album 's fifth single .
Surprisingly , the eighth track , " Long Way to Go " was played on Australian radio leading up to the release of the album in 2007 .
= = Response = =
= = = Chart performance = = =
The album debuted in the ARIA Album Charts on 11 June 2007 at number one , becoming Powderfinger 's fourth album to peak at the top spot . The album was certified platinum in its first week of sales , and its double platinum certification was announced later . A week after its release , the album achieved the highest first @-@ week sales figures of any new release in 2007 , with total sales of 40 @,@ 847 , thus making it the fastest selling album of the year in Australia . In its first week of release , Dream Days at the Hotel Existence broke the Australian digital album sales record , with over 3 @,@ 000 digital sales .
= = = Critical response = = =
Sydney Morning Herald commentator Bernard Zuel described Dream Days at the Hotel Existence as Powderfinger 's first dull album , noting that on numerous songs " It promises to become exciting but never quite gets there . " He complained that most of the songs were uneventful , or uninspiring , and that they do not " lift you as a listener . " PerthNow 's Jay Hanna disagreed , claiming the album was " rippling with emotions " . He said the album contained some " incredible moments " , praising " Head Up in the Clouds " , and calling " Nobody Sees " " Powderfinger at their devastating best " , while giving the album four stars .
Cameron Adams of Herald Sun HiT stated that the album contained no new directions for the band , and was highly consistent . He noted that the album contained less " rough edges and attitude " than predecessor Vulture Street , and likening the album more to Odyssey Number Five . Sputnikmusic 's James Bishop agreed , claiming the band should be concerned by the " lack of experimentation or ambition " on the album . He again stated that the album was consistent , noting that " there actually isn 't a bad song present " . The review , which gave the album three and a half stars , commented that it seemed the band were trying to move towards the bluegrass genre , and " edging their way into the adult @-@ contemporary section " of a music store , something they had not shown on their previous works .
Allmusic 's Clayton Bolger drew comparisons to Internationalist in his review , which gave the album 3 and a half stars . He said the album contained " all the trademarks of classic Powderfinger " , praising Fanning 's vocals , Middleton and Haug 's " twin @-@ guitar attack " , Collins ' basslines and Coghill 's " powerhouse drum work " . While praising " I Don 't Remember " as an excellent anthem , and " Surviving " for containing " a sonic blast of rock " , he was critical of " Lost and Running " , which he said felt " tired and sluggish " , while " Ballad of a Dead Man " was described as " tedious " .
= = = " Black Tears " controversy = = =
On 2 May 2007 , " Black Tears " , the ninth song on Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , sparked controversy after claims that its lyrics could invoke prejudice in the Palm Island death in custody trial . Lawyers for the accused , Senior Sergeant Chris Hurley , lodged a complaint to the Queensland Attorney @-@ General relating to the lyrics of the song . According to Hurley 's legal team , the initial lyrics dealt with the " death of a Palm Island man , Mulrunji Doomadgee " , in stating " an island watch @-@ house bed , a black man 's lying dead " . Bernard Fanning made a media statement in response to the complaint , stating that the band had never intended for the song to contain " even the slightest suggestion of any prejudice " . He also said that the band would still release the album on the planned date , but with an alternate version of " Black Tears " . Fanning later stated that he was not angry about having to change his lyrics , but lamented the lack of Australian musicians willing to challenge the status quo .
= = Cover art = =
Dream Days at the Hotel Existence 's cover art was designed by Aaron Hayward & David Homer of Debaser , a New South Wales @-@ based design organisation . The recipient of the 2007 ARIA Award for " Best Cover Art " , the album art features a photograph of a road leading into the Australian outback horizon . In the centre , placed in the sky in relation to the background , there is a window with a crimson curtain . Within this window is a hotel room , as per the name of the album , in which a man with no head in a suit is seated at the end of the bed while watching the television .
Above the window is the album title and at the top of the cover is the band 's name in a typeface more crafty than on previous album covers . Though the general design of the cover is that of a 1930s hotel in style , the typeface juxtaposes the general design with being a rather futuristic , science @-@ fiction styled typeset . This is the second futuristic style that the band has used for their name , the first appearing on Vulture Street .
= = Touring = =
Tickets for a nationwide tour of launch shows for Dream Days at the Hotel Existence went on sale on 10 May 2007 on the band 's website , with tickets to the general public being released a day later . Powderfinger also toured in New South Wales and northern Victoria . Australian pianist Lachlan Doley was enlisted to play piano and keyboard parts on their live performances in these shows . His performances were welcomed by critics and audiences , with AdelaideNow commenting that " local ring @-@ in Lachlan Doley added shimmering keys to the band 's richly textured sound " . Powderfinger and Doley performed the single " Lost and Running " on popular Australian variety show Rove on 17 June 2007 . The group performed at Splendour in the Grass on 4 August 2007 , and then followed it up by performing at Triple J 's AWOL Concert in Karratha , Western Australia on 18 August 2007 .
Powderfinger announced the Across the Great Divide tour on 12 June 2007 . The band were accompanied on the nationwide concert tour by Australian rock group Silverchair . The tour is not only featured in the capital cities , but in fourteen Australian and New Zealand regional centres as well . According to Fanning , " the idea is to show both bands are behind the idea of reconciliation [ of Indigenous Australians ] . "
= = Personnel = =
= = Track listing = =
" Head Up in the Clouds " – 3 : 47
" I Don 't Remember " – 3 : 41
" Lost and Running " – 3 : 42
" Wishing on the Same Moon " – 4 : 32
" Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) " – 5 : 10
" Nobody Sees " – 4 : 14
" Surviving " – 3 : 45
" Long Way to Go " – 3 : 46
" Black Tears " – 2 : 30
" Ballad of a Dead Man " – 5 : 29
" Drifting Further Away " – 3 : 40
All songs were written and performed by Powderfinger with performances by pianist Benmont Tench .
Bonus Tracks :
" Down by the Dam " – 4 : 29 [ A ]
" Glory Box " – 4 : 32 [ B ]
= = = Limited edition bonus DVD = = =
Released under the titles Powderfinger 's First XI and The Twelfth Man , the bonus DVD features eleven music videos by Powderfinger spanning their entire recording career , and also includes the launch single to Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , " Lost and Running " .
Powderfinger 's First XI
" Tail " – 4 : 24
" Living Type " – 3 : 25
" Pick You Up " – 3 : 30
" Passenger " – 4 : 39
" Good Day Ray " [ C ] – 1 : 50
" Don 't Wanna Be Left Out " – 2 : 18
" My Kind of Scene " – 4 : 31
" Like a Dog " – 4 : 41
" On My Mind " [ D ] – 3 : 40
" Sunsets " ( Acoustic version ) – 3 : 57
" Bless My Soul " – 4 : 06
The Twelfth Man - " Lost and Running " – 3 : 52
= Bobbili Fort =
The Bobbili Fort , located in the Vizianagaram district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh , was built during the middle of the 19th century in Bobbili . It has a historical link to the nearby mud fort of the same name which was destroyed during the Bobbili war in 1757 in a feud between the Rajas of Bobbili and the neighbouring landlord of Vizianagaram .
Chinna Ranga Rao , who survived the Battle of Bobbili as a child was , at a later date , installed as the Raja of Bobbili . The successors of his lineage constructed the present Bobbili Fort following their improved economic conditions in the middle of the 19th century .
The existing fort covers an area of 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) and was built by Chinna Ranga Rao after he regained his kingdom which was improved upon by his successors in the mid @-@ 19th century . The fort complex has an impressive entrance gate in Indo @-@ Sarcenic architectural style with high dome and many mantapas , Durbar Hall , four major palaces and two temples .
= = Location = =
Bobbili is 55 kilometres ( 34 mi ) away from Vizianagaram , which is well @-@ connected by rail , road and air links . The nearest railway station is Vizianagaram , a key railway junction on the Raipur @-@ Vizianagaram railway line . There is a bridge across Vedavati River which provides access to the area .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The history of Bobbili can be traced to 1652 , when Sher Muhammad Khan , Fouzdar of the Nawab of Srikakulam under the Nizam , had come to the Vizianagaram district . He was then accompanied by Peddarayadu , the 15th scion of the Rajas of Venkatagiri , of Velama community and the ancestor of the Raja of Bobbili , and Pusapati Madhava Varma , the ancestor of Vijayanagram family who were rivals . In one version it is said that the Nawab , pleased with the gallant services rendered by Peddarayadu , granted land holdings to him . Peddarayalu then constructed a fort and named it " Bobbili " , meaning " the royal tiger " , as a token of appreciation for the benevolent gift of the Nawab , who was known as " Sher " ( ' sher ' means " tiger " in Hindi language ) . In another version it is said that Rayudu 's son Lingappa chose Bobbili as his capital , built a fort and established a town there , and named it " Pedda @-@ puli " ( in Telugu language meaning " big tiger " ) ; this name eventually changed to Pebbuli and then Bebbuli , finally to become Bobbili . During this period Sher Khan 's son was abducted and Lingappa rescued him . In appreciation , Sher Khan gifted 12 villages to Lingappa and gave him the title " Ranga Rao " . Lingappa was succeeded by his adopted son , Vengal Ranga Rao who was then succeeded by his son Rangapati followed by his son Rayadappa . Rayadappa 's whose adopted son Gopalakrishna took over the rule from his father . At the time of building the old fort a Muslim saint had cautioned the two royal brothers of the Bobbili family that the place they had chosen to build the fort was ill @-@ fated but they ignored this warning .
It was during Gopalakrishna 's reign in 1753 , that the Nizam of Hyderabad gave Northern Circars to the French . The then French General Charles Bussy leased Chicacole and Rajahmundry circles to Pedda Viziarama Raju , the Raja of Vizianagaram . This resulted in break up of relations between General Bussy and the Nizam .
= = = Battle of Bobbili = = =
On account of the rivalry between the chiefs of Bobbili and Vizianagaram , in 1756 there was a rebellion among the local chieftains which necessitated strong military measures . General Bussy attacked the rebel forces with a contingent of European forces , supported by 11 @,@ 000 troops of the Raja of Vizianagaram as a token of his loyalty . The Raja of Vizianagaram instigated General Bussy by a canard stating that the Raja of Bobbili was behind the rebellion . It is also said that the Raja bribed his interpreters to persuade General Bussy to direct Ranga Rao , the Raja of Bobbili to vacate the Bobbili Fort and shift southward . General Bussy cautiously made an offer to the Chief of Bobbili that he would be pardoned if he moved away from Bobbili , and in return given a compensatory package of equivalent land elsewhere . But this was not acceptable to the Chief of Bobbili . Then , General Bussy attacked the fort several times , breached the mud fort with cannons , and took control of the ramparts of the fort . Although the Raja of Bobbili and his defenders realized their precarious condition , they fought fiercely but eventually lost the battle . When General Bussy entered the fort with his depleted strength of soldiers he found dead bodies scattered in the fort area . At that time an old man approached General Bussy and handed him a child who he said was the son of the dead Raja of Bobbili . The Raja of Vizianagaram , happy with his victory in the hard fought battle , rejoiced by entering the Bobbili city and hoisted the Flag of France . But his jubilation was short lived . Three days after this event , the Raja of Vizianagaram 's camp was attacked in the night by three people of Bobbili , including Tandra Paparayudu who had rushed to the demolished Bobbili Fort to help his sister 's family . He killed the Raja of Vizianagaram and then committed suicide along with his accomplices .
= = = Post Bobbili war = = =
As of 24 January 1757 , members of the Bobbili family who had survived the war were the Raja 's brother Vengal Ranga Rao , also called Chinna Ranga Rao , and his baby son . They first escaped to Bhadrachalam . Two years later , in 1759 , they were offered their old holdings in the presence of colonel Forde ( representative of the British authorities in Bengal ) by Ananda Raju of Vizayanagaram at Masulipatam . Under this compromise package , the Bobbili royals , on returning to Bobbili would receive the Kavit and Rajam taluks and the fort area for an annuity lease value of Rs 20 @,@ 000 . Vengal Ranga Rao died three years later . Thereafter his son lived for two years and was succeeded by Chinna Ranga Rao , also known as Venkata Ranga Rao . After four years , in 1766 , Sitaram , the new Raja of Vizianagaram , disturbed by the clout of Chinna Ranga Rao arrested him and incarcerated him in the fort at Vizianagaram . However , in 1790 Chinna Ranga Rao managed to escape from the prison and reached the Nizam 's Hyderabad seeking protection . Later , in 1794 , Ranga Rao regained his property at the initiative of the Collector of the Northern Division , when Vizinagram Zamindari splintered . Chinna Ranga Rao then adopted Rayadappa as his son .
After Ranga Rao died in 1801 , there were efforts to merge Bobbili with Vizianagaram but these were thwarted and a lasting settlement of the property was made with the adopted son of Ranga Rao . Rayadappa and his son Svetachalapti who succeeded in 1830 and lived till 1862 managed their property very well . In the middle of the 19th century , successors of this lineage constructed the present Bobbili Fort , following their improved economic conditions .
In 1891 , a stone monument was erected with inscriptions commemorating the Bobbili tragedy .
= = Features = =
The existing fort is spread over an area of 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) . It was built , in the Indo @-@ Saracenic architectural style , as Ranga Rao and his son had probably liked this style during their exile in Hyderabad where they had spent more than a decade and a half under the protection of the Nizam of Hyderabad . Chinna Ranga Rao had built the oldest part of the main palace with its Saracenic arches supporting the first level . However , in 1861 in a report submitted by the Acting District Engineer to the Chief Secretary to the British Government at Saint George it was said that the stone fort at Bobbili did not have adequate defense capability .
The facade of the fort has the elegance of a palace with its high walls , 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high at places , rather than a castle . The royal family lived in this fort . The northeastern entry to the fort is a tall domed structure . The entire palace complex covers an area of 40 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m2 ) .
Within the fort area there are four major monuments . These are : the Durbar Hall , the palace of the prince , the palace for guests , and the Raja 's palace , where the royal family members live , which is the largest with three floors . The Durbar Hall , or the main meeting hall , is where the Rajas held their crowning ceremonies . The main palace , which has an area of 6 @,@ 000 square feet ( 560 m2 ) , also houses a museum and offices of the family .
Within the fort complex there are two temples : one is dedicated to the family deity of the Venugopala Swamy and was built at the time of founding of Bobbili ; the another one was erected by Chinna Ranga Rao in the aftermath of the war , after he regained his territory . The Gopura or entrance of this temple was constructed in 1851 . Another mandapa built at the centre of a lake is known as the Vasant Mandapa where , according to the local belief , Venugopala Swamy takes rest for a day with his consort . After this the image of the Venugopala Swamy is kept at the Dola Yatra Mandapa on the shores of the lake for one day and then moved back to the main shrine . These mandapas were built in 1825 by Maharaja Krishna Das Ranga Rao . Another functional palace in the fort is the Pooja Mahal . Opposite to this palace is the Prangmahal , the residence of the Raja , which is very well preserved and decorated with elegant " tapestry , paintings and porcelain " brought from many countries .
= Evangelical Missionary Church of Besançon =
The Evangelical Missionary Church of Besançon ( French : Église évangélique missionnaire de Besançon ) , formerly known as the Evangelical Pentecostal Church of Besançon and The Mission , is a Christian movement established in Besançon , France , in December 1963 . In close communion with the Protestant Federation of France , this church belongs to the Pentecostal movement and in 1969 founded the Evangelical Missionary Federation ( Fédération Évangélique Missionnaire , or FEM ) to gather the various Pentecostal churches it created . The assemblies , which developed very quickly throughout eastern and northern France , numbered well over 2 @,@ 000 members .
The church was founded by Aldo Benzi , who converted to Christianity after being healed from a pleurisy . Subsequent leader René Kennel , a former Mennonite farmer who became pastor of the churches in Saint @-@ Dizier and in Joinville after discovering Pentecostalism through an evangelical Roma mission , has directed the church since 1977 . Its main beliefs ( expressed in a creed of eight articles of faith ) and practices are nearly identical with those of most Evangelical and Pentecostal groups , with a special focus on miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit and proselytism . In the late 1990s the church was embroiled in many trials ( often on the grounds of defamation or for financial issues ) , losing most of them . In 2006 a sex scandal within the church led the federation to be dissolved , and the church in Besançon became independent .
Since 1988 the church has been the subject of recurring public controversy ; anti @-@ cult associations and organizations ( UNADFI , CCMM and MILS – then MIVILUDES ) , former members and the vast majority of media presented it as a dangerous group , mainly because of its intensive missionary activities and healing practices . The church was eventually listed as a cult in the 1995 and 1999 parliamentary reports established by the French National Assembly . Protestant and academic circles , however , disagreed with this assessment , considering the church to be a genuine Pentecostal group . The latter responded to criticism through a defensive strategy , which included outreach to sociologists and historians and better ties with mainstream religions , local and national institutions .
= = History = =
The founder , Aldo Benzi ( born in 1919 , now deceased ) , is said to have been miraculously healed of recurrent pleurisy by the Rev. De Siebenthal ( a leader of religious groups in Switzerland ) , which led him to be baptized on 15 June 1941 . Thereafter , with Pierre Nicole he created the Evangelical Pentecostal Church of Besançon ( documented in files with the Prefecture of the Doubs in 1963 ) . Benzi was the church 's president , followed by Nicole and then by René Kennel in 1977 .
Kennel was born in 1925 to a Mennonite family who lived in Chassey @-@ Beaupré . His father was a farmer and mayor of the city , and Kennel was expected to run the family farm when he was older . At age 20 , Kennel developed an interest in pastoral ministry and attended theological training at the Bible Institute of Nogent @-@ sur @-@ Marne in 1945 – 46 , training which was later completed by studies at the European Mennonite Bible School in 1948 – 49 . While still a farmer , he became a Mennonite missionary in the Meuse , Marne and Haute @-@ Marne departments . In 1960 , he discovered Pentecostalism through Roma missions , notably the Life and Light Evangelical Roma Mission ( Mission Évangélique Tsigane " Vie et Lumière " ) ; he was attracted to this form of Christianity , since it emphasized missionary zeal and legitimized his ministry . He founded an evangelical group in his city , which caused conflict with his family , other religious leaders and his neighbors . In the early 1960s , Kennel became pastor of the church at Joinville ; he conducted humanitarian activities on his farm , providing relief to homeless , former prisoners , drug addicts and alcoholics . In 1964 , he also directed the church of Saint @-@ Dizier ; three years later , he decided to give up farming to fully devote himself to religious activities . In 1975 he was appointed treasurer of the Federation of Free Evangelical Pentecostals , and elected president seven years later . Under Kennel 's leadership of the Pentecostal Church of Besançon , the church quickly opened many places of worship in Northern and Eastern France ; Kennel trained pastors among his converts ( including his son Étienne , who was ordained in 1981 ) , and sent them to direct the new assemblies . In 1989 Kennel legally registered the Evangelical Missionary Federation , whose purpose was to federate all the churches ( then composed of over thirty pastors ) .
However , in 2005 Pastor Étienne Kennel was accused of adultery by church members , which resulted in his expulsion in January 2006 . His father ( considered guilty of covering up his son 's actions ) refused to retire , which led many believers to leave the church and pastors to vote for the federation 's dissolution ; this one was officially announced as defunct on 25 November 2006 . 14 churches in the northwest , previously members of the FEM , are ( as of 2011 ) gathered under the name Union of Missionary Churches ( Union d 'Églises Missionnaires , or UDEM ) , an association registered in Châlons @-@ en @-@ Champagne . Other places of worship are independent – including the church in Besançon , which was reregistered as an " Evangelical church " in late 2006 .
= = Beliefs = =
About his church Kennel said : " We are situated at the crossroads of the Pentecostal and Mennonite movements " . Various explanations were provided by sociologists to define the place of the religious group within Christianity : Danièle Hervieu @-@ Léger wrote that the church was created from " the meeting between a movement of evangelic sensibility inside the Reformed Church of Alsace and Lorraine , and a French Mennonite movement from the tradition of peaceful Anabaptism " , Laurent Amiotte @-@ Suchet considered that it " fits into the Assemblies of God " , but also " in the history of a second wave of European Pentecostalism which experienced its revival in the 1970s and 1980s " , and J. Gordon Melton described it , in his 2005 Encyclopedia of Protestantism , as one of the " newest Protestant groups " . Evangelical Protestantism expert Sébastien Fath deemed the church a " non Baptist " group , but " with some common characteristics " and explained that it professed a very high degree of religious activism , embraccing conversionism , biblicism and crucicentrism . According to the Protestant Federation of France , the church displayed a " classical and structured Pentecostalism , with very little contact with other churches . " The anti @-@ cult association Centre contre les manipulations mentales said the church " comes from the classical Pentecostal movement which emerged in France in the 1950s and which now includes various groups " .
The church 's main beliefs are expressed in a creed , initially composed of twelve articles of faith based on biblical passages and adopted by the church . These beliefs are almost identical to the ones of most evangelical and Pentecostal groups , including biblical authority viewed as the Word of God , literal biblical interpretation and the Trinity , with a special focus on miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit and proselytism . Later , the number of articles of faith were reduced to eight points , and Amiotte @-@ Suchet noted that they were reworded in 1998 to become less explicit concerning issues which were the subject of public controversies . He also said that the pastors ' sermons show an evolution linked to a generation gap ; René Kennel continues to advocate healthy living , illustrating his speeches with stories of curses resulting from a non @-@ Christian lifestyle , while his son placed more emphasis on " the discernment of spiritual gifts and the depth of faith " . On its website the church defines itself as apolitical ; it respects current principles of secularism and freedom of conscience , does not discourage medical treatment , encourages believers to participate in social life and does not claim exclusive salvation .
= = Practices = =
The church has six weekly services , one of them located in the Rue Battant especially for people with disabilities . Each meeting is devoted to a particular Christian practice : evangelization , prayer , Bible reading , singing , and weekly worship . Meetings are composed of biblical sermons and studies , testimonies of religious experiences , hymns , meditation , worship , and prayers . Services are dynamic , charismatic and emotional , often evolving into ecstasy and trance ; glossolalia results when the pastor calls the Holy Spirit to come upon the congregation , and usually lasts 30 to 60 minutes . Women must have their heads covered during worship .
Pastors established a record of public testimonies of every baptized member . Kennel 's life is known by the faithful , and has an important place in the church . The pastor 's break with his former religious affiliation , and his determined foundation of a new group despite many obstacles , are said to be directed by God 's will ; therefore , Kennel 's spiritual course ( which mixes " extraordinary and intransigence " ) is presented as an example to follow . As noted by Amiotte @-@ Suchet , all testimonies ( whose purpose is to strengthen the converts ' faith ) generally have a common thread ; the former lifestyle of the faithful is almost always presented as " a story of an aimless wandering , covered with failures , disappointments and misfortunes " until God decides to manifest himself in the life of the future member . The future convert then demands a sign of God 's reality , requires a variable length of time to strength his faith and experience the Holy Spirit , then engages fully in the church . Conversion is always said to lead to a healthier lifestyle and provide an expanded network of friends .
All members actively participate in evangelization , both personally ( family , friends and professional associates ) and with the church ( door @-@ to @-@ door , proselytism under the big tent and on public squares , " mission weeks " which follow a tightly planned program ) . The church has denied practising proselytism among Christian people . However , after criticism of its methods the church became more discreet and avoided insisting publicly on miraculous healings , although it continued to highlight evangelization . In particular , it decided to stop proselytizing in hospitals , to discontinue loudspeakers in the streets , and to reduce the frequency of evangelization under the " big top " .
The church features religious instruction for various ages , leads a choir and football team and celebrates the Holy Thursday Last Supper , believers ' marriages and funerals . Baptism is practiced by immersion with the pastor 's approval , and is reserved for people aged over 15 years . Fasting on two Sundays a month and between eight and ten conventions per year for each church are also scheduled . The church participates in social and humanitarian activities and organizes recreational days , including activities such as theater , library , trips , a clothing exchange and a paint shop .
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= Organization and finances = =
The church headquarters in Besançon were first located in the Rue Battant , then in the Rue de Belfort , and eventually moved in 1994 to 4 Rue Larmet , in a building costing about four million francs . In 1999 , the federation associated with SOS Hope ( SOS Espérance , established in Vesoul to assist suffering people ) , an evangelical musical group , Flambo , and La Bergerie in Besançon for property management . The church owns a printing house that publishes writings for worship and evangelization , including a quarterly newsletter , The Concierge 's Ear ( " L 'Oreille du concierge " ) which has been published since 2000 . In 2005 René Kennel was the president , Daniel Gloeckler vice @-@ president and church spokesman , Étienne Kennel secretary and R. Cuenot the treasurer of the federation . Each year , a one @-@ week course is organized in one of the churches belonging to the Evangelical Missionary Federation ; named " Blessing School " ( " École de la bénédiction " ) , this intensive Bible training consists of prayers , religious teachings and history , singing lessons , film screenings and debates .
In its organizational structure the church is similar to congregationalism , as the local assembly is autonomous . This form of congregationalism , however , is unique ; the centralized organization gives to the Church of Besançon the role of head church , and the other assemblies of the federation are considered annex churches . Thus , Amiotte @-@ Suchet opines that " the unifying spirit is much more coercive than the one in other Protestant groups " . Decisions of the federation are made by all church pastors at monthly pastoral meetings . In the Church of Besançon , the leadership team attending the " brothers ' meeting " is composed of René and Étienne Kennel , six appointed elders and men who have been members for a certain length of time .
The church has been criticized for its wealth , as monthly or quarterly donations were encouraged in the second article of the statutes of the Federation of Evangelical Missionary . According to the CCMM , property acquisition was evidence of significant income . The 1999 parliamentary report considered the church a " small cult " ( a cult whose annual income is less than five million francs ) which provided " relatively accurate information " to the Parliamentary Commission . The annual budget of the church was estimated between 2 @.@ 4 and 3 @.@ 1 million francs ( the total of donations in 1998 and 1995 respectively ) , mainly from Sunday offerings , donations , loans , financial products and property income . In 1999 , the commission estimated the church 's property at about 15 million francs . As of 31 December 1998 , the church 's net active wealth ( composed of real estate and stock ) reached 7 @.@ 3 million francs . Concerning its finances , the church said it applies five major principles : economy , recovery , devotion , voluntary work and solidarity . Money comes from Sunday collections , sometimes from personal loans and from donations intended for a particular use ; there is no external financial support . Accounts are published at the annual general assembly of the church , by the financial commission of the Federation and by Social Security . Trainee pastors work outside the church ; permanent pastors receive a low salary , and are affiliated with the Caisse d 'assurance vieillesse , invalidité et maladie des cultes ( CAVIMAC ) .
= = Membership = =
Between 1977 and 1988 , the Church of Besançon enjoyed significant growth , and Professor Grace Davie wrote that the whole religious movement had reached " the status of a small denomination " in the decades following its foundation . In 1983 , there were 150 churchgoers in Besançon ; in 1989 , the number rose to between 400 and 600 . In 1995 , estimations of church membership by the Parliamentary Commission varied from 500 to 2 @,@ 000 members . In 2000 the federation declared that 2 @,@ 800 people regularly attend the Sunday service , including 600 in Besançon . In 2005 there were 4 @,@ 000 members and 500 churchgoers at the Sunday worship in Besançon , according to Fath . In 2006 , Amiotte @-@ Suchet reported that the federation had 2 @,@ 400 members and 37 pastors . He noted that criticism had an impact on the church 's growth ; since 1988 the number of baptisms has fallen to about 50 a year , just enough to compensate for the number of people who leave the church . After the sex scandal in the founding church in 2006 , attendance at the services in Besançon dropped to 70 .
In 1989 , there were 18 assemblies belonging to the Evangelical Missionary Federation . In 1995 the church ( then widely established in several French regions ) was called " a big regional cult that has now spread throughout eastern France " by the CCMM . The following year , the parliamentary report of the National Assembly listed 24 places of worship ; the church stated the list was incomplete and incorrect as three places were missed , and eight belonged to other churches . Before it was dissolved in 2006 , the federation counted 35 churches .
= = Court cases = =
The Direction générale des impôts contested the religious status of the church and taxed its donations , saying " the association is devoted to proselytize . It has therefore not for exclusive purpose the celebration of a worship " . As a result , a 600 @,@ 000 @-@ franc tax @-@ recovery notification was sent to the church on 20 December 1996 , which rose to 2 @.@ 6 million francs two years later ( penalties included ) . This tax was considered a " tragic situation " by Human Rights Without Frontiers and " fiscal and administrative harassment " by sociologist Régis Dericquebourg . The church deemed this decision discriminatory and tried by all possible legal means to challenge it . On 31 January 2013 , the Church and its president Éric Salaûn were awarded 387 @,@ 722 euros by the European Court of Human Rights which overturned the tax considered a " material injury " and sentenced France for violating the freedom of thought , conscience and religion on the basis of the 9th article of the European Convention of Human Rights .
On 29 September 1986 , in a case related to custody of a six @-@ year @-@ old child , the Tribunal de Grande Instance de Besançon left the child with his father ( who was not a member of the church ) rather than with his mother ( then a fervent member ) , stating that " people affiliated to [ the church ] submit their behavior of each time to the precepts of their beliefs , practice proselytism , and do not hesitate to involve some very young children in their meetings and religious practices " .
In 1992 , the CCMM was sued twice by the church on the grounds of defamation . A first complaint was filed on 4 February after a letter from CCMM in which the movement was labelled as a cult , with the following definition : " Groups whose activities have on others for result a notable mental manipulation of minds , a profound degradation of the human person , managing to make people lose all critical sense in locking them in intellectual ghettos . " On 16 June 1993 the Court of Vesoul , and on 24 March 1994 the Court of Appeal of Besançon , sentenced the church to pay court costs and damages to the CCMM . In a second complaint filed on 27 November , the CCMM and the Centre Information Jeunesse in Haute @-@ Saône were sued after distributing a publication critical of the church . Both complaints were dismissed . In 1996 , the two appeals for cassation filed by the church were rejected ; the court held that the CCMM 's writings did not fall under defamation , said that damages to the church 's honor were not proven , that " no reproach can be done when CCMM called ' cult ' the Evangelical Church of Pentecost " , and that the association " merely assesses the nature and trends of a religious community , reports some of its practices , including those relating to the disease healing and its methods of recruitment through agencies providing relief without indicating that they are the community 's emanations " .
On 30 September 1999 , the Administrative Court of Besançon recognized the religious status of the church and granted it tax exemption on its place of worship . In a decision issued on 2 October 2003 , the judge of the Administrative Court stated that the refusal by the prefect to grant donations and bequests to the church was not supported by evidence . In 2008 , MIVILUDES President Jean @-@ Michel Roulet said that complaints from the faithful against Kennel for physical abuse were dismissed .
= = Reception = =
The French Parliamentary Commission on Cults included the church in the list of cults of the 1995 and 1999 parliamentary reports , based on reports by the Direction centrale des renseignements généraux which labelled the church as an " evangelical " and " healer " movement . Despite their similarities , other churches associated with the Evangelical Missionary Federation were not included in the list . The 1995 report said the group was among the " most active evangelical groups " and the Parliamentary Commission said they are " often motivated by genuine pastors who slid into the role of guru " and " always benefit from freedoms by Protestant official structures to prosper at their edge . " However , the parliamentary reports and the list of cults had no legal status and were criticized by religious historians , sociologists and academics . In May 2007 , a circular by Prime Minister Jean @-@ Pierre Raffarin and a statement by MIVILUDES secretary Gilles Bottine , said the list of movements attached to the 1995 parliamentary report had become less relevant and no longer recommended its use .
Several anti @-@ cult groups also considered the church a cult . The local branch of the Centre contre les manipulations mentales ( CCMM , or Centre Roger Ikor ) directed an intense campaign against the group with repeated warnings in the media , and the President of the Union nationale des associations de défense des familles et de l 'individu ( UNADFI ) , Catherine Picard , said on television that she considered the church a cult . Criticism against the Church includes methods of recruitment ( considered aggressive proselytism ) in psychiatric hospitals , schools , buses and similar environments directed to suffering people , a fundamentalist interpretation of the Bible , pressure on prospective members to quickly join the group , family breakdowns , identical language and clothing of followers reflecting a loss of individuality , education of children which is considered indoctrination , many banned activities ( among them music , television , makeup and trousers for women who must also have long hair covered with a scarf ) , an hysterical environment at worship , desocialization of the faithful , excessive appeals for money , unverifiable and dubious healings which may be detrimental to members ' health and the strong influence on members and lack of qualifications of Kennel . A delegate from the CCMM said that criticism was based on facts collected from former members and their families , some of which had been used in court ( as in Vesoul ) . In response to writer in the Protestant journal Réforme Benoît Hervieu @-@ Léger , who contended that a sole case in Besançon would have been sufficient to criticize the whole federation , the delegate also stated that complaints did not come exclusively from the church of Besançon . The association also noted many similarities with another Pentecostal church it considered a cult , the Mission of Full Gospel - Christian Open Door . As of 2010 , MIVILUDES continued to monitor the Church of Besançon because of its hold over the faithful .
The media were generally critical of the church , presenting it as a cult . The first negative local press articles appeared in 1988 , mentioning miraculous healings , proselytism , Kennel 's status , fundamentalist beliefs as controversial issues , and included critical reports by former members . Fath noted that the vocabulary and arguments used in the media were intentionally slanted and the repetition of those developed by the CCMM , and that the disproportionate media coverage of the church did not facilitate an objective investigation . According to a study by an expert in new religious movements , Massimo Introvigne , when a former member destroyed furniture belonging to the church in Langres in July 1994 , anti @-@ cult associations and some news media took the former member 's side , presenting him as the " victim " of a " cult " . On the French talk show Ça se discute ( broadcast on 25 May 2005 on France 2 ) , a father ( whose nine @-@ year @-@ old daughter was a member of the church with her mother ) said his daughter was brainwashed ; he criticized her proselytism at school , closed @-@ mindedness and the role of women in the church . He explained that when he had suffered from cancer two years earlier , she had tried to miraculously heal him ; however , she considered him a liar and a sinner because of his homosexuality . He said he found her diary , in which she spoke of her imminent death when she would reach heaven to meet her grandparents . The association for the defense of religious freedom and conscience , CICNS , criticized the talk show for its lack of alternative viewpoints .
= = Response to criticism = =
Before 1988 , the church was the subject of many neutral press articles and appeared " normal and respectable " ; it contends that in the late 1980s Alain Vivien , then @-@ leader of the CCMM , said to its representatives in Épernay that he did not consider it a cult . The church explained that the first criticism came from a Catholic vice @-@ president of CCMM , who opposed the conversion to the Pentecostal church of his son @-@ in @-@ law and several seminarians ( this explanation was later denied by the CCMM ) , by an educator hostile to the group , and by other evangelicals ( including pastor and co @-@ founder of the anti @-@ cult group Vigi @-@ sectes Gérard Dagon , a source for the 1995 parliamentary report who was critical of Pentecostal beliefs ) . The church also reported discriminations after the publication of the report ( including refusals of building permits ) and to have spent , over a period of ten years , € 82 @,@ 000 in legal fees to defend its interests . In 2003 , the church participated in a survey led by CESNUR about a possible change in government policy towards new religious movements .
Following the publication of the parliamentary report the church reacted by seeking help from academics and sociologists specializing in religious issues , including Jean Baubérot , Jean Séguy , Jean @-@ Paul Willaime , Massimo Introvigne , Laurent Amiotte @-@ Suchet , Bernard Blandre and Émile Poulat , who generally criticized its cult classification . Willaime and Poulat , among other sociologists , deemed the church 's danger was never proven . Danièle Hervieu @-@ Léger said the classification as a cult was an " absurd decision " . Sébastien Fath considered the church " a bit radical but overall harmless " , noting that this group had never been sued , and maintained that the church was criticized because of its proselytism and its rapid growth . Amiotte @-@ Suchet deemed that the pastor 's influence on the faithful was far from being as coercive as critics said . Poulat said , " We can debate whether it may be a ' sect ' in the sense of Weber ; it is certainly not a ' secte ' [ cult ] in the popular and parliamentary sense of the term " . Contacted by academics to participate in a documentary about the church , UNADFI and CCMM refused to explain their position . The Center for Studies on New Religions said the church 's theology is " clearly mainline " , but was criticized " because it does not belong to the World Council of Churches or other establishment church bodies " .
The church established a dialogue with the Catholic Church and the Protestant Federation of France ( FPF ) ; the latter agreed to meet Daniel Gloeckler in Châlons @-@ en @-@ Champagne , and Étienne and René Kennel in Besançon . At first reluctant ( since it did not want to serve as an " umbrella " against cult accusations ) , the FPF agreed to establish , at its meeting on 4 – 5 October 1997 , a bilateral dialogue with the church and advised it to develop ecumenical ties ; it publicly deplored the cult status of the church on 22 January 1998 . Many Protestant figures and churches ( including FPF president Jean @-@ Arnold de Clermont , the Protestant Church of Augsburg Confession of Alsace and Lorraine and the Salvation Army ) provided support , expressing a favorable opinion of the church .
The church also established ties with local and national institutions , such as administrative courts , municipalities and tax authorities . In 1996 it asked Alain Gest , a member of the French Parliamentary Commission on cults , the reason for its cult designation . In his response Gest did not provide details on the content of the work by the Direction centrale des renseignements généraux used for the report , but advised Kennel to ask the Observatoire interministériel sur les sectes for more information . On 4 June 1997 the church 's representatives met the president of the Observatoire , prefect Antoine Guerrier de Dumast , who advised the movement to integrate the FPF to clarify the situation . The church also appealed to the European Center of Law and Justice , a Christian @-@ oriented organization , to protect its freedom of religion and belief before the European Court of Human Rights .
= Zhuangzi ( book ) =
The Zhuangzi ( pronounced [ ʈʂu ̯ áŋ.tsɨ ̀ ] ) is an ancient Chinese text from the late Warring States period ( 476 – 221 BC ) which contains stories and anecdotes that exemplify the carefree nature of the ideal Daoist sage . Named for its traditional author , " Master Zhuang " ( Zhuangzi ) , the Zhuangzi is one of the two foundational texts of Daoism — along with the Dao De Jing ( Laozi ) — and is generally considered the most important of all Daoist writings .
The Zhuangzi consists of a large collection of anecdotes , allegories , parables , and fables , which are often humorous or irreverent in nature . Its main themes are of spontaneity in action and of freedom from the human world and its conventions . The fables and anecdotes in the text attempt to illustrate the falseness of human distinctions between good and bad , large and small , life and death , and human and nature . While other philosophers wrote of moral and personal duty , Zhuangzi promoted carefree wandering and becoming one with " the Way " ( Dào 道 ) by following nature .
Though primarily known as a philosophical work , the Zhuangzi is regarded as one of the greatest literary works in all of Chinese history , and has been called " the most important pre @-@ Qin text for the study of Chinese literature . " A masterpiece of both philosophical and literary skill , it has significantly influenced writers for more than 2000 years from the Han dynasty to the present . Many major Chinese writers and poets in history — such as Sima Xiangru and Sima Qian during the Han dynasty ( 206 BC – AD 220 ) , Ruan Ji and Tao Yuanming during the Six Dynasties ( 222 – 589 ) , Li Bai during the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , and Su Shi and Lu You in the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) — were influenced by the Zhuangzi .
= = History = =
The Zhuangzi is named for and attributed to Zhuang Zhou — " Master Zhuang " ( Chinese : " Zhuangzi " 莊子 ) — a man generally said to have been born around 369 BC at a place called Meng ( 蒙 ) in the state of Song ( near modern Shangqiu , Henan Province ) , and died around 301 , 295 , or 286 BC . Almost nothing is concretely known of Zhuangzi 's life . He is thought to have spent time in the southern state of Chu , as well as in Linzi , the capital of the state of Qi . Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian ( Shiji 史記 ) , the first of China 's 24 dynastic histories , has a biography of Zhuangzi , but most of it seems to have simply been drawn from anecdotes in the Zhuangzi itself . East Asia scholar and Zhuangzi translator Burton Watson has noted , " Whoever Zhuang Zhou was , the writings attributed to him bear the stamp of a brilliant and original mind . "
Even though the text is generally treated as a single whole , scholars have recognized since at least the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) that some parts of the book could not have been written by Zhuangzi himself . Since ancient times , however , the first seven chapters — the nèi piān 內篇 " inner chapters " — have been considered to be the actual work of Zhuangzi , and most modern scholars agree with this view . How many , if any , of the remaining 26 chapters — the wài piān 外篇 " outer chapters " and zá piān 雜篇 " miscellaneous chapters " — were written by Zhuangzi has long been debated . It is generally accepted that the middle and later Zhuangzi chapters are the result of a subsequent process of " accretion and redaction " by later authors " responding to the scintillating brilliance " of the inner chapters . All of the 33 surviving chapters are accepted as compositions from the 4th to 2nd centuries BC .
Details of the Zhuangzi 's textual history prior to the Han dynasty are largely unknown . Traces of its influence in late Warring States period ( 475 – 221 BC ) philosophical texts such as the Guanzi , Han Feizi , Huainanzi , and Lüshi Chunqiu suggest that Zhuangzi 's intellectual lineage was already fairly influential in the states of Qi and Chu in the 3rd century BC . The Records of the Grand Historian refers to a 100 @,@ 000 @-@ word Zhuangzi work and references several chapters that are still in the text . The Book of Han ( Han shu 漢書 ) , finished in AD 111 , lists a Zhuangzi in 52 chapters , which many scholars believe to be the original form of the work . A number of different forms of the Zhuangzi survived into the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , but a shorter and more popular 33 @-@ chapter form of the book prepared by the philosopher and writer Guo Xiang around AD 300 is the source of all surviving editions . In 742 , the Zhuangzi was canonized as one of the Chinese Classics by an imperial proclamation from Emperor Xuanzong of Tang , which awarded it the honorific title True Scripture of Southern Florescence ( Nanhua zhenjing 南華真經 ) , though most orthodox scholars did not consider the Zhuangzi to be a true " classic " ( jing 經 ) due to its non @-@ Confucian nature .
= = = Manuscripts = = =
Portions of the Zhuangzi have been discovered among bamboo slip texts from Warring States period and Han dynasty tombs , particularly at the Shuanggudui and Zhangjiashan Han bamboo texts sites . One of the slips from the Guodian texts , which date to around 300 BC , contains what appears to be a short fragment from the " Ransacking Coffers " ( " Qu qie " 胠篋 ) chapter .
A large number of Zhuangzi fragments dating from the early Tang dynasty were discovered among the Dunhuang manuscripts in the early 20th century by the expeditions of Hungarian @-@ British explorer Aurel Stein and French sinologist Paul Pelliot . They collectively form about twelve chapters of Guo Xiang 's version of the Zhuangzi , and are preserved mostly at the British Library and the Bibliothèque Nationale de France .
Among the Japanese national treasures preserved in the Kōzan @-@ ji temple in Kyoto is a Zhuangzi manuscript from the Muromachi period ( 1338 – 1573 ) . The manuscript has seven complete chapters from the " outer " and " miscellaneous " chapters , and is believed to be a close copy of an annotated edition written in the 7th century by the Chinese Daoist master Cheng Xuanying ( 成玄英 ; fl . 630 – 660 ) .
= = Content = =
= = = Overview = = =
Almost all of the 33 surviving Zhuangzi chapters contain fables and allegories . Most Zhuangzi stories are fairly short and simple , such as " Lickety " and " Split " drilling seven holes in " Wonton " ( chapter 7 ) or Zhuangzi being discovered sitting and beating on a basin after his wife dies ( chapter 18 ) , although a few are longer and more complex , like the story of Master Lie and the magus ( chapter 14 ) and the account of the Yellow Emperor 's music ( chapter 14 ) . Unlike the other stories and allegories in other pre @-@ Qin texts , the Zhuangzi is unique in that the allegories form the bulk of the text , rather than occasional features , and are always witty , emotional , and are not limited to reality .
Unlike other ancient Chinese works , whose allegories were usually based on historical legends and proverbs , most Zhuangzi stories seem to have been invented by Zhuangzi himself . Some are completely whimsical , such as the strange description of evolution from " misty spray " through a series of substances and insects to horses and humans ( chapter 18 ) , while a few other passages seem to be " sheer playful nonsense " which read like Lewis Carroll 's " Jabberwocky " . The Zhuangzi is full of quirky and fantastic characters , such as " Mad Stammerer " , " Fancypants Scholar " , " Sir Plow " , and a man who believes his left arm will turn into a rooster , his right arm will turn into a crossbow , and his buttocks will become cartwheels .
A master of language , Zhuangzi sometimes engages in logic and reasoning , but then turns it upside down or carries the arguments to absurdity to demonstrate the limitations of human knowledge and the rational world . Some of Zhuangzi 's reasoning , such as his renowned argument with his philosopher friend Huizi ( Master Hui ) about the joy of fish ( chapter 17 ) , have been compared to the Socratic and Platonic dialogue traditions , and Huizi 's paradoxes near the end of the book have been termed " strikingly like those of Zeno of Elea . "
= = = Notable passages = = =
= = = = " The Butterfly Dream " = = = =
The most famous of all Zhuangzi stories – " Zhuang Zhou Dreams of Being a Butterfly " ( Zhuāng Zhōu mèng dié 莊周夢蝶 ) – appears at the end of the second chapter , " On the Equality of Things " .
The well known image of Zhuangzi wondering if he was a man who dreamed of being a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming of being a man is so striking that whole dramas have been written on its theme . In it Zhuangzi " [ plays ] with the theme of transformation " , illustrating that " the distinction between waking and dreaming is another false dichotomy . If [ one ] distinguishes them , how can [ one ] tell if [ one ] is now dreaming or awake ? "
= = = = " Cook Ding Cuts Up an Ox " = = = =
In the story of " Cook Ding Cuts Up an Ox " ( Páo Dīng jiě niú 庖丁解牛 ) , from the " Secrets for Nurturing Life " chapter , Zhuangzi famously uses the image of a skilled butcher to illustrate the " mindlessness " characteristic of one who has mastered Daoist principles by completely following nature .
= = = = " The Death of Wonton " = = = =
Another well known Zhuangzi story — " The Death of Wonton " ( Hùndùn zhī sǐ 渾沌之死 ) — illustrates the dangers Zhuangzi saw in going against the innate nature of things .
Zhuangzi believed that the greatest of all human happiness could be achieved through a higher understanding of the nature of things , and that in order to develop oneself fully one needed to express one 's innate ability . In this anecdote , Zhuangzi humorously and absurdly uses " Wonton " — a name for both the Chinese conception of primordial chaos and , by physical analogy , wonton soup — to demonstrate what he believed were the disastrous consequences of going against things ' innate natures .
= = = = " The Debate on the Joy of Fish " = = = =
The story of " The Debate on the Joy of Fish " ( Yú lè zhī biàn 魚樂之辯 ) is a well known anecdote that has been compared to the Socratic dialogue tradition of ancient Greece .
The exact point made by Zhuangzi in this debate is not entirely clear . The story seems to make the point that " knowing " a thing is simply a state of mind , and that it is not possible to determine if that knowing has any objective validity . This story has been cited as an example of Zhuangzi 's linguistic mastery , as he subtly uses reason to make an anti @-@ rationalist point .
= = = = " Drumming On a Tub and Singing " = = = =
Another well @-@ known Zhuangzi story – " Drumming On a Tub and Singing " ( Gǔ pén ér gē 鼓盆而歌 ) – describes how Zhuangzi did not view death as something to be feared .
Zhuangzi seems to have viewed death as a natural process or transformation , where one gives up one form of existence and assumes another . In the second chapter , he makes the point that , for all humans know , death may in fact be better than life : " How do I know that loving life is not a delusion ? How do I know that in hating death I am not like a man who , having left home in his youth , has forgotten the way back ? " His writings teach that " the wise man or woman accepts death with equanimity and thereby achieves absolute happiness . "
= = = = ” Zhuangzi and the Skull “ = = = =
The story of Zhuangzi and the roadside skull is consistently popular with Western readers as a classic example of the strange and humorous insight that is the hallmark of the stories of the Zhuangzi .
= = = List of chapters = = =
= = Themes = =
The stories and anecdotes of the Zhuangzi embody a highly unique set of principles and attitudes , including living one 's life with natural spontaneity , uniting one 's inner self with the cosmic " Way " ( Dao ) , keeping oneself distant from politics and social obligations , accepting death as a natural transformation , showing appreciation and praise for things others view as useless or aimless , and stridently rejecting social values and conventional reasoning . These principles form the core ideas of philosophical Daoism . The other major philosophical schools of ancient China — such as Confucianism , Legalism , and Mohism — were all concerned with concrete social , political , or ethical reforms designed to reform people and society and thereby alleviate the problems and suffering of the world . However , Zhuangzi believed that the key to true happiness was to free oneself from the world and its standards through the Daoist principle of " inaction " ( wúwéi 無為 ) — action that is not based on any purposeful striving or motives for gain — and was fundamentally opposed to systems that impose order on individuals .
The Zhuangzi interprets the universe as a thing that changes spontaneously without a conscious God or will driving it , and argues that humans can achieve ultimate happiness by living equally spontaneously . It argues that because of humans ' advanced cognitive abilities , they have a tendency to create artificial distinctions — such as good versus bad , large versus small , usefulness versus uselessness , and social systems like Confucianism — that remove themselves from the natural spontaneity of the universe . In order to illustrate the mindlessness and spontaneity he felt should characterize human action , Zhuangzi most frequently uses the analogy of craftsmen or artisans . As Burton Watson writes , " the skilled woodcarver , the skilled butcher , the skilled swimmer does not ponder or ratiocinate on the course of action he should take ; his skill has become so much a part of him that he merely acts instinctively and spontaneously and , without knowing why , achieves success . " The term " wandering " ( yóu 遊 ) is used throughout the stories of the Zhuangzi to describe how an enlightened person " wanders through all of creation , enjoying its delights without ever becoming attached to any one part of it . "
The Zhuangzi vigorously opposes formal government , which Zhuangzi seems to have felt was problematic at its foundation " because of the opposition between man and nature . " The text tries to show that " as soon as government intervenes in natural affairs , it destroys all possibility of genuine happiness . " It is unclear if Zhuangzi 's positions were " tantamount to anarchy , and he was by no means in favor of violence . " The political references in the Zhuangzi are more concerned with what government should not do rather than what kind of government should exist .
Western scholars have long noticed that the Zhuangzi is often strongly anti @-@ rationalist . Mohism , deriving from Zhuangzi 's possible contemporary Mozi , was the most logically sophisticated school in ancient China . Whereas reason and logic became the hallmark of Greek philosophy and then the entire Western philosophical tradition , in China philosophers preferred to rely on moral persuasion and intuition . The Zhuangzi played a significant role in the traditional Chinese skepticism toward rationalism , as Zhuangzi frequently turns logical arguments upside @-@ down to satirize and discredit them . However , Zhuangzi did not entirely abandon language and reason , but " only wished to point out that overdependence on them could limit the flexibility of thought . "
= = Influence = =
Virtually every major Chinese writer or poet in history , from Sima Xiangru and Sima Qian during the Han dynasty , Ruan Ji and Tao Yuanming during the Six Dynasties , Li Bai during the Tang dynasty , to Su Shi and Lu You in the Song dynasty were " deeply imbued with the ideas and artistry of the Zhuangzi . "
= = = Early times = = =
Traces of the Zhuangzi 's influence in late Warring States period philosophical texts such as the Guanzi , Han Feizi , Huainanzi , and Lüshi Chunqiu suggest that Zhuangzi 's intellectual lineage was already fairly influential in the states of Qi and Chu in the 3rd century BC . However , during the Qin and Han dynasties — with their state @-@ sponsored Legalist and Confucian ideologies , respectively — the Zhuangzi does not seem to have been highly regarded . One exception is Han dynasty scholar Jia Yi 's 170 BC work " Fu on the Owl " ( Fúniǎo fù 鵩鳥賦 ) , the earliest definitively known fu rhapsody , which does not reference the Zhuangzi by name but cites it for one @-@ sixth of the poem .
After the collapse of the Han dynasty in AD 207 and the subsequent chaos of the Three Kingdoms period , both the Zhuangzi and Zhuang Zhou began to rise in popularity and acclaim . The 3rd century AD poets Ruan Ji and Xi Kang , both members of the famous Seven Worthies of the Bamboo Grove , were ardent Zhuangzi admirers , and one of Ruan 's essays , entitled " Discourse on Summing Up the Zhuangzi " ( Dá Zhuāng lùn 達莊論 ) , is still extant . This period saw Confucianism temporarily surpassed by a revival of Daoism and old divination texts , such as the Classic of Changes ( I Ching 易經 ) , and many early medieval Chinese poets , artists , and calligraphers were deeply influenced by the Zhuangzi .
= = = Daoism and Buddhism = = =
The Zhuangzi has been called " the most important of all the Daoist writings " , and its " inner chapters " embody the core ideas of philosophical Daoism . In the fourth century AD , the Zhuangzi became a major source of imagery and terminology for a new form of Daoism known as the " Highest Clarity " ( Shangqing 上清 ) school that was popular among the aristocracy of the Jin dynasty ( AD 265 – 420 ) . Highest Clarity Daoism borrowed notable Zhuangzi terms , such as " perfected man " ( zhen ren 真人 ) , " Great Clarity " ( Tai Qing 太清 ) , and " fasting the mind " ( xin zhai 心齋 ) , and though they are used somewhat differently than in the Zhuangzi itself , they still show the important role the Zhuangzi played at the time .
The Zhuangzi was very influential in the adaptation of Buddhism to Chinese culture after Buddhism 's introduction to China in the 1st century AD . Zhi Dun , China 's first aristocratic Buddhist monk , wrote a prominent commentary to the Zhuangzi in the mid @-@ 4th century . The Zhuangzi also played a significant role in the formation of Chan ( " Zen " ) Buddhism , which grew out of " a fusion of Buddhist ideology and ancient Daoist thought . " Among the traits Chan / Zen Buddhism borrowed from the Zhuangzi are a distrust of language and logic , an insistence that " the Dao " can be found in everything , even dung and urine , and a fondness for dialogues based on riddles or paradigm @-@ challenging statements known as gong 'an ( 公案 ; Japanese kōan ) .
= = = Modern = = =
Outside of China and the traditional " Sinosphere " , the Zhuangzi lags far behind the Dao De Jing in general popularity , and is rarely known by non @-@ scholars . A number of prominent scholars have attempted to bring the Zhuangzi to wider attention among Western readers . In 1939 , the British translator and sinologist Arthur Waley described the Zhuangzi as " one of the most entertaining as well as one of the profoundest books in the world . " In the introduction to his 1994 translation of the Zhuangzi , the noted sinologist Victor H. Mair wrote : " I feel a sense of injustice that the Dao De Jing is so well known to my fellow citizens while the Zhuangzi is so thoroughly ignored , because I firmly believe that the latter is in every respect a superior work . "
= = Selected translations = =
Giles , Herbert ( 1889 ) , Chuang Tzŭ : Mystic , Moralist and Social Reformer , London : Bernard Quaritch ; 2nd edition , revised ( 1926 ) , Shanghai : Kelly and Walsh ; reprinted ( 1961 ) , London : George Allen and Unwin .
Legge , James ( 1891 ) , The Texts of Taoism , in Sacred Books of the East , vols . XXXIX , XL , Oxford : Oxford University Press .
Fung , Yu @-@ lan ( 1933 ) , Chuang Tzu , a New Selected Translation with an Exposition on the Philosophy of Kuo Hsiang , Shanghai : Shang wu .
Watson , Burton ( 1964 ) , Chuang tzu : Basic Writings , New York : Columbia University Press ; 2nd edition ( 1996 ) ; 3rd edition ( 2003 ) converted to pinyin .
( Japanese ) Fukunaga , Mitsuji 福永光次 ( 1966 ) . Sōshi 荘子 [ Zhuangzi ] . 3 vols . Tokyo : Asahi .
Watson , Burton ( 1968 ) , The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu , New York : Columbia University Press .
( French ) Liou , Kia @-@ hway 劉家槐 ( 1969 ) , L 'œuvre complète de Tchouang @-@ tseu [ The Complete Works of Zhuangzi ] , Paris : Gallimard .
( Japanese ) Akatsuka , Kiyoshi 赤塚志 ( 1977 ) , Sōshi 荘子 [ Zhuangzi ] , in Zenshaku kanbun taikei 全釈漢文大系 [ Fully Interpreted Chinese Literature Series ] , vols . 16 @-@ 17 , Tokyo : Shūeisha .
Graham , A.C. ( 1981 ) , Chuang @-@ tzu , The Seven Inner Chapters and Other Writings from the Book Chuang @-@ tzu , London : George Allen and Unwin . Translation notes published separately in 1982 as Chuang @-@ tzu : Textual Notes to a Partial Translation , London : School of Oriental and African Studies .
Mair , Victor H. ( 1994 ) , Wandering on the Way : Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tzu , New York : Bantam Books ; republished ( 1997 ) , Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press .
Ziporyn , Brook ( 2009 ) , Zhuangzi : The Essential Writings with Selections from Traditional Commentaries , Indianapolis : Hackett Publishing .
= Antioxidant =
An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules . Oxidation is a chemical reaction that can produce free radicals , leading to chain reactions that may damage cells . Antioxidants such as thiols or ascorbic acid ( vitamin C ) terminate these chain reactions . The term " antioxidant " is mainly used for two different groups of substances : industrial chemicals which are added to products to prevent oxidation , and natural chemicals found in foods and body tissue which are said to have beneficial health effects .
To balance the oxidative state , plants and animals maintain complex systems of overlapping antioxidants , such as glutathione and enzymes ( e.g. , catalase and superoxide dismutase ) produced internally or the dietary antioxidants , vitamin A , vitamin C and vitamin E.
Diets containing antioxidant dietary supplements do not improve health nor are they effective in preventing diseases . Randomized clinical trials including supplements of beta @-@ carotene , vitamin A and vitamin E singly or in different combinations found no effect on mortality rate and cancer risk , or may even increase cancer risk . Supplementation with selenium or vitamin E does not reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease . Oxidative stress can be considered as either a cause or consequence of some diseases , an area of research stimulating drug development for antioxidant compounds for use as potential therapies .
Industrial antioxidants have diverse uses , such as food and cosmetics preservatives and inhibitors of rubber or gasoline deterioration .
= = Health effects = =
= = = Relation to diet = = =
Although certain levels of antioxidant vitamins in the diet are required for good health , there is considerable doubt as to whether antioxidant @-@ rich foods or supplements have anti @-@ disease activity ; and if they are actually beneficial , it is unknown which antioxidant ( s ) are needed from the diet and in what amounts beyond typical dietary intake . Some authors dispute the hypothesis that antioxidant vitamins could prevent chronic diseases , while others maintain such a possibility is unproved and misguided from the beginning .
Polyphenols , which have antioxidant properties in vitro , are not proven as dietary antioxidants in vivo , yet may have non @-@ antioxidant roles in minute concentrations that affect cell @-@ to @-@ cell signaling , receptor sensitivity , inflammatory enzyme activity or gene regulation .
Although dietary antioxidants have been investigated for potential effects on neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer 's disease , Parkinson 's disease , and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , these studies have been inconclusive .
= = = Drug candidates = = =
Tirilazad is an antioxidant steroid derivative that inhibits the lipid peroxidation that is believed to play a key in neuronal death in stroke and head injury . It demonstrated activity in animal models of stroke , but human trials demonstrated no effect on mortality or other outcomes in subarachnoid haemorrhage and worsened results in ischemic stroke .
Similarly , the designed antioxidant NXY @-@ 059 exhibited efficacy in animal models , but failed to improve stroke outcomes in a clinical trial . As of November 2014 , other antioxidants are being studied as potential neuroprotectants .
Common pharmaceuticals ( and supplements ) with antioxidant properties may interfere with the efficacy of certain anticancer medication and radiation .
= = = Physical exercise = = =
During exercise , oxygen consumption can increase by a factor of more than 10 . However , no benefits for physical performance to athletes are seen with vitamin E supplementation and 6 weeks of vitamin E supplementation had no effect on muscle damage in ultramarathon runners . Some research suggests that supplementation with amounts as high as 1000 mg of vitamin C inhibits recovery . Other studies indicated that antioxidant supplementation may attenuate the cardiovascular benefits of exercise .
= = = Adverse effects = = =
Relatively strong reducing acids can have antinutrient effects by binding to dietary minerals such as iron and zinc in the gastrointestinal tract and preventing them from being absorbed . Notable examples are oxalic acid , tannins and phytic acid , which are high in plant @-@ based diets . Calcium and iron deficiencies are not uncommon in diets in developing countries where less meat is eaten and there is high consumption of phytic acid from beans and unleavened whole grain bread .
Nonpolar antioxidants such as eugenol — a major component of oil of cloves — have toxicity limits that can be exceeded with the misuse of undiluted essential oils . Toxicity associated with high doses of water @-@ soluble antioxidants such as ascorbic acid are less of a concern , as these compounds can be excreted rapidly in urine . More seriously , very high doses of some antioxidants may have harmful long @-@ term effects . The beta @-@ carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial ( CARET ) study of lung cancer patients found that smokers given supplements containing beta @-@ carotene and vitamin A had increased rates of lung cancer . Subsequent studies confirmed these adverse effects .
These harmful effects may also be seen in non @-@ smokers , as a recent meta @-@ analysis including data from approximately 230 @,@ 000 patients showed that β @-@ carotene , vitamin A or vitamin E supplementation is associated with increased mortality but saw no significant effect from vitamin C. No health risk was seen when all the randomized controlled studies were examined together , but an increase in mortality was detected when only high @-@ quality and low @-@ bias risk trials were examined separately . As the majority of these low @-@ bias trials dealt with either elderly people , or people with disease , these results may not apply to the general population . This meta @-@ analysis was later repeated and extended by the same authors , with the new analysis published by the Cochrane Collaboration ; confirming the previous results . These two publications are consistent with some previous meta @-@ analyzes that also suggested that Vitamin E supplementation increased mortality , and that antioxidant supplements increased the risk of colon cancer . Beta @-@ carotene may also increase lung cancer . Overall , the large number of clinical trials carried out on antioxidant supplements suggest that either these products have no effect on health , or that they cause a small increase in mortality in elderly or vulnerable populations .
While antioxidant supplementation is widely used in attempts to prevent the development of cancer , antioxidants may interfere with cancer treatments , since the environment of cancer cells causes high levels of oxidative stress , making these cells more susceptible to the further oxidative stress induced by treatments . As a result , by reducing the redox stress in cancer cells , antioxidant supplements ( and pharmaceuticals ) could decrease the effectiveness of radiotherapy and chemotherapy . On the other hand , other reviews have suggested that antioxidants could reduce side effects or increase survival times .
= = Oxidative challenge in biology = =
A paradox in metabolism is that , while the vast majority of complex life on Earth requires oxygen for its existence , oxygen is a highly reactive molecule that damages living organisms by producing reactive oxygen species . Consequently , organisms contain a complex network of antioxidant metabolites and enzymes that work together to prevent oxidative damage to cellular components such as DNA , proteins and lipids . In general , antioxidant systems either prevent these reactive species from being formed , or remove them before they can damage vital components of the cell . However , reactive oxygen species also have useful cellular functions , such as redox signaling . Thus , the function of antioxidant systems is not to remove oxidants entirely , but instead to keep them at an optimum level .
The reactive oxygen species produced in cells include hydrogen peroxide ( H2O2 ) , hypochlorous acid ( HClO ) , and free radicals such as the hydroxyl radical ( · OH ) and the superoxide anion ( O2 − ) . The hydroxyl radical is particularly unstable and will react rapidly and non @-@ specifically with most biological molecules . This species is produced from hydrogen peroxide in metal @-@ catalyzed redox reactions such as the Fenton reaction . These oxidants can damage cells by starting chemical chain reactions such as lipid peroxidation , or by oxidizing DNA or proteins . Damage to DNA can cause mutations and possibly cancer , if not reversed by DNA repair mechanisms , while damage to proteins causes enzyme inhibition , denaturation and protein degradation .
The use of oxygen as part of the process for generating metabolic energy produces reactive oxygen species . In this process , the superoxide anion is produced as a by @-@ product of several steps in the electron transport chain . Particularly important is the reduction of coenzyme Q in complex III , since a highly reactive free radical is formed as an intermediate ( Q · − ) . This unstable intermediate can lead to electron " leakage " , when electrons jump directly to oxygen and form the superoxide anion , instead of moving through the normal series of well @-@ controlled reactions of the electron transport chain . Peroxide is also produced from the oxidation of reduced flavoproteins , such as complex I. However , although these enzymes can produce oxidants , the relative importance of the electron transfer chain to other processes that generate peroxide is unclear . In plants , algae , and cyanobacteria , reactive oxygen species are also produced during photosynthesis , particularly under conditions of high light intensity . This effect is partly offset by the involvement of carotenoids in photoinhibition , and in algae and cyanobacteria , by large amount of iodide and selenium , which involves these antioxidants reacting with over @-@ reduced forms of the photosynthetic reaction centres to prevent the production of reactive oxygen species .
= = Metabolites = =
Antioxidants are classified into two broad divisions , depending on whether they are soluble in water ( hydrophilic ) or in lipids ( lipophilic ) . In general , water @-@ soluble antioxidants react with oxidants in the cell cytosol and the blood plasma , while lipid @-@ soluble antioxidants protect cell membranes from lipid peroxidation . These compounds may be synthesized in the body or obtained from the diet . The different antioxidants are present at a wide range of concentrations in body fluids and tissues , with some such as glutathione or ubiquinone mostly present within cells , while others such as uric acid are more evenly distributed ( see table below ) . Some antioxidants are only found in a few organisms and these compounds can be important in pathogens and can be virulence factors .
The relative importance and interactions between these different antioxidants is a very complex question , with the various metabolites and enzyme systems having synergistic and interdependent effects on one another . The action of one antioxidant may therefore depend on the proper function of other members of the antioxidant system . The amount of protection provided by any one antioxidant will also depend on its concentration , its reactivity towards the particular reactive oxygen species being considered , and the status of the antioxidants with which it interacts .
Some compounds contribute to antioxidant defense by chelating transition metals and preventing them from catalyzing the production of free radicals in the cell . Particularly important is the ability to sequester iron , which is the function of iron @-@ binding proteins such as transferrin and ferritin . Selenium and zinc are commonly referred to as antioxidant nutrients , but these chemical elements have no antioxidant action themselves and are instead required for the activity of some antioxidant enzymes , as is discussed below .
= = = Uric acid = = =
Uric acid is by far the highest concentration antioxidant in human blood . Uric acid ( UA ) is an antioxidant oxypurine produced from xanthine by the enzyme xanthine oxidase , and is an intermediate product of purine metabolism . In almost all land animals , urate oxidase further catalyzes the oxidation of uric acid to allantoin , but in humans and most higher primates , the urate oxidase gene is nonfunctional , so that UA is not further broken down . The evolutionary reasons for this loss of urate conversion to allantoin remain the topic of active speculation . The antioxidant effects of uric acid have led researchers to suggest this mutation was beneficial to early primates and humans . Studies of high altitude acclimatization support the hypothesis that urate acts as an antioxidant by mitigating the oxidative stress caused by high @-@ altitude hypoxia . In animal studies that investigate diseases facilitated by oxidative stress , introduction of UA both prevents the disease or reduces it , leading researchers to propose this is due to UA 's antioxidant properties . Studies of UA 's antioxidant mechanism support this proposal .
With respect to multiple sclerosis , Gwen Scott explains the significance of uric acid as an antioxidant by proposing that " Serum UA levels are inversely associated with the incidence of MS in humans because MS patients have low serum UA levels and individuals with hyperuricemia ( gout ) rarely develop the disease . Moreover , the administration of UA is therapeutic in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis ( EAE ) , an animal model of MS. " In sum , while the mechanism of UA as an antioxidant is well @-@ supported , the claim that its levels affect MS risk is still controversial , and requires more research .
Likewise , UA has the highest concentration of any blood antioxidant and provides over half of the total antioxidant capacity of human serum . Uric acid 's antioxidant activities are also complex , given that it does not react with some oxidants , such as superoxide , but does act against peroxynitrite , peroxides , and hypochlorous acid . Concerns over elevated UA 's contribution to gout must be considered as one of many risk factors . By itself , UA @-@ related risk of gout at high levels ( 415 – 530 μmol / L ) is only 0 @.@ 5 % per year with an increase to 4 @.@ 5 % per year at UA supersaturation levels ( 535 + μmol / L ) . Many of these aforementioned studies determined UA 's antioxidant actions within normal physiological levels , and some found antioxidant activity at levels as high as 285 μmol / L.
= = = Vitamin C = = =
Ascorbic acid or " vitamin C " is a monosaccharide oxidation @-@ reduction ( redox ) catalyst found in both animals and plants . As one of the enzymes needed to make ascorbic acid has been lost by mutation during primate evolution , humans must obtain it from the diet ; it is therefore a vitamin . Most other animals are able to produce this compound in their bodies and do not require it in their diets . Ascorbic acid is required for the conversion of the procollagen to collagen by oxidizing proline residues to hydroxyproline . In other cells , it is maintained in its reduced form by reaction with glutathione , which can be catalysed by protein disulfide isomerase and glutaredoxins . Ascorbic acid is a redox catalyst which can reduce , and thereby neutralize , reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide . In addition to its direct antioxidant effects , ascorbic acid is also a substrate for the redox enzyme ascorbate peroxidase , a function that is particularly important in stress resistance in plants . Ascorbic acid is present at high levels in all parts of plants and can reach concentrations of 20 millimolar in chloroplasts .
= = = Glutathione = = =
Glutathione is a cysteine @-@ containing peptide found in most forms of aerobic life . It is not required in the diet and is instead synthesized in cells from its constituent amino acids . Glutathione has antioxidant properties since the thiol group in its cysteine moiety is a reducing agent and can be reversibly oxidized and reduced . In cells , glutathione is maintained in the reduced form by the enzyme glutathione reductase and in turn reduces other metabolites and enzyme systems , such as ascorbate in the glutathione @-@ ascorbate cycle , glutathione peroxidases and glutaredoxins , as well as reacting directly with oxidants . Due to its high concentration and its central role in maintaining the cell 's redox state , glutathione is one of the most important cellular antioxidants . In some organisms glutathione is replaced by other thiols , such as by mycothiol in the Actinomycetes , bacillithiol in some Gram @-@ positive bacteria , or by trypanothione in the Kinetoplastids .
= = = Melatonin = = =
Melatonin is a powerful antioxidant . Melatonin easily crosses cell membranes and the blood – brain barrier . Unlike other antioxidants , melatonin does not undergo redox cycling , which is the ability of a molecule to undergo repeated reduction and oxidation . Redox cycling may allow other antioxidants ( such as vitamin C ) to act as pro @-@ oxidants and promote free radical formation . Melatonin , once oxidized , cannot be reduced to its former state because it forms several stable end @-@ products upon reacting with free radicals . Therefore , it has been referred to as a terminal ( or suicidal ) antioxidant .
= = = Vitamin E = = =
Vitamin E is the collective name for a set of eight related tocopherols and tocotrienols , which are fat @-@ soluble vitamins with antioxidant properties . Of these , α @-@ tocopherol has been most studied as it has the highest bioavailability , with the body preferentially absorbing and metabolising this form .
It has been claimed that the α @-@ tocopherol form is the most important lipid @-@ soluble antioxidant , and that it protects membranes from oxidation by reacting with lipid radicals produced in the lipid peroxidation chain reaction . This removes the free radical intermediates and prevents the propagation reaction from continuing . This reaction produces oxidised α @-@ tocopheroxyl radicals that can be recycled back to the active reduced form through reduction by other antioxidants , such as ascorbate , retinol or ubiquinol . This is in line with findings showing that α @-@ tocopherol , but not water @-@ soluble antioxidants , efficiently protects glutathione peroxidase 4 ( GPX4 ) -deficient cells from cell death . GPx4 is the only known enzyme that efficiently reduces lipid @-@ hydroperoxides within biological membranes .
However , the roles and importance of the various forms of vitamin E are presently unclear , and it has even been suggested that the most important function of α @-@ tocopherol is as a signaling molecule , with this molecule having no significant role in antioxidant metabolism . The functions of the other forms of vitamin E are even less well @-@ understood , although γ @-@ tocopherol is a nucleophile that may react with electrophilic mutagens , and tocotrienols may be important in protecting neurons from damage .
= = Pro @-@ oxidant activities = =
Antioxidants that are reducing agents can also act as pro @-@ oxidants . For example , vitamin C has antioxidant activity when it reduces oxidizing substances such as hydrogen peroxide
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; examples include Streptococcus ( protein G ) , Staphylococcus aureus ( protein A ) , and Peptostreptococcus magnus ( protein L ) .
The mechanisms used to evade the adaptive immune system are more complicated . The simplest approach is to rapidly change non @-@ essential epitopes ( amino acids and / or sugars ) on the surface of the pathogen , while keeping essential epitopes concealed . This is called antigenic variation . An example is HIV , which mutates rapidly , so the proteins on its viral envelope that are essential for entry into its host target cell are constantly changing . These frequent changes in antigens may explain the failures of vaccines directed at this virus . The parasite Trypanosoma brucei uses a similar strategy , constantly switching one type of surface protein for another , allowing it to stay one step ahead of the antibody response . Masking antigens with host molecules is another common strategy for avoiding detection by the immune system . In HIV , the envelope that covers the virion is formed from the outermost membrane of the host cell ; such " self @-@ cloaked " viruses make it difficult for the immune system to identify them as " non @-@ self " structures .
= Death of Jairo Mora Sandoval =
Jairo Mora Sandoval ( March 22 , 1987 – May 31 , 2013 ) was a Costa Rican environmentalist who was murdered while attempting to protect leatherback turtle nests . Just before midnight on May 30 , 2013 , Mora and four female volunteers were abducted by a group of masked men . The women eventually escaped and informed the police . Mora 's bound and beaten body was found on the beach the next morning . An autopsy determined he died by asphyxiation after suffering a blow to the head .
Sea turtles are protected by law in Costa Rica , but poaching remains common . Locals take eggs , which are believed to be an aphrodisiac , and sell them on the black market . The egg trade has been linked to drug trafficking and organized crime . Environmentalists working in Limón say they are often threatened for trying to protect turtle eggs . Jairo Mora was one such environmentalist working in the area .
In the wake of Mora 's death , the organization he worked with cancelled beach patrol efforts in Costa Rica . His death attracted international attention , including a statement from the United Nations and multiple rewards for information on the case . In Costa Rica , his death led to calls for reform of environmental policy . On June 4 , the government met with environmentalists to discuss potential changes to policy . A plan submitted by environmentalists and endorsed by Environment Minister René Castro would set up a new protected area and grant park rangers more authority to stop poachers , among other changes . On June 5 , vigils were held across Costa Rica in honor of Mora . On June 18 , the government announced the allocation of ₡ 20 million ( US $ 40 @,@ 000 ) , which was later upped to ₡ 30 million ( US $ 60 @,@ 000 ) , to memorialize Mora .
= = Background = =
Costa Rica has a good reputation for wildlife conservation in general , and sea turtles have been protected by national legislation in Costa Rica since 1966 . The country prides itself on its natural beauty and the nation 's economy depends heavily on ecotourism . Tens of thousands of people visit the country every year to observe its sea turtles . The turtles of Costa Rica include the leatherback turtle , a critically endangered species .
The Marine Turtle Population Law of 2002 assigns a three @-@ year prison sentence to anyone who " kills , hunts , captures , decapitates , or disturbs marine turtles " . Even so , it is common for locals to harvest eggs for personal use or for sale in local bars due to supposed aphrodisiac qualities . A poacher can make up to $ 300 in one night , selling eggs for about $ 1 each on the black market . Eggs obtained from poaching are often sold to drug dealers or traded for drugs . Poachers are often armed , usually with knives , but sometimes with assault rifles . In the impoverished Limón area , locals claim that police are either colluding with , or afraid of , drug traffickers and poachers . Poaching has been cited as a major reason for declining sea turtle populations around the world .
Although poaching is not new , conservationists report that it is on the rise in Costa Rica . In the period leading up to Mora 's death , poaching became an attractive side income for with drug traffickers . In 2012 , a group of six men used assault rifles and hand guns to break into a protected nursery run by the nonprofit environmentalist group Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Network ( WIDECAST ) . The men tied up and gagged the volunteers , then smashed or stole a total 1520 sea turtle eggs . After the incident , police began accompanying environmentalists on their nightly beach walks . It was later revealed that the incident was intended as a warning for environmentalists to stay off the beaches , according to WIDECAST 's Latin American director Didiher Chacón . According to Limón police chief Erick Calderón , 21 people were arrested in 2012 on charges related to turtle poaching .
= = Life and career of Jairo Mora = =
Jairo Mora was a research assistant who worked for Paradero Eco @-@ Tour , a state @-@ sponsored animal rescue group run by Vanessa Lizano . He was born in Limón on March 22 , 1987 , to a Nicaraguan father and a Costa Rican mother . From an early age , he was involved in volunteer work .
Mora regularly volunteered with WIDECAST , which coordinates efforts to protect turtle eggs across Central America . Mora and other WIDECAST volunteers walked Costa Rican beaches nightly to ward off egg thieves . In 2011 , the group protected about 3 % of all turtle nests in Costa Rica ; in 2012 , it increased to 30 % . Conservation efforts on Moín Beach , which Mora headed , collected 1 @,@ 500 leatherback turtle nests , the most from any beach in Costa Rica .
According to Lizano , her organization often receives threats from poachers because of its conservation efforts . In 2012 , Mora was personally threatened at gunpoint " to back off and stop the walks " . He and Lizano were also subject to intimidation efforts throughout the 2012 nesting season . " Both Jairo and I were being followed by motorbikes with guys carrying AK @-@ 47s , " Lizano recalled . After a threat against her family , Lizano relocated from Limón to San José .
At the start of the 2013 leatherback turtle nesting season in April , police decreased their involvement with conservation efforts . Guards were on duty four days a week , but no longer personally escorted volunteers . On April 23 , 2013 , Mora asked supporters on Facebook to petition the police for more help . " Send messages to the police so they come to Moín Beach " , he wrote . " Tell them not to be afraid but to come armed ... we need help and fast . " On April 28 , Mora told La Nación that environmentalists were being threatened " by a mafia that was looting the nests for eggs " . According to friends , Mora received frequent death threats , including an incident just weeks before his death where he was threatened at gunpoint .
On May 5 , La Nación accompanied Mora and Lizano on a typical night 's work . Mora spoke about feeling alone and unprotected in his struggle to save the turtles . Denying reports that police had stepped up their efforts he said : " If a guard or policeman says he supports us , he is lying . " La Nación confirmed that no police were assigned to patrol the beach that evening . When asked if he was afraid , Mora said " Yes , it 's scary , the worst could happen at any time . " After a May 6 incident where poachers stole a large number of nests , Limón police and the Coast Guard began patrolling Moín Beach more thoroughly .
= = Death = =
On the evening of May 30 , 2013 , Mora and four female volunteers – three from the United States and one from Spain – were patrolling Moín Beach in Limón province , Costa Rica . At approximately 11 : 30 pm Mora stepped out of his jeep to move a tree trunk and was ambushed by at least five masked men carrying guns . The men drove the car with the four women to a nearby abandoned house and took their phones , money , and other belongings . Three of the men drove off with Mora . The women were tied up and left in an abandoned house ; they eventually freed themselves and went to the police .
Five police officers were on duty the night of Mora 's murder , and they had been in radio contact with him about an hour before his death . However , according to Calderón , the police were present to increase " the number of eyes and ears on the beach " , not to protect the conservationists . He also noted that the beach is too large to constantly monitor all of it in the dark .
Mora 's naked body was found on the beach the next morning . His body was found beaten and with his hands tied behind his back . Autopsy results revealed that he had died from asphyxiation after being struck in the back of the head , likely with an object found at the site of his murder . Earlier reports incorrectly stated he had been shot . Mora was 26 at the time of his death .
= = Reaction = =
Judicial Investigation Police were unable to immediately determine a motive for Mora 's death . Lizano suspects poachers were involved , saying Mora was targeted for protecting the turtle nests . Chacón said drug traffickers , who often are also poachers , were likely behind the killing . Given Mora 's recent calls for police help , " it seems like it was an act of revenge " , he said .
Chacón said he was " very hurt " by Mora 's death . " It 's not possible that citizens who protect nature have to suffer from this type of attacks " , he said . President Laura Chinchilla called on police and the judicial system to solve what she described as the " despicable murder " of Mora . A statement from the United States Embassy in Costa Rica remembered Mora as " a committed Costa Rican environmentalist " and called his death " senseless " . The United Nations released a statement sending condolences and recognizing Mora 's " noble work " to protect " an essential part of Costa Rica 's and the world 's biodiversity . "
Todd Steiner , executive director of the Turtle Island Restoration Network raised money for a $ 10 @,@ 000 reward for information leading to the arrest of those responsible . " Jairo ’ s murderers must be brought to justice so that [ people ] know that this will never be tolerated , " said Steiner in a statement . " The whole world is watching to make sure the Costa Rican government brings these thugs to justice and makes sea turtle nesting beaches safe for conservationists to do their work . " A petition started by the Sea Turtle Restoration Project calling for swift justice generated more than 10 @,@ 000 signatures within two weeks .
Mora death raised fears that the country 's economy would be hurt by reduced tourism , leading Univision to describe the situation as " an internal crisis " . Commentary published by the Costa Rican Times alleged that the true culprits would never be found , saying whoever was blamed would be a scapegoat offered up by the drug traffickers . The government " is happy letting the Caribbean side of Costa Rica lose all tourism " continued the commentary by Dan Stevens . " Maybe the group Sea Turtle Conservation with Guns should be formed to fight back . " An editorial published by the Tico Times asked why it took a murder to get the government to act . " Mora reached out for help before he was killed , and no one came to the rescue , no matter what political spin is put on it " , said the author . Mora 's death , suggested the author , shows that " the drug traffickers are winning " , that crime is out of control in Limón , and that " the bad guys operate with near impunity . " The editorial concluded by imploring Costa Ricans to re @-@ evaluate their personal environmental habits and support environmental groups that keep fighting . The Guápiles Biofestival , an arts festival held each year during early June , was also dedicated to Mora .
On June 3 , Vice President Alfio Piva described Mora 's death as an " accident " due to Limón ’ s high crime rate on live TV . He quickly retracted the statement , saying his words had been misunderstood . " I only meant to recognize that the area where this happened unfortunately has a high murder rate and that there is high risk when working in an area where there is drug trafficking " , he explained . Unsatisfied by the explanation , environmental groups called for a public apology . On June 4 , members of the Legislative Assembly said that Piva 's comments had " dishonored the entire country " . Led by José María Villalta and Juan Carlos Mendoza , opposition party members called for Piva 's resignation . " We are really full of anger and annoyance . We are embarrassed as a nation " , said Mendoza .
On June 5 , vigils in honor of Mora were held in at least six Costa Rica cities to coincide with World Environment Day . Ecologist Federation president Mauricio Álvarez , who helped organize the vigils , said " We are asking for justice for Jairo ’ s murder and ... demand a halt to the impunity that has reigned over too many threats to ecologists , farmers and indigenous groups . " Despite rainy weather , hundred of people showed up to carry signs , light candles , and place stuffed turtles on the beach . Leaflets blamed police and the government for Mora 's death and demanded swift justice . Among those in attendance were Roberto Molina , secretary general of the Environmental Ministry 's labor union , and José Lino Chavez , Vice Minister of Waters and Oceans .
On June 6 , Sea Shepherd Conservation Society founder Paul Watson offered an additional $ 30 @,@ 000 reward for information leading to the capture of Mora 's murderer . He said the money would come from his personal wealth , not from Sea Shepherd , and that he had sold a vehicle to fund the reward . Watson 's pledge , together with additional funds raised by Steiner , brought the total reward to $ 56 @,@ 000 . A separate memorial fund to assist Mora 's family and continue conservation efforts in his name raised $ 7 @,@ 000 . In early July , Costa Rican businessman Roy Rivera said he was working to raise funds to increase the information reward .
Watson , who is wanted by Costa Rica for skipping bail on charges related to a 2002 incident , said Mora 's death proves that his own life would be in " great danger " if he ever returned to Costa Rica . " The authorities were very quick to respond to Japan and issued an arrest warrant for the protection of sharks ... however , when it comes to a horrible murder of a compassionate conservationist , the government does nothing . " Later in June , Watson announced that his organization 's next boat would be named the S.S. Jairo Mora Sandoval . " We do not want the name of this courageous and passionate young man to be forgotten " , he said on Facebook .
On June 12 , the Ocean Futures Society joined the chorus of international voices calling for swift justice . " This crime , in the Limón province , has shaken the consciousnesses of many internationally , " wrote Ruben Arvizú , the society ’ s Latin American director . Arvizú said that Costa Rica should make the case a national priority . On June 18 , Costa Rican rapper Yaco released a song entitled " Playa Roja " ( Red Beach ) about Mora . Yaco , who is known for using his songs as social commentary , released the song via social media , saying it was " not a commercial release " .
At the June 26 – 28 Inter @-@ American Convention on the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles ( IAC ) , Mora 's death was a popular subject . A declaration from the Mexican delegation read , " As sea turtles are a shared resource , criminal activity that prevents [ on @-@ site ] protection efforts from taking place in one country presents an urgent concern to all range states . " A convention floor speech and a second written declaration also discussed Mora 's death .
= = Aftermath = =
Following Mora 's death , WIDECAST suspended beach patrol operations . " We can ’ t risk human lives for this project , " Chacón said . " But this is probably the exact result that the killers were hoping for . " Many volunteers quit the project after Mora 's death , leaving the organization 200 people short staffed . Organizations such as WIDECAST depend heavily on foreign volunteers . According to Chacón , the future of his organization will be in jeopardy if the situation continues . Aimee Leslie , who oversees sea turtle efforts for the World Wildlife Foundation called the situation " a critical point for conservation " in Costa Rica and " a national security issue . She said that conservation efforts were already difficult without being scared for one 's life . Lizano said she was in negotiations with the police for armed escorts on future patrols , but vowed to continue to work even if they refused . " If we forget about this beach , then Jairo died for nothing , " she said .
On June 3 , Calderón remarked that police would continue to support environmentalists and increase their presence on Moín Beach . The next day police arrested two armed men who were allegedly trying to steal turtle eggs from the same beach where Mora was killed . Also on June 4 , a group of three men and a minor was arrested on similar charges . Subsequently , Limón began to dispatch twenty police officers nightly to escort conservationists and patrol the beaches . In spite of increased police presence Lizano remarked , on June 11 , " Every night all of the [ turtle ] nests are raided . It is still pretty much the same even though we walk with police . "
Prompted by the death of Mora , dozens of environmentalists met with the Ministry of Environment , Energy and Telecommunications ( MINAE ) , headed by René Castro , to discuss their dissatisfaction with current conservation efforts on June 4 . Their requests included punishing those responsible for Mora 's death , greater criminal penalties for poaching , and more efforts by MINAE to fight egg poachers . Castro suggested implementing a plan submitted by WIDECAST . The plan would give park rangers jurisdiction to arrest poachers on Moín Beach and create a code of conduct for beach visitors nationwide . It would also increase penalties for poaching , name a new protected area after Mora , and set up a memorial fund in his name . The proposal was initially met with enthusiasm , but it later gave way to complaints about lax environmental enforcement nationwide . " This isn ’ t only happening in Moín and this not only happening with turtle conservation , " remarked Molina . Deputy Minister of Security Celso Gamboa , who was also in attendance , promised to increase security forces in Limón .
On June 6 , the Legislative Assembly unanimously passed a motion to form a special committee investigating Mora 's death . " It is important to acknowledge that the death of Jairo is not only the fault of these bands of criminals , but also the fault of the state , " remarked the motion 's sponsor José María Villalta On June 19 , Castro , Chávez , the heads of several environmental groups , and members of Mora 's family , met to work out the details of the earlier proposals . After the meeting , Castro announced that ₡ 20 million ( approximately US $ 40 @,@ 000 ) would be allocated for a monument in Mora 's honor in the form of either a new turtle observation area or an online tribute with video of nesting sea turtles . Castro also confirmed that the government had plans to turn Moín Beach into a protected park . However , the plan to name the park after Mora was abandoned at the request of his family . MINAE also plans to allocate " specialized units " armed with equipment to protect Costa Rica 's coasts from environmental threats .
Tourism to Costa Rica was down sharply during the first half of June 2013 . Jorge Molina , president of The Southern Caribbean Tourism Chamber , said Mora 's death was affecting reservations and would likely continue to do so for several months . Aurora Gámez , who owns an Manzanillo Beach hotel , said her occupancy rate normally runs at 50 % in June , but was at just 10 % in the weeks after Mora 's death . She said she had received cancellations that specifically cited Mora 's death as a factor . Cahuita hotel owner Eddie Ryan echoed Gámez , saying he had two patrons cite Mora 's death when cancelling . Restaurants , bars , tour guides , and transportation companies were also affected . Some entrepreneurs blamed WIDECAST for the lost business saying the organization was aware of the risks but continued to patrol anyway .
On June 25 , a nationwide protest was held to draw attention to a wide variety of issues . Environmental groups joined the protests , again calling for justice to be served to Mora 's murderers .
On July 2 , MINAE again met with more than 30 environmental groups to discuss the situation . Castro said that plans to make Moín Beach a protected area were moving forward . However , he said , making the area a national park was not feasible because of the number of people living on the beach . " A national park is too closed off for this particular beach " , he explained . Environmentalists requested that the Gandoca @-@ Manzanillo Wildlife Refuge , one of Mora 's favorite places , be renamed in honor of him . The plan was endorsed by his family . They also requested the formation of a " truth commission " to investigate Mora 's murder and eight other deaths from the past 20 years . Government officials said they were in the process of installing radar systems across Costa Rica to detect drug trafficking and illegal fishing , and that they would launch a plan to patrol Moín beach with the assistance of the Costa Rican Petroleum Refinery ( RECOPE ) . MINAE said that ₡ 30 million ( US $ 60 @,@ 000 ) had been allocated for Mora 's memorial and environmental education done in his name .
As of July 4 , no arrests had been made in relation to the murder of Mora . Ministries of Public Safety Vice Minister Celso Gamboa called the investigation ongoing . In mid @-@ June , Castro had said the investigation was proceeding well and he had " every reason to be optimistic that we will solve this crime . " On July 10 , the prosecutor 's office said two suspects had been identified and that the case would " advance significantly " over the coming week .
On July 31 , Costa Rican police raided several locations near Moín and the city of Limón , and arrested several suspects believed to be involved in Mora 's murder , as well as other crimes , including robbery and turtle egg poaching . Police said that more arrests are expected .
The first trial of the alleged perpetrators ended in a mistrial and a second trial was held in 2015 . In January 2016 , a court found seven men accused of Mora 's murder not guilty based on reasonable doubt . Four of the men were , however , sentenced to lengthy prison terms assault , kidnapping and aggravated robbery for a crime that occurred on the same beach shortly before Mora 's murder . ( Donald Salmón : 27 years in prison for aggravated robbery , rape and kidnapping ; Héctor Cash : 23 years for aggravated robbery , kidnapping and sexual abuse ; José Bryan Delgado : 17 years for aggravated robbery and kidnapping ; Ernesto Centeno : 17 years for aggravated robbery and kidnapping . ) Subsequently , the not guilty verdict was overturned on appeal and the four men were convicted of Moar 's murder .
= Gesche Schünemann =
Gesche Schünemann ( born 18 November 1982 ) is a German wheelchair basketball player and Paralympian who was part of the team that took the silver medal in the women 's wheelchair basketball at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , and the gold medal winning team in wheelchair basketball at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London .
After a promising basketball career was cut short by an Anterior cruciate ligament injury when she was a teenager , Schünemann took up wheelchair basketball , playing her first game in 2000 . She went on to win five national championships with RSV Lahn @-@ Dill . She began training with the national team in November 2005 , and made her international debut at the European championships in 2007 .
= = Biography = =
Gesche Schünemann was born in Gießen on 18 November 1982 . She was a swimmer and basketball player . Playing in a seconds game against TSV Grünberg , she was knocked down by Magdalena von Geyr , resulting in a torn anterior cruciate ligament and cartilage damage . Several operations failed to restore her knee to a state where she could play professional basketball , although she is still able to walk .
This ended Schünemann 's basketball career for a time . She moved to Tübingen , where she studied sports management with a focus on sports marketing at the University of Tübingen . In 2012 , she worked full @-@ time as a marketing consultant for an energy company . Schünemann did some coaching and played for the regional league , but her knee still bothered her and national league offers were cancelled .
Andreas Joneck , who later became the manager of RSV Lahn @-@ Dill persuaded Schünemann to try wheelchair basketball . She began playing for the seconds on her 18th birthday . RSV Lahn @-@ Dill went on to win the national championship in 2008 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 and 2013 , with Schünemann playing forward . In 2013 , Schünemann moved to Hamburg , where her boyfriend Christian lives , and now plays forward @-@ center for BG Baskets Hamburg , a mixed gender team . In April 2014 , she was part of the BG Baskets Hamburg team that won the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation Euro League Challenge Cup , its first International title .
In November 2005 , Schünemann began training with the national team . She made her international debut at the European championships in 2007 . The German national team won gold at the European championships , and went on to win it again in 2009 and 2011 before losing to the Netherlands in 2013 . In September 2008 , she participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , but Germany was beaten in the gold medal game by the United States team , taking home Paralympic silver medals instead . After the Paralympics , the team 's performance was considered impressive enough for it to be named the national " Team of the Year " , and it received the Silver Laurel Leaf , Germany 's highest sporting honour , from German President Horst Köhler .
The German team hoped for a rematch against the United States at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , but instead faced the team that had beaten the Americans , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team . They defeated the Australians in front of a crowd of over 12 @,@ 000 to win the gold medal , Gesche Schünemann the first time that Germany had won in women 's wheelchair basketball at the Paralympics since 1984 . They were awarded a second Silver Laurel Leaf by President Joachim Gauck in November 2012 , and were again named Team of the Year for 2012 .
After the Paralympics , Schünemann was required to rest for three months after surgery to repair the damaged tendons of the little right finger , but returned for the European Championships in 2013 , which Germany lost to the Netherlands . In 2014 , she won silver at the 2014 Women 's World Wheelchair Basketball Championship in Toronto , where the German team was defeated by Canada in the final .
= = Achievements = =
2007 : Gold European Championships ( Wetzlar , Germany )
2008 : Silver Paralympic Games ( Beijing , China )
2009 : Gold European Championships ( Stoke Mandeville , England )
2010 : Silver World Championships ( Birmingham , England )
2011 : Gold European Championships ( Nazareth , Israel )
2012 : Gold Paralympic Games ( London , England )
2013 : Silver European Championships ( Frankfurt , Germany )
2014 : Silver at the World Championships ( Toronto , Canada )
2015 : Gold at the European Championships ( Worcester , England )
= = Awards = =
2008 : Team of the Year
2008 : Silver Laurel Leaf
2012 : Team of the Year
2012 : Silver Laurel Leaf
= Scimitar oryx =
The scimitar oryx or scimitar @-@ horned oryx ( Oryx dammah ) , also known as the Sahara oryx , is a species of Oryx extinct in the wild since 2000 . It formerly inhabited all of North Africa . It has a long taxonomic history since its discovery in 1816 by Lorenz Oken , who named it the Oryx algazel . This spiral @-@ horned antelope stands a little more than 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) at the shoulder . The males weigh 140 – 210 kg ( 310 – 460 lb ) and the females weigh 91 – 140 kg ( 201 – 309 lb ) . The coat is white with a red @-@ brown chest and black markings on the forehead and down the length of the nose . The calves are born with a yellow coat , and the distinguishing marks are initially absent . The coats change to adult coloration at 3 – 12 months old .
The scimitar oryx formed herds of mixed sexes of up to 70 members , usually guided by the bulls . They inhabited semideserts and deserts and were adapted to live in the extreme heat , with their efficient cooling mechanism and very low requirement of water . Scimitar oryx feed on foliage , grasses , succulent plants and plant parts during the night or early morning . Births peak between March and October . After a gestation of eight to nine months , one calf is born . Soon after , the female has a postpartum estrus .
The scimitar oryx was once widespread in northern Africa . Its decline began as a result of climate change , and later it was hunted extensively for its horns . Today , it is bred in captivity in special reserves in Tunisia , Morocco and Senegal . The scimitar oryx was domesticated in Ancient Egypt and is believed to have been used as food and sacrificed as offerings to gods . Wealthy people in Ancient Rome also bred them . The use of their valuable hides began in the Middle Ages . The unicorn myth may have originated from sightings of a scimitar oryx with a broken horn .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The scimitar oryx is a member of the genus Oryx and family Bovidae . The German naturalist Lorenz Oken first described it in 1816 , naming it Oryx algazel . The nomenclature has undergone various changes since then , with the introduction of names like Oryx tao , O. leucoryx , O. damma , O. dammah , O. bezoarticus and O. ensicornis . In 1826 , Philipp Jakob Cretzschmar used the name Oryx ammah for the species . A year later , the name Orys leucoryx came into use , but as this was a synonym of the Arabian oryx ( then called Oryx beatrix ) , it was abandoned , and Oryx algazel was accepted once more . Over a hundred years later , in 1951 , Sir John Ellerman and Terence Morrison @-@ Scott realized the invalidity of the name Oryx algazel . Finally , in January 1956 , the International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature accepted Oryx dammah as the scientific name . There have been no more changes since then , though many papers published after 1956 created confusion by using names like O. gazella tao .
Its scientific name , Oryx dammah , is derived from : Ancient Greek ὄρυξ ( orux ) , meaning a gazelle or antelope ( originally a pickaxe ) ; Latin damma ( fallow deer or antelope ) ; and Arabic dammar ( sheep ) . The scimitar oryx is named for its horns , which resemble scimitars . Its common name in English is " scimitar @-@ horned oryx " , or simply " scimitar oryx " .
= = Genetics and evolution = =
The scimitar oryx has 58 chromosomes . It has one pair of large submetacentric autosomes and 27 acrocentric autosomal pairs . The X and Y chromosomes are the largest and smallest acrocentrics . The first molecular study of this species ( published in 2007 ) observed genetic diversity among European , North American and some other captive groups . Divergence was found within the mitochondrial DNA haplotypes , and was estimated to have taken place between 2 @.@ 1 and 2 @.@ 7 million years ago . Population increases occurred approximately 1 @.@ 2 and 0 @.@ 5 million years ago .
In another study , intended to note genetic differences between Oryx species , karyotypes of Oryx species and subspecies – namely O. gazella , O. b. beisa , O. b. callotis , O. dammah and O. leucoryx – were compared with the standard karyotype of Bos taurus . The number of autosomes in all karyotypes was 58 . The X and Y chromosomes were conserved in all five species .
= = Physical description = =
The scimitar oryx is a straight @-@ horned antelope that stands just over 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) at the shoulder . The males weigh 140 – 210 kg ( 310 – 460 lb ) and the females 91 – 140 kg ( 201 – 309 lb ) . The body measures 140 – 240 cm ( 55 – 94 in ) from the head to the base of the tail . The tail is 45 – 60 cm ( 18 – 24 in ) long and ends with a tuft . They are sexually dimorphic with males being larger than females .
Its coat is white with a red @-@ brown chest and black markings on the forehead and down the length of the nose . The coat reflects the sun 's rays , while the black portions and the tip of the tongue provide protection against sunburn . The white coat helps to reflect the heat of the desert . Calves are born with yellow coats and lack distinguishing marks , which appear later in life . Their pelage changes to adult coloration at 3 – 12 months old .
Both sexes have horns , but those of the females are more slender . The horns are long , thin , and symmetrical ; they curve backwards ( a distinctive feature of this species ) and can reach 1 @.@ 0 to 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 3 in to 3 ft 11 in ) on both the males and the females . The horns are so thin that they can break easily . The female has four nipples . The large , spreading hooves are well adapted to allow these antelopes to walk on the sand of their dry habitats . A scimitar oryx can live as long as 20 years . At Smithsonian National Zoo , a female oryx died at 21 , an exceptional age since females generally have a lifespan of about 15 years .
= = Diseases and parasites = =
The scimitar oryx can be infected with cryptosporidiosis , a parasitic disease caused by protozoan parasites of genus Cryptosporidium in the phylum Apicomplexa . A study in 2004 revealed that C. parvum or similar organisms infected 155 mammal species , including the scimitar oryx . An analysis in 2005 found Cryptosporidium parasites in stool samples from 100 mammals , including the scimitar oryx . Oocysts of a new parasite , Eimeria oryxae , have been discovered in the feces of a scimitar oryx from Zoo Garden in Riyadh . In France , Streptococcus uberis was isolated for the first time in an oryx . It had caused vegetative endocarditis in the animal , leading to fatal congestive heart failure .
A 1983 study examined the blood serum chemistry of blood samples taken from the jugular veins of fifty scimitar oryx ranging from neonates to adults over 13 years old . The study concluded that the higher eosinophil counts of the juveniles and adults might reflect larger internal parasite burdens in them as compared with the neonates .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The scimitar oryx was a very sociable animal and traveled in herds of between two and forty individuals , generally , led by a dominant bull . This species once gathered in groups of several thousand for migration . During the wet season , they migrated north into the Sahara . Scimitar oryx are diurnal . In the cool early mornings and evenings , they rest under trees and shrubs , or if neither are available , they dig depressions in the soil with their hooves and rest there . Males fight often , but not for long and not violently . Predators , such as lions , leopards , hyenas , cheetahs , golden jackals , vultures and Cape hunting dogs , mostly kill weak and young oryx .
The play activity of eight calves in captivity was observed in a 1983 study . Male calves played for longer than females calves did . Mixed sex play was usual ; selection of partners depended on age , but not on sex or genetic relatedness . Results suggested that size dimorphism was an important factor responsible for sex differences in play .
= = = Adaptations = = =
With a metabolism that functions at the high temperatures prevalent in their habitats , scimitar oryx need less water for evaporation to help conduct heat away from the body , enabling them to go for long periods without water . They can allow their body temperature to rise to almost 46 @.@ 5 ° C ( 115 @.@ 7 ° F ) before beginning to perspire . In times of ample supply , oryx can use fluid loss through urination and feces to lower their body temperature to below 97 ° F ( 36 ° C ) at night , giving more time before reaching maximum body temperature the following day . They can tolerate high temperatures that would be lethal to most mammals . They have a network of fine blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to the brain , passing close to the nasal passage and thus allowing the blood to cool by up to 5 ° F ( 3 ° C ) before reaching the brain , which is one of the most heat @-@ sensitive organs of the body .
= = = Diet = = =
The habitat of scimitar oryx in the wild was steppe and desert , where they ate foliage , grass , herbs , shrubs , succulent plants , legumes , juicy roots , buds , and fruit . They can survive without water for nine to ten months because their kidneys prevent water loss from urination – an adaptation to desert habitats . They can get water from water @-@ rich plants such as the wild melon ( Citrullus colocynthis ) and Indigofera oblongifolia and from the leafless twigs of Capparis decidua . In the night or early morning , they often search for plants such as Indigofera viscosa , which produce a hygroscopic secretion that fulfils water requirements . They eat tuft grasses such as Cymbopogon schoenanthus after it has rained , but they normally prefer more palatable grasses , such as Cenchrus biflora , Panicum laetum and Dactyloctenium aegyptium . When the dry season begins , they feed on the seedpods of Acacia raddiana , and during the dry season , they rely on perennial grasses of genera such as Panicum ( especially Panicum turgidum ) and Aristida , and browse plants such as Leptadenia species , Cassia italica and Cornulaca monacantha .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Both males and females reach sexual maturity at 1 @.@ 5 to 2 years of age . Births peak between March and October . Mating frequency is greater when environmental conditions are favorable . In zoos , males are sexually most active in autumn . The estrous cycle lasts roughly 24 days , and females experience an anovulatory period in spring . Periods between births are less than 332 days , showing that the scimitar oryx is polyestrous .
Courting is done by means of a mating circle : the male and female stand parallel to one another , facing in opposite directions , and then circle around each other until the female allows the male to mount from behind . If the female is not ready to mate , she runs away and circles in the reverse direction . Pregnant females leave the herd for a week , give birth to the calf and conceive again during their postpartum estrus ; thus they can produce a calf a year . Gestation lasts about nine months , after which a single calf is born , weighing 20 to 33 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 to 15 @.@ 0 kg ) . Twin births are very rare - only 0 @.@ 7 % of the births observed in one study . Both mother and calf return to the main herd within hours of the birth . The female separates herself from the herd for a few hours while she nurses the calf . Weaning starts at 3 @.@ 5 months , and the young become fully independent at around 14 weeks old .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The scimitar oryx once inhabited grassy steppes , semideserts and deserts in a narrow strip of central north Africa ( Niger and Chad ) . It was widespread on the fringes of the Sahara , mainly in subdesert steppe , the grassy zone between the real desert and the Sahel , an area characterized by an annual rainfall of 75 – 150 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) . In 1936 , a single herd of 10 @,@ 000 oryx was seen in the steppe area of Chad . By the mid @-@ 1970s , Chad was home to more than 95 % of the world population of this species .
= = Status and conservation = =
The scimitar oryx was hunted almost to extinction for its horns . Its population decline began as a result of major climatic changes that caused the Sahara to become dry . The northern population was already almost lost before the 20th century . The decline of the southern population accelerated as Europeans began to settle the area and hunt them for meat , hides and horn trophies . World War II and the Civil War in Chad that started in the 1960s are thought to have caused heavy decreases of the species through an increase in hunting for food . Roadkill , nomadic settlements near waterholes ( their dry @-@ season feeding places ) and firearms for easy hunting have also reduced numbers .
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attitude , and appealed to Blamey , who in turn took up the matter with MacArthur . On 29 September 1943 , Carpender agreed to use high @-@ speed transports to send an additional battalion to Finschhafen , and the crisis passed . Carpender told Lieutenant General Frank Berryman that he " resented the implication that Uncle Sam 's Navy was letting [ the Australians ] down at Finschhafen . "
Carpender was replaced by Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid on 26 November 1943 . For his services in the Southwest Pacific , he was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal by MacArthur , and the Legion of Merit by the Navy . He was also appointed an honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire on the recommendation of the Australian government , and a Grand Officer of the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau by the Netherlands . He returned to the United States , where he commanded the Ninth Naval District from 3 January 1944 until 31 August 1945 , for which he was awarded a second Legion of Merit .
= = Later life = =
Carpender 's last naval assignment was as Coordinator of Public Relations in the Office of the Secretary of the Navy from 28 May 1946 . He retired from the Navy on 1 November 1946 , with a tombstone promotion to the rank of admiral . He lived in retirement in Washington , D.C. until his death on 10 January 1960 , and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery . His papers are held by the New Jersey Historical Society .
= Just Dance ( song ) =
" Just Dance " is the debut single by American recording artist Lady Gaga . The song was produced by RedOne and co @-@ written by RedOne , Gaga and Akon , while also featuring labelmate Colby O 'Donis . It was released in 2008 as the lead single from Gaga 's debut studio album , The Fame . The song was written by Gaga in ten minutes as " a happy record " . " Just Dance " also has influences of R & B and lyrically speaks about being intoxicated at a club .
The song received positive reviews from music critics , who complimented its club anthem @-@ like nature and the synthpop associated with it . The song has also achieved commercial success by topping charts in the United States , Australia , Canada , the Republic of Ireland , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom , as well as reaching the top ten in many other countries . In the United States , " Just Dance " was a sleeper hit , spending almost five months on the Billboard Hot 100 before finally reaching the summit of the chart in January 2009 , after being released in April 2008 . The single is among the best @-@ selling singles of all time , having sold over 10 million copies .
The music video of the song portrayed Lady Gaga appearing in a party where she plays the song , prompting party @-@ goers to start dancing in enjoyment . Gaga compared her experience of shooting the video with being on a Martin Scorsese set . " Just Dance " was performed by Gaga in a number of live appearances including all of her concert tours . In 2009 , the song received a Grammy nomination in the Best Dance Recording category but lost to electronic duo Daft Punk for their song " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger ( Alive 2007 ) " .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
" Just Dance " is written by Gaga and Akon with co @-@ writing by RedOne , who also produced the track . In an interview with Heat Gaga explained her inspiration for writing the song . She said , " I was very hung @-@ over . I wrote the song in about 10 minutes with [ producer ] RedOne . And it was my first time being in a Hollywood studio . Very pristine , big huge room with giant speakers . " Gaga wrote " Just Dance " during January 2008 and according to her it was " hard work and a lot of people didn 't believe in it at first " . Later , Gaga reflected on the song by saying ,
" That record saved my life . I was in such a dark space in New York . I was so depressed , always in a bar . I got on a plane to LA to do my music and was given one shot to write the song that would change my life and I did . I never went back . I left behind my boyfriend , my apartment . I still haven 't been back . My mother went in and cleared it for me . "
In an interview with Contactmusic.com Gaga explained that " Just Dance " is a happy record and is supposed to be appreciated by people going through rough times like losing jobs and homes etc . Gaga further explained with Artistdirect that she wanted to write a beautiful record with " Just Dance " . Being asked the reason for which " Just Dance " has become popular , Gaga said that she thought , " Everyone is looking for a song that really speaks to the joy in our souls and in our hearts and having a good time . It 's just one of those records . It feels really good , and when you listen to it , it makes you feel good inside . It 's as simple as that . I don 't think it 's rocket science when it comes to the heart . I think it 's a heart theme song . " In March 2010 , the song was released as downloadable content for the music @-@ based videogame series Rock Band , alongside " Poker Face " , " Monster " and " Bad Romance " as part of " Lady Gaga Pack 01 " .
= = Composition = =
" Just Dance " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop and synthpop song . The song combines synths of clipped marching beats , soaring electronics and contains mild R & B infused beats . It is written in the key of C ♯ minor and is set at a moderate dance tempo of 119 beats per minute . Gaga 's vocal spans from the low note of G ♯ 3 to the high note of C ♯ 5 . The song begins with a fast tempo following by the synth arrangement and Gaga uttering " RedOne " . " Just Dance " has a basic progression of C ♯ m – E – B – F ♯ m . Colby O 'Donis sings the interlude in the same range as Gaga followed by an R & B influenced interlude by her , after which the chorus is repeated with O 'Donis providing backup vocals and the marching beats . The song ends with an echoing of the word " dance " .
Lyrically , " Just Dance " throws a partial tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek perspective with lyrics like " What 's going on on the floor ? / I love this record , baby but I can 't see straight anymore " . The lyrics deal with being completely intoxicated at a party . The opening lyric " A RedOne " has often been misinterpreted as " red wine " but in actuality is a reference to producer RedOne .
= = Critical reception = =
The song has garnered mostly positive reviews . Matthew Chisling of AllMusic described the song as " a powerhouse of dance waves and infectiously produced beats " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian called it a " beguilingly compulsive tale of pulling a drug @-@ induced whitey , with a combination of clipped marching beats , sawing electronics and mild R & B flavor that bears a vague resemblance to Nelly Furtado 's " Maneater " . Ben Norman of About.com said that the song " opens the album like a valkyrie leading the charge [ ... ] riding triumphant ahead of her army . If you don 't know this song , use your browser . I won 't waste time explaining what it sounds like . " However he also noted that the song is not groundbreaking and compared it to the music of Rihanna , Chris Brown and The Pussycat Dolls . Bill Lamb from About.com called the song tame but catchy enough for Gaga to be noticed by mainstream . He also added that " ' Just Dance ' has strong energy and features Lady GaGa 's striking voice , but it ultimately adds up to rather bland dance @-@ pop . " Colby O ' Donis ' smooth vocals were also complimented .
Evan Sawdey of PopMatters.com said that " Just Dance " is an intensely catchy single and is an excellent indicator of what the album was all about . Ben Hogwood of MusicOMH praised the song saying , " You won 't get many more catchy party odes than the chart topping Just Dance this year , a polished gem set to lodge in your head for the next few weeks . " Freedom lu Lac of The Washington Post described the song to be " filled with mindlessly frothy synth @-@ pop that matches low @-@ grade dance grooves with GaGa 's icy , almost disembodied vocals about dancing bliss " . Lynn Saxberg from The Ottawa Citizen , while reviewing Gaga 's The Fame Ball Tour , called the song a perfect sing @-@ along club anthem . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine wrote that the song resembles the " desperate train wreck you 're likely to encounter getting wasted at any dive on the L.E.S. at four in the morning " as is emphasized by the lyrics . Talia Kranes from BBC called the song irresistible and said that " the catchiness of her songs is sure to cement her place in the list of pop idols " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , " Just Dance " was initially a club @-@ hit after its release , peaking at number two on both the Hot Dance Airplay and Hot Dance Club Play charts during the summer of 2008 . The song entered the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 76 on August 16 , 2008 . After 5 months , it gradually rose to number two on the Hot 100 , after selling 419 @,@ 000 in downloads on January 10 , 2009 . The next week , the song reached number one on the Hot 100 . The single took a total of 22 weeks to hit the top spot , which is the longest climb to number one since Creed 's " With Arms Wide Open " took 27 weeks before finally reaching number one in November 2000 . The song also reached the top of the Mainstream Top 40 chart , becoming Gaga 's first number @-@ one song . " Just Dance " spent a total of 49 weeks on the Hot 100 and on May 29 , 2015 , the single was certified eight times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of eight million copies . It was the second song to reach the six million mark in paid downloads , following " I Gotta Feeling " by the Black Eyed Peas . As of April 2016 , " Just Dance " has sold 7 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States and is the ninth best @-@ selling digital single of all time in the United States . In Canada , the song debuted at number 97 on the Canadian Hot 100 for the issue dated June 7 , 2008 . It reached the top of the chart on August 23 , 2008 , and was present there for five consecutive weeks . The song was certified six times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) in June 2009 , for sales of 240 @,@ 000 copies in paid digital downloads .
The track debuted at number 34 on the ARIA Singles Chart on July 21 , 2008 , and moved up to number 17 the next week . On September 15 , 2008 , the track reached the top of the chart . " Just Dance " was certified three times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 210 @,@ 000 copies . The song was credited as the longest charting single in ARIA history , spending over 81 weeks in the top 100 . " Just Dance " debuted on the New Zealand charts at number 19 , and reached a peak of number three . It has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies of the single .
In the United Kingdom , " Just Dance " debuted at number three on the UK Singles Chart , on January 4 , 2009 . It rose to number one the next week with total sales of 65 @,@ 764 copies , and remained at the top for three weeks . In an interview with Daily Mail , Gaga explained her feelings on reaching number @-@ one in the United Kingdom saying , " It 's been a long running dream to have a big hit in the UK – my fans there are so sexy and the people are so innovative and free in how they think about pop culture and music . I was in my apartment in Los Angeles getting ready to go to dance rehearsal when they called and told me , and I just cried . " According to the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) the song was certified platinum , and in July 2016 it became Gaga 's third song to pass 1 million sales in the United Kingdom . In Ireland , the song debuted at number eleven , and after one week it peaked the chart . The song also peaked the Dutch Top 40 on February 28 , 2009 . Across Europe , " Just Dance " reached the top ten in Austria , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Norway , Sweden , Switzerland and the top twenty of Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) and France . Worldwide the song has sold over 10 million digital copies .
= = Music video = =
Released in May 2008 , the video was directed by music video director Melina Matsoukas , and is based on the thematic content of the song of being in a party . The video begins with Gaga arriving with her background dancers at a house party , which seems to have ended . One of the dancers puts a Discolite Boombox on , blaring the music through the house . The crowd at the party appear to be sleeping in different areas , and are awoken by the music . They all start to dance , and scenes of the party are inter cut with scenes of a scantily dressed Gaga dancing in a poncho , with a disco ball or in a small rubber pool playing with an inflated killer whale . She wears a blue , lightning @-@ bolt shaped sticker beneath her right eye like that on the single cover , which paid tribute to the album cover of David Bowie 's Aladdin Sane , as he is one of her musical idols . O 'Donis appears in the video being flanked by several girls during the " When I come through on the dance floor " interlude . Cameo appearances are made by Akon and Space Cowboy . MTV called the video as an ode to the " Me Decade " . During an interview with Australian radio in September 2008 , Gaga said that " The whole video is performance art about being drunk at a party . " When asked about the shooting experience of the music video , Gaga explained ,
" Oh it was so fun , it was amazing . For me it was like being on a Martin Scorsese set . I 've been so low budget for so long , and to have this incredibly amazing video was really very humbling . It was really fun , but you 'll see if you ever come to a video shoot of mine one day – I 'm very private about those things , I don 't really talk to everybody . I 'm not like the party girl running around . I might even seem to be a bit of a diva . I 'm sort of with myself , in my work head space worrying about costumes , and if extras look right , and placement . I don 't just show up for things , you know . That video was a vision of mine . It was Melina the director who wanted to do something , to have a performance art aspect that was so pop but it was still commercial , but that felt like lifestyle . It was all those things , I love it . "
= = Live performances = =
In July , she performed the song for the first time at the swimsuit competition of the Miss Universe 2008 in Vietnam , later Lady Gaga performed the song on many television shows in the United States . She appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , So You Think You Can Dance and The Ellen DeGeneres Show . In Australia , she performed on Sunrise , where her performance was condemned for lip @-@ synching . Gaga denied it and released a statement saying " I was sick the day of the show but I absolutely , 100 per cent , was singing live . [ ... ] have never lip @-@ synched and never will . Even on my worst day , I never will . " In the United Kingdom , she performed the song on GMTV . She also performed the single during her AOL sessions .
" Just Dance " was added to the setlist of her first headlining The Fame Ball Tour , where it was performed before the Encore . As the performance for the acoustic version of " Poker Face " ended , Gaga exited from the stage and a video interlude called " The Face " starts telling about Gaga 's alternate persona Candy Warhol and teaching her to speak . Gaga appeared on the stage wearing a tutu shaped dress with pointed shoulderpads and peplum . Her dancers were clad in Louis Vuitton Steven Sprouse printed trousers which matched Gaga 's shoes . The backdrop changed to show blinking disco lights and Gaga stood wearing her video sunglasses , displaying the line " Pop Music Will Never Be Low Brow " . A remix of the intro for " Just Dance " started and Gaga started singing the song , while moving around in choreographed dance moves .
The song was also added to the setlist of The Monster Ball Tour , performed as the second song of the list . After the opening song " Dance in the Dark " , she strapped on a portable silver jewelled keyboard and started performing " Just Dance " while inside a white cube from which she emerged from the top , and the video screen came up . She was raised on a platform with a keytar over her shoulder as eight dancers in white bodysuits locked into steps below her . In May 2011 , Gaga performed the song during Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Carlisle , Cumbria . She also made her debut performance on Irish TV screens performing Just Dance , on the Irish talk show Tubridy Tonight in January 2009 .
" Just Dance " was included on her third concert tour , the 2012 Born This Way Ball , where Gaga performed it on the extended stage walkway and shouted off to her fans for joining and dancing onstage . Emily Zemler from The Hollywood Reporter noted that " For all her preconceived speeches , these genuine moments resonated deeply with the audience , most of whom were dressed in tribute to the singer . " For the 2014 ArtRave : The Artpop Ball tour , Gaga combined " Just Dance " with short performances of " Poker Face " and 2010 single , " Telephone " . While she danced and sang the songs , the backdrops displayed multiple images of Gaga writhing around , while wrapped in tinsel and moss . Melissa Ruggieri from The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution was impressed with Gaga 's vocals and complimented her for performing " old songs " in her actual voice .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Fame .
Lady Gaga – lead vocals , songwriting , background vocals
RedOne – songwriting , production , background vocals , instrumentation , music programming , recording at Record Plant Studios , Hollywood , Los Angeles , California
Akon – songwriting , background vocals
Colby O 'Donis – additional lead vocals , background vocals
Dave Russel – audio engineering
Robert Orton – audio mixing
Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering at Oasis Mastering , Burbank , California
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Louis Klein =
Dominique Louis Antoine Klein ( 19 January 1761 – 2 November 1845 ) served in the French military during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars as a general of cavalry .
Initially part of the house guard at the royal residences for Louis XVI , Klein left the military in 1787 . During the French Revolution , he enlisted and rose rapidly from a lieutenant to a brigadier general ; he participated in the French invasion of southwestern Germany in 1796 , and was part of the Army of the Danube in 1799 . His cavalry played critical roles in the battles of Austerlitz and Jena and Auerstadt . Following the Prussian campaign , he retired from active service , entered politics , and performed administrative duties in Paris .
Klein served in the French Senate , and voted for Napoleon Bonaparte 's abdication in 1814 ; he did not participate in the Hundred Days and Louis XVIII of France raised him to the French peerage upon the second restoration .
= = Military career = =
Initially , Klein served in the royal house guard for the King of France , holding the prestigious position as guard of the gate . He left military service in 1787 . After the French Revolution began in 1789 , he rejoined the military and in 1792 , he was listed as an infantry lieutenant in the Army of the North . His cavalry regiment participated in the Battle of Fleurus .
= = = French Revolutionary Wars = = =
By 1795 , Klein was a brigadier general in the Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse , where he replaced Adjutant @-@ General Michel Ney . Klein was appointed general of division in 1799 and crossed the Rhine at Kehl in Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan 's Army of the Danube . He commanded the right flank of the Advance Guard , under command of François Joseph Lefebvre . His command included the 4th and 5th Hussar Regiments , the 17th Dragoons , the 1st Chasseurs à cheval , a light horse regiment , two companies of horse artillery , two of foot artillery , and a company of sappers . At the Battle of Ostrach , Klein 's cavalry helped to secure the village of Hosskirch , a strategically important forward post , prior to the general engagement . After the French losses at Ostrach and the subsequent Battle of Stockach , Jourdan ordered a general withdrawal to the Black Forest . The reserve cavalry and most of Klein 's division crossed the mountains and quartered near Offenburg , where their horses could find better forage . Despite the organized withdrawal and the relatively secure positions on the western side of the Black Forest , the army was in shambles . Jourdan placed his chief of staff Jean Augustin Ernouf in provisional command and went to Paris to complain about the state of his army , its equipment and its provisions . Discipline in the ranks disintegrated . Most of the divisional generals left their posts , except for Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino , Joseph Souham , Dominique Vandamme and Klein . In May , Andre Massena received overall command of both the Army of the Danube and the Army of Helvetia ; Klein 's column joined Massena near Zurich .
In May 1799 , Klein led a cavalry division of 2 @,@ 010 prior to the Battle of Winterthur . A few days later , he commanded the cavalry reserve against the Archduke Charles and the Austrian army at the First Battle of Zurich . Charles ' superior numbers and position forced the French to retreat from Zurich , taking up position on the western side of the Limmat River . In September , he again commanded the cavalry reserve , the VII . Division , of 3 @,@ 696 on the left ( west ) bank of the Aar river . He was responsible for guarding the Frick valley ( Fricktal ) . There , as the dispositions developed for the Second Battle of Zurich on 25 September , Klein remained under direct command of Massena . Klein prepared to support either the troops of Jean Thomas Guillaume Lorge or Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier , on the north or south flanks respectively , as required . The Austrian assault fell hardest on Mortier , who was driven back from the strategically placed Dietikon . Klein 's reserve enabled the French to retake and hold the village . This convinced the Russian commander in Zurich , Alexander Korsakov , that he should draw his troops back to the city fortifications . Later , as Korsakoff relinquished these , the Russians executed a confused withdrawal to Constance . In the chaos , Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan 's division , supported by Klein 's reserve , pressed the Coalition forces hard at the west end of Constance , by the bridge to the abbey at Petershausen . They nearly captured the Prince Condé and the Duke d 'Enghien themselves . Although the French took many prisoners , including many of the Army of Condé , the French emigrant army , these prisoners were not massacred whole @-@ sale , as had happened after earlier battles . Klein and Mortier issued instructions , which were supported by Massena , that the émigrés be assigned Russian names — they were , after all , under Russian pay and wearing the Russian cockade in their caps — and treated with dignity ; they were eventually exchanged for French officers held prisoner by the Austrians and Russians .
Returning to France after the Peace of Lunéville in 1801 , Klein remained inactive for several months . In 1802 he was recalled to military service as Inspector of Cavalry . He was given command of the 1st Division of Dragoons and in 1804 was made a Grand Officer of the Legion d 'honneur .
= = = Napoleonic Wars = = =
In 1805 , Klein 's division was part of the newly created VIII . Corps , under command of Édouard Mortier ; the role of the Corps was to patrol and secure the northern shore of the Danube river , limiting the Austro @-@ Russian activity . Napoleon incorrectly assumed that the Russians and the Austrians would make a stand near St. Pölten , northwest of Vienna . Klein 's entire regiment of dragoons patrolled the northern Danube shore , while the rest of his division , the last in the extended line of march , was more than a day behind Maxime Gazan 's lead division . Klein 's division did not take part in the Battle of Dürenstein , although his dragoons were with Mortier and Gazan immediately prior to the engagement .
Klein 's division was part of the decisive defeat of the Austrian and Russian force at the subsequent Battle of Austerlitz three weeks later . Initially , his dragoons , assigned to support Friant 's division , occupied a position of observation on the Marchfeld . The rest of his dragoons remained near Stockerau , just to the west of Vienna , and these dragoons , plus Louis @-@ Nicolas Davout 's , François Antoine Louis Bourcier 's and Marc Antoine Beaumont 's divisions of dragoons , formed a cordon between Pohrlitz and Pressburg , and could move either west or east , depending on the actions of the Archduke Charles or the Russian commander Kutuzov . Consequently , Klein 's dragoons , held the road between Austerlitz and Vienna , eliminating a possible Austrian retreat .
In the War of the Fourth Coalition , Klein fought in the Grande Armée under command of Joachim Murat . After the Battle of Jena @-@ Auerstadt , Klein was with his division of dragoons in the village of Weissensee , the only escape route open to the Prussian General Blücher . Blücher was surprised to find Klein in possession of the village , but convinced him an armistice has been concluded between Prussia and Napoleon . Reports differ on the conduct of Klein and Blücher . William Milligan Sloane insists that Frederick William III of Prussia was with Blücher and that only the old general 's bluff prevented the King 's capture . Some historians assert that Klein believed him , and learned too late that he had been deceived . Others assert that Klein 's force was too weak to resist the greater Prussian numbers . He had only 800 cavalry and Antoine Lasalle , to the west , had two regiments . Blücher had either 7 @,@ 000 , according to Charles Mullié , or more than 12 @,@ 000 Prussian infantry , artillery and horse . Regardless , Klein and Lasalle either pragmatically maintained the fiction or fell for the ruse ; Blücher and his Prussians passed through the village . Charles Mullié maintains that Klein vowed revenge ; with his division , he pursued and attacked Blücher force the following day . He took 10 Prussian standards and 1 @,@ 000 prisoners , including a general officer , although he did not capture Blücher . Frances Lorraine Petrie gives that credit to Soult , and so does Adolphe Thiers ; furthermore , Petre maintains , Klein 's dragoons were sent to guard the communications lines between Erfurt and Weimar , where several groups of Prussians had skirmished with the French rear guard .
= = = Administrative and political duties = = =
Following the Prussian campaign , Napoleon appointed Klein as governor of the Imperial palace . In 1807 , Klein was called to the Senate . In 1808 , he was raised by letters of patent to a count of the empire and awarded the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Bavarian Lion . In 1812 , he was placed in command of the recruitment and training of a cohort of the National Guard .
He remained in the Senate until April 1814 , when he voted for Napoleon 's abdication . In 1814 , during the Bourbon Restoration , he was named a knight of the Order of Saint Louis . He did not support Napoleon 's return in the Hundred Days . In the Second Restoration , Louis XVIII raised him to the French peerage .
= = Family and personal life = =
Louis Klein was born on 25 January 1761 in Blâmont ( Meurthe ) , in the Lorraine region . He married 7 January 1783 to Marie @-@ Agathe Pierron , with whom he had a son Edouard Marie Arsène ( 1784 – 1843 ) . Edouard had two daughters , Arsène Louise Marie , born 1820 , married Mathieu Prosper Morey ; and Louise Françoise Clémence , born in Hebreville , 1825 , married in Paris to Henri Tollier .
In 1808 , Klein divorced Pierron , with the Emperor 's permission , and on 2 July of that year remarried to Caroline of Valangin @-@ Arberg , daughter of the Countess of Arberg , a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting to the Empress Josephine de Beauharnais . In this marriage , he had a son , Eugene Joseph Napoleon , who was born in 1813 in Paris and died in 1872 . Louis Klein died 2 November 1845 in Paris .
= Silent Alarm =
Silent Alarm is the debut studio album by British indie rock band Bloc Party . Recorded in Copenhagen and London in mid @-@ 2004 with producer Paul Epworth , it was released in February 2005 on Wichita Recordings . The record peaked at number three on the United Kingdom Albums Chart . In the United States , it entered the Billboard 200 at number 114 and the Billboard Top Independent Albums at number seven . The double A @-@ side " So Here We Are / Positive Tension " , " Banquet " , and " Pioneers " were released as singles . Silent Alarm went on to achieve worldwide sales of over one million copies .
Bloc Party aimed to create an album that appealed to followers of different musical genres . Building on the arrangements in their demo songs recorded in 2004 , the band members moulded tracks largely through live takes during the Silent Alarm studio sessions . The compositional focus was on rhythm and the drum and bass parts , while lyricist Kele Okereke 's writing examined the feelings and hopes of young adults , including views on global politics . Following the album 's completion , Bloc Party embarked on promotional tours before its release .
Silent Alarm garnered widespread critical acclaim with praise often centered on its fast tempo and passionate delivery . Later in 2005 , it was remixed as Silent Alarm Remixed and was re @-@ released with bonus tracks to coincide with Bloc Party 's worldwide touring schedule . The album has received accolades throughout the music industry since its release .
= = Background = =
In 2003 , Bloc Party consisted of guitarists Kele Okereke and Russell Lissack , and bassist Gordon Moakes . After drummer Matt Tong auditioned and joined the trio , the band members ' songwriting evolved and they started crafting tracks for Silent Alarm . Discussing the first demo " She 's Hearing Voices " , Okereke has stated that it " was really just a drum beat , which was something we couldn 't do before because we relied on writing songs only with guitars " . Self @-@ recorded in a small , hired space in Acton , London , the song was followed by the May 2004 double A @-@ side single , " Banquet / Staying Fat " , produced by Paul Epworth . Bloc Party EP was subsequently released by Moshi Moshi Records in the UK , containing all three previous songs and new material .
After exposés in British magazines and newspapers and a successful performance on BBC Radio 1 , Bloc Party received a contract offer from Parlophone . The band members declined the opportunity because they did not want to work for a major record label and instead signed a recording contract with East London indie label Wichita Recordings , chosen because it did not want to stamp its agenda on the conception of records . Frontman and chief writer Okereke wanted Silent Alarm to emphasise the importance of finding pleasure in small mundane things , because " those are the sort of things that can be incredibly touching " . The album was borne out of " a nagging youthful urgency " and the realisation that responsibility has to be taken for the first time as a young adult . Before recording started , Okereke attended singing lessons to open up his voice .
= = Recording = =
In June 2004 , Bloc Party convened at Deltalab Studios in Copenhagen to make Silent Alarm with Paul Epworth . The band had already written demo songs to record , but Okereke has noted that " it is a creative process and you have to let yourself be inspired while you 're in the studio as well " . The Deltalab set @-@ up posed problems , because it included bare mains cables and dated , malfunctioning equipment from the 1960s and 1970s . Bloc Party took three sessions to get acquainted with Epworth 's methodology . The producer has called the recording time a " growing process " because Okereke was not wholly comfortable singing in front of people , especially after tonsil problems . Although the band members had preliminary ideas about a track 's rhythm , they did not know how songs were going to start or end . Okereke often asked Tong to play something on the drums , which inspired him to mould a track by adding guitar chords to the beat .
Bloc Party 's priority when recording Silent Alarm was " to give the music more depth , sonically speaking " rather than focus on making a punk funk record . The band believed that 21st @-@ century rock music could only survive if people started " mixing styles that aren 't supposed to be together " . Okereke has suggested that forward @-@ thinking bands reach a plateau and start to question the boundaries of their medium ; this leads to experimentation with elements from other genres . Bloc Party set out to explore the idea of merging different styles in the debut album , rather than in later work . Silent Alarm was crafted to appeal to R & B , electro , and pop fans , on top of the band 's core indie rock fanbase . Okereke wanted the album to sound " very rich and full " .
Preferring live recording takes for better sound authenticity , Epworth 's style separated the band 's elements by accentuating the bass and by allowing the guitarists space to improvise . The producer meticulously tuned and retuned the components of the drum kit for a specific sound and used ribbon or condenser microphones lined up in an equidistant formation . According to Lissack , the basic idea was to emulate the " optimum audio representation " of songs heard in a club environment by adding guitar lines on top of boosted drum and bass tracks . Epworth advised Bloc Party to shape dynamics " a bit more subtly " . As the sessions progressed , the band members started experimenting with distortion pedals to add to their " chiming , clean guitar sound " , although they did not listen to the producer about song structure . In the end , 15 tracks were recorded in 22 days in Copenhagen , while the vocal overdubbing was subsequently done at London locations . Throughout the studio sessions , Okereke focused closely on the nuances of songs by often amending " microscopics " .
Epworth 's bass @-@ oriented production was key to creating a universally appealing album and was also used as a musical background to the lyrics . Okereke has explained that the songs were crafted to balance dark lyrics with uplifting melodies . He called the final version of Silent Alarm " technicolour " due to its stylistic choices and indicated that Bloc Party achieved the aim of making the songs sound " better and bigger " when they were recorded in the studio . Moakes later pointed out that the band members were relative novices when they entered the recording sessions , and that for the most part they only did what they were advised ; this is an additional reason why the album is disjunct and not focused on any particular musical style .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
Many of the arrangements on Silent Alarm are strongly percussive . The leading song , " Like Eating Glass " , was inspired by a remix of The Smiths ' " There Is a Light That Never Goes Out " Okereke heard in 2002 . Its drum track was deliberately mixed louder than usual to add emphasis to the album 's opening . " Helicopter " has a quick tempo of 171 beats per minute , while " Positive Tension " begins with a solitary bassline and builds up pace , first with a rhythmic drumming pattern , and then with a guitar solo towards its conclusion . " Banquet " involves lead guitar and rhythm guitar playing in syncopation , while " Blue Light " has a slower tempo and a crescendo towards the end . During the studio sessions , the Bloc Party EP version of " She 's Hearing Voices " was reworked to include reverberation and stereo separation of the instrumental parts . " This Modern Love " begins minimally with panned vocals before the rhythm section enters the mix and the song intensifies .
The second half of Silent Alarm includes more studio effects . " Pioneers " opens with a series of delayed guitar harmonics , while " Price of Gas " is driven by a marching @-@ like sound created by Moakes walking in the studio with planks of wood strapped to his feet . " So Here We Are " is the only track on the album to not include vocal overdubbing . The song contains layered audio tracks of guitar and is followed by " Luno " , which begins with 32 bars of bass guitar and drums . " Plans " has a slower tempo and uses a synthesizer and effects such as flanging during the chorus . The final track , " Compliments " , incorporates an electronic drum kit and the use of reverberation .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Silent Alarm does not contain a solitary lyrical centre and simply observes people 's lives . Okereke wanted to leave individual listeners space to make their own conclusions , but has admitted that the record " operates in the realm of cultural politics " . Much of the songwriting is inspired by the style of confessional poetry authors like Anne Sexton and musicians Thom Yorke and Björk . In general , Silent Alarm tries to make clear an existential pointlessness in life . With hindsight , Okereke noted themes of " helplessness and weariness " because of the album 's focus on how he was feeling between the ages of 18 and 20 . Professor John Sutherland has pointed out literary elements , often similar to Sylvia Plath 's work , in the lyricist 's writing . Discussing the opening track " Like Eating Glass " , he explained , " It strikes me that whoever did the lyrics must have read some of her work . It has the same rather jagged , surprising imagery . It could sit fairly comfortably in a poetry anthology . " The recurring line " We 've got crosses on our eyes " is inspired by cartoon characters who have crosses on their eyes when they die . Okereke tried to convey the feelings in a failing relationship , " of being completely disorientated " , using childhood metaphors .
According to Heather Phares of AllMusic , " Pioneers " and " Price of Gas " exemplify the political undercurrent on Silent Alarm , the latter including the explicit chant " War / War / War / War " . " Helicopter " focuses in equal measure on America 's " red states " and on UK apathy and " the people queueing for the McDonald 's by [ Okereke 's ] house " . " Positive Tension " concerns boredom and its dangers , focusing on how it " can lead you into dark places " , while " Banquet " details " how sex is about power , submission , domination and real rapacious desire " . The lyrics in the chorus of " She 's Hearing Voices " , " Red pill / Blue pill / Milk of amnesia " , are in reference to the medications a friend of Okereke 's took to relieve the symptoms of schizophrenia . The lyricist has described the moment in " This Modern Love " when the backing vocals enter the mix before the second chorus as " perfect " , because it evokes the idea of " two people on the telephone , who can 't touch each other , and as the song and the conversation progress , everything amplifies " .
= = Promotion and release = =
Bloc Party EP was distributed in America in September 2004 by Dim Mak Records , while the band performed several gigs at the end of the year in the US and Canada . The release of Silent Alarm was preceded by the marketing of Little Thoughts EP in Japan in December 2004 , containing previous UK singles " Little Thoughts / Tulips " and " Helicopter " and new material . Bloc Party commenced UK promotional touring in January 2005 by performing during the NME Awards Tour . " Tulips " was released from Little Thoughts EP in the US on 25 January . The first single from Silent Alarm , " So Here We Are / Positive Tension " , was released on 31 January and peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart , the band 's second highest peaking release on the chart ( behind 2007 's " The Prayer " which reached number 4 ) . Between 31 January and 4 February , Bloc Party performed after autograph signing sessions in UK HMV stores . The band achieved exposure largely because of word @-@ of @-@ mouth and favourable press reviews .
Silent Alarm was released on 2 and 14 February 2005 , in Japan and Europe respectively . Chosen because the album has a sense of disquiet , the name comes from an article in New Scientist about an early detection system for earthquakes in Japan , while the cover art is based on a bare winter landscape by freelance photographer Ness Sherry . Bloc Party followed the album 's release with a short European promotional tour in early March 2005 . Between 17 March and 9 April , the band undertook a first headlining US tour to coincide with the American release of Silent Alarm through Vice Records on 22 March . The US marketing was geared to establish a long @-@ term fan base among " tastemakers and early @-@ adopter rock enthusiasts " , rather than a short @-@ term emphasis on radio play . At the time , Okereke stated , " All I ’ m concerned about is playing live shows here to people who want to see us . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial = = =
Silent Alarm entered the UK Albums Chart and the Irish Albums Chart at number three , selling 61 @,@ 737 copies during the first week in the former country . The album achieved gold certification within 24 hours of its European release . 350 @,@ 000 copies were shipped worldwide by the first week of March 2005 ; 20 @,@ 000 were sent to America , double the record labels ' January forecast . In the US , the record entered the Billboard 200 at number 114 and the Billboard Top Independent Albums at number seven . With little radio support , it became the best @-@ selling release in Vice 's history as a label . 123 @,@ 000 copies of Silent Alarm were sold in the US by the end of July 2005 . The record was listed at number 75 in the end @-@ of @-@ year UK Album Chart and was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry after more than 500 @,@ 000 copies were sold in the UK during 2005 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , 280 @,@ 000 copies of the album were sold in the US by January 2007 . More than one million copies have been sold worldwide .
= = = Critical = = =
Silent Alarm was received to critical acclaim by both critics and musicians ; aggregating website Metacritic reports a normalised rating of 82 % based on 32 critical reviews which indicates " universal acclaim " . Drowned in Sound 's Gen Williams described the album as " mature and expansive " and wrote that " the autonomy , creativity and sheer , elastic beauty that spans this debut more than justifies the rapidly accelerating hype " . Andrew Romano of Newsweek similarly noted that it " lives up to the hype " . Summing the record up as " dance rock , but highly caffeinated " , Barry Walters of Rolling Stone explained that the tracks are emotive and rhythmic in equal measure , while Nick Southall of Stylus thought that every song is " full of thrilling ideas and inspired moments " . Johnny Davis of Q labelled Silent Alarm " an arty , confident and exhilarating debut " , while Joshua Glazer of URB compared Bloc Party to " every legendary band ever who followed an EP with an even better album and on into greatness " . The Guardian 's Alexis Petridis was less receptive and commented that the " reedy vocals and lyrical evocations of suburban ennui ... induce a worrying ennui of their own " . Heather Phares of Allmusic stated that the record is not perfect , but praised its " passion and polish " .
Romano and Glazer compared Silent Alarm to U2 's early work , while Walters claimed that it distills " twenty @-@ five years of spiky British rock , from The Cure to Blur to hot Scots Franz Ferdinand " . Pitchfork Media 's Nitsuh Adebe noted particular similarities between " Banquet " and Franz Ferdinand 's second single " Take Me Out " , calling both songs " wonderfully tight and energetic — the same kind of spiffy half @-@ dancing rock " . Phares suggested that Bloc Party are more comfortable with lyrical proclamations than their contemporaries Franz Ferdinand or The Futureheads , while Imran Ahmed of NME concluded , " Silent Alarm is no Franz Ferdinand . In fact , listen to it with the words ' popular ' and ' arty ' in mind and its spirit is closer to the Manic Street Preachers ' The Holy Bible . "
= = Tours and supporting releases = =
By the end of April 2005 , Silent Alarm had charted in eighteen countries on four continents . Bloc Party toured in Japan with The Rakes at the start of May and completed a headlining tour of the US in June . The band members played their first concerts in Australia in July and spent the whole of August on the European festivals circuit . The remix album Silent Alarm Remixed was released on 29 August 2005 following Bloc Party 's headlining slots at the Reading and Leeds Festivals on 26 – 28 August . The record includes reworked versions of all original tracks by artists such as Ladytron , Death From Above 1979 , and Nick Zinner from Yeah Yeah Yeahs .
In September 2005 , the band members embarked on their second major worldwide tour of the year ; they played several gigs in North America between 8 and 24 September . Another headlining UK tour during the whole of October coincided with the release of new single " Two More Years " . Silent Alarm was re @-@ released in the UK on 17 October 2005 with " Little Thoughts " and " Two More Years " as bonus tracks . It contained a bonus DVD , God Bless Bloc Party , which included Bloc Party 's two June performances and backstage footage at El Rey Theatre , Los Angeles . Dan McIntosh of PopMatters stated that the concert documentary shows the band " can consistently pull off its material live " , but concluded that it focuses on Bloc Party " much too intently , far too soon " .
= = Accolades = =
Silent Alarm was shortlisted for the 2005 Mercury Music Prize , but was beaten by Antony and the Johnsons ' second album I Am a Bird Now . It was also nominated for the 2005 Shortlist Music Prize , but lost to Sufjan Stevens ' fifth album Illinois . The record was named Album of the Year for 2005 by NME ahead of Arcade Fire 's debut album Funeral , by Intro in Germany , and by Rumore in Italy . URB included Silent Alarm in its unnumbered shortlist of the best records of 2005 . It figured highly in other end @-@ of @-@ year best album lists : at number two by Hot Press and by Stylus , at number four by Drowned in Sound , at number six by Spin , at number seven by Metacritic 's chief editor , and at number nine by The Denver Post . Silent Alarm earned Bloc Party several nominations , including Best Alternative Act at the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards , Best British Band at the 2006 NME Awards , and Artist of the Year at the 2006 PLUG Awards . The record itself won Indie Rock Album of the Year at the 2006 PLUG Awards . It was also nominated as Best Album at the 2006 NME Awards , and as Album of the Year at the 2006 PLUG Awards .
In 2006 , NME placed Silent Alarm at number 55 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever ! , while Drowned in Sound ranked it at number three in its list of the editorial staff 's 66 favourite albums of 2000 – 2006 . In 2009 , Clash placed the record at number 11 in its list of the 50 Greatest Albums , 2004 – 2009 . The same year , Pitchfork Media ranked it at number 156 in its list of The Top 200 Albums of the 2000s , while NME included it at number 38 in the list of The Top 100 Greatest Albums of the Decade decided by the publication 's staff and music industry members . In 2010 , Stylus placed Silent Alarm at number 31 in its list of the Top Albums of the previous decade .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Bloc Party .
Tracks 8 and 9 were mislabelled on album pressings as " The Pioneers " and " Price of Gasoline " respectively .
CD hidden track
" Every Time Is the Last Time " – 3 : 10 – track 0 ( pregap ) on the UK and US editions and after track 13 on the European edition
Vinyl
There were two UK LP copies of Silent Alarm distributed by V2 Records : a standard black vinyl copy , and a limited edition picture disc version which has the album cover printed on Side A and the track listing printed on Side B.
The US LP issue was distributed by Dim Mak Records . It comprises two limited edition 12 " records which additionally contain a track listing for " Every Time Is the Last Time " on Side A , the appearance of " Little Thoughts " on Side C , and four bonus remix tracks — two of " Positive Tension " ( Jason Clark and Johnny Whitney ) and two of " Price of Gas " ( Automato and Jus Ske ) — on Sides E and F.
DVD
A CD with an extra DVD was released in the UK and Europe in February 2005 at the same time as the normal CD version . The DVD portion contains live footage of Bloc Party at Heaven in London .
A new version of the CD with an extra DVD was released in the UK in October 2005 . The DVD , titled God Bless Bloc Party , contains a US tour documentary at El Rey Theatre , Los Angeles , live footage of Bloc Party at the 2005 Eurockéennes Festival in Belfort , France , and nine music videos from the band 's career .
God Bless Bloc Party was released as a stand @-@ alone DVD in the US by Vice in January 2006 , but did not include the music videos .
= = Personnel = =
Those involved in the making of Silent Alarm are :
= = Chart positions = =
= Kelvin Tan =
Kelvin Tan Wei Lian ( 陈伟联 ) is a blind Singaporean Mandopop singer who earned a living as a busker before he won the first edition of Project SuperStar in 2005 . He has released three albums , All I Want Is ... ( 2006 ) , i @-@ Weilian ( 2007 ) and Moving Notes ... Kelvin Tan ( 2009 ) . Other highlights of his career include a solo concert at the Singapore Expo , leading a choir at the 2008 Summer Paralympics and singing the NDP 2009 theme song .
= = Early life = =
Born blind due to Leber 's congenital amaurosis ( which causes the retina to disintegrate ) , Tan grew up listening to 1980s Mandopop ballads , which inspired him to learn to play the piano and guitar . He studied at the Singapore School for the Visually Handicapped and Dunearn Secondary School . After his O Levels , he worked as a massage therapist and a singer at a café . He also busked at Jurong East and Waterloo Street , playing his guitar and singing Mandopop ballads for two to eight hours per day . According to The New Paper reporter Mindy Tan , his performances drew large crowds ( including Malays and Indians ) , some of whom were so " impressed [ by ] his music " that they would " sit on the pavement nearby for up to an hour listening to him " .
= = Project SuperStar = =
Tan and four blind friends auditioned for the inaugural season of Project SuperStar , but only he was accepted as a contestant . Throughout the competition , there was extensive debate over whether viewers were voting for him out of sympathy and whether a blind man who could not dance deserved the title . Further controversy arose when his home address was posted online and fans offered him sex services . Nevertheless , he emerged as the male champion and entered the grand final against female champion Kelly Poon . The judges gave Poon more favourable reviews , but Tan garnered 64 % of the 533 @,@ 000 telephone votes . Both finalists also released limited edition singles ; Tan 's cover of 童话 ( Fairytale ) by Michael Wong sold 12 @,@ 239 copies , while Poon 's cover of 遗失的美好 ( Lost Goodness ) by Angela Chang sold 11 @,@ 319 copies . Thus Tan became the grand champion and was awarded a recording contract with Play Music ( later acquired by Warner Music ) .
= = Music albums = =
His debut album 我只是想要 ( All I Want Is ... ) , which contains four original songs and ten covers , was certified platinum in Singapore within five days of its release . Its title track topped the Singapore music charts in February 2006 , while another of its songs , 触摸 ( Touch ) , won Best Theme Song at the 2006 Star Awards . In total , the album sold 45 @,@ 000 copies in Singapore and 15 @,@ 000 copies in Malaysia . In 2007 , his second album i伟联 ( i @-@ Weilian ) was released and the song 普通的人 ( Ordinary Man ) topped the Singapore charts that October . This album eventually sold 15 @,@ 000 copies in Singapore and 20 @,@ 000 copies in Taiwan . Several songs that Tan composed himself were included in his third album , 走唱陈伟联 ( Moving Notes ... Kelvin Tan ) , which he promoted through busking appearances . Although its sales figures are not known , the songs 永远的朋友 ( Forever Friends ) and 分手的请书 ( Break Up Letter ) topped the Singapore charts in October 2009 , while the album peaked at 5th in the Taiwan charts in February 2010 . In addition , 分手的请书 won two awards at the 2010 Singapore Entertainment Awards and 我们 ( Together ) won Best Theme Song at the 2010 Star Awards . However , his contract with Warner Music expired in September 2010 and was not renewed .
= = Showbiz activities = =
In 2006 , Tan staged a solo concert at the Max Pavilion ( Singapore Expo ) , which sold 5 @,@ 000 seats . He acted in the getai movie 881 and several television serials ( notably The Dream Chasers ) , winning Most Popular Newcomer at the 2006 Star Awards . However , he declined further roles , describing acting as " not [ his ] cup of tea because there 's nothing else [ he ] could act as except a blind man " . He also participated in variety television shows in Singapore ( notably as a guest judge on Campus Superstar ) and Taiwan ( such as Happy Sunday ) , but some Taiwanese hosts rejected him over fears that their jokes would offend him . Another controversy arose when he was a contestant on the Singapore edition of Don 't Forget The Lyrics , as netizens were concerned that being unable to see the monitor would disadvantage him . In 2009 , he was selected to sing 就在这里 ( Right Here ) , the Mandarin version of the National Day Parade theme song What Do You See ? , and four years later , he sang a tribute to Singapore named " Treasure Every Moment " .
= = Charity work = =
Due to his disability and achievements , Tan has been an ambassador for several local disability awareness campaigns and performed in various charity shows , including a concert to raise funds for victims of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake . He and Sun Yajun led a choir rendition of the song 同在蓝色星球上 ( On The Same Blue Planet ) at the opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Paralympics sailing regatta at Qingdao , China . In his spare time , he works as a guide for the Singapore edition of Dialogue in the Dark , an exhibition that helps sighted people understand the experiences of blind people .
= = Personal life = =
Tan lives in a four @-@ room HDB flat in western Singapore , together with his father ( a mechanic ) , mother ( a housewife ) and younger sister ( a research analyst ) ; he does not have a girlfriend . Despite his success , he continues to take public transport , eat at hawker centres and go out with friends . He enjoys bowling and was one of only two totally blind Singaporeans who played the sport competitively , even winning a competition organised by the blind associations of Singapore and Perth . In 2012 , he picked up running , joined RunningHour ( a running club for people with disabilities ) and participated in the 10 km run of the Singapore Marathon . His other hobbies include travelling to Kuala Lumpur , playing Street Fighter , chatting online with friends and updating his Twitter account .
= Benton City – Kiona Bridge =
The Benton City – Kiona Bridge is a steel box girder and cable @-@ stayed bridge carrying two lanes of Washington State Route 225 over the Yakima River in Benton City , Benton County , Washington . The current span was opened to traffic on July 4 , 1957 and measures 400 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 121 @.@ 9 m ) by 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 8 m ) wide . Two bridges had previously connected the cities of Benton City and Kiona before and were located 300 feet ( 91 m ) downstream . The first bridge was open by 1901 , and the immediate predecessor bridge was closed and torn down in 1964 . The bridge is owned and maintained by the Washington State Department of Transportation , and was added to the Washington Heritage Register on January 25 , 2002 .
= = Description = =
The Benton City – Kiona Bridge is located about 150 feet ( 46 m ) from the southern terminus of Washington State Route 225 ( SR 225 ) in Benton City , just south of downtown . The unincorporated community of Kiona is just south of concurrent highways Interstate 82 ( I @-@ 82 ) / U.S. Route 12 ( US 12 ) , where SR 225 terminates . The bridge is 400 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 121 @.@ 9 m ) by 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 8 m ) wide , carrying two lanes of SR 225 , linking Benton City to I @-@ 82 / US 12 . While SR 225 on both sides of the bridge features bicycle lanes , the bridge does not . The bridge
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extant surgical handbook ) and the Ebers Papyrus ( a handbook of preparing and using materia medica for various diseases ) , both from the 16th century BCE .
Ancient Egypt is also known for developing embalming , which was used for mummification , in order to preserve human remains and forestall decomposition .
= = = Ancient Greek and Roman traditions = = =
The pre @-@ Socratic philosophers asked many questions about life but produced little systematic knowledge of specifically biological interest — though the attempts of the atomists to explain life in purely physical terms would recur periodically through the history of biology . However , the medical theories of Hippocrates and his followers , especially humorism , had a lasting impact .
The philosopher Aristotle was the most influential scholar of the living world from classical antiquity . Though his early work in natural philosophy was speculative , Aristotle 's later biological writings were more empirical , focusing on biological causation and the diversity of life . He made countless observations of nature , especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals in the world around him , which he devoted considerable attention to categorizing . In all , Aristotle classified 540 animal species , and dissected at least 50 . He believed that intellectual purposes , formal causes , guided all natural processes .
Aristotle , and nearly all Western scholars after him until the 18th century , believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to humans : the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being . Aristotle 's successor at the Lyceum , Theophrastus , wrote a series of books on botany — the History of Plants — which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany , even into the Middle Ages . Many of Theophrastus ' names survive into modern times , such as carpos for fruit , and pericarpion for seed vessel . Dioscorides wrote a pioneering and encyclopaedic pharmacopoeia , De Materia Medica , incorporating descriptions of some 600 plants and their uses in medicine . Pliny the Elder , in his Natural History , assembled a similarly encyclopaedic account of things in nature , including accounts of many plants and animals .
A few scholars in the Hellenistic period under the Ptolemies — particularly Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Chios — amended Aristotle 's physiological work , even performing dissections and vivisections . Claudius Galen became the most important authority on medicine and anatomy . Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological Aristotelian viewpoint that all aspects of life are the result of design or purpose , teleology ( and after the rise of Christianity , natural theology ) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries . Ernst W. Mayr argued that " Nothing of any real consequence happened in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance . " The ideas of the Greek traditions of natural history and medicine survived , but they were generally taken unquestioningly in medieval Europe .
= = = Medieval and Islamic knowledge = = =
The decline of the Roman Empire led to the disappearance or destruction of much knowledge , though physicians still incorporated many aspects of the Greek tradition into training and practice . In Byzantium and the Islamic world , many of the Greek works were translated into Arabic and many of the works of Aristotle were preserved .
During the High Middle Ages , a few European scholars such as Hildegard of Bingen , Albertus Magnus and Frederick II expanded the natural history canon . The rise of European universities , though important for the development of physics and philosophy , had little impact on biological scholarship .
= = Renaissance and early modern developments = =
The European Renaissance brought expanded interest in both empirical natural history and physiology . In 1543 , Andreas Vesalius inaugurated the modern era of Western medicine with his seminal human anatomy treatise De humani corporis fabrica , which was based on dissection of corpses . Vesalius was the first in a series of anatomists who gradually replaced scholasticism with empiricism in physiology and medicine , relying on first @-@ hand experience rather than authority and abstract reasoning . Via herbalism , medicine was also indirectly the source of renewed empiricism in the study of plants . Otto Brunfels , Hieronymus Bock and Leonhart Fuchs wrote extensively on wild plants , the beginning of a nature @-@ based approach to the full range of plant life . Bestiaries — a genre that combines both the natural and figurative knowledge of animals — also became more sophisticated , especially with the work of William Turner , Pierre Belon , Guillaume Rondelet , Conrad Gessner , and Ulisse Aldrovandi .
Artists such as Albrecht Dürer and Leonardo da Vinci , often working with naturalists , were also interested in the bodies of animals and humans , studying physiology in detail and contributing to the growth of anatomical knowledge . The traditions of alchemy and natural magic , especially in the work of Paracelsus , also laid claim to knowledge of the living world . Alchemists subjected organic matter to chemical analysis and experimented liberally with both biological and mineral pharmacology . This was part of a larger transition in world views ( the rise of the mechanical philosophy ) that continued into the 17th century , as the traditional metaphor of nature as organism was replaced by the nature as machine metaphor .
= = = Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries = = =
Systematizing , naming and classifying dominated natural history throughout much of the 17th and 18th centuries . Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 ( variations of which have been in use ever since ) , and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species . While Linnaeus conceived of species as unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy , the other great naturalist of the 18th century , Georges @-@ Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon , treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable — even suggesting the possibility of common descent . Though he was opposed to evolution , Buffon is a key figure in the history of evolutionary thought ; his work would influence the evolutionary theories of both Lamarck and Darwin .
The discovery and description of new species and the collection of specimens became a passion of scientific gentlemen and a lucrative enterprise for entrepreneurs ; many naturalists traveled the globe in search of scientific knowledge and adventure .
Extending the work of Vesalius into experiments on still living bodies ( of both humans and animals ) , William Harvey and other natural philosophers investigated the roles of blood , veins and arteries . Harvey 's De motu cordis in 1628 was the beginning of the end for Galenic theory , and alongside Santorio Santorio 's studies of metabolism , it served as an influential model of quantitative approaches to physiology .
In the early 17th century , the micro @-@ world of biology was just beginning to open up . A few lensmakers and natural philosophers had been creating crude microscopes since the late 16th century , and Robert Hooke published the seminal Micrographia based on observations with his own compound microscope in 1665 . But it was not until Antony van Leeuwenhoek 's dramatic improvements in lensmaking beginning in the 1670s — ultimately producing up to 200 @-@ fold magnification with a single lens — that scholars discovered spermatozoa , bacteria , infusoria and the sheer strangeness and diversity of microscopic life . Similar investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and built the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining .
As the microscopic world was expanding , the macroscopic world was shrinking . Botanists such as John Ray worked to incorporate the flood of newly discovered organisms shipped from across the globe into a coherent taxonomy , and a coherent theology ( natural theology ) . Debate over another flood , the Noachian , catalyzed the development of paleontology ; in 1669 Nicholas Steno published an essay on how the remains of living organisms could be trapped in layers of sediment and mineralized to produce fossils . Although Steno 's ideas about fossilization were well known and much debated among natural philosophers , an organic origin for all fossils would not be accepted by all naturalists until the end of the 18th century due to philosophical and theological debate about issues such as the age of the earth and extinction .
= = 19th century : the emergence of biological disciplines = =
Up through the 19th century , the scope of biology was largely divided between medicine , which investigated questions of form and function ( i.e. , physiology ) , and natural history , which was concerned with the diversity of life and interactions among different forms of life and between life and non @-@ life . By 1900 , much of these domains overlapped , while natural history ( and its counterpart natural philosophy ) had largely given way to more specialized scientific disciplines — cytology , bacteriology , morphology , embryology , geography , and geology .
= = = Natural history and natural philosophy = = =
Widespread travel by naturalists in the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 19th century resulted in a wealth of new information about the diversity and distribution of living organisms . Of particular importance was the work of Alexander von Humboldt , which analyzed the relationship between organisms and their environment ( i.e. , the domain of natural history ) using the quantitative approaches of natural philosophy ( i.e. , physics and chemistry ) . Humboldt 's work laid the foundations of biogeography and inspired several generations of scientists .
= = = = Geology and paleontology = = = =
The emerging discipline of geology also brought natural history and natural philosophy closer together ; the establishment of the stratigraphic column linked the spatial distribution of organisms to their temporal distribution , a key precursor to concepts of evolution . Georges Cuvier and others made great strides in comparative anatomy and paleontology in the late 1790s and early 19th century . In a series of lectures and papers that made detailed comparisons between living mammals and fossil remains Cuvier was able to establish that the fossils were remains of species that had become extinct — rather than being remains of species still alive elsewhere in the world , as had been widely believed . Fossils discovered and described by Gideon Mantell , William Buckland , Mary Anning , and Richard Owen among others helped establish that there had been an ' age of reptiles ' that had preceded even the prehistoric mammals . These discoveries captured the public imagination and focused attention on the history of life on earth . Most of these geologists held to catastrophism , but Charles Lyell 's influential Principles of Geology ( 1830 ) popularised Hutton 's uniformitarianism , a theory that explained the geological past and present on equal terms .
= = = = Evolution and biogeography = = = =
The most significant evolutionary theory before Darwin 's was that of Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck ; based on the inheritance of acquired characteristics ( an inheritance mechanism that was widely accepted until the 20th century ) , it described a chain of development stretching from the lowliest microbe to humans . The British naturalist Charles Darwin , combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt , the uniformitarian geology of Lyell , Thomas Malthus 's writings on population growth , and his own morphological expertise , created a more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection ; similar evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions .
The 1859 publication of Darwin 's theory in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life is often considered the central event in the history of modern biology . Darwin 's established credibility as a naturalist , the sober tone of the work , and most of all the sheer strength and volume of evidence presented , allowed Origin to succeed where previous evolutionary works such as the anonymous Vestiges of Creation had failed . Most scientists were convinced of evolution and common descent by the end of the 19th century . However , natural selection would not be accepted as the primary mechanism of evolution until well into the 20th century , as most contemporary theories of heredity seemed incompatible with the inheritance of random variation .
Wallace , following on earlier work by de Candolle , Humboldt and Darwin , made major contributions to zoogeography . Because of his interest in the transmutation hypothesis , he paid particular attention to the geographical distribution of closely allied species during his field work first in South America and then in the Malay archipelago . While in the archipelago he identified the Wallace line , which runs through the Spice Islands dividing the fauna of the archipelago between an Asian zone and a New Guinea / Australian zone . His key question , as to why the fauna of islands with such similar climates should be so different , could only be answered by considering their origin . In 1876 he wrote The Geographical Distribution of Animals , which was the standard reference work for over half a century , and a sequel , Island Life , in 1880 that focused on island biogeography . He extended the six @-@ zone system developed by Philip Sclater for describing the geographical distribution of birds to animals of all kinds . His method of tabulating data on animal groups in geographic zones highlighted the discontinuities ; and his appreciation of evolution allowed him to propose rational explanations , which had not been done before .
The scientific study of heredity grew rapidly in the wake of Darwin 's Origin of Species with the work of Francis Galton and the biometricians . The origin of genetics is usually traced to the 1866 work of the monk Gregor Mendel , who would later be credited with the laws of inheritance . However , his work was not recognized as significant until 35 years afterward . In the meantime , a variety of theories of inheritance ( based on pangenesis , orthogenesis , or other mechanisms ) were debated and investigated vigorously . Embryology and ecology also became central biological fields , especially as linked to evolution and popularized in the work of Ernst Haeckel . Most of the 19th century work on heredity , however , was not in the realm of natural history , but that of experimental physiology .
= = = Physiology = = =
Over the course of the 19th century , the scope of physiology expanded greatly , from a primarily medically oriented field to a wide @-@ ranging investigation of the physical and chemical processes of life — including plants , animals , and even microorganisms in addition to man . Living things as machines became a dominant metaphor in biological ( and social ) thinking .
= = = = Cell theory , embryology and germ theory = = = =
Advances in microscopy also had a profound impact on biological thinking . In the early 19th century , a number of biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell . In 1838 and 1839 , Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the ideas that ( 1 ) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and ( 2 ) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life , though they opposed the idea that ( 3 ) all cells come from the division of other cells . Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow , however , by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what came to be known as cell theory .
Cell theory led biologists to re @-@ envision individual organisms as interdependent assemblages of individual cells . Scientists in the rising field of cytology , armed with increasingly powerful microscopes and new staining methods , soon found that even single cells were far more complex than the homogeneous fluid @-@ filled chambers described by earlier microscopists . Robert Brown had described the nucleus in 1831 , and by the end of the 19th century cytologists identified many of the key cell components : chromosomes , centrosomes mitochondria , chloroplasts , and other structures made visible through staining . Between 1874 and 1884 Walther Flemming described the discrete stages of mitosis , showing that they were not artifacts of staining but occurred in living cells , and moreover , that chromosomes doubled in number just before the cell divided and a daughter cell was produced . Much of the research on cell reproduction came together in August Weismann 's theory of heredity : he identified the nucleus ( in particular chromosomes ) as the hereditary material , proposed the distinction between somatic cells and germ cells ( arguing that chromosome number must be halved for germ cells , a precursor to the concept of meiosis ) , and adopted Hugo de Vries 's theory of pangenes . Weismannism was extremely influential , especially in the new field of experimental embryology .
By the mid @-@ 1850s the miasma theory of disease was largely superseded by the germ theory of disease , creating extensive interest in microorganisms and their interactions with other forms of life . By the 1880s , bacteriology was becoming a coherent discipline , especially through the work of Robert Koch , who introduced methods for growing pure cultures on agar gels containing specific nutrients in Petri dishes . The long @-@ held idea that living organisms could easily originate from nonliving matter ( spontaneous generation ) was attacked in a series of experiments carried out by Louis Pasteur , while debates over vitalism vs. mechanism ( a perennial issue since the time of Aristotle and the Greek atomists ) continued apace .
= = = = Rise of organic chemistry and experimental physiology = = = =
In chemistry , one central issue was the distinction between organic and inorganic substances , especially in the context of organic transformations such as fermentation and putrefaction . Since Aristotle these had been considered essentially biological ( vital ) processes . However , Friedrich Wöhler , Justus Liebig and other pioneers of the rising field of organic chemistry — building on the work of Lavoisier — showed that the organic world could often be analyzed by physical and chemical methods . In 1828 Wöhler showed that the organic substance urea could be created by chemical means that do not involve life , providing a powerful challenge to vitalism . Cell extracts ( " ferments " ) that could effect chemical transformations were discovered , beginning with diastase in 1833 . By the end of the 19th century the concept of enzymes was well established , though equations of chemical kinetics would not be applied to enzymatic reactions until the early 20th century .
Physiologists such as Claude Bernard explored ( through vivisection and other experimental methods ) the chemical and physical functions of living bodies to an unprecedented degree , laying the groundwork for endocrinology ( a field that developed quickly after the discovery of the first hormone , secretin , in 1902 ) , biomechanics , and the study of nutrition and digestion . The importance and diversity of experimental physiology methods , within both medicine and biology , grew dramatically over the second half of the 19th century . The control and manipulation of life processes became a central concern , and experiment was placed at the center of biological education .
= = Twentieth century biological sciences = =
At the beginning of the 20th century , biological research was largely a professional endeavour . Most work was still done in the natural history mode , which emphasized morphological and phylogenetic analysis over experiment @-@ based causal explanations . However , anti @-@ vitalist experimental physiologists and embryologists , especially in Europe , were increasingly influential . The tremendous success of experimental approaches to development , heredity , and metabolism in the 1900s and 1910s demonstrated the power of experimentation in biology . In the following decades , experimental work replaced natural history as the dominant mode of research .
= = = Ecology and environmental science = = =
In the early 20th century , naturalists were faced with increasing pressure to add rigor and preferably experimentation to their methods , as the newly prominent laboratory @-@ based biological disciplines had done . Ecology had emerged as a combination of biogeography with the biogeochemical cycle concept pioneered by chemists ; field biologists developed quantitative methods such as the quadrat and adapted laboratory instruments and cameras for the field to further set their work apart from traditional natural history . Zoologists and botanists did what they could to mitigate the unpredictability of the living world , performing laboratory experiments and studying semi @-@ controlled natural environments such as gardens ; new institutions like the Carnegie Station for Experimental Evolution and the Marine Biological Laboratory provided more controlled environments for studying organisms through their entire life cycles .
The ecological succession concept , pioneered in the 1900s and 1910s by Henry Chandler Cowles and Frederic Clements , was important in early plant ecology . Alfred Lotka 's predator @-@ prey equations , G. Evelyn Hutchinson 's studies of the biogeography and biogeochemical structure of lakes and rivers ( limnology ) and Charles Elton 's studies of animal food chains were pioneers among the succession of quantitative methods that colonized the developing ecological specialties . Ecology became an independent discipline in the 1940s and 1950s after Eugene P. Odum synthesized many of the concepts of ecosystem ecology , placing relationships between groups of organisms ( especially material and energy relationships ) at the center of the field .
In the 1960s , as evolutionary theorists explored the possibility of multiple units of selection , ecologists turned to evolutionary approaches . In population ecology , debate over group selection was brief but vigorous ; by 1970 , most biologists agreed that natural selection was rarely effective above the level of individual organisms . The evolution of ecosystems , however , became a lasting research focus . Ecology expanded rapidly with the rise of the environmental movement ; the International Biological Program attempted to apply the methods of big science ( which had been so successful in the physical sciences ) to ecosystem ecology and pressing environmental issues , while smaller @-@ scale independent efforts such as island biogeography and the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest helped redefine the scope of an increasingly diverse discipline .
= = = Classical genetics , the modern synthesis , and evolutionary theory = = =
1900 marked the so @-@ called rediscovery of Mendel : Hugo de Vries , Carl Correns , and Erich von Tschermak independently arrived at Mendel 's laws ( which were not actually present in Mendel 's work ) . Soon after , cytologists ( cell biologists ) proposed that chromosomes were the hereditary material . Between 1910 and 1915 , Thomas Hunt Morgan and the " Drosophilists " in his fly lab forged these two ideas — both controversial — into the " Mendelian @-@ chromosome theory " of heredity . They quantified the phenomenon of genetic linkage and postulated that genes reside on chromosomes like beads on string ; they hypothesized crossing over to explain linkage and constructed genetic maps of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster , which became a widely used model organism .
Hugo de Vries tried to link the new genetics with evolution ; building on his work with heredity and hybridization , he proposed a theory of mutationism , which was widely accepted in the early 20th century . Lamarckism also had many adherents . Darwinism was seen as incompatible with the continuously variable traits studied by biometricians , which seemed only partially heritable . In the 1920s and 1930s — following the acceptance of the Mendelian @-@ chromosome theory — the emergence of the discipline of population genetics , with the work of R.A. Fisher , J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright , unified the idea of evolution by natural selection with Mendelian genetics , producing the modern synthesis . The inheritance of acquired characters was rejected , while mutationism gave way as genetic theories matured .
In the second half of the century the ideas of population genetics began to be applied in the new discipline of the genetics of behavior , sociobiology , and , especially in humans , evolutionary psychology . In the 1960s W.D. Hamilton and others developed game theory approaches to explain altruism from an evolutionary perspective through kin selection . The possible origin of higher organisms through endosymbiosis , and contrasting approaches to molecular evolution in the gene @-@ centered view ( which held selection as the predominant cause of evolution ) and the neutral theory ( which made genetic drift a key factor ) spawned perennial debates over the proper balance of adaptationism and contingency in evolutionary theory .
In the 1970s Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge proposed the theory of punctuated equilibrium which holds that stasis is the most prominent feature of the fossil record , and that most evolutionary changes occur rapidly over relatively short periods of time . In 1980 Luis Alvarez and Walter Alvarez proposed the hypothesis that an impact event was responsible for the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event . Also in the early 1980s , statistical analysis of the fossil record of marine organisms published by Jack Sepkoski and David M. Raup led to a better appreciation of the importance of mass extinction events to the history of life on earth .
= = = Biochemistry , microbiology , and molecular biology = = =
By the end of the 19th century all of the major pathways of drug metabolism had been discovered , along with the outlines of protein and fatty acid metabolism and urea synthesis . In the early decades of the 20th century , the minor components of foods in human nutrition , the vitamins , began to be isolated and synthesized . Improved laboratory techniques such as chromatography and electrophoresis led to rapid advances in physiological chemistry , which — as biochemistry — began to achieve independence from its medical origins . In the 1920s and 1930s , biochemists — led by Hans Krebs and Carl and Gerty Cori — began to work out many of the central metabolic pathways of life : the citric acid cycle , glycogenesis and glycolysis , and the synthesis of steroids and porphyrins . Between the 1930s and 1950s , Fritz Lipmann and others established the role of ATP as the universal carrier of energy in the cell , and mitochondria as the powerhouse of the cell . Such traditionally biochemical work continued to be very actively pursued throughout the 20th century and into the 21st .
= = = = Origins of molecular biology = = = =
Following the rise of classical genetics , many biologists — including a new wave of physical scientists in biology — pursued the question of the gene and its physical nature . Warren Weaver — head of the science division of the Rockefeller Foundation — issued grants to promote research that applied the methods of physics and chemistry to basic biological problems , coining the term molecular biology for this approach in 1938 ; many of the significant biological breakthroughs of the 1930s and 1940s were funded by the Rockefeller Foundation .
Like biochemistry , the overlapping disciplines of bacteriology and virology ( later combined as microbiology ) , situated between science and medicine , developed rapidly in the early 20th century . Félix d 'Herelle 's isolation of bacteriophage during World War I initiated a long line of research focused on phage viruses and the bacteria they infect .
The development of standard , genetically uniform organisms that could produce repeatable experimental results was essential for the development of molecular genetics . After early work with Drosophila and maize , the adoption of simpler model systems like the bread mold Neurospora crassa made it possible to connect genetics to biochemistry , most importantly with Beadle and Tatum 's one gene @-@ one enzyme hypothesis in 1941 . Genetics experiments on even simpler systems like tobacco mosaic virus and bacteriophage , aided by the new technologies of electron microscopy and ultracentrifugation , forced scientists to re @-@ evaluate the literal meaning of life ; virus heredity and reproducing nucleoprotein cell structures outside the nucleus ( " plasmagenes " ) complicated the accepted Mendelian @-@ chromosome theory .
Oswald Avery showed in 1943 that DNA was likely the genetic material of the chromosome , not its protein ; the issue was settled decisively with the 1952 Hershey – Chase experiment — one of many contributions from the so @-@ called phage group centered around physicist @-@ turned @-@ biologist Max Delbrück . In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick , building on the work of Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin , suggested that the structure of DNA was a double helix . In their famous paper " Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids " , Watson and Crick noted coyly , " It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material . " After the 1958 Meselson – Stahl experiment confirmed the semiconservative replication of DNA , it was clear to most biologists that nucleic acid sequence must somehow determine amino acid sequence in proteins ; physicist George Gamow proposed that a fixed genetic code connected proteins and DNA . Between 1953 and 1961 , there were few known biological sequences — either DNA or protein — but an abundance of proposed code systems , a situation made even more complicated by expanding knowledge of the intermediate role of RNA . To actually decipher the code , it took an extensive series of experiments in biochemistry and bacterial genetics , between 1961 and 1966 — most importantly the work of Nirenberg and Khorana .
= = = = Expansion of molecular biology = = = =
In addition to the Division of Biology at Caltech , the Laboratory of Molecular Biology ( and its precursors ) at Cambridge , and a handful of other institutions , the Pasteur Institute became a major center for molecular biology research in the late 1950s . Scientists at Cambridge , led by Max Perutz and John Kendrew , focused on the rapidly developing field of structural biology , combining X @-@ ray crystallography with Molecular modelling and the new computational possibilities of digital computing ( benefiting both directly and indirectly from the military funding of science ) . A number of biochemists led by Frederick Sanger later joined the Cambridge lab , bringing together the study of macromolecular structure and function . At the Pasteur Institute , François Jacob and Jacques Monod followed the 1959 PaJaMo experiment with a series of publications regarding the lac operon that established the concept of gene regulation and identified what came to be known as messenger RNA . By the mid @-@ 1960s , the intellectual core of molecular biology — a model for the molecular basis of metabolism and reproduction — was largely complete .
The late 1950s to the early 1970s was a period of intense research and institutional expansion for molecular biology , which had only recently become a somewhat coherent discipline . In what organismic biologist E. O. Wilson called " The Molecular Wars " , the methods and practitioners of molecular biology spread rapidly , often coming to dominate departments and even entire disciplines . Molecularization was particularly important in genetics , immunology , embryology , and neurobiology , while the idea that life is controlled by a " genetic program " — a metaphor Jacob and Monod introduced from the emerging fields of cybernetics and computer science — became an influential perspective throughout biology . Immunology in particular became linked with molecular biology , with innovation flowing both ways : the clonal selection theory developed by Niels Jerne and Frank Macfarlane Burnet in the mid @-@ 1950s helped shed light on the general mechanisms of protein synthesis .
Resistance to the growing influence of molecular biology was especially evident in evolutionary biology . Protein sequencing had great potential for the quantitative study of evolution ( through the molecular clock hypothesis ) , but leading evolutionary biologists questioned the relevance of molecular biology for answering the big questions of evolutionary causation . Departments and disciplines fractured as organismic biologists asserted their importance and independence : Theodosius Dobzhansky made the famous statement that " nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution " as a response to the molecular challenge . The issue became even more critical after 1968 ; Motoo Kimura 's neutral theory of molecular evolution suggested that natural selection was not the ubiquitous cause of evolution , at least at the molecular level , and that molecular evolution might be a fundamentally different process from morphological evolution . ( Resolving this " molecular / morphological paradox " has been a central focus of molecular evolution research since the 1960s . )
= = = Biotechnology , genetic engineering , and genomics = = =
Biotechnology in the general sense has been an important part of biology since the late 19th century . With the industrialization of brewing and agriculture , chemists and biologists became aware of the great potential of human @-@ controlled biological processes . In particular , fermentation proved a great boon to chemical industries . By the early 1970s , a wide range of biotechnologies were being developed , from drugs like penicillin and steroids to foods like Chlorella and single @-@ cell protein to gasohol — as well as a wide range of hybrid high @-@ yield crops and agricultural technologies , the basis for the Green Revolution .
= = = = Recombinant DNA = = = =
Biotechnology in the modern sense of genetic engineering began in the 1970s , with the invention of recombinant DNA techniques . Restriction enzymes were discovered and characterized in the late 1960s , following on the heels of the isolation , then duplication , then synthesis of viral genes . Beginning with the lab of Paul Berg in 1972 ( aided by EcoRI from Herbert Boyer 's lab , building on work with ligase by Arthur Kornberg 's lab ) , molecular biologists put these pieces together to produce the first transgenic organisms . Soon after , others began using plasmid vectors and adding genes for antibiotic resistance , greatly increasing the reach of the recombinant techniques .
Wary of the potential dangers ( particularly the possibility of a prolific bacteria with a viral cancer @-@ causing gene ) , the scientific community as well as a wide range of scientific outsiders reacted to these developments with both enthusiasm and fearful restraint . Prominent molecular biologists led by Berg suggested a temporary moratorium on recombinant DNA research until the dangers could be assessed and policies could be created . This moratorium was largely respected , until the participants in the 1975 Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA created policy recommendations and concluded that the technology could be used safely .
Following Asilomar , new genetic engineering techniques and applications developed rapidly . DNA sequencing methods improved greatly ( pioneered by Frederick Sanger and Walter Gilbert ) , as did oligonucleotide synthesis and transfection techniques . Researchers learned to control the expression of transgenes , and were soon racing — in both academic and industrial contexts — to create organisms capable of expressing human genes for the production of human hormones . However , this was a more daunting task than molecular biologists had expected ; developments between 1977 and 1980 showed that , due to the phenomena of split genes and splicing , higher organisms had a much more complex system of gene expression than the bacteria models of earlier studies . The first such race , for synthesizing human insulin , was won by Genentech . This marked the beginning of the biotech boom ( and with it , the era of gene patents ) , with an unprecedented level of overlap between biology , industry , and law .
= = = = Molecular systematics and genomics = = = =
By the 1980s , protein sequencing had already transformed methods of scientific classification of organisms ( especially cladistics ) but biologists soon began to use RNA and DNA sequences as characters ; this expanded the significance of molecular evolution within evolutionary biology , as the results of molecular systematics could be compared with traditional evolutionary trees based on morphology . Following the pioneering ideas of Lynn Margulis on endosymbiotic theory , which holds that some of the organelles of eukaryotic cells originated from free living prokaryotic organisms through symbiotic relationships , even the overall division of the tree of life was revised . Into the 1990s , the five domains ( Plants , Animals , Fungi , Protists , and Monerans ) became three ( the Archaea , the Bacteria , and the Eukarya ) based on Carl Woese 's pioneering molecular systematics work with 16S rRNA sequencing .
The development and popularization of the polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) in mid @-@ 1980s ( by Kary Mullis and others at Cetus Corp. ) marked another watershed in the history of modern biotechnology , greatly increasing the ease and speed of genetic analysis . Coupled with the use of expressed sequence tags , PCR led to the discovery of many more genes than could be found through traditional biochemical or genetic methods and opened the possibility of sequencing entire genomes .
The unity of much of the morphogenesis of organisms from fertilized egg to adult began to be unraveled after the discovery of the homeobox genes , first in fruit flies , then in other insects and animals , including humans . These developments led to advances in the field of evolutionary developmental biology towards understanding how the various body plans of the animal phyla have evolved and how they are related to one another .
The Human Genome Project — the largest , most costly single biological study ever undertaken — began in 1988 under the leadership of James D. Watson , after preliminary work with genetically simpler model organisms such as E. coli , S. cerevisiae and C. elegans . Shotgun sequencing and gene discovery methods pioneered by Craig Venter — and fueled by the financial promise of gene patents with Celera Genomics — led to a public – private sequencing competition that ended in compromise with the first draft of the human DNA sequence announced in 2000 .
= = Twenty @-@ first century biological sciences = =
At the beginning of the 21st century , biological sciences converged with previously differentiated new and classic disciplines like Physics into research fields like Biophysics . Advances were made in analytical chemistry and physics instrumentation including improved sensors , optics , tracers , instrumentation , signal processing , networks , robots , satellites , and compute power for data collection , storage , analysis , modeling , visualization , and simulations . These technology advances allowed theoretical and experimental research including internet publication of molecular biochemistry , biological systems , and ecosystems science . This enabled worldwide access to better measurements , theoretical models , complex simulations , theory predictive model experimentation , analysis , worldwide internet observational data reporting , open peer @-@ review , collaboration , and internet publication . New fields of biological sciences research emerged including Bioinformatics , Neuroscience , Theoretical biology , Computational genomics , Astrobiology and Synthetic Biology .
= The Passing Zone =
The Passing Zone is an American comedy @-@ juggling duo comprising Jon Wee and Owen Morse . Wee , originally from Minnesota , and Morse , a California native , met at a juggling convention in northern California in 1986 and decided two years later to team up . Since then , the Passing Zone has won 18 gold medals from the International Jugglers ' Association ( IJA ) and holds five Guinness World Records .
The Passing Zone was one of ten finalists out of hundreds of acts to perform during the debut season of NBC 's America 's Got Talent where , despite finishing as " the highest rated comedy act , " Wee and Morse " lost one million dollars to an 11 @-@ year @-@ old . " They have entertained as part of the Royal Variety Performance for England 's Prince Charles — sharing the bill with Tony Bennett and the cast of Riverdance , among others — and also have been " guest performers " at the White House . The Passing Zone performs regularly for some of the top corporations in the United States while " inspiring groups to be better teams . "
= = Biography = =
Jonathan Wee is one of three children of David and Karen Wee and was raised in Northfield , Minnesota . A performer since age 14 , Wee preferred to juggle with partners . He performed with two childhood friends , calling themselves Three of Clubs , and worked the Minnesota Renaissance Fair . Wee admits that they " were really pretty bad , " although in the end he figures that fair officials " thought , ' we 'll let them in . ' " Owen Morse , of Tustin , California , began performing in high school , crafted a 15 @-@ minute @-@ long , sports @-@ themed routine set to music , and eventually earned work through an agency in Hollywood , playing the Sawdust Festival in Laguna Beach while in high school and working at Disneyland while in college .
A mutual friend introduced Wee and Morse at a jugglers ' convention in San Jose , California , and they spent the next year corresponding regularly . The two met again at the IJA convention in Akron , Ohio , and decided to pair up in 1988 for the Teams Championships in Denver , Colorado , where they took the silver medal only " two weeks after their first performance together . " The following year , they took the gold .
Wee elected to move to southern California after he graduated from Luther College that spring . Morse graduated one year later from University of California , Irvine . By the end of 2006 , Morse was living in Tustin with his wife and their two daughters while Wee lived in Hermosa Beach with his wife and their son and daughter .
= = Career = =
Wee and Morse spent several years honing their act at comedy clubs , trade shows and colleges . They were the first jugglers documented to pass eleven clubs between them . In addition , their performances have been seen as innovative , having created such routines as " The Chainsaw Ballet " ( performed to The Blue Danube ) and " people juggling " ( featuring three audience members hanging from special rigging ) . All in all the pair owns five Guinness World Records and has collected 18 gold medals from the IJA .
The Passing Zone was among the varied acts taking part in the Royal Variety Performance at Dominion Theatre in 1994 for England 's Prince Charles , who called their act " very clever , although I 'm glad I wasn 't sitting in the front row ! " Wee and Morse have performed during half @-@ time shows at NBA , CBA and NCAA sporting events . They have been featured on such television programs as Comic Strip Live , The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson ( in 1990 and 1991 ) , Donny & Marie and Live with Regis and Kathie Lee . They were hired as juggling stand @-@ ins for Raúl Juliá and Christopher Lloyd in The Addams Family ( 1991 ) , performing " in the climactic Mamushka dagger @-@ passing scene . " In 2005 , the pair took part in Penn Jillette 's comedy documentary The Aristocrats , and appeared as juggling chefs in an episode of Hell 's Kitchen .
Wee and Morse have been " guest performers " at the White House . They also were hired to provide guest commentary for ESPN 's coverage of the World Juggling Federation competitions .
The men actively market their act to corporate events , where they demonstrate the concept of teamwork by bringing executives and employees to the stage and by using the company 's products and logos as part of their act . They have performed to stress the value of teamwork for such diverse organizations as Boeing , Deloitte and Touche , Hewlett @-@ Packard , Mattel and the United States Army .
= = = America 's Got Talent , 2006 = = =
The Passing Zone made its first appearance during the third week of America 's Got Talent , as part of the Chicago auditions aired on July 5 , 2006 . Wee bounced a rubber ( prop ) bowling ball off of Morse 's face ( " to make sure you 're paying attention " ) , then climbed onto Morse 's shoulders while Morse balanced on a Rola Bola long enough for the duo to juggle a total of six flaming torches in unison . The judges ' assessments were not unanimous ; David Hasselhoff rejected them ( " That 's the act ? ! " ) while Brandy and Piers Morgan wanted to see more .
Wee and Morse replicated " people juggling " for the semi @-@ finals on August 2 , 2006 , winning over the audience and Hasselhoff ( " I think I have just gotten out of ' I Hate Jugglers Anonymous ' . I thought that was fantastic ! " ) . One of ten acts to return for the finals two weeks later , The Passing Zone brought Hasselhoff to the stage and , as all three men wore torches atop construction helmets ( and with Hasselhoff holding four spinning plates ) , Wee and Morse passed sickles back and forth around him . Though Morgan thought they had done exceptionally well , the act finished in the bottom five when the results of the viewers ' vote were announced on August 17 , 2006 .
= = = " Gravity Attacks ! " = = =
Wee and Morse debuted their act " Gravity Attacks ! " in 2012 . The performance incorporates such elements as " chainsaws , torches and knives " flying through the air , along with audience members seemingly floating in space , " orbiting planets [ and ] narrowly escaping dangerous collisions . "
= = = America 's Got Talent , 2016 = = =
The Passing Zone auditioned for season 11 of America 's Got Talent in an episode broadcast on July 5 , 2016 . Wee and Morse asked judge Howie Mandel to lie on the stage ; Morse straddled him while juggling a mouse trap , a flaming plunger and a taser . Wee then jumped over Morse while keeping the items in the air . The act was put through to the next round .
= = Filmography = =
= Phengaris rebeli =
The Phengaris rebeli ( formerly Maculinea rebeli ) , common name mountain alcon blue , is a species of butterfly in the Lycaenidae family . It was first found and described in Styria , Austria on Mount Hochschwab around 1700 . Although it was initially classified as a subspecies of P. alcon , a European researcher , Lucien A. Berger , designated it as a separate species in 1946 .
Although P. rebeli is found across the Palearctic ( see subspecies ) , it is difficult to determine exactly where they inhabit because of their similarity with P. alcon . In West Europe they are thought to be concentrated in the Alps and in Southern Europe .
Behavioral ecologists have found its role as a brood parasite to be of particular interest as , unlike many brood parasites , it does not directly oviposit in the hosts ' nests . The P. rebeli parasitizes the colony ant species Myrmica schencki as a larva by using chemical mimicry to trick the ants into believing that they are ant larvae ; thus , the ants bring the P. rebeli larvae back to their own nests and feed them . It also parasitizes the foodplant Gentiana cruciata early in its lifecycle , but in turn , is parasitized by the Ichneumon eumerus when it is in the M. schencki 's nest . It was placed on the IUCN Red List in 2000 and is classified as a species ' vulnerable ' to extinction . Although a separate species from the P. alcon , its DNA genome and appearance are extremely similar , leading many researchers to argue that any differences between the two species are due to intraspecific variation .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Phengaris genus is a subsect within the Maculinea genus ( explaining why the P. rebeli was formerly known as the M. rebeli ) and the Maculinea @-@ Phengaris clade is thought to be a sect within Glaucopsyche . There are three groups within this Maculinea @-@ Phengaris clade : the alcon group , the teleius group , and the Arion @-@ Phengaris group .
The groups are divided based on their alternative strategies of parasitizing its host colony ( Myrmica ants ) . The predatory ( in which the caterpillar preys on the host ants ) and ' cuckoo ' ( in which the caterpillars feed off of the ants ' regurgitation ) strategies are derived characteristics from the alcon group , with the predatory strategy having evolved from the teleius group and the cuckoo strategy having evolved from the arion @-@ Phengaris group . Another way these groups are categorized is by whether or not they release a certain chemical ( dorsal nectary organ secretions ) to attract the attention of the host ant . This trait is not as prominent in ancestors of the alcon group and in the M. nausithous , which is part of the teleius group .
The P. rebeli is most closely related to both species of the Maculinea alcon ( the M. alcon alcon and the M. alcon kondakovi ) with the M. alcon alcon being more closely related to the P. rebeli than to the M. alcon kondakovi .
= = Subspecies = =
Phengaris rebeli rebeli ( Hirschke , 1904 ) Central and South Europe
Phengaris rebeli cordidula ( Jachontov , [ 1909 ] ) Caucasus Major
Phengaris rebeli imitator Tuzov , 2000 North Tian @-@ Shan , Dzhungarsky , Alatau
Phengaris rebeli kondakovi Kurentzov , 1970 Transbaikalia , Amur Oblast , Ussuri Northeast China
Phengaris rebeli monticola ( Staudinger , 1901 ) Armenia
Phengaris rebeli ssp . Altai mountains
= = Appearance = =
The P. rebeli are noted for their large blue wings , with the males displaying a violet blue shade and the females displaying blue basal areas interspersed with brown spots , similar to other butterflies in its genus . The undersides of the butterfly are a dark brown with small black spots that are circled in white . It can be distinguished from its close relative , the P. alcon , by the broader black margins of the upperside male and the extensive blue basal areas in the females . It has a wingspan of approximately 32 – 36 mm long .
= = Habitat = =
It resides in fairly dry areas at lower levels and damp meadows amongst trees at alpine levels and is found in altitudes of 1000 – 2000 meters . Although it is found around the globe , populations of P. rebeli are concentrated in the northern part of Portugal and Greece , the western Pyrenees , France , and eastern part of Germany .
= = Brood parasitism = =
= = = Discovery of brood parasitism = = =
The Phengaris rebeli is a brood parasite , an organism that manipulates another organism ( the host ) to raise its offspring ; in this case , the P. rebeli parasitizes a particular species of ant , the Myrmica schencki . The P. rebeli was first discovered to be a brood parasite when a researcher observed M. schencki ants bringing the P. rebeli larvae back to their own nest . One of the proposed hypotheses for this parasitism was that P. rebeli larvae released chemicals to confuse the ants into believing they were ant larvae .
It was determined that P. rebeli larvae use chemical mimicry to persuade the M. schencki ants that the P. rebeli are part of the ant brood . Furthermore , M. schencki ants cannot distinguish the physical differences between the P. rebeli larvae and other non @-@ kin brood because the P. rebeli larvae are far more similar to the M. schencki ’ s larvae than to any other ant species larvae .
P. rebeli live in different habitats ; therefore , they do not parasitize the same Myrmica ant species . Through observation and experimentation , researchers found that if P. rebeli try to parasitize a different Myrmica ant species than the one they normally do , the Myrmica ants will identify the P. rebeli larvae as intruders and will kill 100 % of the P. rebeli larvae . The differences between the P. rebeli are that they synthesize different hydrocarbons , which allow them to mimic different species of Myrmica ants . This explains why they have no success in being mistaken for another species of Myrmica ant and the ensuing 100 % mortality rate when the other Myrmica ant species is not fooled .
= = = Acoustics and social rank in host hierarchy = = =
Once the P. rebeli larvae infiltrate the host ’ s brood , they ascend to the highest social ranks of the host ’ s hierarchy by using acoustics to achieve social acceptance from worker M. schencki ants . P. rebeli larvae and pupa accomplish this by mimicking the sound that the queen of the ant colony makes , both while as a larva and as a pupa in the colony .
While the Myrmica ant colony can identify each other through chemical signaling , social ranks are partially determined by sound acoustics . Therefore , once the P. rebeli begin to mimic the sound of the queen ant , the worker ants begin to treat the P. rebeli as if it were the queen ant . On the other hand , the queen ant treats the P. rebeli larvae and pupae as if they were rivals , as she is the only one in the colony that recognizes that the P. rebeli larvae is not ant larvae .
The most common functions of the queen ant sounds
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, The Beyoncé Experience Live peaked at number twenty five on the UK Music DVD Chart . On September 21 , 2009 , the album peaked at number eight on the Australian Music DVD Chart and was later certified 2 × Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) .
= = Neal Medlyn re @-@ enactment = =
Performer Neal Medlyn re @-@ enacted the DVD during his performance at the New Museum in April 2008 together with dancers Will Rawls and Erick Montes . His performance was one @-@ hour long and it was titled The Neal Medlyn Experience Live . He sang along to the DVD audio track , complete with word @-@ for @-@ word between @-@ song patter and band introductions . Booth Newspapers ' Roger LeLeivre reviewed the re @-@ enactment positively writing , " The event ... was a hoot , and the audience loved every second of it . Medlyn has Beyoncé 's signature , often spastic , moves down pat , down to each minute hand gesture and facial expression ... Unlike a drag show , Medlyn does not try to convince anyone they are seeing Beyoncé . There wasn 't much in the way of costumes ( well , he did enter in a black wig , tube top and hot pants , but those bit the dust rather quickly ) , and why bother ? " . He concluded that the length of the show was " perfect " as it " ended before the shtick wore out its welcome " . LeLeivre finished his review by writing , " It was a delicious pop @-@ culture skewering , right down to the back @-@ up dancers , with their over @-@ the @-@ top moves and expressions ... Clearly it enhanced the ' experience , ' if you had a passing acquaintance with Beyoncé 's songs ... but such knowledge was not a prerequisite to enjoying this homage " . Claudia La Rocco of The New York Times described his re @-@ enactment as " absurdly faithful " and added that it wouldn 't have been nearly as " smart or touching " without the dancing of Rawls and Montes . She further put the performance in her list of the " richest " moments of 2008 and noted , " These astounding performers slipped between genders and among genres , enveloping Mr. Medlyn in utter fabulousness and proving just how sophisticated pop culture can be . Backup dancers everywhere should feel proud . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for The Beyoncé Experience Live , adapted from CD 's liner notes and Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Helgoland @-@ class battleship =
The Helgoland class was the second class of German dreadnought battleships . Constructed from 1908 to 1912 , the class comprised four ships : Helgoland , the lead ship ; Oldenburg ; Ostfriesland ; and Thüringen . The design was a significant improvement over the previous Nassau @-@ class ships ; they had a larger main battery — 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) main guns instead of the 28 cm ( 11 in ) weapons mounted on the earlier vessels — and an improved propulsion system . The Helgolands were easily distinguished from the preceding Nassaus by the three funnels that were closely arranged , compared to the two larger funnels of the previous class . The ships retained the hexagonal main battery layout of the Nassau class .
The ships served as a unit in the I Division , I Battle Squadron alongside the Nassau @-@ class ships in the II Division of the I Battle Squadron . They saw combat during World War I , including the Battle of Jutland in the North Sea and the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in the Baltic . All four survived the war , but were not taken as part of the German fleet that was interned at Scapa Flow . When the German ships at Scapa Flow were scuttled , the four Helgolands were ceded as war reparations to the victorious Allied powers in the sunken ships ' stead . Ostfriesland was taken by the US Navy and expended as a target during Billy Mitchell 's air power demonstration in July 1921 . Helgoland and Oldenburg were allotted to Britain and Japan respectively , and broken up in 1921 . Thüringen was delivered to France in 1920 , and was used as a target ship for the French navy . The ship was eventually broken up between 1923 and 1933 .
= = Design = =
The Triple Entente between the United Kingdom , France , and Russia had been signed in 1907 . Germany had become significantly isolated — on the Continent , Germany was hemmed in by France in the west and Russia in the east , and the UK , with her powerful navy , was capable of blocking German access to the world shipping lanes . Admiral von Tirpitz reacted to this development with the request for newer and stronger capital ships . His thoughts on the matter were , " The aim which I had to keep in view ... for technical and organizing reasons as well as reasons of political finance was to build as steadily as possible . " His appeal came in the form of the proposed Second Amendment to the Naval Law , which was passed on 27 March 1908 .
For the second class of German dreadnoughts , there was considerable debate as to what changes would be made from the first design . In May 1906 , the Reichsmarineamt ( RMA , Imperial Navy Office ) received word that the British were building battleships equipped with 13 @.@ 5 inches ( 34 cm ) guns . As a result , the General Navy Department advocated increasing the caliber of the main battery from 28 cm ( 11 in ) to 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) . Admiral von Tirpitz was reluctant to agree to this change , as he wished to avoid escalating the arms race with Britain .
Admiral von Tirpitz 's hesitation at increasing the armament of the new ships was lost when it became known in early 1907 that the United States Navy was building battleships with 30 @.@ 5 cm guns . In March 1907 , von Tirpitz ordered the Construction Department to prepare a design with 30 @.@ 5 cm guns and 320 mm ( 13 in ) thick belt armor . Some dispute remained over the arrangement of the main battery . The two Minas Geraes @-@ class battleships being built for Brazil mounted the same number of guns , but in a more efficient arrangement . Superfiring turret pairs were placed on either end of the ship , with two wing turrets amidships . Admiral von Tirpitz favored adopting this arrangement for the Helgoland class , but the Construction Department felt two superfiring turrets could be easily disabled by a single hit . As a result , the hexagonal arrangement of the preceding Nassaus was retained .
The Naval Law stipulated that the lifespan of large warships was to be reduced from 25 years to 20 years ; this was done in an effort to force the Reichstag to allocate funds for additional ships . The reduction necessitated the replacement of the coastal defense ships of the Siegfried and Oldenburg classes as well as the Brandenburg @-@ class battleships . The battleships that von Tirpitz had failed to secure in the First Amendment to the Naval Law of 1906 were now approved by the Reichstag . The Naval Law also increased the naval budget by an additional 1 billion marks . After the four Sachsen @-@ class ironclads had been replaced by the four Nassaus , three of the Siegfried @-@ class ships — Siegfried , Beowulf , Frithjof — and the unique coastal defense ship Oldenburg were the next slated to be replaced . The Helgoland @-@ class ships — SMS Helgoland , SMS Ostfriesland , SMS Thüringen , and SMS Oldenburg — were ordered under the provisional names Ersatz Siegfried , Ersatz Oldenburg , Ersatz Beowulf , and Ersatz Frithjof , respectively .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Helgoland @-@ class ships were longer than their predecessors , at 167 @.@ 2 m ( 548 ft 7 in ) overall . The ships had a beam of 28 @.@ 5 m ( 93 ft 6 in ) and at full load a draft of 8 @.@ 94 m ( 29 ft 4 in ) . The ships were significantly heavier than the Nassau class ; the Helgoland @-@ class ships displaced 22 @,@ 808 tonnes ( 22 @,@ 448 long tons ) at a standard load , and 24 @,@ 700 tonnes ( 24 @,@ 310 long tons ) at full load , nearly 4 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ) more than the earlier ships . The ships had 17 watertight compartments and a double bottom for 86 % of the length of the hull .
The class had greatly improved handling characteristics over the preceding Nassau class . The Helgolands were much better sea boats and did not suffer from the severe rolling that the Nassaus did . The ships were responsive to the helm , and had a tight turning radius , and lost only minimal speed during swells . The ships lost up to 54 % of their speed at hard rudder , and would heel up to 7 ° . For comparison , the earlier Nassaus lost up to 70 % speed and held a 12 ° heel with the rudder hard over .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Helgoland @-@ class ships retained older triple @-@ expansion steam engines rather than the new steam turbines in use in the British Royal Navy . This decision was based solely on cost : at the time , Parsons held a monopoly on steam turbines and required a 1 million gold mark royalty fee for every turbine engine . The triple @-@ expansion engines were three @-@ shaft , four @-@ cylinder engines arranged in three engine rooms . Each shaft drove a four @-@ bladed screw propeller that was 5 @.@ 1 m ( 16 ft 9 in ) in diameter . The engines were powered by 15 marine @-@ type boilers with two fireboxes apiece for a total of 30 . The engines were rated at 27 @,@ 617 ihp ( 20 @,@ 594 kW ) with a top speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . On trials , the power @-@ plant produced up to 35 @,@ 014 ihp ( 26 @,@ 110 kW ) , and a top speed of 21 @.@ 3 knots ( 39 @.@ 4 km / h ; 24 @.@ 5 mph ) . The ships carried 3 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 150 long tons ) of coal , and were later modified to carry an additional 197 tonnes ( 194 long tons ) of oil that was to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full fuel capacity , the ships could steam for 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ships ' electrical power was provided by eight turbo @-@ generators that produced 2 @,@ 000 kW ( 225 V ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Like the Nassau class which preceded it , the Helgoland @-@ class ships carried their main armament in an unusual hexagonal configuration . Twelve 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns were emplaced in long @-@ trunk Drh LC / 1908 mountings , an improved version of the previous LC / 1907 and LC / 1906 mounts used in the Nassau class . The guns were arranged in pairs in six twin gun turrets , with one turret each fore and aft , and two on each flank of the ship . The guns could initially be depressed to − 8 ° and elevated to 13 @.@ 5 ° , although the turrets were later modified to allow − 5 @.@ 5 ° depression and 16 ° of elevation . The guns fired 405 @-@ kilogram ( 893 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 855 m / s ( 2 @,@ 810 ft / s ) ; at 13 @.@ 5 ° , this provided a maximum range of 18 @,@ 700 m ( 20 @,@ 500 yd ) , and with the upgraded 16 ° elevation , the range was extended to 20 @,@ 500 m ( 22 @,@ 400 yd ) . The guns had a total of 1 @,@ 020 rounds for 85 shells per gun .
The ships ' secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns , which were mounted in casemates . The guns fired 45 @.@ 3 @-@ kilogram ( 100 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 840 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The guns could be elevated to 19 ° , which provided a maximum range of 14 @,@ 950 metres ( 16 @,@ 350 yd ) . The ships also carried fourteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns , also in casemates . These guns fired a 10 @-@ kilogram ( 22 lb ) projectile at 650 m / s ( 2 @,@ 100 ft / s ) , and could be trained up to 25 ° for a maximum range of 9 @,@ 600 m ( 10 @,@ 500 yd ) . After 1914 , two 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed and replaced by two 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak guns , and between 1916 and 1917 , the remaining twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm casemated guns were removed . These anti @-@ aircraft guns fired a slightly lighter 9 @.@ 6 @-@ kilogram ( 21 lb ) shell at 770 m / s ( 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ) . They could be elevated to 45 ° and could hit targets 11 @,@ 800 m ( 12 @,@ 900 yd ) away . The Helgoland @-@ class ships were further armed with six 50 cm ( 20 in ) submerged torpedo tubes . One tube was mounted in the bow , another in the stern , and two on each broadside , on either ends of the torpedo bulkhead .
= = = Armor = = =
The Helgoland @-@ class ships were equipped with Krupp cemented armor , in almost the same layout as in the preceding Nassau @-@ class ships . The only major differences were slight increases in the armor protection for the main and secondary batteries , and a much thicker roof for the forward conning tower . The ships had an armored belt that was 30 cm ( 12 in ) thick at its strongest points , where it protected the ship 's vitals , and as thin as 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in less critical areas , such as the bow and stern . Behind the main belt was a torpedo bulkhead 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The ships ' decks were armored , between 5 @.@ 5 and 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 and 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The forward conning tower on each vessel had a roof that was 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick , and sides 40 cm ( 16 in ) thick . The aft conning tower was not as heavily armored , with only a 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick roof and 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) sides . The main battery turrets had roofs that were 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick , and 30 cm sides . The casemated secondary battery had 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) worth of armor protection , and 8 cm thick gun shields . The Helgolands were also fitted with anti @-@ torpedo nets , but these were removed after 1916 .
= = Construction = =
Four ships of the class were ordered , under the provisional names Ersatz Siegfried ( Helgoland ) , Ersatz Oldenburg ( Ostfriesland ) , Ersatz Beowulf ( Thüringen ) , and Ersatz Frithjof ( Oldenburg ) , as replacements for three of the coastal defense ships of the Siegfried @-@ class , and the unique coastal defense ship SMS Oldenburg . SMS Helgoland was built at Howaldtswerke , Kiel . She was laid down on 24 December 1908 , launched 25 August 1909 , and commissioned nearly two years later on 23 August 1911 .
SMS Ostfriesland was built at Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven . She was laid down 19 October 1908 , launched five days after her sister Helgoland , on 30 August 1909 , and commissioned 1 August 1911 . SMS Thüringen was built by AG Weser in Bremen . She was laid down on 7 November 1908 , launched on 27 November 1909 , and commissioned on 10 September 1911 . SMS Oldenburg , the final vessel , was built by Schichau in Danzig ; she was laid down 1 March 1909 , launched 30 June 1910 , and commissioned on 1 May 1912 .
= = = Ships = = =
= = History = =
The Helgoland @-@ class ships operated as a unit in the High Seas Fleet ; they served as the I Division of the I Battle Squadron . The ships of the class participated in several fleet operations in the North Sea , including the sortie on 31 May 1916 that resulted in the Battle of Jutland . The ships also saw limited service in the Baltic Sea , primarily during the abortive Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 .
= = = Raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby = = =
The first major operation of the war in which the Helgoland @-@ class ships participated was the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . The raid was primarily conducted by the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . The Helgoland @-@ class ships , along with the Nassau , Kaiser , and König classes steamed in distant support of Franz von Hipper 's battlecruisers . Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet , decided to take up station approximately in the center of the North Sea , about 130 miles east of Scarborough .
The Royal Navy , which had recently received the German code books captured from the beached cruiser Magdeburg , was aware that an operation was taking place , but was not sure where the Germans would strike . Therefore , the Admiralty ordered David Beatty 's 1st Battlecruiser Squadron , the six battleships of the 2nd Battle Squadron , and several cruisers and destroyers to intercept the German battlecruisers . However , Beatty 's task force nearly ran headlong into the entire High Seas Fleet . At 6 : 20 , Beatty 's destroyer screen came into contact with the German torpedo boat V155 . This began a confused , 2 @-@ hour long battle between the British destroyers and the German cruiser and destroyer screen , often at very close range . At the time of the first encounter , the Helgoland @-@ class battleships were less than 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) away from the six British dreadnoughts ; this was well within firing range , but in the darkness , neither British nor German admirals were aware of the composition of their opponents ' fleets . Admiral Ingenohl , loathe to disobey the Kaiser 's order to not risk the battlefleet without his express approval , concluded that his forces were engaging the screen of the entire Grand Fleet , and so , 10 minutes after the first contact , he ordered a turn to port to a southeast course . Continued attacks delayed the turn , but by 6 : 42 , it had been carried out . For about 40 minutes , the two fleets were steaming on a parallel course . At 7 : 20 , Ingenohl ordered a further turn to port , which put his ships on a course for German waters .
Many in the German navy were furious over Ingenohl 's timidity , and his reputation suffered greatly . Großadmiral Alfred von Tirpitz remarked that " On 16 December , Ingenohl had the fate of Germany in the palm of his hand . I boil with inward emotion whenever I think of it . " The captain of the battlecruiser Moltke was even more scathing ; he stated that Ingenohl had turned away " because he was afraid of eleven British destroyers which could have been easily eliminated ... Under the present leadership we will accomplish nothing . "
The Helgoland @-@ class ships also sortied from port to support the German battlecruisers during the Battle of Dogger Bank , but did not actively engage British forces .
= = = Battle of the Gulf of Riga = = =
On 3 August 1915 , several heavy units of the High Seas Fleet were transferred to the Baltic to participate in a planned foray into the Riga Gulf . The intention was to destroy the Russian naval forces in the area , including the pre @-@ dreadnought Slava , and to use the minelayer Deutschland to block the entrance to Moon Sound with naval mines . The German forces , under the command of Vice Admiral Hipper , included the four Nassau @-@ class and four Helgoland @-@ class battleships , the battlecruisers Seydlitz , Moltke , and Von der Tann , and a number of smaller craft . The four Helgolands were not committed to the actual battle , however . For the duration of the operation , the ships were stationed outside the gulf in order to prevent Russian reinforcements from disrupting the laying of minefields .
The Russians ' own minefields were larger than had been expected , and so clearing them took longer than the Germans had planned . This delay was compounded by stiff resistance from the Russian navy ; Deutschland was ultimately unable to lay her mines . Reports of Allied submarine activity in the area prompted the withdrawal of the German naval force on the morning of 20 August . Indeed , the battlecruiser Moltke had been torpedoed by the British submarine HMS E1 the day before , though only minor damage was sustained .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
The ships took part in the inconclusive Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . For the majority of the battle , the I Battle Squadron formed the center of the line of battle , behind Rear Admiral Behncke 's III Battle Squadron , and followed by Rear Admiral Mauve 's elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the II Battle Squadron . Ostfriesland served as the division flagship , under the command of Vice Admiral E. Schmidt .
The Helgoland @-@ class ships first entered direct combat at 19 : 20 on the first day of the battle . Ostfriesland , Helgoland , and Thüringen began firing on HMS Warspite , which , along with the other Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships of the 5th Battle squadron , had been pursuing the German battlecruiser force . With the exception of Ostfriesland , the firing only lasted for four minutes , because the German line had been in the process of turning to the east @-@ northeast , and the ships quickly lost sight of the British battleships . Thüringen and Helgoland only fired around 20 main battery shells before they lost sight of their target . Ostfriesland , however , was able to keep visual contact until 19 : 45 , at which point she , too , ceased firing . At 20 : 15 , during the third Gefechtskehrtwendung , Helgoland was struck by a 15 in ( 38 cm ) shell in the forward part of the ship . The shell tore a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) hole in the hull and rained splinters on the foremost port side 5 @.@ 9 in gun ; approximately 80 tons of water entered the ship .
At around midnight on 1 June , the Helgoland- and Nassau @-@ class ships in the center of the German line came into contact with the British 4th Destroyer Flotilla . A chaotic night battle ensued , during which Nassau rammed the British destroyer Spitfire . The 4th Flotilla broke off the action temporarily to regroup , but at around 01 : 00 , unwittingly stumbled into the German dreadnoughts a second time . Oldenburg and Helgoland opened fire on the two leading British destroyers , but a British shell destroyed Oldenburg 's forward search light . Shell fragments rained down on the bridge and wounded the ship 's captain , Kapitän Hopfner , and killed his second in command , Kapitänleutnant Rabius , along with a number of other men on the bridge , including the helmsman . Oldenburg was temporarily without anyone to steer the ship ; she was in danger of ramming either the ship to her rear or to her front . Kapitän Hopfner , despite his injuries , took the helm and brought the ship back into line .
Shortly after 01 : 00 , Thüringen and Nassau encountered the British armored cruiser Black Prince . Thüringen opened fire first and pummeled Black Prince with a total of 27 heavy @-@ caliber shells and 24 rounds from her secondary battery . Nassau and Ostfriesland joined in , followed by Friedrich der Grosse .
[ Black Prince ] presented a terrible and awe @-@ inspiring spectacle as she drifted down the line blazing furiously until , after several minor detonations , she disappeared below the surface with the whole of her crew in one tremendous explosion .
By this time , the 4th Destroyer Flotilla had been largely destroyed as a fighting unit . The few remaining , heavily damaged ships had been scattered and would take no further part in the battle .
Following the return to German waters , Helgoland and Thüringen , along with the Nassau @-@ class battleships Nassau , Posen , and Westfalen , took up defensive positions in the Jade roadstead for the night . During the battle , the ships suffered only minor damage . Helgoland was hit by a single 15 in shell , but sustained minimal damage . The Oldenburg was hit by a shell from a secondary battery that killed 8 and wounded 14 men . Ostfriesland and Thüringen escaped the battle unscathed , although on the return to German waters , Ostfriesland struck a mine and had to be repaired in Wilhelmshaven .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
The ships of the class saw no further significant action during the war , and were ceded to the Allies under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles . All four ships were stricken from the German navy on 5 November 1919 . Helgoland was taken by the British and was scrapped in 1921 in Morecambe . Her bow ornament was retained and was eventually returned to Germany ; it is now on display in the Dresden army museum . Oldenburg was surrendered to the Japanese , but they did not take possession of the ship . Instead , they sold the vessel to a British salvage firm that scrapped it in Dordrecht in 1921 . Thüringen was taken by France ; the ship was nearly scuttled by her crew while en route to Cherbourg in 1920 . She was used as a target until she was beached in 1923 at Gavres . She was broken up in situ , but a large portion of the hull remains off shore .
Ostfriesland was ceded to the US Navy , and was later used as a stationary target during a demonstration of air power , conducted by General Billy Mitchell on 21 July 1921 off Cape Henry in Virginia . The ship sank at 12 : 40 after sustaining several bomb hits and near misses . However , she likely would have avoided these had she been underway , and if she had been hit , damage control teams would have kept the ship afloat .
= Bristol Temple Meads railway station =
Bristol Temple Meads railway station is the oldest and largest railway station in Bristol . It is an important transport hub for public transport , with bus services to many parts of the city and surrounding districts and a ferry to the city centre in addition to the train services . Bristol 's other main @-@ line station , Bristol Parkway , is on the northern outskirts of the conurbation .
It opened on 31 August 1840 as the western terminus of the Great Western Railway from London Paddington . The railway including Temple Meads was the first one designed by the British engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel . Soon the station was also used by the Bristol and Exeter Railway , the Bristol and Gloucester Railway , the Bristol Harbour Railway and the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway . To accommodate the increasing number of trains the station was expanded in the 1870s by Francis Fox and again in the 1930s by P E Culverhouse . Brunel 's terminus is no longer part of the operational station . The historical significance of the station has been noted , and most of the site is Grade 1 listed .
The platforms are numbered 1 to 15 , but passenger trains are confined to just eight tracks . Most platforms are numbered separately at each end with odd numbers at the east end , even numbers at the west end . Platform 2 is not signalled for passenger trains , and there is no platform 14 .
Temple Meads is managed by Network Rail and the majority of services are operated by the present @-@ day Great Western Railway . Other operators are CrossCountry and South West Trains . In the 12 months to March 2014 , 9 @.@ 5 million entries and exits were made from the station .
= = History = =
The name Temple Meads derives from the nearby Temple Church , which was gutted by bombing during World War II . The word " meads " is a derivation of " mæd " , an Old English variation of " mædwe " , meadow , referring to the water meadows alongside the River Avon that were part of Temple parish . As late as 1820 the site was undeveloped pasture outside the boundaries of the old city , some distance from the commercial centre . It lay between the Floating Harbour and the city 's cattle market , which was built in 1830 .
= = = Brunel 's station = = =
The original terminus was built in 1839 – 41 for the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) , the first passenger railway in Bristol , and was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , the railway 's engineer . It was built to Brunel 's 7 ft ( 2 @,@ 134 mm ) broad gauge . The station was on a viaduct to raise it above the level of the Floating Harbour and River Avon , the latter being crossed via the grade I listed Avon Bridge . The station was covered by a 200 @-@ foot ( 60 m ) train shed , extended beyond the platforms by 155 feet ( 47 m ) into a storage area and engine shed , fronted by an office building in the Tudor style . Train services to Bath commenced on 31 August 1840 and were extended to Paddington on 30 June 1841 following the completion of Box Tunnel .
A few weeks before the start of the services to Paddington the Bristol and Exeter Railway ( B & ER ) had opened , on 14 June 1841 , its trains reversing in and out of the GWR station . The third railway at Temple Meads was the Bristol and Gloucester Railway , which opened on 8 July 1844 and was taken over by the Midland Railway ( MR ) on 1 July 1845 . This used the GWR platforms , diverging onto its own line on the far side of the bridge over the Floating Harbour . Both these new railways were engineered by Brunel and were initially broad gauge . Brunel also designed the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway , but this was not opened until 25 August 1863 , nearly four years after his death . It terminated at Temple Meads .
= = = Bristol and Exeter Railway station = = =
In 1845 the B & ER built its own station at right angles to the GWR station and an " express platform " on the curve linking the two lines so that through trains no longer had to reverse . The wooden B & ER station was known locally as " The Cowshed " ; but a grand headquarters was built at street level on the west side of its station in 1852 – 54 to the Jacobean designs of Samuel Fripp . The Bristol and Portishead Pier and Railway opened a branch off the Bristol and Exeter line west of the city on 18 April 1867 , the trains being operated by the B & ER and using its platforms at Temple Meads .
In 1850 an engine shed had been opened on the south bank of the River Avon on the east side of the line to the B & ER station . Between 1859 and 1875 , 23 engines were built in the workshops attached to the shed , including several distinctive Bristol and Exeter Railway 4 @-@ 2 @-@ 4T locomotives .
= = = Goods stations = = =
The GWR built a 326 @-@ by @-@ 138 @-@ foot ( 99 m × 42 m ) goods shed on the north side of the station adjacent to the Floating Harbour , with a small dock for transhipment of goods to barges ( not seagoing ships , as the wharf was upstream of Bristol Bridge ) . Wagons had to be lowered 12 feet ( 4 m ) to the goods shed on hoists . On 11 March 1872 , a direct connection to the harbour was made in the form of the Bristol Harbour Railway , a joint operation of the three railways , which ran between the passenger station and the goods yard , across the street outside on a bridge , and descended into a tunnel under the churchyard of St. Mary Redcliffe on its way to a wharf downstream of Bristol Bridge .
The B & ER had a goods depot at Pylle Hill ( south of the station ) from 1850 , and the MR had an independent yard at Avonside Wharf on the opposite side of the Floating Harbour from 1858 .
= = = Effects of the change of gauge = = =
On 29 May 1854 the Midland Railway laid a third rail along their line to Gloucester to provide mixed gauge so that it could operate 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge passenger trains while broad gauge goods trains could still run to collieries north of Bristol . Sidings at South Wales Junction allowed traffic to be transhipped between wagons on the two different gauges . The GWR continued to operate its trains on the broad gauge , but on 3 September 1873 it opened the standard gauge Bristol and North Somerset Railway . This had a junction nearly 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 800 m ) from the station on the London line and so mixed gauge was extended to that point . During the following year mixed gauge track was continued beyond Bath in connection with the conversion of the Wilts , Somerset and Weymouth Railway to standard gauge . Mixed gauge was laid through Box Tunnel on 16 May 1875 and so standard gauge trains could run to London , although broad gauge was retained west of Temple Meads and through trains from London to Penzance and other stations in Devon and Cornwall continued to be broad gauge . Goods traffic was transhipped between the two gauges in the B & ER yard at Pylle Hill .
The B & ER converted the line to Taunton to mixed gauge by 1 June 1875 , but the remainder of the line to Exeter was not done until 1 March 1876 , three months after the B & ER had amalgamated with the GWR . The remainder of the lines beyond Exeter were converted to standard gauge on 21 May 1892 so the extra rails at Temple Meads fell into disuse and were removed to leave a purely standard gauge layout . This allowed the through station to be rebuilt with two additional platform faces .
= = = 1870s expansion = = =
The additional railway routes put the two short 140 @-@ yard ( 130 m ) platforms of Brunel 's terminus under pressure and a scheme was developed to extend the station . An enabling Act of Parliament was passed in 1865 and between 1871 and 1878 the station was extensively rebuilt . Brunel 's platforms were extended by 212 yards ( 194 m ) towards London and a new three @-@ platform through station built on the site of the express platform , while the B & ER station was closed and the site used for a new carriage shed . This work is usually attributed to Brunel 's former associate Matthew Digby Wyatt , but there is no documentary evidence of his involvement in the Minutes of the Station Joint Committee . The only signature on the drawings is that of Francis Fox , the engineer of the B & ER . The curved wrought @-@ iron train shed over the new through platforms was 500 feet ( 150 m ) long on the platform wall . The goods depot was rebuilt with the inconvenient wagon hoists replaced by a steep incline from the east end of Temple Meads , which meant that the sidings in the goods shed were at right angles to their original alignment and the barge dock was filled in .
Trains on the Bristol and South Wales Union and the Midland routes operated from the terminal platforms while the GWR used the new through platforms . The capital costs of the new work were split 4 / 14 GWR / B & ER and 10 / 14 MR , operating costs were split GWR 3 / 8 , MR 3 / 8 and B & ER 2 / 8 . Hence when the GWR absorbed the B & ER in 1876 the split was GWR 5 / 8 and MR ( later LMS ) 3 / 8 , until nationalisation on 1 January 1948 .
= = = Twentieth century changes = = =
In 1924 the goods depot was rebuilt with 15 platforms , each 575 feet ( 175 m ) long . Large warehousing and cellar space was provided to store goods , although by this time another city centre goods depot had been opened at Canons Marsh .
Between 1930 and 1935 the through station was expanded under the direction of the GWR 's chief architect P E Culverhouse , in art deco style , both eastwards over the old cattle market and southwards on a new wider bridge across Cattle Market Road and the New Cut of the River Avon . This made room for the addition of five through @-@ platform faces , while the removal of the narrow island platforms in the middle of the train shed allowed the main Up and Down platforms to be both widened and lengthened . All the routes approaching Temple Meads were widened to four tracks to allow more flexibility .
As part of this work four manual signal boxes were replaced by three power signal boxes , and the semaphore signals and mechanical point linkages were replaced by colour light signals and point motors . The new Bristol Temple Meads East box was the largest on the GWR with 368 miniature levers operated by three signalmen assisted by a " booking boy " . The other two boxes were at Bristol Temple Meads West , and controlling the movements in and out of the new Bath Road Depot , which replaced the old B & ER locomotive works in 1934 .
During World War II the station was bombed , which led to the destruction of the wooden spire of the clock tower above the ticket office on 3 January 1941 . Gas lighting was replaced by fluorescent electric lights in 1960 .
Bristol Panel Signal Box was built on the site of the Platform 14 . When opened it controlled 280 multiple @-@ aspect signals and 243 motor @-@ worked points on 114 miles ( 183 km ) of route , the largest area controlled by a single signal box on British Rail at the time .
The construction of this signal box , completed in 1970 , involved the demolition of almost half of the 1870s extension to Brunel 's terminus and completely blocked rail access to the Old Station
A second main @-@ line station serving the city , Bristol Parkway , opened in 1972 . It is on the northern outskirts of the conurbation close to the M32 motorway and was designed as a park and ride facility for long @-@ distance travellers .
In the late 1960s the Royal Mail built a mail conveyor at the northern end of the station , with significant aesthetic impact . This was out of use for many years following the transfer of Royal Mail 's activities to the West of England Mail Centre at Filton and the opening of the short @-@ lived Railnet Hub next to Bristol Parkway station in May 2000 . It was finally dismantled in stages and removed between October and December 2014 . In 1990 / 91 , £ 2 million was spent by InterCity on a renovation of the main train shed and another £ 7 million on restoring some of the older areas of the station , including the refurbishment of the subway and construction of new retail outlets . The shorter of the two 1935 platform islands had been used only for parcels traffic since the 1960s but was temporarily brought back into passenger use during this work . It was fully restored for passenger use in 200
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In August 1998 , a 15 @-@ month , £ 7 million project commenced with work performed on the external facade , clocktower , roof and paving . As part of this work , the original quarry from which the dolomite stone had originally been extracted was reopened in Abbots Leigh .
= = = Closure of lines = = =
Passenger traffic on the old North Somerset line ceased on 2 November 1959 and many more closures followed after the publication of Dr Beeching 's The Reshaping of British Railways in 1963 . The connection to the Bristol Harbour Railway was closed on 6 January 1964 ; passenger trains to Portishead were withdrawn on 7 September 1964 ; and most local services in the north of the city were withdrawn on 23 November 1964 . The following year saw local services on the Midland route to Gloucester withdrawn and the Midland route to Bath Green Park via Mangotsfield was closed on 7 March 1966 . St Anne 's Park and Saltford on the line towards Bath survived until 5 January 1970 .
On 12 September 1965 the terminal platforms were closed . This allowed the platforms to be renumbered with the order reversed ( see list below ) . The redundant train shed became a covered car park in February the following year , but from 1989 until 1999 the original ( Brunel ) part was an interactive science centre known as The Exploratory and an exhibition space . It later housed the British Empire and Commonwealth Museum , until that closed in 2008 .
= = = Enterprise zone and station redevelopment = = =
Bristol Temple Quarter Enterprise Zone , an enterprise zone with an area of 70 hectares ( 170 acres ) centred on Temple Meads , was announced in 2011 , and launched in 2012 . Network Rail is a partner in coordinating development in the zone . In November 2012 , Network Rail announced a £ 100 million redevelopment of the station , with two unused platforms to be opened up . Station Approach Road will be turned into a public square and the station 's main entrance moved to the north side . A large bridge above the tracks at the east end of the station which was erected in the 1970s for postal traffic was demolished at Christmas 2014 .
Bristol and Exeter House has been redeveloped by TCN UK as a business hub for small and medium @-@ sized enterprises . Brunel 's Old Station has found a new use in a redevelopment by the city council and the University of Bristol . Opened in 2013 as the Engine Shed , it hosts business incubators for startups .
= = Description = =
= = = Approaches = = =
Although it is now possible to reach the station through the Temple Quay office development ( on the site of the goods shed ) or from the Bristol Ferry Boat Company landing stage on the Floating Harbour , the traditional and main approach is from Temple Gate . Isambard Kingdom Brunel 's Tudor @-@ style offices , later used by the former British Empire and Commonwealth Museum , face this road and are flanked on the north side by an archway that used to be the main station for departing passengers ; a matching arch on the other side was the arrivals gateway but was removed when the station was expanded in the 1870s .
Opposite these offices are the Grosvenor Hotel and the derelict George Railway Hotel , which were built in the 1870s , on either side of the site of the Bristol Harbour Railway bridge . A modern pub named The Reckless Engineer as a tribute to Brunel faces the approach road to the station .
On the right of the Station Approach but at a lower level is the B & ER office building designed by Samuel Fripp ; the 1930s offices known as " Collett House " ( named after Charles Collett ) and a disused parcels depot lie beyond . On the left is Brunel 's original station building . The train shed is 72 feet ( 22 m ) wide with a wooden box @-@ frame roof and cast iron columns disguised as hammerbeams above Tudor arches . It is believed to be the widest hammerbeam roof in England and , along with most of the station , is a Grade 1 listed building , and forms part of a proposed Great Western Railway World Heritage Site . At the top of the slope an entrance on the left to the covered car park marks the junction between the original terminus and Fox 's 1870s extension .
Ahead is the turreted main station building , and to the right a flat area marks the site of the B & ER station . The tunnel beneath this area was the route for passengers to and from the Down platform from 1878 until the station was enlarged in 1935 .
= = = Station = = =
Entering the main building , the ticket office and ticket machines are immediately ahead , and the route from Temple Quay and the ferry is on the left ; a bookshop is on the right , next to the platform entrance . Customer Information System screens by the entrance show arrival and departure information for all platforms , as do displays on each of the platforms . All platforms are signalled for trains in either direction and the flexible layout means that trains on any route can use any part of the station . Platforms with odd numbers are at the east end , even numbers at the west end ( geographically the south , due to the curvature of the platforms ) .
Entrance to the platforms is controlled by automatic ticket gates on Platform 3 , which is used by many northbound CrossCountry trains and local services to Bristol Parkway and Gloucester . The main station restaurant and bar is on the left and the short Platform 1 , a bay , is beyond this . This is most frequently used by Severn Beach Line trains but is long enough to handle any four @-@ car Diesel Multiple Unit ( DMU ) . Behind Platform 1 is a brick wall that forms part of the signal box and on this are some metal artworks created by artists with learning difficulties to celebrate Brunel 's 200th anniversary in 2006 ; an interpretation panel is nearby . The High Level Siding beyond Platform 1 is the rump of the Bristol Harbour Railway , and Barton Hill traction maintenance depot can be seen in the distance alongside Bristol East Junction ( formerly South Wales Junction ) where the lines to Bristol Parkway and Bath diverge .
On the right of the entrance is the subway that links all the platforms , reached either by steps or lift ; it houses the main public toilets , automated teller machines ( ATM ) and several catering outlets ( there is catering on all platform islands except 13 – 15 ) . A passenger information office and lounge are above the subway , the British Transport Police office and cycle racks are beyond , and at the western end is Platform 4 , used by only a few trains . Alongside this is Platform 2 , another bay platform but not signalled for passenger trains and used only for stabling empty trains , as is the former Motorail unloading bay alongside . At the far end of this track is the old Fish Dock , occasionally used for stabling engineers ' on @-@ track equipment . Beyond the end of the platform the tracks swing to the right ( the west ) and pass out of sight beneath Bath Road Bridge , a girder bridge that carries the A4 out of the city .
The first island platform comprises platforms 5 to 8 . Platform 5 is inside the main train shed while 6 is a southerly extension and 7 and 8 were added outside the supporting wall in the 1930s . Platform 5 is used by trains towards Cardiff and platform 7 to Portsmouth ; platforms 6 and 8 are the main platforms for Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and stations to Penzance . Between platforms 5 and 7 are the two spur sidings that are long enough to stable a single Class 153 DMU .
The third island platform comprises platforms 9 to 12 and also dates from the 1930s . It is longer than platforms 5 – 8 but the rear of a High Speed Train on the west end platforms will block part of the east end platform . A wide variety of trains use these platforms , including to and from London Paddington and London Waterloo and Weymouth .
The final island platform is shorter and only has east @-@ end platforms 13 and 15 : 15 is used by most trains from Paddington that continue westwards to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare or beyond . Platform 13 is a terminus platform and is used by many trains from Paddington , some local services and occasionally by CrossCountry . There is another siding beyond platform 15 that used to be the In / Out Road for Bath Road Traction Maintenance Depot . This depot has been demolished . Between platforms 3 / 4 and 5 / 6 are the Up Through line and the Middle Siding , the latter is often used to stable Mark 1 carriages between Torbay Express duties in the summer months . The Down Through line runs between platforms 11 / 12 and 13 .
To the north of the station lies Arriva TrainCare 's Barton Hill train maintenance depot that services Class 220 / 221 Voyagers for CrossCountry Class 66 locomotives for DB Schenker and during summer months steam locomotives operating the Torbay Express . To the south @-@ east of the station lies St Philip 's Marsh depot that services the Great Western Railway fleet . This is accessible from both ends of Temple Meads station .
Other facilities include pay phones , public Wi @-@ Fi , a post box , photo booth , and passenger assistance such as information points , waiting rooms , a lost property office , first aid room , and CCTV .
= = Passenger volume = =
Temple Meads is the busiest station in the Bristol area . Official statistics show it to have the 35th @-@ largest number of people entering or leaving any national rail station , the 14th busiest outside London . Comparing the year from April 2009 with the year from April 2002 , estimated passenger numbers increased by 52 % .
The statistics cover twelve @-@ month periods that start in April .
= = Services = =
= = = Rail = = =
The station is operated by Great Western Railway , along with main line services to London Paddington station , long distance services to Cardiff Central and the South Coast , local services to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , Taunton and Gloucester and a few services each day to / from Brighton .
An alternative route , to London Waterloo , is provided by South West Trains , while regular CrossCountry services run south to Paignton , Plymouth and Penzance , and north to Manchester , Leeds , Edinburgh , Glasgow and Aberdeen .
= = = Bus = = =
Temple Meads is served by many buses operated by First Bristol including :
A1 : to Bristol Airport
1 : to Broomhill and Cribbs Causeway
2 : to Stockwood and Cribbs Causeway
8 , 9 : circular routes to Clifton and Redland
11 : to University of the West of England , Frenchay and Bower Ashton campuses
38 / 39 / X39 : to Bath via Saltford
50 / 51 / 53 : to Hengrove and Bristol City Centre ( 50 / 51 )
70 / 71 : to University of the West of England , Frenchay
178 : Bath via Keynsham and Radstock
376 : to Street via Wells
379 : to Bath via Pensford and Radstock
Wessex Bus operate one route via Temple Meads station :
506 : Southmead Hospital to Create Centre
= = = Ferry = = =
Harbour ferry services , operated by Bristol Ferry Boats and Number Seven Boat Trips , call at a landing stage in the Floating Harbour outside the station . The service links Bristol Bridge , St Augustine 's Reach in the City Centre , the SS Great Britain , and Hotwells .
= = Future = =
First Great Western exercised a break clause in the Greater Western franchise thus avoiding large premium payments to the Department for Transport . With the franchise to now conclude in March 2013 , it was put out to tender , but the process was scrapped as part of the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition .
Subsequently a new contract until September 2015 was negotiated between First Great Western and the Department for Transport and subsequently extended until March 2019 . The coming years will see the High Speed Trains replaced with new Class 800 / 801 Intercity Express Trains , capacity enhancements and smart ticketing .
The Great Western Main Line from London to Bristol is in the process of being electrified . The electrification will not extend beyond Bristol , so local services will continue to be provided using diesel trains , with Class 165 / 166s cascaded from Thames Valley services scheduled to replace the 150 / 153 / 158s .
The Portishead Branch Line , which runs along the south side of the River Avon from a junction just beyond Parson Street is proposed to be reopened . There is an aspiration of two trains per hour between Portishead and Temple Meads in peak periods , possibly calling at Bedminster and Parson Street . The line was built in the 1860s , but closed to passenger traffic in 1964 , leaving Portishead as one of Britain 's largest towns without a railway station . The line was reopened for freight traffic to serve Royal Portbury Docks in 2001 , and the restoration of passenger traffic is considered part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme , which was given the go @-@ ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal , whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government .
The Metro scheme could also see the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line to passengers , with the possibility of services from Temple Meads to Bristol Parkway via Clifton Down and Henbury . Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board , however in July 2015 Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion .
The station roof is to be refurbished as part of a scheme to transform the station over the next 25 years . On 1 April 2014 , Network Rail took over management of the station from First Great Western .
= Tropical Depression Nineteen ( 1970 ) =
Tropical Depression Nineteen in 1970 was the wettest known tropical cyclone to affect the United States territory of Puerto Rico . The long @-@ lived depression formed on September 24 just off the west coast of Africa , and for several days maintained a general westward track . It passed through the Lesser Antilles on October 1 , and later stalled in the eastern Caribbean Sea . On October 8 , the depression crossed over the Dominican Republic , and subsequently it accelerated to the northeast . It was declassified as a tropical cyclone on October 12 , although its remnants persisted for another week before dissipating in the westerlies near the Azores .
The depression produced heavy rainfall in the Lesser Antilles , reaching 12 in ( 300 mm ) on Barbados ; it left three deaths and moderate damage on the island . Another death was reported in the United States Virgin Islands . Torrential rainfall on Puerto Rico inflicted heavy damage , totaling $ 65 million ( 1970 USD , $ 380 million 2016 USD ) . The highest precipitation total was 41 @.@ 68 in ( 1 @,@ 059 mm ) in Jayuya , of which 17 in ( 430 mm ) fell in a 24 ‑ hour period . Most of the damage can be attributed to damaged sugar cane and coffee crops . At least 18 people were killed on the island , and the system was considered one of the worst disasters in Puerto Rican history .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the depression were identified as a tropical wave on September 22 over western Africa . The system exited the west coast of Africa the next day , and on September 24 it developed into a tropical depression about 95 mi ( 153 km ) southwest of Conakry , Guinea . The depression moved generally westward , gradually intensifying to attain peak winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) by September 25 . A nearby upper @-@ level trough — an elongated area of low pressure — hindered further strengthening , and on October 1 the depression struck the island of Saint Lucia . As it crossed the Lesser Antilles , its winds and barometric pressure approached the values of a tropical storm .
In the Caribbean , the trough caused the depression to slow to a westward drift , resulting in several days of heavy rainfall in the region , particularly Puerto Rico . One forecast on October 5 anticipated a continued westward track toward Jamaica . Instead , the depression turned to the north the next day under the influence of the upper @-@ level westerlies . On October 7 , the depression attained its lowest pressure of 1000 mbar ( 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) , off the southern coast of Hispaniola . The next day , it made landfall in Peravia Province in the Dominican Republic . After crossing the country and exiting into the Atlantic Ocean , the depression accelerated to the northeast , followed by an eastward turn on October 10 before another turn to the northeast . By October 12 , the depression could no longer be classified as a tropical cyclone , although satellite imagery indicated that its remnants continued northeastward . On October 15 the system turned to the west , suppressed by a strong high @-@ pressure area to its north . It re @-@ intensified while crossing through the Azores , attaining a pressure of 994 mbar . It turned to the northwest and was absorbed into the westerlies on October 20 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Around October 3 , forecasters advised residents on islands from Barbados and St. Vincent through Guadeloupe to prepare for floods , high seas , and gale @-@ force gusts . On October 10 , a warning to be on guard against gusts was issued to owners of light aircraft in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands . As it crossed through the islands , the depression produced heavy rainfall , including 8 @.@ 90 in ( 226 mm ) on Saint Lucia , 2 @.@ 19 in ( 56 mm ) on Dominica , and 12 in ( 300 mm ) on Barbados . In the latter island , the depression left 200 people homeless , caused $ 500 @,@ 000 in damage , and killed three people .
Heavy rains impacted the U.S. Virgin Islands , including a total of 11 @.@ 4 in ( 290 mm ) recorded by the National Park Service on Saint John . The rains caused flooding across the territory , washing out roads and destroying several houses . One boy was swept away by the floodwaters , although he was rescued by two people . A girl was also swept by the floods and drowned . The desalination plant on Saint Croix was damaged during the floods , temporarily stopping the supply of drinking water ; water from Puerto Rico had to be shipped to provide the 700 @,@ 000 gallons needed daily . On St. Thomas , the main airport was closed for several days .
For six days , the depression dropped rainfall across the northern Caribbean , particularly in Puerto Rico . The highest overall rainfall total was 41 @.@ 68 in ( 1 @,@ 059 mm ) , recorded at a station near Jayuya in the center of the island . This was the highest rainfall total from a tropical cyclone on record in Puerto Rico , surpassing that of the deadly hurricanes of 1928 and 1899 , which produced 29 @.@ 6 in ( 750 mm ) and 23 @.@ 0 in ( 580 mm ) , respectively . The station at Jayuya also recorded 17 in ( 430 mm ) in 24 hours . Four other locations reported over 30 in ( 760 mm ) . Such heavy rainfall caused 20 rivers to swell above flood stages .
The depression left 10 @,@ 000 people homeless across Puerto Rico , with 3 @,@ 000 housed in emergency shelters in San Juan . At least 600 houses were destroyed and another 1 @,@ 000 damaged . Damage was particularly severe in Barceloneta , Aibonito , and Coamo . Across the island , the depression affected at least 40 state roads , with fifteen blocked by landslides , and eleven bridges destroyed . Flooding forced the closure of Puerto Rico Highway 2 between Manatí and Barceloneta . The depression left more than $ 40 million ( 1970 USD , $ 234 million 2016 USD ) in crop damage , primarily to sugarcane and coffee , as reported by William R. Poage , the chair of the House Agricultural Committee . Throughout Puerto Rico , the depression caused damage estimated at $ 65 million ( 1970 USD , $ 380 million 2016 USD ) , as well as at least 18 confirmed fatalities . A reported six months after the depression indicated there were 34 people missing , although their status is unknown .
In the aftermath of the disaster , Luis A. Ferré , the Governor of Puerto Rico , declared a state of emergency over the whole island , asking for $ 10 million ( 1970 USD ) in federal aid . On October 12 , two days after the rains subsided , President Richard Nixon declared the territory as a disaster area . Ferre also appeared in a telethon to raise funds for the homeless . The National Guard , the Red Cross , and other volunteer groups helped the displaced persons . In all , the disaster was described as one of the worst in Puerto Rico history . The Governor of the Virgin Islands , Melvin Evans , requested aid similar to Puerto Rico , and that territory was also declared a federal disaster area about a week after the rains ended . The heavy rainfall in the Virgin Islands caused a marked dinoflagellate algal bloom in the days after the rains ended .
= Ealdred ( archbishop of York ) =
Ealdred ( or Aldred ; died 11 September 1069 ) was Abbot of Tavistock , Bishop of Worcester , and Archbishop of York in Anglo @-@ Saxon England . He was related to a number of other ecclesiastics of the period . After becoming a monk at the monastery at Winchester , he was appointed Abbot of Tavistock Abbey in around 1027 . In 1046 he was named to the Bishopric of Worcester . Ealdred , besides his episcopal duties , served Edward the Confessor , the King of England , as a diplomat and as a military leader . He worked to bring one of the king 's relatives , Edward the Exile , back to England from Hungary to secure an heir for the childless king .
In 1058 he undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem , the first bishop from England to do so . As administrator of the Diocese of Hereford , he was involved in fighting against the Welsh , suffering two defeats at the hands of raiders before securing a settlement with Gruffydd ap Llywelyn , a Welsh ruler .
In 1060 , Ealdred was elected to the archbishopric of York , but had difficulty in obtaining papal approval for his appointment , only managing to do so when he promised not to hold the bishoprics of York and Worcester simultaneously . He helped secure the election of Wulfstan as his successor at Worcester . During his archiepiscopate , he built and embellished churches in his diocese , and worked to improve his clergy by holding a synod which published regulations for the priesthood .
Some sources state that following King Edward the Confessor 's death in 1066 , it was Ealdred who crowned Harold Godwinson as King of England . Ealdred supported Harold as king , but when Harold was defeated at the Battle of Hastings , Ealdred backed Edgar the Ætheling and then endorsed King William the Conqueror , the Duke of Normandy and a distant relative of King Edward 's . Ealdred crowned King William on Christmas Day in 1066 . William never quite trusted Ealdred or the other English leaders , and Ealdred had to accompany William back to Normandy in 1067 , but he had returned to York by the time of his death in 1069 . Ealdred supported the churches and monasteries in his diocese with gifts and building projects .
= = Early life = =
Ealdred was probably born in the west of England , and could be related to Lyfing , his predecessor as bishop of Worcester . His family , from Devonshire , may have been well @-@ to @-@ do . Another relative was Wilstan or Wulfstan , who under Ealdred 's influence became Abbot of Gloucester . Ealdred was a monk in the cathedral chapter at Winchester Cathedral before becoming abbot of Tavistock Abbey about 1027 , an office he held until about 1043 . Even after leaving the abbacy of Tavistock , he continued to hold two properties from the abbey until his death . No contemporary documents relating to Ealdred 's time as abbot have been discovered .
Ealdred was made bishop of Worcester in 1046 , a position he held until his resignation in 1062 . He may have acted as suffragan , or subordinate bishop , to his predecessor Lyfing before formally assuming the bishopric , as from about 1043 Ealdred witnessed as an episcopus , or bishop , and a charter from 1045 or early 1046 names Sihtric as abbot of Tavistock . Lyfing died on 26 March 1046 , and Ealdred became bishop of Worcester shortly after . However , Ealdred did not receive the other two dioceses that Lyfing had held , Crediton and Cornwall ; King Edward the Confessor ( reigned 1043 – 1066 ) granted these to Leofric , who combined the two sees at Crediton in 1050 .
= = Bishop and royal advisor = =
Ealdred was an advisor to King Edward the Confessor , and was often involved in the royal government . He was also a military leader , and in 1046 he led an unsuccessful expedition against the Welsh . This was in retaliation for a raid led by the Welsh rulers Gruffydd ap Rhydderch , Rhys ap Rhydderch , and Gruffydd ap Llywelyn . Ealdred 's expedition was betrayed by some Welsh soldiers who were serving with the English , and Ealdred was defeated .
In 1050 , Ealdred went to Rome " on the king 's errand " , apparently to secure papal approval to move the seat , or centre , of the bishopric of Crediton to Exeter . It may also have been to secure the release of the king from a vow to go on pilgrimage , if sources from after the Norman Conquest of England are to be believed . While in Rome , he attended a papal council , along with his fellow English bishop Herman . That same year , as Ealdred was returning to England he met Sweyn , a son of Godwin , Earl of Wessex , and probably absolved Sweyn for having abducted the abbess of Leominster Abbey in 1046 . Through Ealdred 's intercession , Sweyn was restored to his earldom , which he had lost after abducting the abbess and murdering his cousin Beorn Estrithson . Ealdred helped Sweyn not only because Ealdred was a supporter of Earl Godwin 's family but because Sweyn 's earldom was close to his bishopric . As recently as 1049 Irish raiders had allied with Gruffydd ap Rhydderch of Gwent in raiding along the River Usk . Ealdred unsuccessfully tried to drive off the raiders , but was again routed by the Welsh . This failure underscored Ealdred 's need for a strong earl in the area to protect against raids . Normally , the bishop of Hereford would have led the defence in the absence of an Earl of Hereford , but in 1049 the incumbent , Æthelstan , was blind , so Ealdred took on the role of defender .
= = Diplomatic travels = =
Earl Godwin 's rebellion against the king in 1051 came as a blow to Ealdred , who was a supporter of the earl and his family . Ealdred was present at the royal council at London that banished Godwin 's family . Later in 1051 , when he was sent to intercept Harold Godwinson and his brothers as they fled England after their father 's outlawing , Ealdred " could not , or would not " capture the brothers . The banishment of Ealdred 's patron came shortly after the death of Ælfric Puttoc , the Archbishop of York . York and Worcester had long had close ties , and the two sees had often been held in plurality , or at the same time . Ealdred probably wanted to become Archbishop of York after Ælfric 's death , but his patron 's eclipse led to the king appointing Cynesige , a royal chaplain , instead . In September 1052 , though , Godwin returned from exile and his family was restored to power . By late 1053 Ealdred was once more in royal favour . At some point , he was alleged to have accompanied Swein on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land , but proof is lacking .
In 1054 King Edward sent Ealdred to Germany to obtain Emperor Henry III 's help in returning Edward the Exile , son of Edmund Ironside , to England . Edmund ( reigned 1016 ) was an elder half @-@ brother of King Edward the Confessor , and Edmund 's son Edward was in Hungary with King Andrew I , having left England as an infant after his father 's death and the accession of Cnut as King of England . In this mission Ealdred was somewhat successful and obtained insight into the working of the German church during a stay of a year with Hermann II , the Archbishop of Cologne . He also was impressed with the buildings he saw , and later incorporated some of the German styles into his own constructions . The main objective of the mission , however , was to secure the return of Edward ; but this failed , mainly because Henry III 's relations with the Hungarians were strained , and the emperor was unable or unwilling to help Ealdred . Ealdred was able to discover that Edward was alive , and had a place at the Hungarian court . Although some sources state that Ealdred attended the coronation of Emperor Henry IV , this is not possible , as on the date that Henry was crowned , Ealdred was in England consecrating an abbot .
Ealdred had returned to England by 1055 , and brought with him a copy of the Pontificale Romano @-@ Germanicum , a set of liturgies , with him . An extant copy of this work , currently manuscript Cotton Vitellus E xii , has been identified as a copy owned by Ealdred . It appears likely that the Rule of Chrodegang , a continental set of ordinances for the communal life of secular canons , was introduced into England by Ealdred sometime before 1059 . Probably he brought it back from Germany , possibly in concert with Harold .
After Ealdred 's return to England he took charge of the sees of Hereford and Ramsbury . Ealdred also administered Winchcombe Abbey and Gloucester Abbey . The authors of the Handbook of British Chronology Third Edition say he was named bishop of Hereford in 1056 , holding the see until he resigned it in 1060 , but other sources say that he merely administered the see while it was vacant , or that he was bishop of Hereford from 1055 to 1060 .
Ealdred became involved with the see of Ramsbury after its bishop Herman got into a dispute with King Edward over the movement of the seat of his bishopric to Malmesbury Abbey . Herman wished to move the seat of his see , but Edward refused permission for the move . Ealdred was a close associate of Herman 's , and the historian H. R. Loyn called Herman " something of an alter ego " to Ealdred . According to the medieval chronicler John of Worcester , Ealdred was given the see of Ramsbury to administer while Herman remained outside England . Herman returned in 1058 , and resumed his bishopric . There is no contemporary documentary evidence of Ealdred 's administration of Ramsbury .
= = Welsh affairs , Jerusalem , and Worcester = =
The king again employed Ealdred as a diplomat in 1056 , when he assisted earls Harold and Leofric in negotiations with the Welsh . Edward sent Ealdred after the death in battle of Bishop Leofgar of Hereford , who had attacked Gruffydd ap Llywelyn after encouragement from the king . However , Leofgar lost the battle and his life , and Edward had to sue for peace . Although details of the negotiations are lacking , Gruffydd ap Llywelyn swore loyalty to King Edward , but the oath may not have had any obligations on Gruffydd 's part to Edward . The exact terms of the submission are not known in total , but Gruffydd was not required to assist Edward in war nor attend Edward 's court . Ealdred was rewarded with the administration of the see of Hereford , which he held until 1061 , and was appointed Archbishop of York . The diocese had suffered a serious raid from the Welsh in 1055 , and during his administration , Ealdred continued the rebuilding of the cathedral church as well as securing the cathedral chapter 's rights . Ealdred was granted the administration in order that the area might have someone with experience with the Welsh in charge .
In 1058 Ealdred made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem , the first English bishop to make the journey . He travelled through Hungary , and the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle stated that " he went to Jerusalem in such state as no @-@ one had done before him " . While in Jerusalem he made a gift of a gold chalice to the church of the Holy Sepulchre . It is possible that the reason Ealdred travelled through Hungary was to arrange the travel of Edward the Exile 's family to England . Another possibility is that he wished to search for other possible heirs to King Edward in Hungary . It is not known exactly when Edward the Exile 's family returned to England , whether they returned with Edward in 1057 , or sometime later , so it is only a possibility that they returned with Ealdred in 1058 .
Very little documentary evidence is available from Ealdred 's time as Bishop of Worcester . Only five leases that he signed survive , and all date from 1051 to 1053 . Two further leases exist in Hemming 's Cartulary as copies only . How the diocese of Worcester was administered when Ealdred was abroad is unclear , although it appears that Wulfstan , the prior of the cathedral chapter , performed the religious duties in the diocese . On the financial side , the Evesham Chronicle states that Æthelwig , who became abbot of Evesham Abbey in 1058 , administered Worcester before he became abbot .
= = Archbishop of York = =
Cynesige , the archbishop of York , died on 22 December 1060 , and Ealdred was elected Archbishop of York on Christmas Day , 1060 . Although a bishop was promptly appointed to Hereford , none was named to Worcester , and it appears that Ealdred intended to retain Worcester along with York , which several of his predecessors had done . There were a few reasons for this , one of which was political , as the kings of England preferred to appoint bishops from the south to the northern bishoprics , hoping to counter the northern tendency towards separatism . Another reason was that York was not a wealthy see , and Worcester was . Holding Worcester along with York allowed the archbishop sufficient revenue to support himself .
In 1061 Ealdred travelled to Rome to receive the pallium , the symbol of an archbishop 's authority . Journeying with him was Tostig , another son of Earl Godwin , who was now earl of Northumbria . William of Malmesbury says that Ealdred , by " amusing the simplicity of King Edward and alleging the custom of his predecessors , had acquired , more by bribery than by reason , the archbishopric of York while still holding his former see . " On his arrival in Rome , however , charges of simony , or the buying of ecclesiastical office , and lack of learning were brought against him , and his elevation to York was refused by Pope Nicholas II , who also deposed him from Worcester . The story of Ealdred being deposed comes from the Vita Edwardi , a life of Edward the Confessor , but the Vita Wulfstani , an account of the life of Ealdred 's successor at Worcester , Wulfstan , says that Nicholas refused the pallium until a promise to find a replacement for Worcester was given by Ealdred . Yet another chronicler , John of Worcester , mentions nothing of any trouble in Rome , and when discussing the appointment of Wulfstan , says that Wulfstan was elected freely and unanimously by the clergy and people . John of Worcester also claims that at Wulfstan 's consecration , Stigand , the archbishop of Canterbury extracted a promise from Ealdred that neither he nor his successors would lay claim to any jurisdiction over the diocese of Worcester . Given that John of Worcester wrote his chronicle after the eruption of the Canterbury – York supremacy struggle , the story of Ealdred renouncing any claims to Worcester needs to be considered suspect .
For whatever reason , Ealdred gave up the see of Worcester in 1062 , when papal legates arrived in England to hold a council and make sure that Ealdred relinquished Worcester . This happened at Easter in 1062 . Ealdred was succeeded by Wulfstan , chosen by Ealdred , but John of Worcester relates that Ealdred had a hard time deciding between Wulfstan and Æthelwig . The legates had urged the selection of Wulfstan because of his saintliness . Because the position of Stigand , the archbishop of Canterbury , was irregular , Wulfstan sought and received consecration as a bishop from Ealdred . Normally , Wulfstan would have gone to the archbishop of Canterbury , as the see of Worcester was within Canterbury 's province . Although Ealdred gave up the bishopric , the appointment of Wulfstan was one that allowed Ealdred to continue his considerable influence on the see of Worcester . Ealdred retained a number of estates belonging to Worcester . Even after the Norman Conquest , Ealdred still controlled some events in Worcester , and it was Ealdred , not Wulfstan , who opposed Urse d 'Abetot 's attempt to extend the castle of Worcester into the cathedral after the Norman Conquest .
While archbishop , Ealdred built at Beverley , expanding on the building projects begun by his predecessor Cynesige , as well as repairing and expanding other churches in his diocese . He also built refectories for the canons at York and Southwell . He also was the one bishop that published ecclesiastical legislation during Edward the Confessor 's reign , attempting to discipline and reform the clergy . He held a synod of his clergy shortly before 1066 .
= = After the death of Edward the Confessor = =
John of Worcester , a medieval chronicler , stated that Ealdred crowned King Harold II in 1066 , although the Norman chroniclers mention Stigand as the officiating prelate . Given Ealdred 's known support of Godwin 's family , John of Worcester is probably correct . Stigand 's position as archbishop was canonically suspect , and as earl Harold had not allowed Stigand to consecrate one of the earl 's churches , it is unlikely that Harold would have allowed Stigand to perform the much more important royal coronation . Arguments for Stigand having performed the coronation , however , rely on the fact that no other English source names the ecclesiastic who performed the ceremony ; all Norman sources name Stigand as the presider . In all events , Ealdred and Harold were close , and Ealdred supported Harold 's bid to become king . Ealdred perhaps accompanied Harold when the new king went to York and secured the support of the northern magnates shortly after Harold 's consecration .
According to the medieval chronicler Geoffrey Gaimar , after the Battle of Stamford Bridge Harold entrusted the loot gained from Harold Hardrada to Ealdred . Gaimar asserts that King Harold did this because he had heard of Duke William 's landing in England , and needed to rush south to counter it . After the Battle of Hastings , Ealdred joined the group who tried to elevate Edgar the Ætheling , Edward the Exile 's son , as king , but eventually he submitted to William the Conqueror at Berkhamsted . John of Worcester says that the group supporting Edgar vacillated over what to do while William ravaged the countryside , which led to Ealdred and Edgar 's submission to William .
Ealdred crowned William king on Christmas Day 1066 . An innovation in William 's coronation ceremony was that before the actual crowning , Ealdred asked the assembled crowd , in English , if it was their wish that William be crowned king . The Bishop of Coutances then did the same , but in Norman French . In March 1067 , William took Ealdred with him when William returned to Normandy , along with the other English leaders Earl Edwin of Mercia , Earl Morcar , Edgar the Ætheling , and Archbishop Stigand . Ealdred at Whitsun 1068 performed the coronation of Matilda , William 's wife . The Laudes Regiae , or song commending a ruler , that was performed at Matilda 's coronation may have been composed by Ealdred himself for the occasion . In 1069 , when the northern thegns rebelled against William and attempted to install Edgar the Ætheling as king , Ealdred continued to support William . He was the only northern leader to support William , however . Ealdred was back at York by 1069 ; he died there on 11 September 1069 , and was buried in his episcopal cathedral . He may have taken an active part in trying to calm the rebellions in the north in 1068 and 1069 . The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury records a story that when the new sheriff of Worcester , Urse d 'Abetot , encroached on the cemetery of the cathedral chapter for Worcester Cathedral , Ealdred pronounced a rhyming curse on him , saying " Thou are called Urse . May you have God 's curse . "
= = Legacy = =
After Ealdred 's death , one of the restraints on William 's treatment of the English was removed . Ealdred was one of a few native Englishmen who William appears to have trusted , and his death led to fewer attempts to integrate Englishmen into the administration , although such efforts did not entirely stop . In 1070 , a church council was held at Westminster and a number of bishops were deposed . By 1073 there were only two Englishmen in episcopal sees , and by the time of William 's death in 1089 , there was only one , Wulfstan II of Worcester .
Ealdred did much to restore discipline in the monasteries and churches under his authority , and was liberal with gifts to the churches of his diocese . He built the monastic church of St Peter at Gloucester ( now Gloucester Cathedral , though nothing of his fabric remains ) , then part of his diocese of Worcester . He also repaired a large part of Beverley Minster in the diocese of York , adding a presbytery and an unusually splendid painted ceiling covering " all the upper part of the church from the choir to the tower ... intermingled with gold in various ways , and in a wonderful fashion " . He added a pulpit " in German style " of bronze , gold and silver , surmounted by an arch with a rood cross in the same materials ; these were examples of the lavish decorations added to important churches in the years before the conquest .
Ealdred encouraged Folcard , a monk of Canterbury , to write the Life Saint John of Beverley . This was part of Ealdred 's promotion of the cult of Saint John , who had only been canonised in 1037 . Along with the Pontificale , Ealdred may have brought back from Cologne the first manuscript of the Cambridge Songs to enter England , a collection of Latin Goliardic songs which became famous in the Middle Ages . The historian Michael Lapidge suggests that the Laudes Regiae , which are included in Cotton Vitellius E xii , might have been composed by Ealdred , or a member of his household . Another historian , H. J. Cowdrey , argued that the laudes were composed at Winchester . These praise songs are probably the same performed at Matilda 's coronation , but might have been used at other court ceremonies before Ealdred 's death .
Historians have seen Ealdred as an " old @-@ fashioned prince @-@ bishop " . Others say that he " raised the see of York from its former rustic state " . He was known for his generosity and for his diplomatic and administrative abilities . After the Conquest , Ealdred provided a degree of continuity between the pre- and post @-@ Conquest worlds . One modern historian feels that it was Ealdred who was behind the compilation of the D version of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , and gives a date in the 1050s as its composition . Certainly , Ealdred is one of the leading figures in the work , and it is likely that one of his clerks compiled the version .
= 1976 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season =
The 1976 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season was the team ’ s first in the National Football League . The Buccaneers gained infamy as the first team to play an entire 14 @-@ game season without winning or tying a single game . They did not score until their third game and did not score a touchdown until their fourth . They lost by a touchdown 11 or more times . Colorful , maverick former USC coach John McKay , whose wisecracking remarks occasionally agitated fans and the league , led the team . Lee Roy Selmon , the Buccaneers ’ first Hall of Fame representative , made his rookie debut in an injury @-@ plagued season .
The expansion draft was largely made up of aging veterans , giving the Buccaneers little basis for success . The lack of medical information provided on players in the expansion draft contributed heavily to the team ’ s problems , as they finished the season with 17 players on injured reserve . They were last in the league in points scored , touchdowns , and rushing touchdowns . After a 19 @-@ point 4th @-@ quarter performance brought them within striking distance of a victory in week 8 against the Kansas City Chiefs , they were blown out of every game the rest of the season . Subsequent expansion teams were given a more generous allotment of draft picks and expansion draft opportunities , in part to avoid a repeat of the Buccaneers ’ difficulties .
= = John McKay = =
Owner Hugh Culverhouse , encouraged by recommendations from Vice President of Operations Ron Wolf and Alabama coaching legend Bear Bryant , chose John McKay , winner of four national championships with the USC Trojans , as the first Buccaneer head coach . Aided by a string of great tailbacks , including Heisman Trophy winners O. J. Simpson and Mike Garrett , McKay was credited with popularizing the I formation . Other candidates considered included Hank Stram , Ara Parseghian , and Joe Paterno . McKay was reportedly offered a five @-@ year contract worth $ 750 @,@ 000 , plus cars , insurance , and real estate , and turned down an offer from the Seattle Seahawks and a counter @-@ offer from USC to take the job . Critical of the NFL , he had turned down offers from professional teams in the past . McKay cited NCAA cutbacks in finances and recruiting as motivations for leaving the college ranks , saying simply that it was “ time to try something else ” . McKay ’ s only promise was that he would beat what he called “ Pittsburgh ’ s timetable ” , referencing the fact that it took the Steelers 41 years to win their first championship . Coach McKay would prove to be somewhat correct as Tampa Bay won the NFC 's Central Division in 1979 , the team 's third year of existence , though it would take the team 26 seasons to win its first championship , which occurred in the 2002 season .
= = = McKay quotes = = =
McKay had a natural sense of humor that helped him to cope with the pressures of the long losing streak , and it was not unusual for his press conferences to resemble comedy routines . While this may have helped cope with the on @-@ field frustrations , it also served to mask how difficult the experience was for him , a situation his son Rich compared to “ taking off in a jet airplane and finding out that neither engine works . "
On hearing about kicker Pete Rajecki ’ s nervousness at playing in front of McKay : “ That ’ s unfortunate , as I plan on attending all the games ” .
At a postgame press conference : “ You guys don ’ t know the difference between a football and a bunch of bananas . "
At the following week ’ s press conference , after a member of the media left a case of bananas at his door : “ You guys don ’ t know the difference between a football and a Mercedes @-@ Benz . "
On John Brodie ’ s comment that Steve Spurrier throws one of three passes into the ground : “ That ’ s OK , we ’ ll just get shorter receivers . "
“ We ’ ve determined that we can ’ t win at home and we can ’ t win on the road . What we need is a neutral site . "
“ We didn ’ t block real good , but we made up for it by not tackling . "
When asked how he compared coaching in Tampa to coaching at USC : “ It ’ s a three @-@ hour time difference . "
“ Mr. Culverhouse has been a great owner . He hasn ’ t come to the dressing room yet to give me any suggestions . Well , I need some advice . I called the Baltimore owner , but he was busy ” .
To players planning on staying in Tampa over the offseason : “ Stop by my office tomorrow and pick up some fake noses and mustaches so no one recognizes your sorry asses ” .
“ We ’ ll be back . Maybe not in this century , but we ’ ll be back . "
Additionally , assistant coach Dennis Fryzel , when the team was penalized for having 12 players on the field , asked a referee , “ Which one was it ? " And injured guard Ira Gordon reportedly told McKay , “ Coach , I got the x @-@ ray , but I don ’ t feel any better ” .
= = = McKay ’ s comments on coaching in the NFL = = =
I don ’ t know what this pro football mystique is . I ’ ve gone to the pro camps . They throw the ball , they catch the ball . Many of them are ex @-@ USC players . I ’ m not amazed at what they do . I ’ ve watched the pros play . They run traps , they pitch the ball , they sweep . What else is there ?
- John McKay , in Sports Illustrated
Coach McKay had won four national championships while coaching at USC , and he never hesitated to express his lack of awe at the NFL . He earned enemies in the league with his dismissive comments and nonchalant attitude . The league liked to promote the games as having life @-@ or @-@ death significance , and were undercut by a coach who would make statements such as , “ You draw Xs and Os on a blackboard and that ’ s not so difficult . I can even do it with my left hand ” . Such statements made the Buccaneers ’ road more difficult , as a feeling grew around the league that McKay was a newcomer who needed to be taught a lesson . Linebacker Richard “ Batman ” Wood echoed those sentiments : “ It was a brand @-@ new organization . Who cared about us ? They wanted to devastate us , beat us in the ground . And with coach McKay coming from college , they wanted to maybe even play us a little harder . " Examples given of opponents using McKay ’ s comments as an excuse to run up the score included the reverse that Denver ran late in a 48 – 10 victory , and the timeout that Chuck Fairbanks called at the end of the Patriots game to enable Steve Grogan to break the NFL record of season rushing touchdowns by a quarterback . One sports analyst had predicted that McKay ’ s lucrative contract would encourage opposing coaches to run up the score on the Buccaneers , to be able to demonstrate to their team owners that they were deserving of similar money .
Fed up with the attitude that he had to prove himself in the NFL , McKay once drunkenly needled Don Shula by saying , “ I think pro coaches should have to prove themselves by winning four national championships in the colleges ” . He later admitted to having ruffled some feathers in the NFL , but said , “ it wasn ’ t as if they didn ’ t deserve it ” .
= = Other winless teams = =
Five previous teams finished with a winless and tieless season record , mostly during World War II : the 1934 Cincinnati Reds at 0 – 8 , the 1942 Detroit Lions at 0 – 11 , the 1943 Chicago Cardinals at 0 – 10 , and the 1944 Brooklyn Tigers and Chicago Cardinals / Pittsburgh Steelers at 0 – 10 ( the Cardinals and Steelers merged for the 1944 season and are commonly referred to as Card @-@ Pitt , or , derisively , as the “ carpet ” ) .
The 0 – 14 record was matched by the 1980 New Orleans Saints , who won their penultimate game to end the season 1 – 15 . The 1981 Baltimore Colts then won their opener and closer , but lost every game in between to equal the Buccaneers ’ and Saints ’ 14 @-@ game single @-@ season losing streak . The 1982 Colts were winless in a strike @-@ shortened season , but did get a tie in one game . The 1990 New England Patriots had a 1 – 1 record when several of the players sexually harassed a female reporter . The fallout from the scandal contributed to the team finishing 0 – 14 in its remaining games . Finally , and most recently , the 2013 Houston Texans have managed to match the Buccaneers ' single @-@ season losing streak after starting 2 @-@ 0 .
The Buccaneers ’ record for consecutive games lost in a single season would be surpassed twice ; by the 2001 Carolina Panthers , who lost fifteen consecutive games after winning their opener , and the 2008 Detroit Lions , the only winless team to have done so in a 16 @-@ game schedule . Ten NFL teams since the 1976 Buccaneers have lost 15 or 16 games in a season , but the Buccaneers ’ 26 @-@ game losing streak from 1976 to 1977 still stands as the longest in modern NFL history . The aforementioned Detroit Lions have come the closest to matching the Buccaneers ' losing streak , having lost 19 consecutive games between 2007 until finally winning in week 3 of the 2009 season .
= = Offseason = =
The Buccaneers signed their first @-@ ever free agents in January : former Birmingham Americans and Nebraska guard Tom Alward , Denver Broncos and Notre Dame defensive end Pete Duranko , and Chicago Bears wide receiver Wayne Wheeler . Having not selected a quarterback in the veteran allocation draft , they addressed that need in their first @-@ ever trade , a deal to get local favorite Steve Spurrier from the San Francisco 49ers . The former Heisman Trophy winner was obtained for a second @-@ round draft choice and two of the veteran draftees , Bruce Elia and Willie McGee . An earlier attempt to obtain a quarterback failed when the team sent a future draft pick to the Saints for backup quarterback Larry Cipa , only to waive him when he failed his physical . The Buccaneers also used a third @-@ round pick to obtain defensive back Mike Washington from the Baltimore Colts .
= = = Coaching Staff = = =
Ron Wolf , who had been the Oakland Raiders ’ Director of Player Personnel since 1963 and was credited with much of their success , was hired as Vice President of Operations . Los Angeles Rams general manager Don Klosterman and former Kansas City Chiefs head coach Hank Stram were early candidates for the job ; but Klosterman withdrew , and Stram was interested in a combined coach / general manager position . Wolf was directly responsible for the drafting of 20 of the Raiders ’ 22 starters , and his effectiveness at scouting talent was believed to be a major reason for the Raiders ’ being one of the few teams not to belong to a scouting combine . The Buccaneers quickly developed a Raiders flavor , choosing to hire a scouting staff rather than rely on the computerized scouting reports that almost all other teams were using , and hiring Raiders business manager Ken LaRue to serve in the same capacity . One of Wolf ’ s responsibilities was to assist in the hiring of a head coach . Wolf persuaded Culverhouse that it would be better for any prospect to gain a year of experience and knowledge in his present job , rather than be named at expansion time , when there was little or no advantage to having a coach in place .
Wolf named Tom Bass director of player personnel . Bass had previously served as head of scouting and defensive coordinator for the Cincinnati Bengals , the only team apart from the Buccaneers and Raiders that still maintained a human scouting staff instead of using the computerized services , and the team on whose model the Buccaneers ’ expansion strategy was patterned . Bass was Paul Brown ’ s first coaching hire with the expansion Bengals , and previously had been an assistant under Sid Gillman with the San Diego Chargers , and with Don Coryell at San Diego State . Former McKay assistant and Utah State head coach Phil Krueger was added to the staff , joined shortly thereafter by USC assistants Wayne Fontes and Willie Brown , as defensive backs and receivers coaches , respectively . Dennis Fryzel , the last University of Tampa head coach , was added to handle special teams . Denver Broncos assistant Jerry Frei was hired as offensive line coach , becoming McKay ’ s first assistant hired from the professional ranks , and was followed by former New York Jets defensive coordinator Dick Voris , hired initially as defensive line coach . Abe Gibron , former head coach of the Chicago Bears and college teammate of McKay at Purdue , was brought on board as a defensive assistant . The staff was completed with the addition of Atlanta Falcons assistant and former Oakland Raiders and Buffalo Bills head coach John Rauch as offensive coordinator . Tampa resident Harry Smith , a trainer with experience working with local college athletes such as John Matuszak and Gary Huff , became the team ’ s strength and conditioning coach .
= = = Expansion Draft = = =
The list of available players was released only 72 hours before the draft , and included many medical rejects who did not even report to training camp . McKay initially felt that the draft included a higher @-@ than @-@ expected level of talent , joking that “ they ’ re in their late 30s . I couldn ’ t be happier ” . While the expansion draft did not include many well @-@ known starters , it included several players who had notoriety with previous professional and college teams :
Larry Ball and Doug Swift of the undefeated 1972 Miami Dolphins team . Swift was left unprotected by the Dolphins , and the Buccaneers drafted him , unaware of the previous day ’ s newspaper report that Swift had been accepted into medical school and would be retiring from football .
Joe Blahak , who played for the 1971 Nebraska Cornhuskers National Championship team and caught an interception in their Orange Bowl win over Alabama .
Former USC tailbacks Anthony Davis and Manfred Moore . Davis did not report immediately , as he was still under contract to the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League .
Starting San Diego Chargers guard Ira Gordon .
Howard Fest , a member of the Cincinnati Bengals 1968 expansion team .
Harold Hart , the Oakland Raiders running back who had led the AFC in kick returns the previous season .
Vince Kendrick , the former Florida Gators fullback who had been left unprotected by the Atlanta Falcons due to a knee injury .
Johnny McKay , former USC wide receiver and son of coach McKay . McKay and Anthony Davis also both played with the Southern California Sun of the World Football League before joining the NFL .
Dave Pear , who would become the first Buccaneer selected as an All @-@ Pro .
Pat Toomay , the Buffalo Bills ’ defensive line MVP and former Dallas Cowboy , who he believed was placed on the expansion list as a form of blackballing due to the publication of his novel The Crunch .
Mike Current and Ken Stone , who would go on to have productive careers with the Dolphins and Cardinals , respectively .
Mark Cotney and Dave Reavis , who went on to become key starters for the Buccaneers .
= = = NFL Draft = = =
The 1976 NFL Draft was considered to be the worst draft class in many years , with only eight high @-@ quality prospects , as compared to the normal 27 or 28 . The popularity of the wishbone offense among college teams left the draft devoid of quarterback prospects . A drawing held the previous December gave the Buccaneers the rights to the first overall selection .
= = = = Draft Trades = = = =
As an expansion team , the Buccaneers were given two extra picks in each of the 2nd – 5th rounds . Their second 2nd @-@ round pick was traded to the San Francisco 49ers for quarterback Steve Spurrier . Their first 3rd @-@ round pick was traded to Baltimore for cornerback Mike Washington . Their first 4th @-@ round pick and last 5th @-@ round picks were traded to the Los Angeles Rams for linebacker Jim Peterson . Their 8th @-@ round pick was traded to the New York Jets for linebacker Steve Reese .
= = = = Draft Selections = = = =
With the first selection in the draft , the Buccaneers picked Lee Roy Selmon , considered to be the best defensive tackle in Oklahoma history and described as “ one of the greatest defensive linemen I have ever watched ” by coach McKay . Shortly thereafter , with their second pick of the second round , they took his brother Dewey . The two , who were the two leading tacklers on the 1975 Oklahoma Sooners football team , were the third pair of brothers in NFL history to go to the same team in the same draft . They became the only pair of brothers to play for the same NFL team at the same time until Lyle Blackwood joined his brother Glenn on the Miami Dolphins ’ roster in 1981 . The move prompted brother Lucious Selmon to offer to come out of retirement if Tampa Bay would obtain his NFL rights . The Buccaneers spent their first second @-@ round pick on Florida fullback Jimmy DuBose , and took Colorado offensive tackle Steve Young in the third round . Later @-@ round picks who made the team included defensive back Curtis Jordan , quarterback Parnell Dickinson , and running back George Ragsdale . Carl Roaches , later a Pro Bowl return man for the Houston Oilers , and Tommy West , later the head coach of the University of Memphis , were selected by the Buccaneers but did not make the roster .
= = Preseason = =
The Buccaneers ’ first training camp began on July 6 , at the team ’ s training facility near Tampa International Airport , with a crew from NFL Films on hand to film the proceedings . Chicago Bears quarterback and Tampa native Gary Huff showed up to taunt the receivers . McKay noted that many of the players were out of shape , and expressed surprise at players who he felt were not taking advantage of a big opportunity . Ron Wolf , after seeing the team ’ s players in action , admitted disappointment at his own efforts in assembling the team . Defensive coordinator Abe Gibron , who promised to be honest with each player about his performance and told one that he had a chance of making the team , but that “ You ’ re built like Tarzan , but you run like Jane ” , assessed the defense as having the makings of a great front four . The team ’ s smallest , and perhaps fastest , player was Carl Roaches , who at 5 ' 6 ½ " and 165 pounds , could run the 100 @-@ yard dash in 9 @.@ 5 seconds . The team ’ s strongest player was fitness fanatic Dave Pear , who could bench press 10 repetitions at 400 pounds . McKay was unimpressed with the candidates at backup quarterback , saying of one injured contender , “ his hand is still bad , but his passing is worse ” . Middle linebacker soon proved to be a position for which there were no quality candidates in camp . Running back George Ragsdale impressed the coaches , but broke his wrist in training camp . Essex Johnson , the Cincinnati Bengals ’ all @-@ time leading rusher and one of three remaining original Bengals , was obtained for “ undisclosed considerations ” .
The ( as McKay liked to point out , undefeated ) team made their game debut against the Los Angeles Rams in an exhibition at the Los Angeles Coliseum on July 31 , losing 26 @-@ 3 . McKay called the players ’ performance “ unaggressive , uninspiring , lethargic , and unacceptable ” , and cut 15 players one day prior to the following Tuesday ’ s cutdown date . McKay was pleased with the following week ’ s improved performance against the Green Bay Packers , a 10 – 6 loss in which a late interception of a Parnell Dickinson pass prevented a likely Buccaneer victory . After the Packers referred to them as the “ Tampa Buccaneers ” , the Buccaneers threatened to introduce the “ Green Packers ” at their next meeting . The Buccaneers ’ first victory came in a 17 – 3 preseason win over the favored Atlanta Falcons , in which they scored on runs by Steve Spurrier and Essex Johnson , and a Mirro Roder field goal . Although the win had no official significance , it raised optimism among fans , particularly due to the team ’ s defensive performance . McKay himself was puzzled , unsure whether the win was due to a superior performance by Tampa Bay , or a lack of effort by the Falcons . Their home debut came in a 28 – 21 loss to the Miami Dolphins , in front of a crowd of 71 @,@ 718 , a crowd which Dolphins owner Joe Robbie said proved his longtime prediction that a Bay Area team would be a success .
The late preseason saw a wave of signings of players cut by other teams , particularly the Bengals and Colts . Signees included Isaac Hagins , Danny Reece , Dave Green , and Jack Novak , with Ira Gordon and camp standout Jim Cagle among those waived to make roster space for them . Running back Charlie Davis was also obtained via trade . The moves left the team with nine former Bengals on their roster , a situation they expected , as they knew that Bengals owner Paul Brown had more young talent than he would be able to keep on his team . Linebacker Richard Wood was obtained from the New York Jets for a future draft choice , with injury @-@ plagued running back Harold Hart placed on injured reserve to make roster space for him . Wood was the final roster addition of the preseason , and became the fifth ex @-@ USC player on the roster .
= = Regular season = =
According to coach McKay , the team ’ s progress was set back as they spent the preseason trying to find out which veterans would develop into regulars , but found that the younger players were better . This meant that the team started over from the beginning as the regular season began . The tone for the season seemed to be set as the team got lost in the Houston Astrodome when leaving the locker room to take the field for their opening game . They spent 20 minutes trying to find their way out , and barely made it to the field in time for the opening kickoff . The team started out with solid defensive play , ranking in the top 10 until injuries began to set in . They began to wear out as the Buccaneers ’ offensive ineptitude meant that the defense spent a lot of time on the field , over 100 plays in some games . Receiver Johnny McKay pointed out the tendency of the offense to feel pressured after a three @-@ and @-@ out possession , with the result that they would press even harder the next time , quickly going three @-@ and @-@ out again . Coach McKay said early on that controlling the ball for 40 percent of the game , as they were , was not long enough to win . Placekicker Mirro Roder was cut after missing three field goals in the first two games , in both of which the Buccaneers were shut out , giving their offense the nickname “ Zero Gang ” , which stuck with them through a total of eleven shutouts before their first victory as a franchise .
Roder was not replaced , with punter Dave Green taking over his duties . Rick Jennings spent the shortest amount of time with the club of all players that season ; picked up on waivers from the Raiders on a Tuesday , he was released the same Thursday . New uniforms had to be ordered for the team when it was discovered that the fans could not tell the players apart because the numerals on the white uniforms could not be seen from the stands . Many local Miami Dolphins fans were angered when the NFL upheld the Buccaneers ’ demand that Dolphin games not be broadcast in the Tampa Bay area on days that the Buccaneers play at home . The timing of the decision led to the firing of Director of Administration Curt Mosher after the season .
The team failed to throw a touchdown pass in any of their first five games , three of which were shutout losses . Offensive coordinator John Rauch walked out on the team during the week 5 game against Cincinnati , and gave ' personal differences ' as the reason for his resignation . His duties were taken over by McKay , who pointed to the increased effectiveness of the team ’ s “ simpler ” offense , saying that they were no longer “ trying to do all the things people said you have to do in this league ” . On a strange NFL weekend in which O.J. Simpson was ejected from a game for fighting , the Chicago Bears lost a game due to a referee ’ s inadvertent whistle , and Minnesota Vikings receiver Sammy White fumbled away a touchdown due to starting his celebration before entering the end zone , McKay launched an obscenity @-@ filled tirade against Denver Broncos coach John Ralston after a blowout loss . McKay admitted that his feelings dated back to their college rivalry , when McKay coached at USC and Ralston coached at Stanford University , but pointed to specific plays such as a reverse and a last @-@ minute punt return as evidence that Ralston was trying to run up the score . Third @-@ string running back Manfred Moore caught a lucky break when , waived after the week 13 game against the Pittsburgh Steelers , he was picked up by the Oakland Raiders as an injury replacement for ex @-@ Buccaneer Rick Jennings . He wound up going from an 0 – 13 team to the eventual Super Bowl champion . Players began to meet for postgame parties at Steve Spurrier ’ s house , in order to avoid having to show their faces in public . According to defensive end Pat Toomay , “ By the time we got to the last game of the season , we had so many injuries that we didn ’ t feel we had much of a chance . Everybody was so sick of the season that they showed up packed and ready to get out of town . It looked like a bunch of Okies fleeing the dust bowl . " McKay said that the week 4 game against the Baltimore Colts summed up the season : “ On one play I looked up and one of our guys was getting kicked out of the game , and two more were getting carried off ” .
The team did not score a touchdown until cornerback Danny Reece returned a fumble 44 yards in the fourth game . Running back Louis Carter threw their first touchdown pass in an “ Expansion Bowl ” loss to the Seattle Seahawks in which the two teams combined for 310 yards in penalties . They were outscored 412 – 125 , allowed 6 @.@ 7 yards per play , and allowed an average of 183 rushing yards per game .
Several factors contributed to the Buccaneers ’ record . One was the stinginess of owner Culverhouse , who went so far as to lease the team jet from McCullough ( the chainsaw manufacturer ) Airlines . At times Culverhouse had to pay for fuel with his own credit card , because of McCullough ’ s financial difficulties . The offense was able to move the ball freely at times , but had difficulty getting the ball into the end zone . McKay and Spurrier had a difficult relationship , with Spurrier at times taking public potshots at McKay . Frustrated by the lack of quality receivers , Spurrier criticized McKay for playing his own son Johnny ahead of receivers Spurrier considered more capable . Coach McKay , for his part , questioned ( rightly , according to Spurrier himself ) Spurrier ’ s drive , although he publicly defended Spurrier by terming fans who booed him “ idiots ” . Spurrier was not the only player angered over the younger McKay ’ s retention , and Pat Toomay later alleged that Spurrier would throw passes over the middle to McKay in an
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kPa ) or megapascal ( MPa ) , or in atmospheres ( atm , or ATA ) , particularly gauges not actually used underwater .
= = Cylinder capacity = =
There are two commonly used conventions for describing the capacity of a diving cylinder . One is based on the internal volume of the cylinder . The other is based on nominal volume of gas stored .
= = = Internal volume = = =
The internal volume is commonly quoted in most countries using the metric system . This information is required by ISO 13769 to be stamped on the cylinder shoulder . It can be measured easily by filling the cylinder with fresh water . This has resulted in the term ' water capacity ' , abbreviated as WC which is often marked on the cylinder shoulder . It 's almost always expressed as a volume in litres , but sometimes as mass of the water in kg . Fresh water has a density close to one kilogram per litre so the numerical values will be similar .
= = = = Standard sizes by internal volume = = = =
These are representative examples , for a larger range , the on @-@ line catalogues of the manufacturers such as Faber , Pressed Steel , Luxfer , and Catalina may be consulted . The applications are typical , but not exclusive .
22 litres : Available in steel , 200 and 232bar ,
20 litres : Available in steel , 200 and 232bar ,
18 litres : Available in steel , 200 and 232 bar , used as single or twins for back gas .
16 litres : Available in steel , 200 and 232bar , used as single or twins for back gas .
15 litres : Available in steel , 200 and 232 bar , used as single or twins for back gas
12 @.@ 2 litres : Available in steel 232 , 300 bar and aluminium 232 bar , used as single or twins for back gas
12 litres : Available in steel 200 , 232 , 300 bar , and aluminium 232 bar , used as single or twins for back gas
11 litres : Available in aluminium , 200 , 232 bar used as single , twins for back gas or sidemount
10 @.@ 2 litres : Available in aluminium , 232 bar , used as single or twins for back gas
10 litres : Available in steel , 200 , 232 and 300 bar , used as single or twins for back gas , and for bailout
9 @.@ 4 litres : Available in aluminium , 232 bar , used for back gas or as slings
8 litres : Available in steel , 200 bar , used for Semi @-@ closed rebreathers
7 litres : Available in steel , 200 , 232 and 300 bar , and aluminium 232 bar , back gas as singles and twins , and as bailout cylinders . A popular size for SCBA
6 litres : Available in steel , 200 , 232 , 300 bar , used for back gas as singles and twins , and as bailout cylinders . Also a popular size for SCBA
5 @.@ 5 litres : Available in steel , 200 and 232 bar ,
5 litres : Available in steel , 200 bar , used for rebreathers
4 litres : Available in steel , 200 bar , used for rebreathers and pony cylinders
3 litres : Available in steel , 200 bar , used for rebreathers and pony cylinders
2 litres : Available in steel , 200 bar , used for rebreathers , pony cylinders , and suit inflation
1 @.@ 5 litres : Available in steel , 200 and 232 bar , used for suit inflation
0 @.@ 5 litres : Available in steel and aluminium , 200 bar , used for buoyancy compensator and surface marker buoy inflation
= = = Nominal volume of gas stored = = =
The nominal volume of gas stored is commonly quoted as the cylinder capacity in the USA . It is a measure of the volume of gas that can be released from the full cylinder at atmospheric pressure . Terms used for the capacity include ' free gas volume ' or ' free gas equivalent ' . It depends on the internal volume and the working pressure of a cylinder . If the working pressure is higher , the cylinder will store more gas for the same volume .
The nominal working pressure is not necessarily the same as the actual working pressure used . Some steel cylinders manufactured to US standards are permitted to exceed the nominal working pressure by 10 % and this is indicated by a ' + ' symbol . This extra pressure allowance is dependent on the cylinder passing the appropriate periodical hydrostatic test and is not necessarily valid for US cylinders exported to countries with differing standards . The nominal gas content of these cylinders is based on the 10 % higher pressure .
For example , common Aluminum 80 ( Al80 ) cylinder is an aluminum cylinder which has a nominal ' free gas ' capacity of 80 cubic feet ( 2 @,@ 300 L ) when pressurized to 3 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 210 bar ) . It has an internal volume of 10 @.@ 94 litres ( 0 @.@ 386 cu ft ) .
= = = = Standard sizes by volume of gas stored = = = =
Aluminum C100 ia a large ( 13.l l ) , high pressure ( 3 @,@ 300 pounds per square inch ( 228 bar ) ) cylinder . Heavy at 42 @.@ 0 pounds ( 19 @.@ 1 kg ) .
Aluminum S80 is probably the most ubiquitous cylinder , used by resorts in many parts of the world for back gas , but also popular as a sling cylinder for decompression gas , and as side @-@ mount cylinder in fresh water , as it has nearly neutral buoyancy . These cylinders have an internal volume of approximately 11 litres ( 0 @.@ 39 cu ft ) and working pressure of 3 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 207 bar ) . They are also sometimes used as manifolded twins for back mount , but in this application the diver needs more ballast weights than with most steel cylinders of equivalent capacity .
Aluminium C80 is the high pressure equivalent , with a water capacity of 10 @.@ 3 l and working pressure 3 @,@ 300 pounds per square inch ( 228 bar ) .
Aluminum S40 is a popular cylinder for side @-@ mount and sling mount bailout and decompression gas for moderate depths , as it is small diameter and nearly neutral buoyancy , which makes it relatively unobtrusive for this mounting style . Internal volume is approximately 5 @.@ 8 litres ( 0 @.@ 20 cu ft ) and working pressure 3 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 207 bar ) .
Aluminum S63 ( 9 @.@ 0 l ) 3 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 207 bar ) , and steel HP65 ( 8 @.@ 2 l ) are smaller and lighter than the Al80 , but have a lower capacity , and are suitable for smaller divers or shorter dives .
Steel LP80 2 @,@ 640 pounds per square inch ( 182 bar ) and HP80 ( 10 @.@ 1 l ) at 3 @,@ 442 pounds per square inch ( 237 bar ) are both more compact and lighter than the Aluminium S80 and are both negatively buoyant , which reduces the amount of ballast weight required by the diver .
Steel HP119 ( 14 @.@ 8 l ) , HP120 ( 15 @.@ 3 l ) and HP130 ( 16 @.@ 0 l ) cylinders provide larger amounts of gas for nitrox or technical diving .
= = Applications and configurations of diving cylinders = =
Divers may carry one cylinder or multiples , depending on the requirements of the dive . Where diving takes place in low risk areas , where the diver may safely make a free ascent , or where a buddy is available to provide an alternative air supply in an emergency , recreational divers usually carry only one cylinder . Where diving risks are higher , for example where the visibility is low or when recreational divers do deeper or decompression diving , and particularly when diving under an overhead , divers routinely carry more than one gas source .
Diving cylinders may serve different purposes . One or two cylinders may be used as a primary breathing source which is intended to be breathed from for most of the dive . A smaller cylinder carried in addition to a larger cylinder is called a " pony bottle " . A cylinder to be used purely as an independent safety reserve is called a " bailout bottle " or Emergency Gas Supply ( EGS ) . A pony bottle is commonly used as a bailout bottle , but this would depend on the time required to surface .
Divers doing technical diving often carry different gases , each in a separate cylinder , for each phase of the dive :
" travel gas " is used during the descent and ascent . It is typically air or nitrox with an oxygen content between 21 % and 40 % . Travel gas is needed when the bottom gas is hypoxic and therefore is unsafe to breathe in shallow water .
" bottom gas " is only breathed at depth . It is typically a helium @-@ based gas which is low in oxygen ( below 21 % ) or hypoxic ( below 17 % ) .
" deco gas " is used at the decompression stops and is generally one or more nitrox mixes with a high oxygen content , or pure oxygen , to accelerate decompression .
a " stage " is a cylinder holding reserve , travel or deco gas . They are usually carried " side slung " , clipped on either side of the diver to the harness of the backplate and wing or buoyancy compensator , rather than on the back , and may be left on the distance line to be picked up for use on return ( stage dropped ) . Commonly divers use aluminium stage cylinders , particularly in fresh water , because they are nearly neutrally buoyant in water and can be removed underwater with less effect on the diver 's overall buoyancy .
For safety , divers sometimes carry an additional independent scuba cylinder with its own regulator to mitigate out @-@ of @-@ air emergencies should the primary breathing gas supply fail . For much common recreational diving where a controlled emergency swimming ascent is acceptably safe , this extra equipment is not needed or used . This extra cylinder is known as a bail @-@ out cylinder , and may be carried in several ways , and can be any size that can hold enough gas to get the diver safely back to the surface .
= = = Open @-@ circuit scuba = = =
For open @-@ circuit scuba divers , there are several options for the combined cylinder and regulator system :
Single cylinder consists of a single large cylinder , usually back mounted , with one first @-@ stage regulator , and usually two second @-@ stage regulators . This configuration is simple and cheap but it has only a single breathing gas supply : it has no redundancy in case of failure . If the cylinder or first @-@ stage regulator fails , the diver is totally out of air and faces a life @-@ threatening emergency . Recreational diver training agencies train divers to rely on a buddy to assist them in this situation . The skill of gas sharing is trained on most entry level scuba courses . This equipment configuration , although common with entry @-@ level divers and used for most sport diving , is not recommended by training agencies for any dive where decompression stops are needed , or where there is an overhead environment ( wreck diving , cave diving , or ice diving ) as it provides no functional redundancy .
Single cylinder with dual regulators consists of a single large back mounted cylinder , with two first @-@ stage regulators , each with a second @-@ stage regulator . This system is used for diving where cold water makes the risk of regulator freezing high and functional redundancy is required . It is common in continental Europe , especially Germany . The advantage is that a regulator failure can be solved underwater to bring the dive to a controlled conclusion without buddy breathing or gas sharing . However , it is hard to reach the valves , so there may be some reliance on the dive buddy to help close the valve of the free @-@ flowing regulator quickly .
Main cylinder plus a small independent cylinder : this configuration uses a larger , back mounted main cylinder along with an independent smaller cylinder , often called a " pony " or " bailout cylinder " . The diver has two independent systems , but the total ' breathing system ' is now heavier , and more expensive to buy and maintain .
The pony is typically a 2 to 5 litre cylinder . Its capacity determines the depth of dive and decompression duration for which it provides protection . Ponies may be fixed to the diver 's buoyancy compensator ( BC ) or main cylinder behind the diver 's back , or can be clipped to the harness at the diver 's side or chest or carried as a sling cylinder . Ponies provide an accepted and reliable emergency gas supply but require that the diver is trained to use them .
Another type of small independent air source is a hand @-@ held cylinder filled with about 85 litres ( 3 @.@ 0 cu ft ) of free air with a diving regulator directly attached , such as the Spare Air . This source provides only a few breaths of gas at depth and is most suitable as a shallow water bailout .
Independent twin sets or independent doubles consists of two independent cylinders and two regulators , each with a submersible pressure gauge . This system is heavier , more expensive to buy and maintain and more expensive to fill than a single cylinder set . The diver must swap demand valves during the dive to preserve a sufficient reserve of gas in each cylinder . If this is not done , then if a cylinder should fail the diver may end up having an inadequate reserve . Independent twin sets do not work well with air @-@ integrated computers as they usually only monitor one cylinder . The complexity of switching regulators periodically to ensure both cylinders are evenly used may be offset by the redundancy of two entirely separate breathing gas supplies . The cylinders may be mounted as a twin set on the diver 's back , or alternatively can be carried in a sidemount configuration where penetration of wrecks or caves requires it , and where the cylinder valves are in easy reach .
Plain manifolded twin sets , or manifolded doubles with a single regulator , consist of two back mounted cylinders with their pillar valves connected by a manifold but only one regulator is attached to the manifold . This makes it relatively simple and cheap but means there is no redundant functionality to the breathing system , only a double gas supply . This arrangement was fairly common in the early days of scuba when low pressure cylinders were manifolded to provide a larger air supply than was possible from the available single cylinders . It is still in use for large capacity bailout sets for deep commercial diving .
Isolation manifolded twin sets or manifolded doubles with two regulators , consist of two back mounted cylinders with their pillar valves connected by a manifold , with a valve in the manifold that can be closed to isolate the two pillar valves . In the event of a problem with one cylinder the diver may close the isolator valve to preserve gas in the cylinder which has not failed . The advantages of this configuration include : a larger gas supply than from a single cylinder ; automatic balancing of the gas supply between the two cylinders ; thus , no requirement to constantly change regulators underwater during the dive ; and in most failure situations , the diver may close a valve to a failed regulator or isolate a cylinder and may retain access to all the remaining gas in both the tanks . The disadvantages are that the manifold is another potential point of failure , and there is a danger of losing all gas from both cylinders if the isolation valve cannot be closed when a problem occurs . This configuration of cylinders is often used in technical diving .
Sling cylinders are a configuration of independent cylinders used for technical diving . They are independent cylinders with their own regulators and are carried clipped to the harness at the side of the diver . Their purpose may be to carry either stage , travel , decompression , or bailout gas while the back mounted cylinder ( s ) carry bottom gas . Stage cylinders carry gas to extend bottom time , travel gas is used to reach a depth where bottom gas may be safely used if it is hypoxic at the surface , and decompression gas is gas intended to be used during decompression to accelerate the elimination of inert gases . Bailout gas is an emergency supply intended to be used to surface if the main gas supply is lost .
Side @-@ mount cylinders are cylinders clipped to the harness at the diver 's sides which carry bottom gas when the diver does not carry back mount cylinders . They may be used in conjunction with other side mounted stage , travel and / or decompression cylinders where necessary . Skilled side @-@ mount divers may carry as many as three cylinders on each side . This configuration was developed for access through tight restrictions in caves . Side mounting is primarily used for technical diving , but is also sometimes used for recreational diving , when a single cylinder may be carried , complete with secondary second stage ( octopus ) regulator , in a configuration sometimes referred to as monkey diving .
= = = Rebreathers = = =
Diving cylinders are used in rebreather diving in two roles :
As part of the rebreather itself . The rebreather must have at least one source of fresh gas stored in a cylinder ; many have two and some have more cylinders . Due to the lower gas consumption of rebreathers , these cylinders typically are smaller than those used for equivalent open @-@ circuit dives . Rebreathers may use internal cylinders , or may also be supplied from " off @-@ board " cylinders , which are not directly plumbed into the rebreather , but connected to it by a flexible hose and coupling and usually carried side slung .
oxygen rebreathers have an oxygen cylinder
semi @-@ closed circuit rebreathers have a cylinder which usually contains nitrox or a helium based gas .
closed circuit rebreathers have an oxygen cylinder and a " diluent " cylinder , which contains air , nitrox or a helium based gas .
Rebreather divers also often carry an external bailout system if the internal diluent cylinder is too small for safe use for bailout for the planned dive . The bailout system is one or more independent breathing gas sources for use if the rebreather should fail :
Open @-@ circuit : One or more open circuit scuba sets . The number of open @-@ circuit bailout sets , their capacity and the breathing gases they contain depend on the depth and decompression needs of the dive . So on a deep , technical rebreather dive , the diver will need a bail out " bottom " gas and a bailout " decompression " gas ( es ) . On such a dive , it is usually the capacity and duration of the bailout sets that limits the depth and duration of the dive - not the capacity of the rebreather .
Closed @-@ circuit : A second rebreather containing one or more independent diving cylinders for its gas supply . Using another rebreather as a bail @-@ out is possible but uncommon . Although the long duration of rebreathers seems compelling for bail @-@ out , rebreathers are relatively bulky , complex , vulnerable to damage and require more time to start breathing from , than easy @-@ to @-@ use , instantly available , robust and reliable open @-@ circuit equipment .
= = = Surface supplied diver emergency gas supply = = =
Surface supplied divers are usually required to carry an emergency gas supply sufficient to allow them to return to a place of safety if the main gas supply fails . The usual configuration is a back mounted single cylinder supported by the diver 's safety harness , with first stage regulator connected by a low pressure hose to a bailout block , which may be mounted on the side of the helmet or band @-@ mask or on the harness to supply a lightweight full @-@ face mask . Where the capacity of a single cylinder in insufficient , plain manifolded twins or a rebreather may be used . For closed bell bounce and saturation dives the bailout set must be compact enough to allow the diver to pass through the bottom hatch of the bell . This sets a limit on the size of cylinders that can be used .
= = = Emergency gas supply on diving bells = = =
Diving bells are required to carry an on @-@ board supply of breathing gas for use in emergencies . The cylinders are mounted externally as there is insufficient space inside . They are fully immersed in the water during bell operations , and may be considered diving cylinders .
= = = Other uses of compressed gas cylinders in diving operations = = =
Divers also use gas cylinders above water for storage of oxygen for first aid treatment of diving disorders and as part of storage " banks " for diving air compressor stations , gas blending , surface supplied breathing gas and gas supplies for decompression chambers and saturation systems . Similar cylinders are also used for many purposes not connected to diving . For these applications they are not diving cylinders and may not be subject to the same regulatory requirements as cylinders used underwater .
= = Gas calculations = =
It is necessary to know the approximate length of time that a diver can breathe from a given cylinder so that a safe dive profile can be planned .
There are two parts to this problem : The cylinder and the diver .
= = = The cylinder 's capacity to store gas = = =
Two features of the cylinder determine its gas carrying capacity :
cylinder gas pressure : when filled this normally ranges between 200 and 300 bars ( 2 @,@ 900 and 4 @,@ 400 psi ) , but the actual value should be measured for a real situation , as the cylinder may not be full .
internal volume : this normally ranges between 3 litres and 18 litres for single cylinders .
To calculate the quantity of gas :
Volume of gas at atmospheric pressure
= ( cylinder volume ) x ( cylinder pressure ) / ( atmospheric pressure )
In those parts of the world using the metric system the calculation is relatively simple as atmospheric pressure may be approximated as 1 bar , So a 12 @-@ litre cylinder at 232 bar would hold almost 12 × 232 / 1 =
2 @,@ 784 litres ( 98 @.@ 3 cu ft ) of air at atmospheric pressure ( also known as free air ) .
In the US the capacity of a diving cylinder is specified directly in cubic feet of free air at the nominal working pressure , as the calculation from internal volume and working pressure is relatively tedious in imperial units . For examle , in the US and in many diving resorts in other countries , one might find aluminum cylinders of US manufacture with an internal capacity of 0 @.@ 39 cubic feet ( 11 L ) filled to a working pressure of 3 @,@ 000 psi ( 210 bar ) ; Taking atmospheric pressure as 14 @.@ 7 psi , this gives 0 @.@ 39 × 3000 / 14 @.@ 7 = 80 ft ³ These cylinders are described as " 80 cubic foot cylinders " , ( the common " aluminum 80 " ) .
Up to about 200 bar the ideal gas law remains valid and the relationship between the pressure , size of the cylinder and gas contained in the cylinder is linear ; at higher pressures there is proportionally less gas in the cylinder . A 3 @-@ litre cylinder filled to 300 bar will only carry contain 810 litres ( 29 cu ft ) of atmospheric pressure gas and not the 900 litres expected from the ideal gas law .
= = = Diver gas consumption = = =
There are three main factors to consider :
the rate at which the diver consumes gas , specified as surface air consumption ( SAC ) or respiratory minute volume ( RMV ) of the diver . In normal conditions this will be between 10 and 25 litres per minute ( L / min ) for divers who are not working hard . At times of extreme high work rate , breathing rates can rise to 95 litres per minute . For International Marine Contractors Association ( IMCA ) commercial diving gas planning purposes , a working breathing rate of 40 litres per minute is used , whilst a figure of 50 litres per minute is used for emergencies . RMV is controlled by blood CO2 levels , and is usually independent of oxygen partial pressures , so does not change with depth . The very large range of possible rates of gas consumption results in a significant uncertainty of how long the supply will last , and a conservative approach is required for safety where an immediate access to an alternative breathing gas source is not possible . Scuba divers are expected to monitor the remaining gas pressure sufficiently often that they are aware of how much is still available at all times during a dive .
ambient pressure : the depth of the dive determines this . The ambient pressure at the surface is 1 bar ( 15 psi ) at sea level . For every 10 metres ( 33 ft ) in seawater the diver descends , the pressure increases by 1 bar ( 15 psi ) . As a diver goes deeper , the breathing gas is delivered at a pressure equal to ambient water pressure , and the amount of gas used is proportional to the pressure . Thus , it requires twice as much mass of gas to fill the diver 's lungs at 10 metres ( 33 ft ) as it does at the surface , and three times as much at 20 metres ( 66 ft ) . The mass consumption of breathing gas by the diver is similarly affected .
time at each depth . ( usually approximated as time at each depth range )
To calculate the quantity of gas consumed :
gas consumed
= surface air consumption × time × ambient pressure
Metric examples :
A diver with a RMV of 20 L / min at 30 msw ( 4 bar ) , will consume 20 x 4 x 1 =
80 L / min surface equivalent .
A diver with a RMV of 40 L / min at 50 msw ( 6 bar ) for 10 minutes will consume 40 x 6 x 10
= 2400 litres of free air – the full capacity of a 12 litre 200 bar cylinder .
Imperial examples :
A diver with a SAC of 0 @.@ 5 cfm ( cubic feet per minute ) at 100 fsw ( 4 ata ) will consume 0 @.@ 5 x 4 x 1 =
2 cfm surface equivalent .
A diver with a SAC of 1 cfm at 231 fsw ( 8 ata ) for 10 minutes will consume 1 x 8 x 10 = 80 ft3 of free air – the full capacity of an 80 ft3 cylinder
Keeping this in mind , it is not hard to see why technical divers who do long deep dives require multiple cylinders or rebreathers , and commercial divers normally use surface @-@ supplied diving equipment , and only carry scuba as an emergency gas supply .
= = = Breathing gas endurance = = =
The amount of time that a diver can breathe from a cylinder is also known as air or gas endurance .
Absolute maximum breathing duration ( BT ) for a given depth can be calculated as
BT
= available air / rate of consumption
which , using the ideal gas law , is
BT =
( available cylinder pressure × cylinder volume ) / ( rate of air consumption at surface ) × ( ambient pressure )
This may be written as
( 1 ) BT
= ( PC @-@ PA ) * VC / ( SAC * PA )
with
BT =
Breathing Time
PC
= Cylinder Pressure
VC =
Cylinder internal volume
PA
= Ambient Pressure
SAC =
Surface air consumption
in any consistent system of units .
Ambient pressure ( PA ) is the surrounding water pressure at a given depth and is made up of the sum of the hydrostatic pressure and the air pressure at the surface . It is calculated as
( 2 ) PA
= D * g * ρ + atmospheric pressure
with
D =
depth
g
= Standard gravity
ρ =
water density
in a consistent system of units
For metric units , this formula can be approximated by
( 3 ) PA
= D / 10 + 1
with depth in m and pressure in bar
Ambient pressure is deducted from cylinder pressure , as the quantity of air represented by PA can in practice not be used for breathing by the diver as it required to balance the ambient pressure of the water .
This formula neglects the cracking pressure required to open both first and second stages of the regulator , and pressure drop due to flow restrictions in the regulator , both of which are variable depending on the design and adjustment of the regulator , and flow rate , which depends on the breathing pattern of the diver and the gas in use . These factors are not easily estimated , so the calculated value for breathing duration will be more than the real value .
However , in normal diving usage , a reserve is always factored in . The reserve is a proportion of the cylinder pressure which a diver will not plan to use other than in case of emergency . The reserve may be a quarter or a third of the cylinder pressure or it may be a fixed pressure , common examples are 50 bar and 500 psi . The formula above is then modified to give the usable breathing duration as
( 4 ) BT =
( PC @-@ PR ) * VC / ( SAC * PA )
where PR is the reserve pres
For example , ( using the first formula ( 1 ) for absolute maximum breathing time ) , a diver at a depth of 15 meters in water with an average density of 1020 kg / m ³ ( typical seawater ) , who breathes at a rate of 20 litres per minute , using a dive cylinder of 18 litres pressurized at 200 bars , can breathe for a period of 72 minutes before the cylinder pressure falls so low as to prevent inhalation . In some open circuit scuba systems this can happen quite suddenly , from a normal breath to the next abnormal breath , a breath which may not be fully drawn . ( There is never any difficulty exhaling ) . The suddenness of this effect depends on the design of the regulator and the internal volume of the cylinder . In such circumstances there remains air under pressure in the cylinder , but the diver is unable to breathe it . Some of it can be breathed if the diver ascends , as the ambient pressure is reduced , and even without ascent , in some systems a bit of air from the cylinder is available to inflate buoyancy compensator devices ( BCDs ) even after it no longer has pressure enough to open the demand valve .
Using the same conditions and a reserve of 50 bar , the formula ( 4 ) for usable breathing time is follows :
Ambient pressure
= water pressure + atmospheric pressure =
15 msw / 10 bar per msw + 1
= 2 @.@ 5 bar
Usable pressure =
fill pressure - reserve pressure
= 200 bar - 50 bar =
150 bar
Usable air
= usable pressure * cylinder capacity =
150 bar * 18 litres per bar
= 2700 litres
Rate of consumption =
surface air consumption * ambient pressure
= 20 litres per minute per bar * 2 @.@ 5 bar =
50 litres / min
Usable breathing time
= 2700 litres / 50 litres per min =
54 minutes
This would give a dive time of 54 min at 15 m before reaching the reserve of 50 bar .
= = = Reserves = = =
It is strongly recommended by diver training organisations and codes of practice that a portion of the usable gas of the cylinder be held aside as a safety reserve . The reserve is designed to provide gas for longer than planned decompression stops or to provide time to resolve underwater emergencies .
The size of the reserve depends upon the risks involved during the dive . A deep or decompression dive warrants a greater reserve than a shallow or a no stop dive . In recreational diving for example , it is recommended that the diver plans to surface with a reserve remaining in the cylinder of 500 psi , 50 bar or 25 % of the initial capacity , depending of the teaching of the diver training organisation . This is because recreational divers practicing within " no @-@ decompression " limits can normally make a direct ascent in an emergency . On technical dives where a direct ascent is either impossible ( due to overhead obstructions ) or dangerous ( due to the requirement to make decompression stops ) , divers plan larger margins of safety . The simplest method uses the rule of thirds : one third of the gas supply is planned for the outward journey , one third is for the return journey and one third is a safety reserve .
Some training agencies teach the concept of minimum gas , rock bottom gas management or critical pressures which allows a diver to calculate an acceptable reserve to get two divers to the surface in an emergency from any point in the planned dive profile .
Professional divers may be required by legislation or industry codes of practice to carry sufficient reserve gas to enable them to reach a place of safety , such as the surface , or a diving bell , based on the planned dive profile . This reserve gas is usually required to be carried as an independent emergency gas supply ( EGS ) , also known as a bailout cylinder , set or bottle . This usually also applies to professional divers using surface @-@ supplied diving equipment .
= = = Weight of gas consumed = = =
The density of air at sea level and 15 ° C is approximately 1 @.@ 225 kg / m3 . Most full @-@ sized diving cylinders used for open circuit scuba hold more than 2 kilograms ( 4 @.@ 4 lb ) of air when full , and as the air is used , the buoyancy of the cylinder increases by the weight removed . The decrease in external volume of the cylinder due to reduction of internal pressure is relatively small , and can be ignored for practical purposes .
As an example , a 12 @-@ litre cylinder may be filled to 230 bar before a dive , and be breathed down to 30 bar before surfacing , using 2 @,@ 400 litres or 2 @.@ 4 m3 of free air . The mass of gas used during the dive will depend on the mixture - if air is assumed , it will be approximately 2 @.@ 9 kilograms ( 6 @.@ 4 lb ) .
The loss of the weight of the gas taken from the cylinder makes the cylinder and diver more buoyant . This can be a problem if the diver is unable to remain neutrally buoyant towards the end of the dive because most of the gas has been breathed from the cylinder . The buoyancy change due to gas usage from back mounted cylinders is easily compensated by carrying sufficient diving weights to provide neutral buoyancy with empty cylinders at the end of a dive , and using the buoyancy compensator to neutralise the excess weight until the gas has been used .
The change in buoyancy of diving cylinder during the dive can be more problematic with side @-@ mounted cylinders , and the actual buoyancy at any point during the dive is a consideration with any cylinder that may be separated from the diver for any reason . Cylinders which will be stage @-@ dropped or handed off to another diver should not change the diver 's buoyancy beyond what can be compensated using their buoyancy compensator . Cylinders with approximately neutral buoyancy when full generally require the least compensation when detached .
= = Filling cylinders = =
Legal constraints to filling scuba cylinders will vary by jurisdiction .
In South Africa cylinders may be filled for commercial purposes by a person who is competent in the use of the filling equipment to be used , who knows the relevant sections of the applicable standards and regulations , and has written permission from the owner of the cylinder to fill it . The cylinder must be in test and suitable for the gas to be filled , and the cylinder may not be filled above the developed pressure for the temperature reached when it is filled . An external inspection of the cylinder must be made , and specified details of the cylinder and fill must be recorded . If the fill is of a gas other than air , the analysis of the completed fill must be recorded by the filler and signed by the customer . If the residual pressure in a cylinder presented for filling does not produce a reasonably strong flow of gas from the valve when opened the filler may refuse to fill the cylinder unless an acceptable reason is given for it being empty , as there is no way for the filler to check if it has been contaminated .
Diving cylinders should only be filled with suitably filtered air from diving air compressors or with other breathing gases using gas blending or decanting techniques . In some jurisdictions , suppliers of breathing gases are required by legislation to periodically test the quality of compressed air produced by their equipment and to display the test results for public information . The standards for industrial gas purity and filling equipment and procedures may allow some contaminants at levels unsafe for breathing , and their use in breathing gas mixtures at high pressure could be harmful or fatal .
Special precautions need to be taken with gases other than air :
oxygen in high concentrations is a major cause of fire and rust .
oxygen should be very carefully transferred from one cylinder to another and only ever stored in containers that are cleaned and labeled for oxygen use .
gas mixtures containing proportions of oxygen other than 21 % could be extremely dangerous to divers who are unaware of the proportion of oxygen in them . All cylinders should be labeled with their composition .
cylinders containing a high oxygen content must be cleaned for the use of oxygen and their valves lubricated only with oxygen service grease to reduce the chance of combustion .
Contaminated air at depth can be fatal . Common contaminants are : carbon monoxide - a by @-@ product of combustion , carbon dioxide - a product of metabolism , and oil and lubricants from the compressor .
Keeping the cylinder slightly pressurized at all times during storage and transportation reduces the possibility of inadvertently contaminating the inside of the cylinder with corrosive agents , such as sea water , or toxic material , such as oils , poisonous gases , fungi or bacteria . A normal dive will end with some pressure remaining in the cylinder ; if an emergency ascent has been made due to an out @-@ of @-@ gas incident , the cylinder will normally still contain some pressure and unless the cylinder had been submerged deeper than where the last gas was used it is not possible for water to get in during the dive .
Contamination by water during filling may be due two two causes . Inadequate filtration and drying of the compressed air can introduce small quantities of fresh water condensate , or an emulsion of water and compressor lubricant , and failing to clear the cylinder valve orifice of water which may have dripped from wet dive gear , which can allow contamination by fresh or seawater . Both cause corrosion , but seawater contamination can cause a cylinder to corrode rapidly to the extent
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Restoration of Charles II in 1660 Burton remained a place of dissent and nonconformism with large Presbyterian and Baptist congregations , raising doubts within the Church of England over the town 's loyalty .
= = Legacy = =
The medieval bridge over which the battle was fought was replaced in the Victorian era . A plaque commemorating the battle was erected on the bridge on 2 July 1993 by Sir Thomas Tyldesley 's Regiment of the English Civil War Society ( the umbrella group for English Civil War re @-@ enactors ) . Another monument erected at the site of Tyldesley 's death at the Battle of Wigan Lane by one of his cornets , Alexander Rigby , in 1679 notes his " desperate storming of Burton @-@ Upon @-@ Trent over a bridge of 36 arches [ for which Tyldesley ] received the honour of Knighthood " . In honour of the battle the Burton Bridge Brewery markets an ale known as " Battle Brew " . A local legend states that Oliver Cromwell was present in the area during the battle and tied his horse to a nail at Tatenhill 's St Michael 's and All Angels Church , just 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the bridge . The medieval Burton bridge was the site of an earlier battle in 1322 where Edward II defeated the rebellious Earl of Lancaster .
= Sid Barnes =
Sidney George Barnes ( 5 June 1916 – 16 December 1973 ) was an Australian cricketer and cricket writer , who played 13 Test matches between 1938 and 1948 . Able to open the innings or bat down the order , Barnes was regarded as one of Australia 's finest batsmen in the period immediately following the Second World War . He helped create an enduring record when scoring 234 in the second Test against England at Sydney in December 1946 ; exactly the same score as his captain , Don Bradman , in the process setting a world @-@ record 405 run fifth wicket partnership . Barnes averaged 63 @.@ 05 over 19 innings in a career that , like those of most of his contemporaries , was interrupted by the Second World War .
He made his first @-@ class début at the end of the 1936 – 37 season when selected for New South Wales and was later included in the team for the 1938 Australian tour of England , making his Test début in the final international of the series . On the resumption of Test cricket after the war , he was picked as the opening partner to Arthur Morris . Barnes was a member of The Invincibles , the 1948 Australian team that toured England without losing a single match . Retiring from cricket at the end of that tour , Barnes attempted a comeback to Test cricket in the 1951 – 52 season that was ultimately and controversially unsuccessful .
Barnes had a reputation as an eccentric and was frequently the subject of controversy . This included a celebrated libel case , following his exclusion from the national team in 1951 – 52 for " reasons other than cricket ability " . He was later involved in an incident where , acting as twelfth man , he performed his duties on the ground in a suit and tie ( rather than ' whites ' ) , carrying a bizarre range of superfluous items . Despite this reputation , Barnes was a shrewd businessman who used the opportunities afforded by cricket to supplement his income through trading , journalism and property development . Increasing paranoia brought about by bipolar disorder saw Barnes lose many of the friends he had made through the game , as he sought treatment for his depression . On 16 December 1973 , he was found dead at his home in the Sydney suburb of Collaroy ; he had ingested barbiturates and bromide in a probable suicide .
= = Early years = =
Barnes was born in 1916 in Annandale , an inner suburb of Sydney . However , in his autobiography , he claims to have been born in 1918 or 1919 in Queensland , and his military service record has his date of birth as 5 June 1917 . He was the third child of Alfred Percival Barnes and Hilda May Barnes ( née Jeffery ) , both from farming families near Tamworth in northern New South Wales . After marrying , the couple left Tamworth to take up a lease on a remote sheep station near Hughenden in North Queensland . Before Sid was born , Alfred died from typhoid fever , caused by drinking contaminated water on the family property . After his death , Hilda , widowed and pregnant with her latest child , moved to Sydney with her children and stayed with her sister , where Sid was born . From her husband 's estate , Hilda Barnes mother was able to purchase and renovate real estate in Stanmore and Leichhardt , New South Wales , to let or sell . Later in life , Barnes would recount how , as a child , he used to collect the rents for his mother .
= = = Childhood and club cricket = = =
Barnes attended Stanmore Public School and , although not a scholar , was a keen participant in sporting activities . His introduction to cricket came via his older brother , Horrie ; Horrie was a useful batsman who played in the local Western Suburbs Churches league and paid Sid sixpence to bowl to him after he finished work . Taking an interest in the game , Sid had trials for the school team and was eventually selected in the first XI . An early controversy saw Barnes suspended for three weeks for disputing an umpire 's decision . Successes for both his school team and his local club team , St. Augustine , saw him acquire the nickname The Governor @-@ General — the nickname of Australian Test player , Charlie Macartney , and he was selected for New South Wales Schoolboys to play teams from Victoria and Queensland .
In 1932 – 33 , Barnes joined the Petersham club , and began playing in the third XI . Former Test batsman Tommy Andrews became his mentor at the club and in 1933 – 34 , Barnes made his first @-@ grade cricket début as a batsman / wicket @-@ keeper against Paddington , facing the bowling of Hunter Hendry and Alan McGilvray . He was soon successful , scoring a century against Manly in February . Even as a young and inexperienced cricketer , he showed a " ... brash confidence in his own ability . " When praised for his batting by the great Test bowler Bill O 'Reilly , Barnes responded " Thanks very much , you didn 't bowl too badly yourself " , leaving O 'Reilly speechless .
This success led Barnes to consider cricket as a potential career . However , his mother and stepfather were concerned about the likelihood of cricket providing him with a living . In response , Barnes took a job with a garage in Mosman but after finding that the necessary travel interfered too much with playing cricket , he found alternative employment , demonstrating motorbikes in the city .
= = = First @-@ class cricket = = =
Barnes had come to the attention of the New South Wales selectors by the 1936 – 37 season and was included as twelfth man in the side to play the visiting English side , taking a catch on the boundary to dismiss Stan Worthington . He made his first @-@ class début in the final Sheffield Shield match of the season , against South Australia at the Sydney Cricket Ground . Batting at number five , Barnes scored 31 and 44 , twice being dismissed LBW by the leg spinner Frank Ward . Whilst fielding , Barnes managed to find himself in controversy again , running out Vic Richardson , the opposition captain , after the end of the over was called . The square leg umpire had not heard the call of " Over " and upheld the appeal , much to the disgust of Richardson . The New South Wales captain Stan McCabe , whom Barnes idolised , withdrew the appeal .
Barnes was selected for New South Wales for the opening match of the 1937 – 38 season against Queensland making 68 in a rain @-@ affected match . Against the touring New Zealanders , Barnes fell just short of his maiden first @-@ class century , scoring 97 . He appeared to have reached the landmark when scoring 127 not out against Western Australia , but the New South Wales Cricket Association retrospectively deemed the match to be not of first @-@ class status , angering Barnes . He finally scored his maiden first @-@ class century ( 110 ) against Victoria in the final game of the season , completing his hundred while bleeding profusely after being struck on the jaw by a ball delivered by Ernie McCormick . As a result of his performances over the season ( scoring over 800 runs , averaging 50 @.@ 56 ) , Barnes was selected as the youngest member of the Australian cricket team to tour England in 1938 .
= = Test cricket = =
= = = Pre @-@ war début = = =
Unfortunately for Barnes , he broke his wrist while exercising on the sea voyage to England for the 1938 tour , keeping the injury secret until the tourists had departed Gibraltar , for fear of being sent home . On arrival in England , he therefore did not play an innings until the last day of June , missing exactly half of the 30 first @-@ class matches scheduled for the tour , including the first two Tests , both of which were drawn . His first innings was 42 against Derbyshire and he shared in a fourth wicket stand of 176 with Bill Brown , who made an unbeaten 265 . The third Test was a wash @-@ out and he was not picked for the fourth , which the Australians won , although in his autobiography he claimed that he was considered as a candidate to be wicketkeeper , having deputised for Ben Barnett in that role in tour matches against Warwickshire and Nottinghamshire . In the event , his Test début came in the final Test , played at The Oval . Barnes had to field for 16 hours as England amassed a total of 903 for seven declared , then the highest Test score . Barnes bowled 38 overs in the innings and took the seventh wicket , that of Arthur Wood , for 84 runs . With both Don Bradman and Jack Fingleton injured and unable to bat , Australia struggled – England won by an innings and 579 runs – still the largest winning margin in Test cricket history ; but Barnes played innings of 41 and 33 and , according to Wisden , " well justified his choice " . In all first @-@ class matches on the tour , Barnes scored 720 runs , and reached 90 three times , though without going on to a first @-@ class century . He scored 140 in a two @-@ day match against Durham , which was not considered first @-@ class .
His international career was then put on hold , as all foreign tours were suspended during the Second World War . He continued to play first @-@ class cricket in Australia , before enlisting in the Second Australian Imperial Force in May 1942 . Barnes 's time in the military was short . A man who was proud of his appearance , he had a uniform made to measure when the one issued did not fit . He met champion golfer Norman Von Nida early into his enlistment and the two were assigned to the 1st Armoured Division in Greta . A shortage of tanks and the military regimen led to boredom and Barnes used his hitherto ignored trade background to his advantage , seeking a release to join a tank @-@ making company , which was granted . Von Nida and Barnes remained friends and business partners for many years afterwards .
= = = Post @-@ war series = = =
After scoring 1 @,@ 050 runs ( including six centuries ) at an average of 75 @.@ 00 in the 1940 – 41 season , Barnes played little cricket until 1945 – 46 , when he scored centuries in five successive matches for New South Wales . He was picked for the 1945 – 46 Australian tour of New Zealand and played in the representative match that was later designated as the first Test match between the two countries : he made 54 as Australia won easily . The post @-@ war period also saw a new approach to batting on the part of Barnes . He discarded his aggressive and flamboyant shot @-@ making and re @-@ invented himself as a watchful , more defensive player , which made his scoring more prolific , although less crowd pleasing .
Barnes was made captain of New South Wales for the 1946 – 47 Australian season , though he only managed to play three matches for the state team . One of those was the match against the touring MCC team , and Barnes was approached during the match about becoming an opening batsman for the forthcoming Test series . He wrote in his autobiography : " I had never opened before and was a little dubious . I had , however , struck new balls at different periods of innings and was not afraid of that . " He also liked the idea of batting ahead of Bradman in the batting order : " Much better , I thought , to get in before him than to come later , like flat beer after champagne . "
Barnes was first @-@ choice as an opener with Arthur Morris throughout the Test series , although it was not until the Third Test that they had a first @-@ wicket partnership of any substance . Morris had broken into the team as an opener after an injury sidelined Bill Brown for the entire season .
The First Test at Brisbane was dominated by Australia , a pattern that was to be a feature of the series , although Barnes contributed only 31 to the total of 645 which brought an innings victory . Barnes displayed his liking for slightly aggressive practical jokes in this match : during a break for a particularly ferocious thunderstorm , he " got a huge block of ice out of the tub in which our drinks were kept , staggered to the side of the dressing @-@ room and tossed it on to the roof over the English dressing @-@ room . It caused a noise for a start that brought all the Englishmen running and then it came over the side of the gutter , crashed on to the lawn and slithered down the grass . Those English eyes certainly did stand out . "
Bradman had words with Barnes after this match about his new role as an opener . Barnes later wrote : " He asked me how I liked it . I said it suited me . ' You batted very well in this game , ' he said , ' but not quite as an opener . You were looking for runs all the time . I think what you want to watch as an opener is not getting out ... What is needed from my openers , and is most important , is patience and plenty of it . ' I was completely willing to be guided by anything that Bradman wanted me to do . "
Years later , Barnes wrote about the effect this had on his batting style . " There was one angle about this change of batting position that didn 't appeal to me . I am , by nature , a forcing batsman . I like to take the shine out of a bowler [ sic ] and I love to hear the ball rattling the pickets , or soaring over the fence ... My footwork was quick and I often caused delight by stepping back feet outside the leg stump and square @-@ cutting ... If I were to become an Australian Test opening batsman I would have to conform to standard . I would have to put up the shutters ... And so I came to the Second Test in Sydney ready to drape myself in the gloomy colors of a Test opening batsman . "
It was during the Second Test at Sydney in December 1946 , that Barnes made a lasting impression on the world game . Having opened the innings , he made his top Test score of 234 and helped to set a world @-@ record 405 run fifth wicket partnership with Don Bradman , a record that still stands today . On a rain @-@ affected pitch Arthur Morris was out at 1 / 24 and Ian Johnson came out as a nightwatchman He and Barnes angered the crowd by launching into a series of bad light appeals - up to 12 were counted - before the umpires gave way and play was ended with an hour to spare . This ensured that Australia would not have to play on a sticky wicket and allowed Bradman to rest his leg until play resumed on the Monday . After the series Barnes said on radio ;
We could have played on , but it was a Test match and we just had to win . I realised something drastic had to be done or three wickets might be lost . So I appealed after every second ball . I complained of the people moving about , the light , and , in fact , anything , in an effort to get the appeal upheld . Hammond and Yardley were inspecting the wet pitch . I knew there was a chance of losing valuable wickets so I just kept on appealing until the umpires answered me .
Barnes played carefully on the still suspect pitch the following day and late in the afternoon Bradman , lower in the order than usual due to a leg injury , joined Barnes with the score at 4 / 159 . Over six and a half hours later , Bradman was out for 234 . Barnes was dismissed just four balls later , also for 234 , having batted for over ten hours . In his autobiography , Barnes stated that the coincidence of scores was intended . " Lots of people have asked me whether I deliberately threw my wicket away at 234 . The answer is yes . " He confirmed to an interviewer many years later that " it wouldn 't be right for someone to make more runs than Sir Donald Bradman " . E.W. Swanton wrote that this " could well have been so for he was a man of quixotic mood and temperament " . However the England bowler , Alec Bedser wrote " It was when I was bowling to Sid at Sydney that I first discovered that I could move the ball to leg by use of my wrist and fingers ... I held the ball in the same manner as a leg @-@ break bowler with the fingers across the seam ... and on pitching I was surprised to see the ball go away like a leg @-@ break . It also surprised Sid Barnes " . This would make Barnes the first batsman to be dismissed by Bedser 's " Special Ball " which would claim Bradman for a duck in the Fourth Test at Adelaide .
Barnes injured his hand during fielding practice before the Third Test , and although he went on to play in that game ( scoring 45 and 32 ) , he opted out of batting in a state game – according to his autobiography , this cost him the New South Wales captaincy – and he missed the fourth Test . He returned for the final Test and top @-@ scored with 71 in Australia 's first innings , adding 30 in the second .
Barnes went to England in 1947 . In his autobiography , he claimed that he went as a representative for a wine and spirits company , although after the initial mention of that there is no further word and he appears also to have dealt in commodities that were in short supply because of rationing in England . Once in England , he was approached by Burnley to play as a professional in Lancashire League cricket , which he did for a while before finding it " too much of a drag " and resigning .
Barnes returned to Australia for the 1947 – 48 season , keen to win a place on the 1948 tour to England . He was worried that having played as a professional in the Lancashire League would damage his chance of further Test cricket , but at the same time suggested that he had offers from other Lancashire League teams to fall back on should he not be picked . There was also concern that , with his wife now living in Scotland , he would breach the Australian rule that wives were not allowed to travel with Test cricketers . In fact , lack of form and opportunity were greater threats to Barnes 's continued Test career . Arriving back with several state games having already been played , he failed to make runs for New South Wales and was not picked for the first two Tests against the Indian tourists , Bill Brown taking over as opener with Morris .
The match between Victoria and New South Wales was Barnes 's chance to redeem himself . Wisden reported it thus :
Barnes needed a score to rehabilitate himself in the eyes of the Test Selectors and he spent all Saturday over 131 runs while 20 @,@ 000 impatient spectators barracked loudly . His dismissal on the third day evoked cheers all round the ground .
He followed that century ( 158 in total ) with a similarly plodding 80 not out in the second innings , and was picked for the third Test , with Brown dropped after a series of low scores in the first two Tests . Barnes made only 12 and 15 , jeopardising his place , but what Wisden termed " another of his dour , determined but faultless innings for top score " in the New South Wales game against South Australia ensured a second chance . In the fourth Test at Adelaide he made 112 and put on 236 with Bradman for the second wicket . With 33 in the final match of the series , his place on the 1948 tour was secure , though he had to give assurances about the amount of contact he would have with his wife , still living in Scotland , before he was confirmed .
= = = The Invincibles tour = = =
The 1948 Australia team that toured England has become known as The Invincibles , because they did not lose a single game . Following their performances during the Australian season , Barnes and Morris were favoured as Australia 's first @-@ choice opening pair , while Brown batted out of position in the middle order in the first two Tests .
Before the second Test at Lord 's , Barnes wagered £ 8 at 15 / 1 on himself to score a century . He made a duck in the first innings but ensured success in the second , making 141 .
Barnes and Morris shared century opening partnerships at Lord 's and The Oval , where their 117 run stand dwarfed the 52 all out made by the entire England team . In addition to his century at Lord 's , Barnes made three other scores over 60 in the series .
When fielding , Barnes stationed himself as close to the bat as possible at either forward short @-@ leg or point . The report of the tour in the 1949 edition of Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , stated that Barnes 's fielding was as important a factor as his batting in The Invincibles ' success :
Probably a number of batsmen were sufficiently affected by his close attendance to cause them to lose concentration on the bowler running up , but equally important was the fact that the knowledge of his presence influenced opponents to avoid strokes in that direction . The Barnes demeanour in the field illustrated the general purposefulness of the Australians .
However , he received criticism for this approach and it resulted in him missing the fourth Test at Leeds through injury . In England 's first innings of the third Test , he was hit in the ribs by a full @-@ blooded pull shot from Dick Pollard from the bowling of Ian Johnson , and had to be carried from the pitch by four policemen . The following day , he collapsed while practising in the nets , and when he went in to bat at number six , he collapsed again and had to retire hurt . After this , he was taken to hospital where he spent 10 days before rejoining the tour for the Derbyshire match that followed the fourth Test .
Barnes thus played in four of the five Tests , missing the fourth Test through injury . He scored 329 runs , averaging 82 @.@ 25 . During the first @-@ class tour matches , Barnes 's performance was less spectacular . In all first @-@ class matches on the tour , he amassed 1354 runs , averaging 56 @.@ 41 . Barnes made 176 in 255 minutes against Surrey early in the tour , but , apart from his Test hundred , his only other century came in the final tour match , when the final 50 runs of his 151 against the H. D. G. Leveson @-@ Gower XI at the Scarborough cricket festival came in just 25 minutes .
= = Later playing career = =
An important concern for Barnes , when returning from the United Kingdom to Australia , was to avoid paying customs duties on the enormous amount of goods he acquired through various deals during the tour . This included good quality English cloth , in very short supply in Australia at this time . Hearing a rumour that Customs officials were waiting in Sydney for him , Barnes disembarked at Melbourne and travelled to Sydney by train . The move worked and he sold his stock at a substantial profit , conservatively estimated to be equal to his tour fee .
Barnes played in Bradman 's testimonial match at the MCG in December 1948 , but otherwise made himself unavailable for first @-@ class cricket , preferring to pursue business interests . He wrote a regular column for Sydney 's The Daily Telegraph , prosaically titled " Like It or Lump It " , in which he often criticised the administration of the game and the amounts paid to Australia 's leading cricketers . Barnes was one of a number of cricket writers of the immediate post @-@ war era who adopted a confrontational tabloid style of journalism , in contrast to the more sedate reporting of the 1930s .
= = = Libel case = = =
At the beginning of the 1951 – 52 season , Barnes had a change of heart and returned to the New South Wales team in a bid to play Test cricket again . He approached Aubrey Oxlade , the chairman of Australian cricket 's Board of Control , to ask if there was any impediment to his return to the Australian team . Oxlade told Barnes that he would be judged solely on his batting performances .
During his absence from the Test team , the Australian selectors had been unsuccessful in their attempts to find a reliable partner for Arthur Morris to open the batting . Barnes started the season solidly and , in the last match before the team for the third Test against the West Indies was chosen , he hit 107 against Victoria . The selectors duly picked him for the match , then passed the team list to the Board of Control for ratification . The Board vetoed the inclusion of Barnes and requested the nomination of a replacement player . Unwilling to accept the blame for Barnes 's omission , the selectors deliberately deferred their decision on the replacement . When the team was not announced at the scheduled time , journalists uncovered the story and Barnes became a cause célèbre for many weeks , missing all of the remaining Tests . Speculation abounded as to the nature of his supposed misdeeds . These included jumping the turnstile at a ground when he forgot his player 's pass ; insulting the Royal Family ; theft from team @-@ mates ; drunkenness ; and stealing a car .
The Board of Control had granted themselves the power to exclude a player from the national team " on grounds other than cricket ability " following the poor behaviour of some members of the 1912 team that toured England . They had a secret dossier , compiled during the season , documenting Barnes 's behaviour and they doctored the minutes of the meeting at which they discussed his selection . Publicly , the Board remained silent on their policy and how it related to Barnes . On the field , Barnes responded with an innings of 128 in three hours against Queensland ; off the field , he sought answers from the administrators , but was frustrated by their evasiveness . His form tapered off during the closing stages of the season and he finished with 433 first @-@ class runs at an average of 39 @.@ 36 .
Just as the furore appeared to have died down , in April 1952 Sydney 's Daily Mirror published a letter from a reader , Jacob Raith . Responding to a letter in support of Barnes , Raith sided with the Board and suggested that his character was to blame for the omission . Acting on legal advice , Barnes sued Raith for libel and engaged Sydney 's leading barrister , Jack Shand KC , as counsel .
The case began in Sydney 's District Court on 21 August 1952 . Shand 's examination of the various Board members appearing for the defendant revealed the Board 's maladministration , pettiness and its acceptance of rumour as fact . No firm reason was put forward for the omission of Barnes and a division within the Board was evident when several of its members spoke highly of him . As Barnes began his testimony on the second day of proceedings , Raith 's counsel announced settlement of the case and commented to the court , " ... seldom in the history of libel actions has such a plea failed so completely and utterly " . Barnes was vindicated with a full public apology .
Although the court case portrayed " an awful image of the chaos and bigotry under which Australian cricket was administered " , it did little to alter the Board 's culture . The next major court case involving Australian cricket , the World Series Cricket challenges of 1977 – 78 demonstrated that the Board was still run as a " closed shop " , over 25 years later . In an analysis of the Barnes libel case , Gideon Haigh wrote , " ... far from becoming a watershed in player @-@ administrator relations , it may even have discouraged players contemplating defiance of the Board but lacking the wherewithal to retain a hotshot criminal barrister . "
= = = Twelfth man incident = = =
Resuming for New South Wales in 1952 – 53 , Barnes scored 152 against Victoria in the last match before the beginning of the Test series against South Africa . Nevertheless , the selectors overlooked him for the first Test and in the following state match , against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval , Barnes offered to act as twelfth man to provide an opportunity for a younger player , Ray Flockton . During a drinks break on the second day of the match , he appeared on the ground in a suit and tie , ( rather than ' whites ' ) carrying superfluous items such as cigars , iced towels , a mirror and comb , a radio and a clothes brush . The crowd initially responded well to the joke , but their mood soured when the interval extended beyond its scheduled time and Barnes received criticism for delaying the game . The South Australian team , captained by Australian selector Phil Ridings , officially complained to the New South Wales Cricket Association ( NSWCA ) , which asked Barnes to express regret over the incident . Despite the association 's support for Barnes during his problems of the previous season , he prevaricated . Eventually , the NSWCA forwarded a written apology on his behalf .
Barnes appeared just once more for New South Wales , against South Africa at New Year 1953 , then made himself unavailable for selection , conceding that " his card had been marked " . The Australian team toured England in 1953 and lost the Ashes after holding them for 19 years . Barnes wrote Eyes on the Ashes , a book about the tour that included trenchant criticism of the behaviour of the Australian team , which did not go down well with some of his former team @-@ mates .
= = Style and personality = =
Barnes gripped the bat very low on the handle and bent over so far in his stance that the knuckles of his right hand were level with his knees . He stood with his heels almost together and the toes of his left foot pointing toward extra cover , which left him open @-@ chested when facing the bowler . A noticeable flourish in his backlift enabled him to follow the swinging delivery and play it late if necessary . His first movement was back and across the crease to cover the stumps from the view of the bowler , putting him in position to play the hook , leg glance , sweep and his favourite square cut shot .
Journalist Ray Robinson called Barnes the Artful Dodger of cricket , alluding to both his batting style and his off @-@ field business dealings , and wrote that he , " ... would rather steal a run like a pickpocket than hit an honest four with a straightforward stroke . " Robinson summarised his safety @-@ first approach in going so far back as the bowler delivered :
Though this routine made his play air @-@ tight in one way , it simplified opposing captains ' field @-@ placing to curb his scoring , it left him with a back @-@ foot addict 's liability to go leg @-@ before @-@ wicket or be caught behind on either side , and it allowed his attackers to bowl their most awkward length ... he could have made more runs since the war as a stroke @-@ player , and won popular backing as a candidate for the title of world 's best batsman , instead of the austere distinction of looking the hardest Australian to get out .
David Frith wrote of Bill Brown 's memories of Barnes as a person , and his controversial fielding :
'Bagga ' Barnes was also Bill 's room @-@ mate , and his affection for his late lamented pal , a lovable rogue , was obvious . He recalled the furore over Barnes 's provocative field positioning , extremely close at silly mid @-@ on , and how criticism of his foot being too close to the mown pitch prompted him to plonk his boot a couple of feet into the forbidden territory – and a couple of feet more when the English crowd roared at him .
He was a part @-@ time leg break bowler , taking 57 wickets in first @-@ class cricket at a useful average of 32 @.@ 21 . Barnes 's leg break spun very little , but he had a topspinner which hurried onto the batsman and yielded him many wickets . Barnes was also a substitute wicket @-@ keeper and a versatile fieldsman . During his career , he was noted for his disaffection for cricket administrators and umpires . On the 1948 tour of England , after an Australian appeal was turned down by umpire Alec Skelding , he grabbed a stray dog and presented it to Skelding , stating : " Now all you want is a white stick " . A complex character , Barnes , " ... rarely forgave a slight or forgot a good turn . Stocky , with blue eyes and powerful wrists , he had a passion for physical fitness , and was an enthusiastic big @-@ game fisherman and golfer " .
= = Life outside cricket = =
Barnes married a schoolteacher , Alison Margaret Edward on 11 June 1942 . Alison was the daughter of Kenneth Edward , a Scottish Professor of Theology at the University of Sydney . The couple met at a country dance , when Barnes , on his way back from an exhibition match in Katoomba , was bet the price of the meal that he could not get the young girl to dance with him . Within twelve months the pair were married .
Outside of cricket , Barnes followed his mother into property development ( see above ) and at various times entered into partnerships with Keith Miller and Norman Von Nida . His suspicious nature , which grew as time passed , saw these partnerships and developments end in arguments and recriminations . While Barnes was not a millionaire , he was a successful and organised businessman .
As a writer , Barnes had no claims to literary talent ; his copy was ghost @-@ written , in all likelihood by his friend Jack Tier and later by former rugby league player Peter Peters . His writing was of a provocative tone ; his column in the Daily Express during the 1953 tour was called " The Aussie They Couldn 't Gag " . His forthright opinions certainly cost him friends and hardened the opinions of others about him . At the end of the 1953 tour , he published Eyes on the Ashes , and his autobiography , It Isn 't Cricket . He also wrote The Ashes Ablaze in 1955 , and turned to full @-@ time writing , mostly for Sydney 's The Daily Telegraph . His columns were perceived as being deliberately controversial , and , as time went by , increasingly regarded as carping .
In later life , Barnes suffered from depressive illness . He was diagnosed with bipolar disorder and treated with a combination of medication , mainly diazepam , and electroconvulsive therapy . He spent much of his last years in and out of clinics seeking treatment for his condition . In 1973 , Barnes died at his home in Collaroy , one of Sydney 's northern beach suburbs , from barbiturate and bromide poisoning . Although the medications were certainly self @-@ administered , the coroner could not " determine intent " . He was survived by his wife and three children . He was cremated at Northern Suburbs Crematorium , Sydney .
= = Statistical analysis = =
Only six players with ten or more completed innings have achieved an end of career average in excess of 60 . Barnes 's 63 @.@ 05 in 19 innings ranks him as number three in the history of Test cricket , behind Sir Donald Bradman ( 99 @.@ 94 , 80 innings ) and Stewie Dempster ( 65 @.@ 72 , 15 innings ) .
Barnes 's short career was dominated by his monumental double hundred , but he was a consistent performer , as the chart ( left ) reveals . Age did not seem to diminish his abilities ; in his last eight Test innings , aged 31 – 32 , he passed 50 five times and scored two of his three Test hundreds .
Comparing players from Test cricket is an exercise usually flawed by the different conditions , rules of the day and oppositions faced . However , a useful comparison can be made between Barnes and Bradman because they were contemporaries in the same team . Bradman is generally acknowledged as the greatest batsman of all time , fully a third better ( statistically ) than the next best man in history ( see completed career averages chart , right ) . Barnes and Bradman played together in three series . In those series , Barnes 's averages bear comparison to Bradman 's , particularly in the more combatitive Ashes series :
Another way of viewing a player 's performance without distortion is by using the world rankings , which have been applied retrospectively to assess the careers of past players . However , the ratings employ a measure to " damp down the oscillation of points of new players " . Because Barnes played only 19 Test innings , his performances are weighted to just under 85 % of their full value . Consequently , even in his own day , he is rated as no better than seventh in the world , at his peak .
= = Test match performance = =
= 2006 ACC Championship Game =
The 2006 Dr Pepper ACC Championship Game featured the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets and the Wake Forest Demon Deacons in a regular @-@ season American football game to determine the champion of the Atlantic Coast Conference . Wake Forest defeated Georgia Tech by a 9 – 6 score to win its first ACC football championship since 1970 and its second in school history . The game was held at Jacksonville Municipal Stadium ( now known as EverBank Field ) in Jacksonville , Florida and was the concluding game of the regular season for each team .
Neither team was highly regarded at the beginning of the 2006 season , but each team outperformed expectations to earn the right to play in the conference championship game , which was the second in the conference 's history . Wake Forest , the Atlantic Division representative , earned a 10 – 2 record behind redshirt freshman quarterback Riley Skinner , who won the ACC 's rookie of the year award . Wake defeated tough ACC opponents Florida State and 16th @-@ ranked Boston College to win the Atlantic Division . Georgia Tech , led by junior All @-@ America wide receiver Calvin Johnson , defeated 11th @-@ ranked Virginia Tech and North Carolina en route to winning the Coastal Division and a spot in the championship game .
Low attendance and poor weather marred the contest , which kicked off amid rain and fog . Defense dominated from the beginning , as Georgia Tech took a 3 – 0 lead in the first quarter . Wake Forest evened the score before halftime , however , and the two teams headed into the second half tied at 3 – 3 . After a scoreless third quarter , Georgia Tech took a 6 – 3 lead early in the fourth quarter . After Tech quarterback Reggie Ball threw a critical interception , Wake Forest was able to tie the game , then take a 9 – 6 lead . With time running out , Wake 's defense denied Georgia Tech a game @-@ winning score , and Wake Forest clinched the win .
All the scoring in the game came via five field goals , and Wake Forest 's kicker , Sam Swank , was named the game 's most valuable player . By virtue of its victory , Wake Forest earned its first ACC football championship since 1970 and was awarded a bid to the 2007 Orange Bowl . Georgia Tech 's loss and second @-@ place ACC finish earned it a position in the 2007 Gator Bowl . Following the conclusion of each team 's bowl game , numerous players from both teams were selected in the 2007 NFL Draft .
= = Selection process = =
The ACC Championship Game matches the winner of the Coastal and Atlantic Divisions of the Atlantic Coast Conference . A conference championship game was added in 2005 , as a result of the league 's expansion the previous year , adding former Big East members Miami , Virginia Tech , and Boston College . With the addition of Boston College , the ACC consisted of 12 teams , allowing it to hold a conference championship game under NCAA rules .
Florida State defeated Virginia Tech , 27 – 22 in the first ACC Championship game . Following the 2005 game , the ACC requested that ABC schedule the 2006 contest for the afternoon in order to maximize television ratings . Heading into the 2006 college football season , Florida State and Miami were picked in the annual ACC pre @-@ season media poll as favorites to appear in the 2006 ACC Championship Game . Georgia Tech received the third @-@ most votes on the Coastal Division side of the poll , while Wake Forest was picked to finish last in the Atlantic Division .
= = = Georgia Tech = = =
Georgia Tech 's 2006 season began with a tough game against No. 2 Notre Dame . Though the Yellow Jackets lost 14 @-@ 10 , they took an early 10 @-@ 0 lead over heavily favored Notre Dame until the Fighting Irish scored 14 unanswered points to win the game . Tech bounced back from the narrow loss by winning five straight games , including a 38 @-@ 27 victory in Blacksburg , Virginia against the No. 11 Virginia Tech Hokies , who would later go on to finish second in the division .
Heading into the seventh game of the season , Georgia Tech was 5 @-@ 1 and had an undefeated 3 @-@ 0 record in conference play . At No. 12 Clemson , however , Tech suffered its first conference loss and largest loss of the season , losing 31 @-@ 7 . Tech wide receiver Calvin Johnson failed to record a reception for the first time in his career during the loss . Tech followed the loss by winning its next four games . Following the third win , a 7 @-@ 0 shutout of North Carolina , Tech clinched the Coastal Division championship and a bid to the ACC Championship Game .
After clinching a spot in the championship game , Tech defeated ACC opponent Duke , then prepared for a game against traditional rival Georgia before heading to Jacksonville for the ACC championship . In the game against Georgia , the No. 16 Yellow Jackets were upset by the unranked Bulldogs , who intercepted Tech quarterback Reggie Ball twice and held him to just 42 passing yards in the game . Georgia 's victory marked the sixth consecutive victory in the rivalry and sent Tech into the ACC Championship Game on a down note .
= = = Wake Forest = = =
Wake Forest began the 2006 season on September 2 with a home game against Big East conference opponent Syracuse . Wake defeated Syracuse 20 – 10 , but starting quarterback Benjamin Mauk suffered a season @-@ ending injury when he fractured his arm , dislocated his shoulder , and suffered a torn labrum . Backup quarterback Riley Skinner replaced Mauk in the game , and would serve as Wake 's starting quarterback for the remainder of the season .
The Deacons struggled in their second game , beating ACC rival Duke 14 @-@ 13 by blocking a Duke field goal on the final play of the game . Following the close call against Duke , however , Wake Forest went on to win its next three games . A 34 @-@ 14 win over Football Championship Subdivision Liberty University gave Wake its first 5 @-@ 0 start since 1987 .
In its sixth game of the season , Wake Forest suffered its first loss . Against the No. 15 Clemson Tigers , Wake gave up 24 points in the fourth quarter to give Clemson a 27 @-@ 17 victory . The Demon Deacons recovered quickly from the loss and proceeded to begin another winning streak , this time against ACC opponents . Over the next four weeks , Wake defeated North Carolina State , North Carolina , No. 16 Boston College , and Florida State . The 30 @-@ 0 win over Florida State marked several milestones for the Deacons . The win marked the first time in school history that the Deacons had earned nine wins in a single season . In addition , Wake Forest recorded its first win against Florida State in Tallahassee since 1959 and became the first team to shut out a Bobby Bowden @-@ coached Florida State team in Doak Campbell Stadium . The game continues to be celebrated in Tallahassee , as it marked the end of the Jeff Bowden era .
In its next game , however , the Demon Deacons fell at home to the No. 19 Virginia Tech Hokies , 27 @-@ 6 . The Hokies would later go on to finish second in the Coastal Division and earn a bid to the 2007 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl . Wake Forest recovered from its second loss of the season to earn a 38 @-@ 24 victory against Maryland — its first since 1998 — clinching the Atlantic Division championship and earning a bid to the ACC Championship Game . Wake became the first team in ACC history to go 6 @-@ 0 in ACC road games , and extended the school record for wins in a season to 10 .
= = Pre @-@ game buildup = =
In the weeks leading up to the game , the point most emphasized in media coverage of the game was the fact that Wake Forest had not won an ACC championship in football since 1970 . The point spread for the game was relatively constant , with spread bettors favoring Georgia Tech by a single point .
= = = Offensive matchups = = =
= = = = Georgia Tech = = = =
Georgia Tech wide receiver Calvin Johnson , who was voted the preseason ACC Player of the Year , was expected to do well in the ACC Championship Game . Johnson recorded 59 receptions for 889 yards and 13 touchdowns heading into the championship game . On November 29 , Johnson was named the ACC Player of the Year ( POY ) , fulfilling the expectations set when he earned preseason player of the year honors . On the day after Johnson earned ACC POY honors , he was named to the Rivals.com All @-@ America team , an annual selection of the best players at each position in the United States . Johnson was the first Tech player in over a decade to be selected as an All @-@ American in two consecutive seasons .
Tech quarterback Reggie Ball was not nearly as acclaimed . Despite leading the ACC with 20 touchdown passes and being named an All @-@ ACC honorable mention , there were doubts about Ball 's effectiveness . Since starting at quarterback in his freshman year , Ball went 0 @-@ 4 against Tech rival Georgia , and was excoriated for his inconsistency . After suffering a game @-@ losing fumble against the Bulldogs , commentators questioned how well Ball would recover from the setback before the ACC Championship Game .
Supporting Ball and Johnson were a corps of capable receivers including James Johnson and Greg Smith . James Johnson was Tech 's second @-@ leading receiver behind Calvin Johnson , and recorded over 500 receiving yards heading into the ACC championship . During Tech 's game against Virginia Tech , James caught a 49 @-@ yard touchdown pass for the game 's first points . Smith was Tech 's fifth @-@ leading receiver in 2006 , but had several key plays ( including two touchdown receptions ) in Georgia Tech 's game against the Duke Blue Devils .
On the ground , the Georgia Tech rushing attack was led by Tashard Choice . Choice was the leading rusher in the ACC , averaging over 100 yards per game . Against North Carolina State , Choice recorded 164 rushing yards on 34 carries , earning what was then a single @-@ game career high in rushing yards . In the days before the ACC championship , Choice was named to the second @-@ team All @-@ ACC team , and was considered to be a threat on offense against Wake Forest .
= = = = Wake Forest = = = =
Wake Forest , which had begun the season with Benjamin Mauk as its starting quarterback , ended the season with redshirt freshman Riley Skinner filling the position . Despite having almost no experience starting at quarterback before the season , Skinner was named the ACC 's rookie of the year . Skinner led the ACC in completion percentage , passing efficiency , and interception rate . In addition , Skinner set 10 new single @-@ season passing records at Wake Forest during the 2006 season . In the days before the ACC Championship Game , Skinner was named to the second @-@ team All @-@ ACC team , joining eight other teammates selected to one of the two All @-@ ACC teams .
Two of the other Deacons selected for All @-@ ACC honors were senior tackle Steve Vallos and junior center Steve Justice , both of whom were key components of the Wake Forest offensive line . Vallos had been considered for the Lombardi Award and Outland Trophy and won first @-@ team Associated Press All @-@ America honors after the championship game . Center Steve Justice started all 14 games during Wake Forest 's 2006 season , and participated in 98 percent of the Deacons ' offensive plays .
Wake Forest also boasted one of the nation 's best punters and placekickers , Sam Swank . Swank was one of the team 's nine 2006 All @-@ ACC selections , and performed extremely well during the season . Swank led the Deacons in points scored , and was successful on five of seven kicks from beyond 50 yards during the season . Swank was a finalist for the Ray Guy Award and Lou Groza Award , which go to the nation 's best punter and placekicker , respectively . Following the championship Game , Swank was named to the ESPN and Sports Illustrated first @-@ team All @-@ America teams .
= = = Defensive matchups = = =
= = = = Georgia Tech = = = =
Heading into the game , Georgia Tech had the 11th best rushing defense in FBS football . That defense was led statistically by linebacker Philip Wheeler , considered by many to be one of the nation 's best blitzing linebackers . In the days leading up to the championship game , Wheeler was named to the Rivals.com All @-@ America team . In addition , Wheeler was a second @-@ team All @-@ ACC selection and a two @-@ time ACC Defensive Player of the Week .
On the defensive line , Georgia Tech featured defensive tackle Joe Anoa 'i and defensive end Adamm Oliver . Anoa 'i , a first @-@ team All @-@ ACC selection , headed into the ACC Championship having earned six tackles and 2 @.@ 5 tackles for loss in Tech 's previous game against Georgia . Anoa 'i also forced and recovered a Georgia fumble that eventually led to a Tech field goal . Adamm Oliver was a second @-@ team All @-@ ACC selection who was fourth on the team in total tackles and second on the team in tackles for loss . Oliver created the game @-@ winning play for the Yellow Jackets against Miami when he forced a fumble that set up the game @-@ clinching touchdown . Georgia Tech also had several important defensive backs . Safety Jamal Lewis was a first @-@ team All @-@ ACC selection and the team 's leading tackler . During the Yellow Jackets ' game against Samford University , Lewis returned an interception 97 yards for a touchdown . The return was the fourth @-@ longest in Georgia Tech history and was the longest since a 102 @-@ yard return in 1969 .
= = = = Wake Forest = = = =
The Wake Forest defense was led by All @-@ America honorable mention linebacker Jon Abbate . Abbate , who was a first @-@ team All @-@ ACC selection , was the team 's leading tackler and earned the second @-@ most tackles in the ACC during the season . Safety Josh Gattis was another star on the Wake defense . A first @-@ team All @-@ ACC selection , Gattis was the only player in the ACC to earn 70 tackles and five interceptions . On the defensive line , defensive end Patrick Ghee stood out . An honorable mention All @-@ ACC selection , Ghee ranked fifth on the team in tackles and had three interceptions .
= = Game summary = =
The 2006 ACC Championship Game kicked off at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida on December 2 , 2006 . The game was broadcast on ABC , and earned a 4 @.@ 0 television rating . This figure was down slightly from the previous year 's game , which earned a 5 @.@ 1 rating . Brad Nessler , Bob Griese , Paul Maguire , and Bonnie Bernstein were selected to announce the game .
At kickoff , a light breeze was blowing from the northeast at 5 miles per hour ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) , the air temperature was 59 ° F ( 15 ° C ) , and the weather was foggy with a light rain . Rain had been falling for several hours , turning the field into a muddy mess that would hinder play throughout the game . 6
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task of advancing 75 miles ( 121 km ) along the coast from Jacquinot Bay to Henry Reid Bay . With no roads and only narrow tracks , the going was difficult and in order to improve mobility the battalion used barges to carry out a series of landings as they advanced through Sampun and Lampun , passing around Wide Bay , before reaching Kalai Plantation in mid @-@ February 1945 .
At Kalai the battalion moved into the Kamandran Mission where they received intelligence reports of a force of about 200 Japanese occupying a position at Gogbulo creek . Fighting patrols were sent out , but no contact was made , although evidence of occupation was found indicating that the Japanese were moving back to a defensive position to the north of Mavelo river . Before they could launch an assault , however , the battalion was relieved by the 19th Battalion and on 28 February the 19th crossed the Mavelo . Following this the Japanese withdrew back towards the mountains around the Waitavalo and Tol Plantations , and in early March an attempt was made to force a crossing on the Wulwut river . After initially being turned back by intense Japanese mortar and machine @-@ gun fire , the 19th made a successful second attempt , forcing the Japanese back further towards Mount Sugi and Bacon Hill .
As orders were passed for an attack to be made on this position , the 14th / 32nd was brought up to relieve the 19th . The Japanese position sat atop a 600 @-@ foot ( 180 m ) hill which rose steeply , up to 45 degrees in some places , from the jungle below . In preparation , the 14th / 32nd occupied a number of positions around Bacon Hill and at 9 : 55 am on 16 March 1945 the attack began with two companies , ' B ' and ' D ' , attacking under the cover of an intense artillery barrage provided by elements of the 2 / 14th Field Regiment , with direct fire support being provided by ' A ' and ' C ' Companies from the high ground surrounding the hill . The Japanese defences were well @-@ prepared though , and machine @-@ gun and mortar fire from well @-@ sited positions soon pinned down two platoons from ' B ' Company . In order to regain momentum , a flanking move to the left was undertaken by ' D ' Company , but after two hours they too came under intense machine @-@ gun fire as they attempted to round Mount Sugi and attack the Japanese from the rear , forcing them to dig @-@ in to the north of Bacon Hill . At this point the situation became quite desperate for the attackers , and a number of Australian platoons found themselves embroiled in an intense battle . Finally , late in the day , after having lost 10 men killed and another 13 wounded the attack was called off . The attack was resumed early the following day with two companies attacking from the north and digging @-@ in on the eastern approaches to the hill while two platoons clambered up the steep western slope amidst heavy Japanese mortar and grenade attacks . By nightfall the Australians , who had lost a further six men killed and 17 wounded , were in control of most of the position , although two Japanese positions were still holding out . On 18 March the attack was resumed and finally , by 3 : 00 pm , the last Japanese had been cleared from the hill .
Following the battle , the battalion continued patrolling operations beyond the Waitavalo – Tol area but no further contact was made . On 21 March when they were relieved once more by the 19th Battalion . A week later , on 28 March , the 13th Brigade began to relieve the units of the 6th Brigade , and over the following fortnight the transition took place . On 12 April the battalion returned to Kalai where they received the news that they were being returned to Australian for rest and re @-@ organisation in preparation for further operations . On 7 May 1945 they embarked upon the troopship Duntroon , arriving in Brisbane a week later .
= = = Disbandment = = =
With the war seen to be coming to a close , the Army decided to disband the 6th Brigade and its component units , and as a result , the 14th / 32nd was disbanded on 21 July 1945 , while at Loganlea . During the war the battalion lost 31 men killed or died on active service and a further 46 wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Distinguished Service Order , one Order of the British Empire , one British Empire Medal , two Military Crosses , one Distinguished Conduct Medal , one Military Medal , and seven Mention in Dispatches .
= = Battle honours = =
For their service during the Second World War , the 14th / 32nd Battalion received the following battle honours :
South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 45 and Waitavolo .
= Winter : Five Windows on the Season =
Winter : Five Windows on the Season is a non @-@ fiction book written by Adam Gopnik for the 2011 Massey Lectures . Each of the book 's five chapters had been delivered as a one @-@ hour lecture discussing artistic portrayals of winter : its impact on culture and societies , polar exploration , and winter recreation . Each lecture was held in a different Canadian city : Montreal on October 12 , Halifax on October 14 , Edmonton on October 21 , Vancouver on October 23 , and ending in Toronto on October 26 . The book was published by House of Anansi Press while the lectures were broadcast on CBC Radio One 's Ideas between November 7 – 11 .
While Gopnik was raised in Montreal , by 2011 he worked as a staff writer for The New Yorker magazine in New York City . Gopnik selected ' winter ' as his general topic and spent nearly a year preparing for the lectures .
= = Background = =
Adam Gopnik was selected to deliver the 2011 Massey Lectures , the annual week @-@ long series of lectures on a political , cultural or philosophical topic given in Canada by a noted scholar . Gopnik was chosen by the panel of representatives from Massey College , House of Anansi Press and the CBC , the organizations responsible for coordinating the lectures . This would be the 50th anniversary of the Massey Lectures and coincide with the 75th anniversary of the CBC . Ideas executive producer Bernie Lucht contacted Gopnik by email to inform him of the panel 's decision and to ask if he would accept . At the time Gopnik was living in New York City , working as a staff writer for The New Yorker magazine . He had previously authored several books on different topics , the most successful being Paris to the Moon , a collection of essays published in 2000 . Gopnik read Lucht 's email while waiting for a bus on Madison Avenue . Gopnik later stated that by the end of the 20 @-@ minute bus ride he had already selected a topic and had a good idea of the issues he would address .
Understanding the Massey Lectures were part of the Canadian culture , Gopnik , who was born in Philadelphia but lived in Montreal between the ages of 10 to 25 , wanted a topic that would be relevant to Canadians but also have universal appeal : winter . Winter had appeared as a theme or setting in many of his previous writings , and he especially looked forward to talking about ice hockey . Gopnik spent the next year researching and writing the book , alongside another non @-@ fiction book he was working on at the time : The Table Comes First : Family , France , and the Meaning of Food . This other book was released shortly after Winter , and purposefully contained one identical sentence .
= = Content = =
There are five chapters , each of which consider a different aspect of winter . The first chapter , " Romantic Winter " , describes how winter has been portrayed since the 1700s from the point of view of artists and writers . According to Gopnik , the view of winter has changed over time , from something that had to be overcome to something romanticized as hearths , glass windows , and coal heating made the cold more tolerable . Other factors , such as nationalism , religion , technology , also changed the social view of winter from being portrayed as " bleak and bitter to sweet and sublime " . The second chapter , " Radical Winter " , recounts the history of polar expeditions , including John Ross , John Franklin , Robert Peary , Robert Falcon Scott , Roald Amundsen , and Ernest Shackleton .
" Recuperative Winter " reviews the cultural and social history of winter festivals and holidays . Gopnik posits that the modern Christmas is a compound holiday merging elements from numerous societies , traditions , and beliefs ; that its moral foundations were established in the 1820 / 30s ; its celebratory and commercialism elements were established in the 1870s . He also argues that stress and anxiety have been part of the holiday since the 1920s . " Recreational Winter " is about winter sports , like ice hockey . The evolution of ice skating is identified from the Dutch bringing the concept to England in the 1600s and the origin of hockey is traced back to a particular neighbourhood in Montreal in the 1800s . He portrays winter sports as being more about preparation and the pleasure of solitude , in contrast with summer sports , which are more about impulse . The final chapter , " Remembering Winter " , discusses three ways that the human experience of winter is changing : through technological and architectural innovations , via global warming , and by memory .
= = Style and themes = =
The chapters are written so that they could be read as lectures . Though several reviewers referred to them as essays , Gopnik made the distinction between an essay , which is written to be read silently , and a lecture , which is meant to be spoken and keeps some of the rhythm of speech . Gopnik purposefully tried " to keep them as conversational as possible [ and so ] they lack the polish of his New Yorker essays " . The lectures ' conversational tone , with both common and arcane references , was meant to appeal to a " middlebrow " audience ; they were designed to be " profound and significant " but not academic . The reviewer in The Observer described the writing as " designed to maintain a constant flame of curiosity in a lecture room shut against the cold " .
The book was called an " elegy for a season " . Encyclopedist James Harley Marsh believes that the central theme was , as Gopnik himself writes , that " winter started as this thing we had to get through ; it has ended as this time to hold on to " . The Edmonton Journal reviewer describes Gopnik 's guiding metaphor for his approach to winter as " ice wine : sweetness made from stress " , that the perceived benefits of winter come directly from the hardships it brings . Ian McGillis in the Montreal Review of Books identifies " two simple ideas that govern and unite the five lectures " : first , that the view from inside can provide a better developed idea of what is outside , and second , that winter continues to defy the human need to consistently name and organize the world .
= = Publication and reception = =
The book was published by House of Anansi Press and released on September 26 , 2011 . The five chapters / lectures were delivered by Gopnik in five locations across Canada : the first chapter was delivered in Montreal on October 12 , the second in Halifax ( Dalhousie Arts Centre ) on October 14 , the third in Edmonton ( University of Alberta ) on October 21 , the fourth in Vancouver ( Chan Centre for the Performing Arts ) on October 23 , and the final chapter in The Royal Conservatory of Music at the University of Toronto on October 26 . Gopnik was in Guelph on October 25 where he recited passages and promoted the book . An excerpt was published in the October 3 edition of Maclean 's magazine .
Reviewers variously described the book as " interesting " , " charming " and " fascinating " and the prose as " eloquent " , " thoughtful " , but sometimes slow . The Publishers Weekly review stated that " Gopnik leavens dense material with humor , and makes unwieldy concepts accessible through modern @-@ day comparisons " . Bill Rambo in the Winnipeg Free Press said that it " reads smoothly and effectively [ and demonstrates ] encyclopedic knowledge and incisive research into a subject " , concluding that the chapter Recreational Winter about sports was the most passionate . Charles Wilkins in The Globe and Mail found Remembering Winter , the chapter about cultural and social memories of winter to be the " most personal and poignant " and entertaining . Helen Gallagher in the New York Journal of Books " highly recommended " the book .
The book was published in the United Kingdom , in November 2012 , by Quercus , a London @-@ based independent publishing house . The review in The Daily Telegraph concluded that " while there are flashes of brilliance here , there 's also a nagging sense that he 's snatching at snowflakes . Time and time again one comes across statements that look , and sound good - these pieces were originally delivered as lectures - but which just don 't stand up to analysis . " The reviewer cited examples , like the illustrations of the theatrics people display when coming in from the cold and the isolated feelings of downhill skiers which the reviewer rebutted with similar examples of the same that occur in temperate climates . Nick Rennison reviewed the book for The Sunday Times , writing that " any writer who can take subjects as diverse as [ these ] .... and find something original and interesting to say about each of them , has to be worth reading . "
= Mother 's Milk =
Mother 's Milk is the fourth studio album by the American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers , released on August 16 , 1989 , on EMI Records . After the death of founding guitarist Hillel Slovak and subsequent departure of drummer Jack Irons , vocalist Anthony Kiedis and bassist Flea regrouped with the addition of guitarist John Frusciante and drummer Chad Smith . Frusciante 's influence altered the band 's sound by placing more emphasis on melody than rhythm , which had dominated the band 's previous material . Returning producer Michael Beinhorn favored heavy metal guitar riffs as well as overdubbing that was perceived by Frusciante as excessive , and as a result Beinhorn and Frusciante constantly fought over the album 's guitar sound .
The record was a greater commercial success than any of the Chili Peppers ' three previous studio albums . Mother 's Milk peaked at number 52 on the Billboard 200 and received widespread recognition for singles " Knock Me Down " and the Stevie Wonder cover " Higher Ground " . The album became their first gold record in early 1990 , and was the first step for the band in achieving international success . Although the record was not met with the same positive critical reception that its predecessor The Uplift Mofo Party Plan ( 1987 ) had garnered , Mother 's Milk , according to Amy Hanson of Allmusic , " turned the tide and transformed the band from underground funk @-@ rocking rappers to mainstream bad boys with seemingly very little effort " . Mother 's Milk would eventually go platinum .
= = Background = =
After Red Hot Chili Peppers received a record deal with EMI in 1983 , the group established themselves as a prominent funk rock band with their 1984 debut album The Red Hot Chili Peppers . Disappointed with the results of the production , vocalist Anthony Kiedis and bassist Flea replaced guitarist Jack Sherman with founding member Hillel Slovak , who had quit his band , What Is This ? , several weeks before . The group 's George Clinton @-@ produced second album , Freaky Styley ( 1985 ) , was Slovak 's first effort with the band . The Uplift Mofo Party Plan , which was released in 1987 , saw original drummer Jack Irons return after he too left . The record , a critical success that peaked at number 148 on the Billboard 200 , is the only Red Hot Chili Peppers album the original members recorded together . Shortly following the ensuing tour , Slovak died of a heroin overdose and left the rest of the group in complete shock ; Irons , citing an inability to cope with the death , quit . Kiedis and Flea , similarly devastated , were determined to persevere despite the loss of two key members . In September 1988 they chose DeWayne " Blackbyrd " McKnight , a friend of Clinton 's and former member of the funk band Parliament , to replace Slovak on guitar ; D. H. Peligro of the punk rock outfit Dead Kennedys replaced Irons . The new lineup made it through three shows before the band felt McKnight didn 't fit and he was fired . McKnight was so angry he threatened to burn Kiedis ' house down . McKnight however was with the band long enough to record " Blues for Meister " , the first Chili Peppers song featuring Flea on lead vocals and only song to feature Peligro as well . The song would appear a few years later on Out in L.A ..
The band wasn 't without a guitarist for very long . In October 1988 , Kiedis and Flea found a replacement for McKnight in teenage guitarist , John Frusciante . Flea had originally directed Frusciante to audition for the band Thelonious Monster . An avid Red Hot Chili Peppers fan , Frusciante was , according to Flea , " a really talented and knowledgeable musician . He [ Frusciante ] knows all the shit I don 't know . I basically know nothing about music theory and he 's studied it to death , inside and out . He 's a very disciplined musician — all he cares about are his guitar and his cigarettes . " Frusciante was also not very familiar with the funk genre : " I wasn 't really a funk player before I joined the band . I learned everything I needed to know about how to sound good with Flea by studying Hillel [ Slovak 's ] playing and I just took it sideways from there . "
With Frusciante in place and Peligro still on drums , the band embarked on a small tour and began writing music for the next album . It wasn 't long though before the band felt they needed to part ways with Peligro as well , who had his own personal drug problems . Peligro , who helped co @-@ write " Stone Cold Bush " , " Taste the Pain " and " Sexy Mexican Maid " for the Mother 's Milk album , was fired in late November 1988 . Kiedis said it was one of the hardest things he had to do because they considered Peligro a good friend .
The band was now once again without a drummer and were forced to hold open auditions . The last to audition , Chad Smith , was a six @-@ foot three @-@ inch tall drummer who , according to Flea , " lit a fire under our asses " . Kiedis later said the audition with Smith left " [ the band ] in a state of frenzied laughter that we couldn 't shake out of for a half an hour " . Smith came from such a different background than his other three bandmates . Kiedis , Flea and Frusciante were more into the punk rock scene while Chad was into classic rock and heavy metal . Smith was officially hired in December 1988 and played a handful of shows with the band to finish out the year .
= = Recording and production = =
Unlike the stop @-@ start sessions for The Uplift Mofo Party Plan , where Kiedis would frequently disappear to seek drugs , pre @-@ production for Mother 's Milk went smoothly . Many of the songs were already written , some even recorded ( " Taste the Pain " was recorded prior to Chad joining and featured Philip " Fish " Fisher on drums ) by the time the band started pre @-@ production in January 1989 . The band recorded basic tracks at Hully Gully studios in Silver Lake ; songs like " Knock Me Down " were formed from jam sessions without any input from returning producer Michael Beinhorn . According to Flea , the Hully Gully sessions bore fruit : " We played hard and fast more than [ at ] any other time in our career , I think . A lot of chops were going down [ ... ] we played constantly , got to know each other , and came up with a record . " Kiedis and Flea recognized that Frusciante 's presence had become a significant influence on the band 's new material as the Hully Gully sessions were proving to be extremely productive ; Flea recalled that " [ Frusciante ] was an immense new element to the sound of our band and a big opening up for us . "
The band entered the Ocean Way Recording studio in Hollywood in February 1989 to record Mother 's Milk . " It was weird when I first joined the band because we recorded the album after I 'd been in the band for just a few months and Chad had actually been in for just two weeks " , Frusciante recalled . " I was still a little bit confused about my position and we were just like four individuals . Music is all about welding people into a unit and with all the touring we 've been doing we 're now like an eight armed cosmic octopus ! " Beinhorn pushed the Chili Peppers to produce the best possible takes for each of the record 's thirteen tracks with the intent of the band obtaining a hit record .
Although there had been stress and conflict during the recording of other Chili Peppers albums , the Mother 's Milk sessions were uncomfortable due to Beinhorn 's incessant desire to create a hit . He recalled that he and the band were at odds : " Suffice to say that I had a very intense personal relationship [ with the band ] and somewhere along the line I fell out with [ them ] . " Beinhorn constantly clashed with Frusciante over guitar effects . According to Kiedis , " [ Beinhorn ] wanted John to have a big , crunching , almost metal @-@ sounding guitar tone whereas before we always had some interesting acid @-@ rock guitar tones as well as a lot of slinky , sexy , funky guitar tones . " Frusciante was frustrated with the producer 's attitude and ultimately resented his playing on the record , feeling it was too " macho " . Kiedis recalled that , in the end , " I couldn 't tolerate his direction any longer . He was trying to squeeze something out of me that I wasn 't feeling , and we got in a fight and I knew that I was done with him . "
In March 1989 , the Chili Peppers embarked on a two @-@ month tour to break @-@ in the new lineup . The " Positive Mental Octopus tour " saw the band play small venues throughout the United States , including several concerts on the East and West Coast . During this period , Frusciante began to assert more energy and his ego " got a little swollen " , according to Flea , " He was running around being rude to girls and getting them pissed off . But that 's to be expected , I mean , shit , you 're 18 years old and you want to get laid really bad and all of a sudden you 're in a band , the girls want to fuck . You 're bound to go crazy . " Another incident , following a performance at the George Mason University in Fairfax , Virginia , caused legal repercussions ; a student accused Kiedis of engaging in sexual misconduct and indecent exposure . The vocalist was subsequently arrested and released on bail pending a trial that was to be set for a later date .
= = Music = =
The band 's style of music developed with the arrival of Frusciante ; producer Michael Beinhorn observed , " It was apparent early on that John was the perfect guitarist for the band — he brought the elements of songwriting and composition to the band which they 'd never truly had prior to his involvement . I believe that John is a pivotal figure in the Chili Peppers , being that he is such a distinctive songwriter . " Frusciante altered the band 's sound by introducing melodies , harmonies and more complex song structures . In contrast to the group 's previous albums , which featured groove and rhythm @-@ based songs , Mother 's Milk contained melodic compositions that reflected the new guitarist 's influence . Most of the record , due to Beinhorn 's presence , is composed of heavy metal guitar riffs and excessive layering .
Mother 's Milk features an array of musical styles in its thirteen tracks . Among the songs that surfaced from the Hully Gully sessions in early 1989 , " Knock Me Down " became one of the most radical shifts in style for the band . The introspective lyrics , which analyze the death of Hillel Slovak and the devastating effect drugs can have on life , were a new approach for Kiedis , who primarily wrote of sexual intercourse and a hedonistic lifestyle . The vocalist did not , however , want the track to be associated with " anti @-@ drug " sentiments , claiming , " [ the song ] is about letting your friends know that you need help and then being willing to accept the help of others when you need it , whether it 's from drugs , or from a number of other personal problems . " According to music journalist Jeff Apter , the song " Knock Me Down " was " clearly the most important track the band had ever laid down ; it proved that these Peppers were more than knuckleheads with socks hanging off their cocks . " Musically , the track integrates the Chili Peppers ' typical punk influences , but asserts heavier emphasis on melody and harmonics that lead into more alternative territory . " Knock Me Down " was originally recorded to be a duet between Kiedis and Frusciante , but the song was remixed before being released as a single ; the new mix accidentally highlighted the guitarist 's voice instead of Kiedis ' .
" Higher Ground " became another song that helped the band achieve international success . Originally written and recorded in 1973 by R & B singer Stevie Wonder , the track was , according to Flea , a perfect cover for the band : " [ ... ] the lyrics are great . Especially as far as the situation that the band has been in , as far as state of mind , for the past few months . That song is really about raising and uplifting yourself spiritually . " The bassist affirmed that the reason the band covered the song was to pay homage to Wonder and the important role he played in popular music . The cover begins with a funk bass @-@ line , followed by multi @-@ layered heavy metal guitar progressions and effects @-@ treated vocals . " Higher Ground " ' s chorus features backing vocals from an array of friends and engineers who worked on the record ; the individuals ' competence in singing was irrelevant to the band because they sought to achieve a sense of unity . Mother 's Milk was composed of a variety of songs that expanded the Chili Peppers ' repertoire . The instrumental " Pretty Little Ditty " was one of the few songs that featured no guitar layering ; Apter notes that the song is " a dreamy , sweetly stoned instrumental featured deft picking and strumming from Frusciante , intertwined with blasts of trumpet from Flea . " The eclectic track was originally intended to be over three minutes long , but was cut to just under 2 minutes before the album 's release . " Taste the Pain " reflects a more meditative and melodic theme , similar to " Knock Me Down " . Frusciante introduces psychedelic guitar progressions in the verse , while the lyrics touch on themes of love and loss . Other tracks such as " Stone Cold Bush " presented topics of prostitution while " Punk Rock Classic " was , in retrospect , an emulation of typical punk rock songs by Black Flag and The Germs — bands that were influential to the Chili Peppers .
= = Artwork = =
Mother 's Milk features a black and white photograph of the band sprawled across the arms of a proportionately larger naked woman . A rose conceals one of her nipples while Kiedis ' standing body conceals the other . There were originally two women whose photographs were planned to be used , one being Kiedis ' girlfriend Ione Skye and the other being model Dawn Alane ; the latter was ultimately chosen . Controversy arose , however , when Dawn claimed the band did not notify her that she was the one chosen to be on the cover of Mother 's Milk . Furthermore , several national chains refused to sell the record because they believed the female subject displayed too much nudity . A more strictly censored version was manufactured for some retailers that featured the band members in far larger proportion than the original . The cover of the record was influenced by a promotional poster Kiedis had from the 1960s of Sly and the Family Stone , in which frontman Sly Stone held a miniaturized band in his palm . When Kiedis was finding shots of the band to use on the cover , Frusciante initially refused every photograph the vocalist showed him but settled on one of him sitting down laughing . Mother 's Milk was affixed with an " explicit language " warning sticker that , according to Kiedis , " [ D ] oesn 't bother me . Our lyrics are very explicit , whether it 's about sex or friendship or love for life in general . " The cover booklet of the record features a painting by Hillel Slovak . Following the album 's release , a limited number of promotional posters were issued with the model 's breasts exposed . Dawn had no knowledge of the pressing and sued the band , winning a $ 50 @,@ 000 settlement .
The singles for Mother 's Milk followed a similar artistic theme . The cover of " Knock Me Down " featured the band shirtless , in front of a photograph of an elephant in an African setting . " Higher Ground " was similar in that all four members — photographs of which were taken from the music video — were printed in front of a large image of Kiedis ' face . " Taste the Pain " featured the band together with a red and yellow background with the Chili Peppers ' asterisk adjacent to the typeface .
= = Promotion and release = =
A promotional 12 " titled For the Thrashers , which contained four songs from the album , was released to radio stations to promote the then forthcoming album in the weeks leading up to its release . Director Drew Carolan shot a promotional video for " Good Time Boys " which was released on the 1989 Hard ' n Heavy Vol . 2 collection . The video , which has never been released elsewhere by the band or even acknowledged as an official video , featured the band performing the song with cut away scenes of the band being interviewed discussing the album and their sound . Carolan was also hired to film the music videos for album 's first two singles , " Higher Ground " and " Knock Me Down " before the release of Mother 's Milk . The initial premise for " Higher Ground " was to have the song 's original writer , Stevie Wonder , sit in the lotus position as the Chili Peppers dance around him ; however , Wonder declined to be in the video . Kiedis gave full creative license to Carolan on the condition that he " make us [ the band ] look like the Gods of Funk . " While the video for " Higher Ground " was intended to be upbeat and exuberant , " Knock Me Down " was filmed to be more poignant ; Carolan recalls , " It was a very special track for the band and it needed to be treated with the utmost care and respect . Anthony and Flea just wanted it to be real soulful with a sense of urgency . " The videos took a day each to complete and were filmed with relatively small budgets , but the outcome , as Jeff Apter notes , " [ B ] ecame key elements of [ the album 's ] success . " " Knock Me Down " is notable for featuring an appearance by actor Alex Winter , who would co @-@ direct the video for the band 's third single , " Taste the Pain " . MTV introduced the band 's videos into their daily rotation , highlighting the band as up @-@ and @-@ coming and " one to watch " .
= = Critical reception = =
Although more commercially successful than the band 's previous albums , Mother 's Milk received mixed reviews from critics who were unimpressed with the excessive distortion found throughout the record . However , it was praised as well ; Amy Hanson of AllMusic called it " a pivotal album for the Red Hot Chili Peppers , " and believed that " if anyone doubted the pulsating power that leapt from the blistering opener , ' Good Time Boys ' , it took only a few bars of the Red Hot Chili Peppers ' outrageous , and brilliant , interpretation of the Stevie Wonder classic ' Higher Ground ' to prove that this new lineup was onto something special . Wrapping up with the aptly titled and truly punked @-@ out ' Punk Rock Classic ' and the band 's own punched @-@ up tribute to ' Magic Johnson ' , Mother 's Milk was everything the band had hoped for , and a little more besides . " Steve Morse of The Boston Globe called it a " high @-@ octane fusion of metal , funk and rap — sort of Prince meets Jimi Hendrix in the Twilight Zone , " while noting that " Knock Me Down " combined " electrifying musicianship " . The Toronto Star commented that the Red Hot Chili Peppers were " the Mothers of Invention for the 1990s . " In 2005 , Mother 's Milk was ranked number 359 in Rock Hard magazine 's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time .
While Carly Darlin of The Orange County Register found the record to be " an energetic and fun restatement of the RHCP whiplash funk attitude " , she believed that " with the exception of the dreamy instrumental ' Pretty Little Ditty ' , it doesn 't break any new ground . " She continued by saying that , if anything " Mother 's Milk is a slight step away from the party @-@ funk grooves of the last two albums and a return to the band 's punk @-@ rock roots . They even reprise the cover of Jimi Hendrix 's ' Fire ' , which they did as a B @-@ side for their ' Fight Like A Brave ' 12 @-@ inch two years ago . " Furthermore , Mark Jenkins of The Washington Post said " the polite term for albums like ' Milk ' is ' eclectic ' , but it really sounds as if the band is unraveling [ ... ] Considering the circumstances , it 's not especially surprising that the album seems to be looking for someone to give it directions . " However , Jenkins did believe Frusciante possessed " solid metal chops and means to show them off . " Music critic Robert Christgau , who gave the record a rating of C + , mocked the band 's ability to promote empathy and found the guitar layering in Mother 's Milk to have been done improperly : " punks who loved Hendrix and P @-@ Funk way way back , they 're finally cashing in on their good taste , and though unbelievers dis their sincerity , execution 's the problem . They didn 't have the chops to bring it off then , and by pushing the guitar up front they sound even cruder now . But they 're perfectly nice fellas , really — mention ' compassion ' in the very first verse . " The Rolling Stone Album Guide gave the album three stars out of five .
= = Commercial reception = =
Released on August 16 , 1989 , Mother 's Milk peaked at number 52 on the U.S. Billboard 200 The record failed to chart in the United Kingdom and Europe , but climbed to number 33 in Australia . " Knock Me Down " reached number six on the U.S. Modern Rock Tracks whereas " Higher Ground " charted at number eleven ; the latter of the two ultimately proved to be more successful , however , by influencing foreign charts at number fifty @-@ four in the UK and forty @-@ five in Australia and France . While " Taste the Pain " did not chart in the U.S. , the single reached number twenty @-@ six in the UK — the group 's first Top 40 single in the region . The success the Red Hot Chili Peppers achieved with Mother 's Milk was something the group had been working towards since the release of their debut album ; Apter notes , " After five hard years , several departures , sackings and one tragic death , the Peppers were now much more than a hometown sensation . " The band had played numerous concerts before the album 's release and aired new songs weekly to generate interest in it . Mother 's Milk was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in late March 1990 — it is now certified platinum — and was the first Chili Peppers album to ship in excess of 500 @,@ 000 units . In 2003 the album was re @-@ released through EMI ; all tracks were completely remastered and an additional six songs were included as well as hand written liner notes from Flea .
= = Mother 's Milk tour and aftermath = =
Mother 's Milk instantly garnered more attention than the band 's previous records and , as such , the venues the band performed in were able to accommodate far larger crowds . For the first time the band also upgraded to a full @-@ fledged tour bus and added backup musicians and singers . Longtime friend , Keith " Tree " Barry was added to play horns and backup singers Kristen Vigard and Vicki Calhoun ( who appeared in the video for " Knock Me Down " ) also joined the tour . When the band hit England , roadie Robbie Allen ( nicknamed Rob Rule ) would open for the band providing a comedy performance in which he would pretend to cut off his own penis . Allen would later become one of the band 's backup singers on the One Hot Minute tour . The album 's official launch , however , was held in New York City at a club called Tramps ; following this , Red Hot Chili Peppers embarked on an introductory European tour which included a free show in Amsterdam 's Dam Square that attracted over 10 @,@ 000 attendees . On September 8 , 1989 the band commenced their North American leg in Seattle . The leg saw an overwhelmingly positive response from critics across the country ; following a concert in Portland , journalist John Foyston of The Oregonian noted the " Hollywood @-@ based quartet fomented an audience reaction that had to be seen to be believed . The stage @-@ divers started rushing the stage from the moment the band walked on . Once on stage , it was an issue of luck and chutzpah . " Todd Caudle of the Colorado Springs newspaper The Gazette said the Chili Peppers ' performance at the Colorado Indoor Sports Complex was " the kind of place where kids could be kids , and no one cared if soft drinks stuck to the floor and the rafters shook with a stunning barrage of decibels . People in the audience , steeped in sweat and pressing against the barricade in front of the stage , threw their arms up in unison and barked out approval of one fast , furiously @-@ played song after another . "
By the end of the leg , the band members were having trouble adjusting to their newfound fame as virtually every concert on the tour was sold out and Mother 's Milk approached 500 @,@ 000 units sold . Spin reported that following a show in Atlanta , Flea invited a woman to his hotel room for sexual intercourse , but locked himself in the bathroom upon arriving because all he could think of were his wife and daughter . Kiedis ended a two @-@ year long relationship with actress Ione Skye , and Frusciante , looking back on the tour years later , admitted , " I was totally abusing the situation [ ... ] partying and screwing a bunch of girls . At 19 , I might have looked like a stud but I was a weakling inside . I wasn '
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1930 , journalist Henry C. Segal bought the paper and became its editor and publisher for more than five decades , until his death in 1985 . Along with Isaac Wise , Segal is still named on the paper 's masthead .
Contributors to the newspaper in the late 1980s and early 1990s included writer Don Canaan . His four @-@ part series published in 1988 , " Jews in Ohio 's Prisons : Does Anyone Care ? " , won the award for best weekly journalism from the Ohio State Bar Association .
By the 1990s , the paper was focusing on local Jewish news . In 1995 , The American Israelite was sued for $ 2 million by an Ohio lawyer for calling him and his son anti @-@ Semitic .
By 2010 , Ted Deutsch was the editor and publisher . A typical issue ran 24 pages , with color front and back pages and black @-@ and @-@ white inside . Some stories were locally written , while many others were run from the Jewish Telegraphic Agency . It published full facsimile copies of its issues on its website .
= Underbelly ( series 1 ) =
Underbelly , the first series of Australian crime television drama series Underbelly . The thirteen @-@ part series originally aired from 13 February 2008 to 7 May 2008 on the Nine Network and is loosely based on the real events of the 1995 – 2004 gangland war in Melbourne . It depicts the key players in Melbourne 's criminal underworld , including the Carlton Crew and their rival , Carl Williams . The series is based on the book Leadbelly : Inside Australia 's Underworld , by journalists John Silvester and Andrew Rule , and borrows its name from the successful Underbelly true crime anthology book series also authored by Silvester and Rule . An alternative and significantly updated tie @-@ in novel , Underbelly : The Gangland War , was released as their 13th book in the series . The series is produced by the Australian Film Finance Corporation , in association with Film Victoria . The executive producers are Des Monaghan and Jo Horsburgh .
The lead @-@ up to Underbelly involved a heavy marketing campaign which covered radio , print , billboards and an increased online presence , including the use of social networking tools . At a reported cost of $ 500 @,@ 000 , both this marketing investment and potentially millions of dollars in advertising revenue were claimed to be put at risk by the Victorian Supreme Court 's injunction , as the series was expected to attract 800 @,@ 000 to 1 million viewers in Victoria alone . The injunction was put in place to ensure that upcoming criminal trials were not unfair to the accused , because the series contained fictionalised re @-@ enactments of several disputed events . Underbelly began screening on 13 February 2008 on the Nine Network in all states and territories except Victoria . An edited version of the series premiered in Victoria on 14 September 2008 after the injunction was partially lifted , although only the first five episodes were shown . In 2011 , the injunction was partially lifted and the series was screened as " Underbelly : Uncut " . This rebroadcast included scenes from the original DVD release , as well as several significant changes that were made to keep the show current , including a newly recorded final voiceover and the crediting of several characters that were previously uncredited ( allowable due to the ending of related trials ) . Some previously named characters in the final episode however are now unable to be named , resulting in a continued banning of the sale of the video release in Victoria .
Underbelly was a critical and ratings success , being described as " Australia 's best ever crime drama " . Despite this critical success , the series has been the target of controversy due to its glamourised depiction of crime and violence . The opening double episodes , which aired on 13 February , attracted an average of 1 @,@ 320 @,@ 000 viewers nationally , minus Victoria . Every episode of the 13 @-@ part series was soon made available for download on a range of sites , with the Nine Network saying it was considering legal action . The legal DVD of Underbelly was released on 8 May 2008 , a day after the final episode was aired on television . Due to the legal suppression , the release was not able to be distributed through any retail or rental outlets in Victoria or on the internet . The ban remains in place in 2013 , due to legal issues involving the final episode of the show . It was the first in a continuing series , and was later followed by Underbelly : A Tale of Two Cities , Underbelly : The Golden Mile , Underbelly : Razor , Underbelly : Badness , Underbelly : Squizzy and the sequel to the first series Fat Tony & Co . , as well as three television films released as Underbelly Files .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Overview = = =
Underbelly is a fictionalised account of the events behind the Melbourne gangland war that lasted from 1995 until 2004 . In the first episode , the Carlton Crew crime syndicate is introduced , comprising stand @-@ over man Alphonse Gangitano ( Vince Colosimo ) , Domenic " Mick " Gatto ( Simon Westaway ) , loanshark Mario Condello ( Martin Sacks ) , retired bank robber Graham Kinniburgh ( Gerard Kennedy ) and drug @-@ dealing siblings Jason and Mark Moran ( Les Hill and Callan Mulvey ) and their father Lewis ( Kevin Harrington ) . Jason Moran 's seemingly harmless and half @-@ witted driver Carl Williams ( Gyton Grantley ) is also introduced , along with two police characters ; Steve Owen ( Rodger Corser ) and Jacqui James ( Caroline Craig ) , the most prominent members of Task Force Purana .
Alphonse Gangitano , the self @-@ styled " Black Prince of Lygon Street " , kills a man at a party over a small debt and , with Jason 's assistance , injures 13 innocent people . During his trial , Gangitano is murdered by Jason , although the killing goes unsolved . The Moran brothers buy a pill press and employ Carl Williams to produce their drugs . Carl secretly begins making his own supply and forms an alliance with Moran rival Tony Mokbel ( Robert Mammone ) . When Carl is busted by the police , Jason discovers his double @-@ cross and shoots him in the stomach , before Jason is arrested . Mark Moran takes over the drug business , selling Tony Mokbel out to a corrupt officer from the drug squad . Carl kills Mark with the assistance of drug dealer Dino Dibra ( Daniel Amalm ) and L ( Ian Bliss ) , who establish an alibi . Lewis Moran hires Andrew " Benji " Veniamin ( Damian Walshe @-@ Howling ) to avenge his stepson , believing the killer to be Dibra . Benji kills Dibra then offers his services to Carl and becomes his bodyguard , although Carl is eventually jailed . Carl 's wife , Roberta ( Kat Stewart ) , is forced to run the business and she begins an affair with Benji .
Carl is released from jail and Jason Moran is given special parole conditions to allow him to move to London . Moran rival Nik " The Russian " Radev ( Don Hany ) becomes a liability and Carl has him murdered by Benji and T. ( Alex Dimitriades ) . Jason returns from London and a concerned Lewis offers to run the business , but is arrested during a bust . With Benji under constant police observation , Carl asks L. and T. to murder Jason , who is executed in front of his children . Carl orders a hit on small @-@ time dealer Willie Thompson , who turns out to be a friend of Tony Mokbel . However , Tony blames another small @-@ time dealer , Michael Marshall , for the crime and asks Carl to kill him . Carl 's hitmen L. and T. shoot Marshall and are immediately arrested , but the police are unable to prove Carl 's involvement in the crime .
When Graham Kinniburgh is murdered , Carl agrees to end the violence and asks Benji to murder Gatto . Gatto instead kills Benji and is arrested , although he is later acquitted . A new thug , Keith Faure ( Kym Gyngell ) ( only named in the 2011 " Uncut " broadcast ) , offers to team up with Carl , while his real motive is to take over for himself . Several days later , Faure kills Lewis Moran in a crowded bar . Consumed by revenge for Benji 's death , his friend , convicted killer Lewis Caine ( Marcus Graham ) , decides to kill Condello , the only surviving member of the Carlton Crew . However , Caine is double @-@ crossed by his accomplices and is murdered beforehand . Detective Owen has Condello 's bodyguard " Tibor " arrested . They agree to have Tibor act as an undercover agent to record Condello ordering a hit on Carl . Meanwhile , Carl 's jailed associates testify against him . In the series final episode , Task Force Purana and Owen arrest Carl at a family barbecue . A voice @-@ over , performed by police officer Jacqui James , reveals that Mick Gatto is eventually acquitted for the killing of Andrew Veniamin and that Mario Condello is killed while awaiting trial on attempted murder charges . The final voice @-@ over was rerecorded during the production of Underbelly : Razor in preparation for the 2011 airing of the show in Victoria to also include information on Carl Williams ' murder , and Tony Mokbel 's arrest in a " cheap wig " in Greece .
= = = Inaccuracies = = =
While the series retells the real events of the gangland war , several inaccuracies have been pointed out and some deliberate fictionalizations have been made . The Purana Taskforce , as presented in this series , is not a portrayal of the real taskforce , as laws in Victoria do not allow real police officers , including those who previously served and were not sacked , to be portrayed by actors in the media . As a result , the characters presented are entirely fictional characters vaguely based on the real officers , leading to some major differences such as the series suggesting that a senior officer died due to a heart attack , which never in fact occurred .
In the first episode when Steve Owen pulls over Susie Money , when she hands him her license , one can momentarily see the birth date on the back of the card ; it shows her birth year as 1984 . Being that it is 1995 at the time of this scene , that would make her 11 years old .
In the second episode , during the outdoor scene after Alphonse 's funeral , a tram stop sign can be seen . This style and design of tram signage wasn 't introduced until well into the 2000s .
When Carl Williams is shot in the series by Moran the shooting takes place at the Willamstown Botanical Gardens in Willamstown , in front of Willamstown Beach , however the real shooting occurred in Broadmeadows , where no shoreline can be seen .
In the seventh episode , Paul Kallipolitis is murdered in his home by Andrew Veniamin , and in the following episode , Victor Peirce is murdered outside of his home . While both murders occurred in 2002 , the series timeline is incorrect , as Peirce was murdered on 1 May , and Kallipolitis was murdered on 15 October .
The execution of Victor Peirce in episode eight is portrayed as taking place in his car at the front of his home , but Peirce was shot dead while parked opposite a supermarket in Bay Street , Port Melbourne . The murder of alleged drug dealer Willie Thompson was portrayed in episode ten as Thompson being shot after leaving a martial arts class in broad daylight . However , Thompson was shot dead at around 9 : 30 pm , and the murder occurred on Waverley Road in the Melbourne suburb of Chadstone , as he began to drive off in his car , directly outside the entrance to the martial arts centre . Another fiction portrayed was the murder of Nik Radev by both Victor Brincat and Andrew Veniamin in the late hours of the night when Radev was in fact ambushed on a residential street in Coburg in the company of two bodyguards in the late afternoon .
In all episodes showing the Melbourne skyline , the Eureka Tower is shown ; however , the building was not actually completed until 2006 , at least two years after the events depicted in the series .
Radio Station 3AW is heard on the frequency of 693 kHz in 2004 ; it only change to this frequency in 2006 .
= = Cast and characters = =
Underbelly features four regular cast members , with 27 actors who recur throughout the series .
Main Cast
Rodger Corser as Detective Steve Owen
Caroline Craig as Detective Jacqui James
Gyton Grantley as Carl Williams
Kat Stewart as Roberta Williams ( Carl 's wife )
The recurring cast includes :
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Underbelly is based on the book Leadbelly : Inside Australia 's Underworld , by Age journalists John Silvester and Andrew Rule . As the Nine Network was interested in creating local and world @-@ class television , they decided to invest in a drama series that told the story of the Melbourne gangland killings . Jo Horsburgh , Nine Network Head of Drama , stated that the network was " 100 percent committed to bringing Underbelly to the small screen " . Des Monaghan , executive producer for Screentime , called the series " one of the most exciting and challenging drama projects ever shot in [ Australia ] " . The script took 12 months to write , beginning in June 2006 , with the main writers , Greg Haddrick , Peter Gawler and Felicity Packard putting together an entire episode themselves before their scripts were edited . Haddrick , Screentime 's Head of Drama , felt that the challenge for the writing team was to " capture the essential truth of these extraordinary events in a compelling and coherent manner " .
Underbelly was filmed in Melbourne , at locations around the city where the real @-@ life events occurred . Filming took over 82 days , from 2 July to 19 October 2007 , with 150 inner urban locations utilised and 450 locations surveyed making the series as close to life as possible . Parts of the series were filmed in the Essendon area , near many of the houses and schools associated with the " Underworld " . Many of the Carlton scenes were filmed in North Melbourne , primarily around Errol Street . All La Porcella filming was done at Rubicon Restaurant Errol Street , and jail visit sequences were filmed in the dressing rooms at the Telstra Dome .
= = = Marketing = = =
The Nine Network spent more than fifteen million dollars producing and promoting Underbelly . The lead @-@ up resulted in a heavy marketing campaign which covered radio , print , billboards and an increased online presence , including the use of social networking tools . When the CEO of the Nine Network , David Gyngell noted the need to up its online presence , and embrace social networking as a valuable marketing tool , the official website was launched . The original website was launched on 15 January 2008 , with only a 3 @-@ minute trailer ; while the full site , with all its features , launched on 1 February 2008 . It was announced that the full first episode would be available for download on the site on 10 February , three days before the show premieres on television , but this option was made unavailable due to the Supreme court suppression case . This intention follows a similar strategy used for the launch of Sea Patrol in 2007 . The site was " poised to become " the biggest and most detailed website the Nine Network has hosted for a show so far , including features such as behind the scenes footage , profiles , visitor interactivity and the use of social networking tools . Due to the court injunction , the Nine Network was ordered to remove character profiles from its official website in Victoria .
According to its marketing , Underbelly " uses the framework of the murderous war between the two gangs , and the bigger moral war between the gangs and the Purana Task Force , to explore a complex array of individual stories and relationships — some touching , some incredible , all breathtaking — it is a mini @-@ series that examines the kaleidoscopic nature of loyalty , love , revenge and pride when the normal and identifiable emotions of human attachment are moved from the context of social decency to social indecency . "
= = = Franchise = = =
The series ' first prequel , Underbelly : A Tale of Two Cities , revolves around the organised crime groups that stemmed from the Griffith @-@ based dope trade . The series follows the lives of two late infamous drug lords , " Aussie Bob " Trimbole and Terry " Mr Asia " Clark , portrayed by Roy Billing and Matthew Newton respectively . Filming took place in both Sydney and Melbourne until March 2009 . Sydney locations Richmond , Bondi Beach and Warwick Farm were used to portray Griffith in the 1970s . Writers Peter Gawler and Greg Haddrick admitted that there was more nudity and sex than the original . The prequel premiered on 9 February 2009 to 2 @.@ 5 million viewers , making it the highest rated non @-@ sporting program in the history of Australian television ratings . The second prequel , titled Underbelly : The Golden Mile , began airing on 11 April 2010 . A telemovie trilogy known as The Underbelly Files was made and then aired in early 2011 . The three telemovies Infiltration , The Man Who Got Away , and Tell Them Lucifer Was Here . The fourth series , Underbelly : Razor , began airing on 21 August 2011 and was mostly concerned with telling the story of 1920s criminal matriarchs Tilly Devine and Kate Leigh . It was also therefore a prequel to the original series . A New Zealand version titled Underbelly NZ : Land Of The Long Green Cloud aired in 2011 . The fifth series , Underbelly : Badness which tells the story of modern Sydney underworld figure Anthony Perish first aired on 13 August 2012 . The current production , Underbelly : Squizzy , is set to air in late 2013 and is a biography of Squizzy Taylor .
= = Impact = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The first episode of the series was screened privately to media on 17 January 2008 , prior the media had been treated with extracts and trailers promoting the series . On 3 January 2008 , The Sydney Morning Herald 's critic Michael Idato declared the series " The Blue Murder of its time " , referring to the critically acclaimed 1995 ABC TV drama Blue Murder , considered by many to be the finest crime drama ever produced in Australia . In a review on his blog on 17 January 2008 , David Knox , stated that Underbelly " is our own Sopranos " , and awarded it 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 . He also commented " If there are any criticisms to be found with Underbelly , they are few . One or two shots give away that period Melbourne was actually shot in 2007 . And while watching these gangsters thrive on power with ballsy disdain , it was hard not to think of the behaviour of some television executives in recent history . This aside , Underbelly looks set to be one of the highlights of the 2008 television year . " A review appeared in the Herald Sun on 18 January 2008 , in which critic Paul Anderson quoted : " Whether you followed the Melbourne gangland war or not , there 's a fair chance you will be blown away by the coming TV series Underbelly . [ It ] is a slick , violent and sexually charged dramatisation backed by a ripping soundtrack . " In an article appearing on 31 January 2008 , The Daily Telegraph 's TV editor , Marcus Casey , said of Underbelly after viewing the first four episodes : " If the quality is maintained then , while not perfect , Underbelly should equal , if not better , Australia 's best ever crime dramas – the Phoenix series and Blue Murder . "
= = = Australian Family Association 's reaction = = =
On 11 February 2008 the Australian Family Association ( AFA ) , was publicly outraged that Underbelly would be screening at 8 : 30 pm , well within reach of children , after clips of the series were leaked onto the internet . The clips highlighted the use of extreme profanities , and scenes that show a violent bashing , a cold @-@ blooded murder , and a sexual encounter . The Nine Network defended the timeslot and the M classification , saying the clips , leaked from the Network 's production department , were indeed from the series , but not all of them made the final cut . The Network set its own classification , under the accepted rules of the Australian Commercial Television Code of Conduct . The Australian Family Association threatened to take the matter to Communications Minister Stephen Conroy if the content of the show was anything near that of an unauthorised promotional clip leaked from Nine 's production department .
= = = Ratings = = =
The opening double episodes , which aired on 13 February , attracted an average of 1 @,@ 320 @,@ 000 viewers nationally , minus Victoria , making it the third most @-@ watched show of the night . In Victoria alone , the series was expected to attract 800 @,@ 000 to 1 million viewers , which would have put Underbelly figures over the 2 million mark . The replacement movie for Underbelly in Victoria , The Shawshank Redemption , managed only 271 @,@ 000 viewers . The third episode , which aired on 20 February , managed to hold most of its viewers from its premiere , attracting 1 @,@ 273 @,@ 000 viewers nationally , a decline of only 50 @,@ 000 viewers . The fourth episode , which aired on 27 February , managed to hold nearly all of its viewers from the previous episode , attracting 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 viewers nationally , a decline of only 23 @,@ 000 viewers . Although leaked copies of all the episodes became available online , the show continued to attract " huge television audiences " . Underbelly averaged 1 @.@ 26 million viewers for all 13 episodes .
= = = Awards = = =
Underbelly was nominated for eight awards at the 2008 AFI Awards , winning six . The awards won were : Best Drama Series ; Best Director ( Peter Andrikidis , for episode 7 ) ; Best Lead Actor ( Gyton Grantley ) ; Best Lead Actress ( Kat Stewart ) ; Best Guest or Supporting Actor ( Damian Walshe @-@ Howling , for episode 7 ) ; and Best Guest or Supporting Actress ( Madeleine West , for episode 7 ) . The series was also nominated for Best Screenplay ( Peter Gawler ) ; and Best Guest or Supporting Actor ( Vince Colosimo , for episode 2 ) . At the 2008 Screen Music Awards , composer Burkhard Dallwitz won two awards for best television theme and best music for a television series .
The show was also nominated for nine Logie Awards . It won three awards from the nominations of Most Outstanding Drama Series , Most Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series ( Gyton Grantley ) and Most Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series ( Kat Stewart ) . The other six nominations were from the categories of Most Outstanding Actor ( Vince Colosimo and Damian Walshe @-@ Howling ) , Most Outstanding New Talent ( Lauren Clair ) , Most Popular Drama Series , Most Popular Actor ( Gyton Grantley ) and Most Popular Actress ( Kat Stewart ) .
= = Legal issues = =
= = = Supreme Court writ threat = = =
George Defteros , a high @-@ profile lawyer , against whom criminal charges were dropped because the prosecution did not have enough evidence , disrupted the lead @-@ up to the series ' launch , when he threatened the Nine Network with a Supreme Court writ on 26 January 2008 . Defteros , said to be portrayed by George Kapiniaris , engaged a top Melbourne defamation specialist , saying :
" Any attempt to depict me as a lawyer of low impropriety and unethical behaviour will be met with legal proceedings instituted by my lawyers , I regard the depiction of the gangland wars , in particular my role as a lawyer acting for parties , as nothing more than farcical and pure pantomime . We 'll be watching it very closely . "
Nine Network had subsequently said there would now be no direct reference to Mr Defteros , despite earlier publicity . A spokeswoman for the network said " There is no lawyer called Defteros in Underbelly " , but Defteros said he could still be defamed by implication , noting " it 's already been advertised as me " . The case was dropped by Director of Public Prosecutions Paul Coghlan , QC , due to a lack of evidence .
= = = Supreme Court suppression = = =
The screening of Underbelly in Victoria was put into jeopardy after last @-@ minute legal proceedings were instituted by the Director of Public Prosecutions , Jeremy Rapke , QC . Rapke secured an urgent viewing of the series , after which he decided to seek an injunction stopping its broadcast in Victoria . A Supreme Court judge called prosecutors and defence lawyers together after serious concerns were raised about whether the show could prejudice the jury in the trial of Evangelos Goussis , who had pleaded not guilty to the 2004 gangland killing of Lewis Moran . Although Goussis was not named in the series , there were concerns the show could hurt his chance of a fair trial .
The Supreme Court hearing took place on 11 February 2008 – only two days before the series was due to premiere . The Nine Network was ordered by a DPP subpoena to hand over tapes of all 13 episodes , as well as outlines and story lines , to the Victorian Supreme Court by 10 am on that date . The Nine Network refused to voluntarily hand over the tapes , saying they were incomplete and that the network 's lawyers were closely supervising production . However , it was willing to comply with any Court order and took the matter very seriously . The Network was also adamant that the series makes no assertions about the guilt of the accused killer . At the hearing , which took place at the Geelong Supreme Court , Justice Betty King gave prosecution and defence lawyers 24 hours to view the series and return to court the following day to decide whether it had the potential to affect the forthcoming trial . Justice King issued a suppression order on 12 February banning the Nine Network from broadcasting the series in the state of Victoria and on the internet until after the murder trial was completed . The Nine Network offered to air a heavily edited version in Victoria , but the offer was rejected by Justice King . It was initially planned that an alternative program , Underbelly : A Special Announcement , discussing the subject matter of the series , would air in Victoria instead of the series premiere . This idea was scrapped , and the movie The Shawshank Redemption was aired in Victoria instead . The Nine Network declared their intention to appeal the decision , and Network lawyers stated that they would exercise all legal options .
The injunction also affected national audiences receiving transmissions from Imparja Television , a Nine Network affiliate , because its single national satellite distribution signal is retransmitted in some parts of Victoria . Alternative programming was to be shown until the restriction was lifted .
The appeal began on 29 February 2008 in the Victorian Court of Appeal . Nine Network lawyers argued that the network should be allowed to broadcast the first three episodes of the series , arguing Justice King had erred in her decision to suppress the series because she had viewed the unedited version , rather than the final edited cut that was to be shown to audiences . The network believed the first three episodes , which depicted events from the beginning of the underworld war in 1995 , would have no potential to prejudice any part of the trial . Goussis 's murder trial was due to begin on 31 March 2008 . The judges overseeing the appeal retired to decide their verdict on 3 March 2008 . Their decision on 26 March 2008 upheld Justice King 's ruling that the series was not to be broadcast or distributed in or out of Victoria . During the appeal the Nine Network had proposed to screen the first three episodes immediately after any successful appeal , and would give the court seven days written notice of its intention to show any further episodes that it believed would not prejudice the murder trial . The Court of Appeal had dismissed the network 's application to appeal , and the network was compelled to comply with the suppression order issued by Justice King until the offending trial was complete .
The ban expired the week ending 30 May 2008 , with the conviction of Goussis for the murder of Lewis Moran , paving the way for Nine to begin screening episodes ; however , Andrew Rule , who co @-@ wrote the book on which the series is based , says Underbelly will not be seen in Victoria anytime soon , saying " the problem now will be that Tony Mokbel is back in Australia and ready to stand trial on very serious charges . That will effectively prevent the series being screened in Victoria until that trial is held ... That could be some time . I 'm not sure about several [ years ] , but it might be two years . " However , Underbelly was legally shown in Victoria in September 2008 , after a court ruled that the network could air the first five episodes . Supreme Court Justice Peter Vickery gave the network permission to air the specially edited episodes , but said screening the sixth episode could prejudice the upcoming trials of an accused criminal . The edited versions had whole scenes cut out , and Tony Mokbel 's face was pixelated . Reactions from viewers were not favourable , mainly because most had already seen the entire series .
= = Underbelly : Uncut ( 2011 Victorian Broadcast Version ) = =
The suppression order was partially lifted after Mokbel 's trial in April 2011 , after which the series was broadcast in Victoria . A 9 : 30pm timeslot allowed the airing of the ' Uncut ' edition , based on the episodes as they appeared in the DVD / Blu @-@ ray release , and a few further alterations were made to update the show 's significantly outdated summary of current events . The final voice over of the series , in the episode " Purana " , was rerecorded ( during production of Underbelly : Razor ) to include events that occurred up to , and including , 2011 ( such as Carl Williams ' murder and Tony Mokbel 's arrest ) . It is almost a minute longer than the original voice over summary . Other episodes contained less significant changes to the original voice over summaries , indicating they had also been rerecorded .
Kym Gynell ( Keith Faure ) , Alex Dimitriades ( Victor Brincat ) and Ian Bliss ( Thomas Hentschel ) are now fully credited in the episodes in which they starred , with the textual explanation given that their characters could not be named at the time of production but can now be named as of 2011 , due to the end of their related trials . They are still unnamed in the dialog of each episode .
The show , however , is still not allowed to be sold on DVD / Blu @-@ ray in Victoria , because a character in the " Purana " episode that was named in the original broadcast and DVD / Blu @-@ ray release , was not allowed to be named at the time of the rebroadcast due to a pending court case and subsequently had their name edited out . Because the DVD / Blu @-@ ray release is based on the original 2008 broadcast and not the 2011 " Uncut " broadcast , it is still not allowed to be sold in Victoria until the suppression order is fully lifted , or the alternative version is released .
= = Sequel = =
Fat Tony & Co. was confirmed on 3 August 2013 , with series production beginning on 5 August 2013 . It was not branded as Underbelly due to changes in funding with Screen Australia , but chronologically acts as a direct sequel to the first series of the show , with most of the same cast playing the same characters with only one or two exceptions . Based on Tony Mokbel , the series covers the manhunt for Mokbel that lasted 18 months , and dismantled his drug empire . It was filmed in Greece . It first aired on 23 February at 8.40pm on Channel 9 .
= = Distribution = =
= = = International distribution = = =
Underbelly began airing in New Zealand on TV3 on Sunday at 9 : 30pm , but the network put the series on hiatus after three episodes because it was " not performing as expected in the time slot " . Due to a public outcry , TV3 reversed their decision 48 hours later , saying it was " bowing to the pressure of angry fans " . TV3 reinstated the series in its old timeslot , but rescheduled it to 11 : 15pm on Tuesday evenings just weeks later . TV3 senior publicist Nicole Wood said the show had failed to win new viewers in the Sunday slot , and even though they were " inundated with fans " when they took it off air , it " still didn 't rate " on its second showing . The series was brought back to primetime in July 2009 , after the sequel series performed well in New Zealand . Beginning with episode 1 , the series is currently playing every Thursday at 9 : 30pm . In April 2008 , the Nine Network signed an international distribution deal with Fox International Channels and Portman Film & Television . The series will be broadcast in Scandinavia , Canada , France , the UK , Italy ( Rai 4 ) , Balkans , Korea , Pan @-@ Asia , Portugal , Russia , South Africa , Turkey and Germany . Gyngell said , " to say we are pleased is an understatement – we are delighted that the series will gain international audiences and global recognition " . Scottish commercial broadcaster STV have signed up to broadcast the series . Series 3 is now broadcasting after the good reception of the first two series . U.S. satellite @-@ only service DirecTV will broadcast the entire trilogy , beginning in February 2010 , on its channel " The 101 " .
Season 1 airs in the Republic of Ireland on free @-@ to @-@ air channel TV3 Ireland from Thursday , 23 September 2010 at 10pm .
The series is also available on Netflix .
= = = Illegal distribution = = =
Despite the ban on broadcasting the series in Victoria , Victorians were still able to access episodes via illegal online distribution . The first episode was made available on torrent sites within 20 minutes of it concluding in New South Wales . The Nine Network reportedly obtained the IP address of the first person to upload the show , and network lawyers were considering legal action . The Australian Federation Against Copyright Theft ( AFACT ) was investigating the matter , and was expected to make a list of recommendations to Victoria Police . Fears of inside leaks were aroused when advance screener versions of the first eight episodes were posted online .
Every episode of the 13 @-@ part series was soon available for download on a range of sites . It was reported that on mininova.org more than 3 @,@ 000 users were attempting to download episode seven late on the afternoon of 27 February 2008 . The Nine Network said it was considering legal action , and was looking into how copies got into the hands of underworld figures in Victoria , including Roberta Williams , the former wife of gangland kingpin Carl Williams . Unauthorised copies of the entire series were also made available to the public . People were offered a 4 @-@ disc DVD set for between A $ 10 and $ 80 in public places such as carparks and building sites . The episodes were commercial @-@ free and came with introductory station countdowns , suggesting a major leak from inside the network 's production department .
Two network employees had been questioned by the network over the matter , but both denied distributing any copies of the series . Unlicensed DVDs containing the first nine episodes of Underbelly were seized in a raid by police on a business in Melbourne 's western suburbs on 11 March 2008 . The 41 @-@ year @-@ old man arrested faced charges of copyright infringement and of breaking the court order banning broadcast of the program in Victoria . Along with the Underbelly DVDs , more than 7000 other unlicensed DVDs were uncovered , as well as eight printers and 70 new DVD burners . The group of ingringers contained several members , some of whom had been arrested for offences in the months prior .
= = = Merchandise = = =
The legal Underbelly DVD was released 8 May 2008 by Roadshow Entertainment , a day after the final episode was aired on television . In accordance with the legal suppression , the release was not distributed through any retail or rental outlets in Victoria or on the internet . Roadshow Entertainment has confirmed that all box sets and point of sale displays will carry a sticker or stamp reminding buyers the series is not for sale , distribution or exhibition in Victoria . Legal experts said Victorians who bought the box set interstate and watched it themselves at home would likely not fall foul of the law , but anyone who showed it more widely could be charged with contempt . The DVD has sold 265 @,@ 000 copies around Australia . In September 2008 , a Limited Edition DVD was released , containing a numbered steel case and an extra disc with a documentary entitled Carl Williams – A Day of Reckoning . The Underbelly soundtrack was released on 29 March 2008 , both as a CD and online . It features elements of the score by Burkhard Dallwitz in addition to music tracks that were featured in the series . Underbelly was released on Blu @-@ ray on 5 August 2010 .
= SMS Kaiser Karl der Grosse =
SMS Kaiser Karl der Grosse ( His Majesty 's Ship " Charles the Great " ) was a German pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Kaiser Friedrich III class , built around the turn of the 20th century for the Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . Kaiser Karl der Grosse was built in Hamburg , at the Blohm and Voss shipyard . She was laid down in September 1898 and was launched in October 1899 . A shipyard strike and an accidental grounding delayed her completion until February 1902 ; she was therefore the last member of her class to enter service . The ship was armed with four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in two twin gun turrets and had a top speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) .
Kaiser Karl der Grosse served with the active fleet until 1908 , and during this time she participated in the normal peacetime routine of training cruises and fleet maneuvers . By 1908 , the new " all @-@ big @-@ gun " dreadnought battleships were entering service . As the ship was completely obsolete , she was withdrawn from active service and placed in the Reserve Division . At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the ship was placed back in active duty as a coastal defense ship in the V Battle Squadron , though by February 1915 she was again placed in reserve . Kaiser Karl der Grosse was briefly used as a training ship and ended her career as a prison ship for prisoners of war in Wilhelmshaven . Following the German defeat in November 1918 , the ship was sold to ship @-@ breakers and scrapped in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Kaiser Karl der Grosse was 125 @.@ 3 m ( 411 ft 1 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 4 m ( 66 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 89 m ( 25 ft 11 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 25 m ( 27 ft 1 in ) aft . She displaced up to 11 @,@ 785 t ( 11 @,@ 599 long tons ) at full load . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one screw propeller . Steam was provided by four Marine @-@ type and eight cylindrical boilers , all of which burned coal . Kaiser Karl der Grosse 's powerplant was rated at 13 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 12 @,@ 822 ihp ; 9 @,@ 561 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) . She had a normal crew of 39 officers and 612 enlisted men .
The ship 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) SK L / 40 guns and twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns mounted in casemates . The armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm torpedo tubes , all in above @-@ water swivel mounts . The ship 's belt armor was 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick , and the deck was 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armor plating , and the secondary casemates received 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) of armor protection .
= = Service history = =
= = = Construction through 1904 = = =
Kaiser Wilhelm II , the emperor of Germany , believed that a strong navy was necessary for the country to expand its influence outside continental Europe . As a result , he initiated a program of naval expansion in the late 1880s ; the first battleships built under this program were the four Brandenburg @-@ class ships . These were immediately followed by the five Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class battleships , of which Kaiser Karl der Grosse was a member . She was ordered under the contract name " B " as a new ship of the fleet . The ship 's keel was laid on 17 September 1898 at the Blohm & Voss in Hamburg under yard number 136 . She was the first capital ship to be built by the yard , and the second warship of any type . The new battleship was launched on 18 October 1899 and named for Charlemagne ( Karl der Grosse in German ) ; Wilhelm II gave the launching speech and Johann Georg Mönckeberg , the Erster Bürgermeister ( First Mayor ) of Hamburg christened the ship . A major strike by shipyard workers in late 1900 significantly delayed completion of the ship . In October 1901 , a shipyard crew took the ship to the naval base at Wilhelmshaven , though while en route she ran aground in the lower Elbe . The hull was damaged in the incident , and the necessary repairs further delayed her entry into service ; she was not commissioned until 4 February 1902 .
Kaiser Karl der Grosse was assigned to the II Division of the I Squadron on 19 February , the last member of her class to enter active service . With the assignment of Kaiser Karl der Grosse , the I Squadron was now fully composed of modern battleships . The squadron went on a training cruise to Britain in April and May , followed by a tour of the Kiel Week sailing regatta in late June . The ships then took part in another training cruise to Norway in July and then the autumn maneuvers , which began in the Baltic on 31 August . During the exercises , Kaiser Karl der Grosse was assigned to the " hostile " force , as were several of her sister ships . The " hostile " force was first tasked with preventing the " German " squadron from passing through the Great Belt in the Baltic . Kaiser Karl der Grosse and several other battleships were then tasked with forcing an entry into the mouth of the Elbe River , where the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and Hamburg could be seized . The " hostile " flotilla accomplished these tasks within three days . The maneuvers concluded in the North Sea with a fleet review in the Jade . From 1 to 12 December , the squadron went on its normal winter cruise to Norway .
In 1903 , the fleet , which was composed of only one squadron of battleships , was reorganized as the " Active Battle Fleet . " Kaiser Karl der Grosse remained in the I Squadron along with her sister ships and the newest Wittelsbach @-@ class battleships , while the older Brandenburg @-@ class ships were placed in reserve in order to be rebuilt . The first quarter of 1903 followed the usual pattern of training exercises . The squadron went on a training cruise in the Baltic , followed by a voyage to Spain that lasted from 7 May to 10 June . In July , she joined the I Squadron for the annual cruise to Norway . The autumn maneuvers consisted of a blockade exercise in the North Sea , a cruise of the entire fleet first to Norwegian waters and then to Kiel in early September , and finally a mock attack on Kiel . The exercises concluded on 12 September . The winter training cruise began on 23 November in the eastern Baltic and continued into the Skagerrak in early December .
Kaiser Karl der Grosse participated in an exercise in the Skagerrak from 11 to 21 January 1904 . Squadron exercises followed from 8 to 17 March . A major fleet exercise took place in the North Sea in May . In July , the I Squadron and the I Scouting Group visited Britain , including a stop at Plymouth on 10 July . The German fleet departed on 13 July , bound for the Netherlands ; the I Squadron anchored in Vlissingen the following day . There , the ships were visited by Queen Wilhelmina . The I Squadron remained in Vlissingen until 20 July , when they departed for a cruise in the northern North Sea with the rest of the fleet . The squadron stopped in Molde , Norway , on 29 July , while the other units went to other ports . The fleet reassembled on 6 August and steamed back to Kiel , where it conducted a mock attack on the harbor on 12 August . Immediately after returning to Kiel , the fleet began preparations for the autumn maneuvers , which began on 29 August in the Baltic . The fleet moved to the North Sea on 3 September , where it took part in a major landing operation , after which the ships took the ground troops from the IX Corps that participated in the exercises to Altona for a parade for Wilhelm II . The ships then conducted their own parade for the Kaiser off the island of Helgoland on 6 September . Three days later , the fleet returned to the Baltic via the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal , where it participated in further landing operations with the IX Corps and the Guards Corps . On 15 September , the maneuvers came to an end . The I Squadron went on its winter training cruise , this time to the eastern Baltic , from 22 November to 2 December .
= = = 1905 – 14 = = =
In January and February 1905 , Kaiser Karl der Grosse served briefly as the flagship of the squadron . During this period , she took part in a pair of training cruises with the I Squadron during 9 – 19 January and 27 February – 16 March 1905 . Individual and squadron training followed , with an emphasis on gunnery drills . On 12 July , the fleet began a major training exercise in the North Sea . While on the cruise on 18 July , Kaiser Karl der Grosse was detached to visit Antwerp to represent Germany during the celebrations for the 75th anniversary of the Belgian Revolution . The rest of the fleet then cruised through the Kattegat and stopped in Copenhagen and Stockholm ; Kaiser Karl der Grosse rejoined them on 3 August in Karlskrona . The summer cruise ended on 9 August , though the autumn maneuvers that would normally have begun shortly thereafter were delayed by a visit from the British Channel Fleet that month .
The British fleet stopped in Danzig , Swinemünde , and Flensburg , where it was greeted by units of the German Navy ; Kaiser Karl der Grosse and the main German fleet was anchored at Swinemünde for the occasion . The visit was strained by the growing Anglo @-@ German naval arms race . As a result of the British visit , the 1905 autumn maneuvers ( 6 to 13 September ) were shortened considerably , consisting only of exercises in the North Sea . The first exercise presumed a naval blockade in the German Bight , and the second envisioned a hostile fleet attempting to force the defenses of the Elbe . In November , the I Squadron cruised in the Baltic . In early December , the I and II Squadrons went on their regular winter cruise , this time to Danzig , where they arrived on 12 December . While on the return trip to Kiel , the fleet conducted tactical exercises .
The fleet undertook a heavier training schedule in 1906 than in previous years . The ships were occupied with individual , division and squadron exercises throughout April . Starting on 13 May , major fleet exercises took place in the North Sea and lasted until 8 June with a cruise around the Skagen into the Baltic . The fleet began its usual summer cruise to Norway in mid @-@ July . Kaiser Karl der Grosse and the I Squadron anchored in Molde , where they were joined on 21 July by Wilhelm II aboard the steamer SS Hamburg . The fleet was present for the birthday of Norwegian King Haakon VII on 3 August . The German ships departed the following day for Helgoland , to join exercises being conducted there . The fleet was back in Kiel by 15 August , where preparations for the autumn maneuvers began . On 22 – 24 August , the fleet took part in landing exercises in Eckernförde Bay outside Kiel . The maneuvers were paused from 31 August to 3 September when the fleet hosted vessels from Denmark and Sweden , along with a Russian squadron from 3 to 9 September in Kiel . The maneuvers resumed on 8 September and lasted five more days .
The ship participated in the uneventful winter cruise into the Kattegat and Skagerrak from 8 to 16 December . The first quarter of 1907 followed the previous pattern and , on 16 February , the Active Battlefleet was re @-@ designated the High Seas Fleet . From the end of May to early June the fleet went on its summer cruise in the North Sea , returning to the Baltic via the Kattegat . This was followed by the regular cruise to Norway from 12 July to 10 August . During the autumn maneuvers , which lasted from 26 August to 6 September , the fleet conducted landing exercises in northern Schleswig with the IX Corps . The winter training cruise went into the Kattegat from 22 to 30 November . In May 1908 , the fleet went on a major cruise into the Atlantic instead of its normal voyage in the North Sea . The fleet returned to Kiel on 13 August to prepare for the autumn maneuvers , which lasted from 27 August to 7 September . Division exercises in the Baltic immediately followed from 7 to 13 September . Following the conclusion of these maneuvers on 18 September , Kaiser Karl der Grosse was decommissioned in Kiel and assigned to the Reserve Division in the Baltic . During this period , her sister ships were rebuilt , though Kaiser Karl der Grosse did not receive this treatment . In June and July 1911 , the ship underwent a major overhaul . By 1914 , the ship had been assigned to the V Squadron of the Reserve Fleet , alongside her four sister ships and the battleship Wettin .
= = = World War I = = =
As a result of the outbreak of World War I , Kaiser Karl der Grosse and her sisters were brought out of reserve and mobilized as the V Battle Squadron on 5 August 1914 . The ships were prepared for war very slowly , and they were not ready for service in the North Sea until the end of August . They were initially tasked with coastal defense , though they served in this capacity for a very short time . In mid @-@ September , the V Squadron was transferred to the Baltic , under the command of Prince Heinrich . He initially planned to launch a major amphibious assault on Windau , but a shortage of transports forced a revision of the plan . Instead , the V Squadron was to carry the landing force , but this too was cancelled after Heinrich received false reports of British warships having entered the Baltic on 25 September . Kaiser Karl der Grosse and her sisters returned to Kiel the following day , disembarked the landing force , and then proceeded to the North Sea , where they resumed guard ship duties . Before the end of the year , the V Squadron was once again transferred to the Baltic .
Prince Heinrich ordered a foray toward Gotland . On 26 December 1914 , the battleships rendezvoused with the Baltic cruiser division in the Bay of Pomerania and then departed on the sortie . Two days later , the fleet arrived off Gotland to show the German flag , and was back in Kiel by 30 December . Kaiser Karl der Grosse briefly replaced her sister Kaiser Wilhelm II as the squadron flagship , from 23 January 1915 to 23 February . The squadron returned to the North Sea for guard duties , but was withdrawn from front @-@ line service by February . Shortages of trained crews in the High Seas Fleet , coupled with the risk of operating older ships in wartime , necessitated the deactivation of Kaiser der Grosse and her sisters . Starting in October , she served briefly as a training ship for engine room personnel , though on 19 November she was decommissioned in Kiel and disarmed . She was thereafter employed as a prison ship for prisoners of war in Wilhelmshaven . In November 1918 , Germany capitulated and signed the First Armistice at Compiègne , which ended hostilities so a peace treaty could be negotiated . According to Article 181 of the Treaty of Versailles , signed on 28 June 1919 , Germany was permitted to retain only six battleships of the " Deutschland or Lothringen types " . On 6 December 1919 , the ship was struck from the naval list and sold to ship @-@ breakers . The following year , Kaiser Karl der Grosse was broken up for scrap metal in Rönnebeck .
= Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin =
Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin is a large 15th @-@ century oil and tempera on oak panel painting , usually dated between 1435 and 1440 , attributed to the Early Netherlandish painter Rogier van der Weyden . Housed in the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston , it shows Luke the Evangelist , patron saint of artists , sketching the Virgin Mary as she nurses the Child Jesus . The figures are positioned in
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which exemplified Glinka and The Five and professionally trained composers which would become the norm in Russia by the closing years of the 19th century . While Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's style was based on those of Glinka , Balakirev , Hector Berlioz , and Franz Liszt , he " transmitted this style directly to two generations of Russian composers " and influenced non @-@ Russian composers including Maurice Ravel , Claude Debussy , Paul Dukas and Ottorino Respighi .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov was born in Tikhvin , 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) east of Saint Petersburg . The father of the composer , Andrei Petrovich Rimsky @-@ Korsakov ( 1784 @-@ 1862 ) , though born out of wedlock , went on to serve first as the vice @-@ governor of Novgorod , and then in the Volhynian Governorate . The composer 's mother , Sofya Vasilevna , was the daughter of a peasant serf and a pomeshchik ( landlord ) . The Rimsky @-@ Korsakov family had a long line of military and naval service . Nikolai 's older brother Voin , 22 years his senior , became a well @-@ known navigator and explorer and had a powerful influence on Nikolai 's life . He later recalled that his mother played the piano a little , and his father could play a few songs on the piano by ear . Beginning at six , he took piano lessons from local teachers and showed a talent for aural skills , but he showed a lack of interest , playing , as he later wrote , " badly , carelessly , ... poor at keeping time . " Although he started composing by age 10 , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov preferred literature over music . He later wrote that from his reading , and tales of his brother 's exploits , he developed a poetic love for the sea " without ever having seen it . " This love , and prompting from Voin , encouraged the 12 @-@ year @-@ old to join the Imperial Russian Navy . He studied at the School for Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Saint Petersburg and , at 18 , took his final examination in April 1862 .
While at school , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov took piano lessons from a man named Ulikh . These lessons were sanctioned by Voin , who now served as director of the school , because he hoped they would help the youth to develop social skills and overcome his shyness . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote that , while " indifferent " to lessons , he developed a love for music , fostered by visits to the opera and , later , orchestral concerts . Ulikh perceived that he had serious musical talent and recommended another teacher , Feodor A. Kanille ( Théodore Canillé ) . Beginning in the autumn of 1859 , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov took lessons in piano and composition from Kanille , whom he later credited as the inspiration for devoting his life to musical composition . Through Kanille , he was exposed to a great deal of new music , including Mikhail Glinka and Robert Schumann . Despite Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's now liking his music lessons , Voin cancelled them when Rimsky @-@ Korsakov was 17 , as he felt they no longer served a practical need . Kanille told Rimsky @-@ Korsakov to continue coming to him every Sunday , not for formal lessons but to play duets and discuss music . In November 1861 , Kanille introduced the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Rimsky @-@ Korsakov to Mily Balakirev . Balakirev in turn introduced him to César Cui and Modest Mussorgsky ; all three were known as composers , despite only being in their 20s . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov later wrote , " With what delight I listened to real business discussions [ Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's emphasis ] of instrumentation , part writing , etc ! And besides , how much talking there was about current musical matters ! All at once I had been plunged into a new world , unknown to me , formerly only heard of in the society of my dilettante friends . That was truly a strong impression . "
Balakirev encouraged Rimsky @-@ Korsakov to compose and taught him the rudiments when he was not at sea . Balakirev also prompted him to enrich himself in history , literature and criticism . When he showed Balakirev the beginning of a symphony in E @-@ flat minor that he had written , Balakirev insisted he continue working on it despite his lack of formal musical training . By the time Rimsky @-@ Korsakov sailed on a two @-@ year @-@ and @-@ eight @-@ month cruise aboard the clipper Almaz in late 1862 , he had completed and orchestrated three movements of the symphony . He composed the slow movement during a stop in England and mailed the score to Balakirev before going back to sea . At first , his work on the symphony kept Rimsky @-@ Korsakov occupied during his cruise . He purchased scores at every port of call , along with a piano on which to play them , and filled his idle hours studying Berlioz 's Treatise on Instrumentation . He found time to read the works of Homer , William Shakespeare , Friedrich Schiller and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe ; he saw London , Niagara Falls , and Rio de Janeiro during his stops in port . Eventually , the lack of outside musical stimuli dulled the young midshipman 's hunger to learn . He wrote to Balakirev that after two years at sea he had neglected his musical lessons for months . " Thoughts of becoming a musician and composer gradually left me altogether , " he later recalled ; " distant lands began to allure me , somehow , although , properly speaking , naval service never pleased me much and hardly suited my character at all . "
= = = Mentored by Balakirev ; time with The Five = = =
Once back in Saint Petersburg in May 1865 , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's onshore duties consisted of a couple of hours of clerical duty each day , but he recalled that his desire to compose " had been stifled ... I did not concern myself with music at all . " He wrote that contact with Balakirev in September 1865 encouraged him " to get accustomed to music and later to plunge into it " . At Balakirev 's suggestion , he wrote a trio to the scherzo of the E @-@ flat minor symphony , which it had lacked up to that point , and reorchestrated the entire symphony . Its first performance came in December of that year under Balakirev 's direction in Saint Petersburg . A second performance followed in March 1866 under the direction of Konstantin Lyadov ( father of composer Anatoly Lyadov ) .
Correspondence between Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and Balakirev clearly shows that some ideas for the symphony originated with Balakirev . Balakirev seldom stopped at merely correcting a piece of music , and would often recompose it at the piano . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov recalled ,
A pupil like myself had to submit to Balakirev a proposed composition in its embryo , say , even the first four or eight bars . Balakirev would immediately make corrections , indicating how to recast such an embryo ; he would criticize it , would praise and extol the first two bars , but would censure the next two , ridicule them , and try hard to make the author disgusted with them . Vivacity of composition and fertility were not at all in favor , frequent recasting was demanded , and the composition was extended over a long period of time under the cold control of self @-@ criticism .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov recalled that " Balakirev had no difficulty in getting along with me . At his suggestion I most readily rewrote the symphonic movements composed by me and brought them to completion with the help of his advice and improvisations " . Though Rimsky @-@ Korsakov later found Balakirev 's influence stifling , and broke free from it , this did not stop him in his memoirs from extolling the older composer 's talents as a critic and improviser . Under Balakirev 's mentoring , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov turned to other compositions . He began a symphony in B minor , but felt it too closely followed Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony and abandoned it . He completed an Overture on Three Russian Themes , based on Balakirev 's folksong overtures , as well as a Fantasia on Serbian Themes that was performed at a concert given for the delegates of the Slavonic Congress in 1867 . In his review of this concert , nationalist critic Vladimir Stasov coined the phrase Moguchaya kuchka for the Balakirev circle ( Moguchaya kuchka is usually translated as " The Mighty Handful " or " The Five " ) . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov also composed the initial versions of Sadko and Antar , which cemented his reputation as a writer of orchestral works .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov socialized and discussed music with the other members of The Five ; they critiqued one another 's works in progress and collaborated on new pieces . He became friends with Alexander Borodin , whose music " astonished " him . He spent an increasing amount of time with Mussorgsky . Balakirev and Mussorgsky played piano four @-@ hand music , Mussorgsky would sing , and they frequently discussed other composers ' works , with preferred tastes running " toward Glinka , Schumann and Beethoven 's late quartets " . Mendelssohn was not thought of highly , Mozart and Haydn " were considered out of date and naïve " , and J.S. Bach merely mathematical and unfeeling . Berlioz " was highly esteemed " , Liszt " crippled and perverted from a musical point of view ... even a caricature " , and Wagner discussed little . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov " listened to these opinions with avidity and absorbed the tastes of Balakirev , Cui and Mussorgsky without reasoning or examination " . Often , the musical works in question " were played before me only in fragments , and I had no idea of the whole work " . This , he wrote , did not stop him from accepting these judgments at face value and repeating them " as if I were thoroughly convinced of their truth " .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov became especially appreciated within The Five , and among those who visited the circle , for his talents as an orchestrator . He was asked by Balakirev to orchestrate a Schubert march for a concert in May 1868 , by Cui to orchestrate the opening chorus of his opera William Ratcliff and by Alexander Dargomyzhsky , whose works were greatly appreciated by The Five and who was close to death , to orchestrate his opera The Stone Guest .
In the fall of 1871 , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov moved into Voin 's former apartment , and invited Mussorgsky to be his roommate . The working arrangement they agreed upon was that Mussorgsky used the piano in the mornings while Rimsky @-@ Korsakov worked on copying or orchestration . When Mussorgsky left for his civil service job at noon , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov then used the piano . Time in the evenings was allotted by mutual agreement . " That autumn and winter the two of us accomplished a good deal " , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote , " with constant exchange of ideas and plans . Mussorgsky composed and orchestrated the Polish act of Boris Godunov and the folk scene ' Near Kromy . ' I orchestrated and finished my Maid of Pskov . "
= = = Professorship , marriage , inspector of bands = = =
In 1871 , the 27 @-@ year @-@ old Rimsky @-@ Korsakov became Professor of Practical Composition and Instrumentation ( orchestration ) at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory , as well as leader of the Orchestra Class . He retained his position in active naval service , and taught his classes in uniform ( military officers in Russia were required to wear their uniforms every day , as they were considered to be always on duty ) .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov explained in his memoirs that Mikhaíl Azanchevsky had taken over that year as director of the Conservatory , and wanting new blood to freshen up teaching in those subjects , had offered to pay generously for Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's services . Biographer Mikhail Zetlin suggests that Azanchevsky 's motives might have been twofold . First , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov was the member of the Five least criticized by its opponents , and inviting him to teach at the Conservatory may have been considered a safe way to show that all serious musicians were welcome there . Second , the offer may have been calculated to expose him to an academic climate in which he would write in a more conservative , Western @-@ based style . Balakirev had opposed academic training in music with tremendous vigor , but encouraged him to accept the post to convince others to join the nationalist musical cause .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's reputation at this time was as a master of orchestration , based on Sadko and Antar . However , he had written these works mainly by intuition . His knowledge of musical theory was elemental ; he had never written any counterpoint , could not harmonize a simple chorale , nor knew the names or intervals of musical chords . He had never conducted an orchestra , and had been discouraged from doing so by the navy , which did not approve of his appearing on the podium in uniform . Aware of his technical shortcomings , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov consulted Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky , with whom he and the others in The Five had been in occasional contact . Tchaikovsky , unlike The Five , had received academic training in composition at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory , and was serving as Professor of Music Theory at the Moscow Conservatory . Tchaikovsky advised him to study .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote that while teaching at the Conservatory he soon became " possibly its very best pupil [ Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's emphasis ] , judging by the quantity and value of the information it gave me ! " To prepare himself , and to stay at least one step ahead of his students , he took a three @-@ year sabbatical from composing original works , and assiduously studied at home while he lectured at the Conservatory . He taught himself from textbooks , and followed a strict regimen of composing contrapuntal exercises , fugues , chorales and a cappella choruses .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov eventually became an excellent teacher and a fervent believer in academic training . He revised everything he had composed prior to 1874 , even acclaimed works such as Sadko and Antar , in a search for perfection that would remain with him throughout the rest of his life . Assigned to rehearse the Orchestra Class , he mastered the art of conducting . Dealing with orchestral textures as a conductor , and making suitable arrangements of musical works for the Orchestra Class , led to an increased interest in the art of orchestration , an area into which he would further indulge his studies as Inspector of Navy Bands . The score of his Third Symphony , written just after he had completed his three @-@ year program of self @-@ improvement , reflects his hands @-@ on experience with the orchestra .
Professorship brought Rimsky @-@ Korsakov financial security , which encouraged him to settle down and to start a family . In December 1871 he proposed to Nadezhda Purgold , with whom he had developed a close relationship over weekly gatherings of The Five at the Purgold household . They married in July 1872 , with Mussorgsky serving as best man . The Rimsky @-@ Korsakovs had seven children . One of their sons , Andrei , became a musicologist , married the composer Yuliya Veysberg and wrote a multi @-@ volume study of his father 's life and work .
Nadezhda became a musical as well as domestic partner with her husband , much as Clara Schumann had been with her own husband Robert . She was beautiful , capable , strong @-@ willed , and far better trained musically than her husband at the time they married — she had attended the Saint Petersburg Conservatory in the mid @-@ 1860s , studying piano with Anton Gerke ( one of whose private students was Mussorgsky ) and music theory with Nikolai Zaremba , who also taught Tchaikovsky . Nadezhda proved a fine and most demanding critic of her husband 's work ; her influence over him in musical matters was strong enough for Balakirev and Stasov to wonder whether she was leading him astray from their musical preferences . Musicologist Lyle Neff wrote that while Nadezhda gave up her own compositional career when she married Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , she " had a considerable influence on the creation of [ Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's ] first three operas . She travelled with her husband , attended rehearsals and arranged compositions by him and others " for piano four hands , which she played with her husband . " Her last years were dedicated to issuing her husband 's posthumous literary and musical legacy , maintaining standards for performance of his works ... and preparing material for a museum in his name . "
In the spring of 1873 , the navy created the civilian post of Inspector of Naval Bands , with a rank of Collegiate Assessor , and appointed Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . This kept him on the navy payroll and listed on the roster of the Chancellery of the Navy Department but allowed him to resign his commission . The composer commented , " I parted with delight with both my military status and my officer 's uniform " , he later wrote . " Henceforth I was a musician officially and incontestably . " As Inspector , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov applied himself with zeal to his duties . He visited naval bands throughout Russia , supervised the bandmasters and their appointments , reviewed the bands ' repertoire , and inspected the quality of their instruments . He wrote a study program for a complement of music students who held navy fellowships at the Conservatory , and acted as an intermediary between the Conservatory and the navy . He also indulged in a long @-@ standing desire to familiarize himself with the construction and playing technique of orchestral instruments . These studies prompted him to write a textbook on orchestration . He used the privileges of rank to exercise and expand upon his knowledge . He discussed arrangements of musical works for military band with bandmasters , encouraged and reviewed their efforts , held concerts at which he could hear these pieces , and orchestrated original works , and works by other composers , for military bands .
In March 1884 , an Imperial Order abolished the navy office of Inspector of Bands , and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov was relieved of his duties . He worked under Balakirev in the Court Chapel as a deputy until 1894 , which allowed him to study Russian Orthodox church music . He also taught classes at the Chapel , and wrote his textbook on harmony for use there and at the Conservatory .
= = = Backlash and May Night = = =
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's studies and his change in attitude regarding music education brought him the scorn of his fellow nationalists , who thought he was throwing away his Russian heritage to compose fugues and sonatas . After he strove " to crowd in as much counterpoint as possible " into his Third Symphony , he wrote chamber works adhering strictly to classical models , including a string sextet , a string quartet in F minor and a quintet for flute , clarinet , horn , bassoon and piano . About the quartet and the symphony , Tchaikovsky wrote to his patroness , Nadezhda von Meck , that they " were filled with a host of clever things but ... [ were ] imbued with a dryly pedantic character " . Borodin commented that when he heard the symphony , he kept " feeling that this is the work of a German Herr Professor who has put on his glasses and is about to write Eine grosse Symphonie in C " .
According to Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , the other members of The Five showed little enthusiasm for the symphony , and less still for the quartet . Nor was his public debut as a conductor , at an 1874 charity concert where he led the orchestra in the new symphony , considered favorably by his compatriots . He later wrote that " they began , indeed , to look down upon me as one on the downward path " . Worse still to Rimsky @-@ Korsakov was the faint praise given by Anton Rubinstein , a composer opposed to the nationalists ' music and philosophy . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote that after Rubinstein heard the quartet , he commented that now Rimsky @-@ Korsakov " might amount to something " as a composer . He wrote that Tchaikovsky continued to support him morally , telling him that he fully applauded what Rimsky @-@ Korsakov was doing and admired both his artistic modesty and his strength of character . Privately , Tchaikovsky confided to Nadezhda von Meck , " Apparently [ Rimsky @-@ Korsakov ] is now passing through this crisis , and how it will end will be difficult to predict . Either a great master will come out of him , or he will finally become bogged down in contrapuntal tricks " .
Two projects helped Rimsky @-@ Korsakov focus on less academic music @-@ making . The first was the creation of two folk song collections in 1874 . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov transcribed 40 Russian songs for voice and piano from performances by folk singer Tvorty Filippov , who approached him at Balakirev 's suggestion . This collection was followed by a second containing 100 songs , supplied by friends and servants , or taken from rare and out @-@ of @-@ print collections . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov later credited this work as a great influence on him as a composer ; it also supplied a vast amount of musical material from which he could draw for future projects , either by direct quotation or as models for composing fakeloric passages . The second project was the editing of orchestral scores by pioneer Russian composer Mikhail Glinka ( 1804 – 1857 ) in collaboration with Balakirev and Anatoly Lyadov . Glinka 's sister , Lyudmila Ivanovna Shestakova , wanted to preserve her brother 's musical legacy in print , and paid the costs of the project from her own pocket . No similar project had been attempted before in Russian music , and guidelines for scholarly musical editing had to be established and agreed . While Balakirev favored making changes in Glinka 's music to " correct " what he saw as compositional flaws , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov favored a less intrusive approach . Eventually , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov prevailed . " Work on Glinka 's scores was an unexpected schooling for me " , he later wrote . " Even before this I had known and worshipped his operas ; but as editor of the scores in print I had to go through Glinka 's style and instrumentation to their last little note ... And this was a beneficent discipline for me , leading me as it did to the path of modern music , after my vicissitudes with counterpoint and strict style " .
In the summer of 1877 , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov thought increasingly about the short story May Night by Nikolai Gogol . The story had long been a favorite of his , and his wife Nadezhda had encouraged him to write an opera based on it from the day of their betrothal , when they had read it together . While musical ideas for such a work predated 1877 , now they came with greater persistence . By winter May Night took an increasing amount of his attention ; in February 1878 he started writing in earnest , and he finished the opera by early November .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote that May Night was of great importance because , despite the opera 's containing a good deal of contrapuntal music , he nevertheless " cast off the shackles of counterpoint [ emphasis Rimsky @-@ Korsakov ] " . He wrote the opera in a folk @-@ like melodic idiom , and scored it in a transparent manner much in the style of Glinka . Nevertheless , despite the ease of writing this opera and the next , The Snow Maiden , from time to time he suffered from creative paralysis between 1881 and 1888 . He kept busy during this time by editing Mussorgsky 's works and completing Borodin 's Prince Igor ( Mussorgsky died in 1881 , Borodin in 1887 ) .
= = = Belyayev circle = = =
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote that he became acquainted with budding music patron Mitrofan Belyayev ( M. P. Belaieff ) in Moscow in 1882 . Belyayev was one of a growing coterie of Russian nouveau @-@ riche industrialists who became patrons of the arts in mid- to late @-@ 19th century Russia ; their number included railway magnate Savva Mamontov and textile manufacturer Pavel Tretyakov . Belyayev , Mamontov and Tretyakov " wanted to contribute conspicuously to public life " . They had worked their way into wealth , and being Slavophiles in their national outlook believed in the greater glory of Russia . Because of this belief , they were more likely than the aristocracy to support native talent , and were more inclined to support nationalist artists over cosmopolitan ones . This preference paralleled a general upsurge in nationalism and Russophilia that became prevalent in mainstream Russian art and society .
By the winter of 1883 Rimsky @-@ Korsakov had become a regular visitor to the weekly " quartet Fridays " ( " Les Vendredis " ) held at Belyayev 's home in Saint Petersburg . Belyayev , who had already taken a keen interest in the musical future of the teenage Alexander Glazunov , rented a hall and hired an orchestra in 1884 to play Glazunov 's First Symphony plus an orchestral suite Glazunov had just composed . This concert and a rehearsal the previous year gave Rimsky @-@ Korsakov the idea of offering concerts featuring Russian compositions , a prospect to which Belyayev was amenable . The Russian Symphony Concerts were inaugurated during the 1886 – 87 season , with Rimsky @-@ Korsakov sharing conducting duties with Anatoly Lyadov . He finished his revision of Mussorgsky 's Night on Bald Mountain and conducted it at the opening concert . The concerts also coaxed him out of his creative drought ; he wrote Scheherazade , Capriccio Espagnol and the Russian Easter Overture specifically for them . He noted that these three works " show a considerable falling off in the use of contrapuntal devices ... [ replaced ] by a strong and virtuoso development of every kind of figuration which sustains the technical interest of my compositions . "
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov was asked for advice and guidance not just on the Russian Symphony Concerts , but on other projects through which Belyayev aided Russian composers . " By force of matters purely musical I turned out to be the head of the Belyayev circle " , he wrote . " As the head Belyayev , too , considered me , consulting me about everything and referring everyone to me as chief " . In 1884 Belyayev set up an annual Glinka prize , and in 1885 he founded his own music publishing firm , through which he published works by Borodin , Glazunov , Lyadov and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov at his own expense . To select which composers to assist with money , publication or performances from the many who now appealed for help , Belyayev set up an advisory council made up of Glazunov , Lyadov and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . They would look through the compositions and appeals submitted and suggest which composers were deserving of patronage and public attention .
The group of composers who now congregated with Glazunov , Lyadov and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov became known as the Belyayev circle , named after their financial benefactor . These composers were nationalistic in their musical outlook , as The Five before them had been . Like The Five , they believed in a uniquely Russian style of classical music that utilized folk music and exotic melodic , harmonic and rhythmic elements , as exemplified by the music of Balakirev , Borodin and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . Unlike The Five , these composers also believed in the necessity of an academic , Western @-@ based background in composition — which Rimsky @-@ Korsakov had instilled in his years at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory . Compared to the " revolutionary " composers in Balakirev 's circle , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov found those in the Belyayev circle to be " progressive ... attaching as it did great importance to technical perfection , but ... also broke new paths , though more securely , even if less speedily ... "
= = = Increased contact with Tchaikovsky = = =
In November 1887 , Tchaikovsky arrived in Saint Petersburg in time to hear several of the Russian Symphony Concerts . One of them included the first complete performance of his First Symphony , subtitled Winter Daydreams , in its final version . Another concert featured the premiere of Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's Third Symphony in its revised version . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and Tchaikovsky corresponded considerably before the visit and spent a lot of time together , along with Glazunov and Lyadov . Though Tchaikovsky had been a regular visitor to the Rimsky @-@ Korsakov home since 1876 , and had at one point offered to arrange Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's appointment as director of the Moscow Conservatory , this was the beginning of closer relations between the two . Within a couple of years , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote , Tchaikovsky 's visits became more frequent .
During these visits and especially in public , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wore a mask of geniality . Privately , he found the situation emotionally complex , and confessed his fears to his friend , the Moscow critic Semyon Kruglikov . Memories persisted of the tension between Tchaikovsky and The Five over the differences in their musical philosophies — tension acute enough for Tchaikovsky 's brother Modest to liken their relations at that time to " those between two friendly neighboring states ... cautiously prepared to meet on common ground , but jealously guarding their separate interests " . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov observed , not without annoyance , how Tchaikovsky became increasingly popular among Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's followers . This personal jealousy was compounded by a professional one , as Tchaikovsky 's music became increasingly popular among the composers of the Belyayev circle , and remained on the whole more famous than his own . Even so , when Tchaikovsky attended Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's nameday party in May 1893 , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov asked Tchaikovsky personally if he would conduct four concerts of the Russian Musical Society in Saint Petersburg the following season . After hesitation , Tchaikovsky agreed . While his sudden death in late 1893 prevented him from fulfilling this commitment in its entirety , the list of works he had planned to conduct included Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's Third Symphony .
= = = Increasing conservatism ; second creative drought = = =
In March 1889 , Angelo Neumann 's traveling " Richard Wagner Theater " visited Saint Petersburg , giving four cycles of Der Ring des Nibelungen there under the direction of Karl Muck . The Five had ignored Wagner 's music , but The Ring impressed Rimsky @-@ Korsakov : he was astonished with Wagner 's mastery of orchestration . He attended the rehearsals with Glazunov , and followed the score . After hearing these performances , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov devoted himself almost exclusively to composing operas for the rest of his creative life . Wagner 's use of the orchestra influenced Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's orchestration , beginning with the arrangement of the polonaise from Mussorgsky 's Boris Godunov that he made for concert use in 1889 .
Toward music more adventurous than Wagner 's , especially that of Richard Strauss and later Claude Debussy , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's mind remained closed . He would fume for days afterwards when he heard pianist Felix Blumenfeld play Debussy 's Estampes and write in his diary about them , " Poor and skimpy to the nth degree ; there is no technique , even less imagination . " This was part of an increasing musical conservatism on his part ( his " musical conscience , " as he put it ) , under which he now scrutinized his music and that of others ' , as well . Compositions by his former compatriots in The Five were not immune . While working on his first revision of Mussorgsky 's Boris Godunov , in 1895 he would tell his amanuensis , Vasily Yastrebtsev , " It 's incredible that I ever could have liked this music and yet it seems there was such a time . " By 1901 he would write of growing " indignant at all [ of Wagner 's ] blunders of the ear " — this about the same music which caught his attention in 1889 .
In 1892 Rimsky @-@ Korsakov suffered a second creative drought , brought on by bouts of depression and alarming physical symptoms . Rushes of blood to the head , confusion , memory loss and unpleasant obsessions led to a medical diagnosis of neurasthenia . Crises in the Rimsky @-@ Korsakov household may have been a factor — the serious illnesses of his wife and one of his sons from diphtheria in 1890 , the deaths of his mother and youngest child , as well as the onset of the prolonged , ultimately fatal illness of his second youngest child . He resigned from the Russian Symphony Concerts and the Court Chapel and considered giving up composition permanently . After making third versions of the musical tableau Sadko and the opera The Maid of Pskov , he closed his musical account with the past ; he had left none of his major works before May Night in their original form .
Another death brought about a creative renewal . The passing of Tchaikovsky presented a twofold opportunity — to write for the Imperial Theaters and to compose an opera based on Nikolai Gogol 's short story Christmas Eve , a work on which Tchaikovsky had based his opera Vakula the Smith . The success of Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's Christmas Eve encouraged him to complete an opera approximately every 18 months between 1893 and 1908 — a total of 11 during this period . He also started and abandoned another draft of his treatise on orchestration , but made a third attempt and almost finished it in the last four years of his life . ( His son @-@ in @-@ law Maximilian Steinberg completed the book in 1912 . ) Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's scientific treatment of orchestration , illustrated with more than 300 examples from his work , set a new standard for texts of its kind .
= = = 1905 Revolution = = =
In 1905 , demonstrations took place in the St. Petersburg Conservatory as part of the 1905 Revolution ; these , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote , were triggered by similar disturbances at St. Petersburg State University , in which students demanded political reforms and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in Russia . " I was chosen a member of the committee for adjusting differences with agitated pupils " , he recalled ; however , almost as soon as the committee had been formed , " [ a ] ll sorts of measures were recommended to expel the ringleaders , to quarter the police in the Conservatory , to close the Conservatory entirely " .
A lifelong liberal politically , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote that he felt someone had to protect the rights of the students to demonstrate , especially as disputes and wrangling between students and authorities were becoming increasingly violent . In an open letter , he sided with the students against what he saw as unwarranted interference by Conservatory leadership and the Russian Musical Society . A second letter , this time signed by a number of faculty including Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , demanded the resignation of the head of the Conservatory . Partly as a result of these two letters he wrote , approximately 100 Conservatory students were expelled and he was removed from his professorship . Just before the dismissal was enacted , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov received a letter from one of the members of the school directorate , suggesting that he take up the directorship in the interest of calming student unrest . " Probably the member of the Directorate held a minority opinion , but signed the resolution nevertheless , " he wrote . " I sent a negative reply . " Partly in defiance of his dismissal , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov continued teaching his students from his home .
Not long after Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's dismissal , a student production of his opera Kashchey the Deathless was followed not with the scheduled concert but with a political demonstration , which led to a police ban on Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's work . Due in part to widespread press coverage of these events , an immediate wave of outrage against the ban arose throughout Russia and abroad ; liberals and intellectuals deluged the composer 's residence with letters of sympathy , and even peasants who had not heard a note of Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's music sent small monetary donations . Several faculty members of the St. Petersburg Conservatory resigned in protest , including Glazunov and Lyadov . Eventually , over 300 students walked out of the Conservatory in solidarity with Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . By December he had been reinstated under a new director , Glazunov ; Rimsky @-@ Korsakov retired from the Conservatory in 1906 . The political controversy continued with his opera The Golden Cockerel . Its implied criticism of monarchy , Russian imperialism and the Russo @-@ Japanese War gave it little chance of passing the censors . The premiere was delayed until 1909 , after Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's death , and even then it was performed in an adapted version .
In April 1907 , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov conducted a pair of concerts in Paris , hosted by impresario Sergei Diaghilev , which featured music of the Russian nationalist school . The concerts were hugely successful in popularizing Russian classical music of this kind in Europe , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's in particular . The following year , his opera Sadko was produced at the Paris Opéra and The Snow Maiden at the Opéra @-@ Comique . He also had the opportunity to hear more recent music by European composers . He hissed unabashedly when he heard Richard Strauss 's opera Salome , and told Diaghilev after hearing Claude Debussy 's opera Pelléas et Mélisande , " Don 't make me listen to all these horrors or I shall end up liking them ! " Hearing these works led him to appreciate his place in the world of classical music . He admitted that he was a " convinced kuchkist " ( after kuchka , the shortened Russian term for The Five ) and that his works belonged to an era that musical trends had left behind .
= = = Death = = =
Beginning around 1890 , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov suffered from angina . While this ailment initially wore him down gradually , the stresses concurrent with the 1905 Revolution and its aftermath greatly accelerated its progress . After December 1907 , his illness became severe , and he could not work . In 1908 he died at his Lubensk estate near Luga ( modern day Plyussky District of Pskov Oblast ) , and was interred in Tikhvin Cemetery at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in Saint Petersburg , next to Borodin , Glinka , Mussorgsky and Stasov .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Compositions = = =
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov followed the musical ideals espoused by The Five . He employed Orthodox liturgical themes in the Russian Easter Festival Overture , folk song in Capriccio Espagnol and orientalism in Scheherazade , possibly his best known work . He proved a prolific composer but also a perpetually self @-@ critical one . He revised every orchestral work up to and including his Third Symphony — some , like Antar and Sadko , more than once . These revisions range from minor changes of tempo , phrasing and instrumental detail to wholesale transposition and complete recomposition .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov was open about the influences in his music , telling Vasily Yastrebtsev , " Study Liszt and Balakirev more closely , and you 'll see that a great deal in me is not mine " . He followed Balakirev in his use of the whole tone scale , treatment of folk songs and musical orientalism and Liszt for harmonic adventurousness . ( The violin melody used to portray Scheherazade is very closely related to its counterpart in Balakirev 's symphonic poem Tamara , while the Russian Easter Overtures follows the design and plan of Balakirev 's Second Overture on Russian Themes . ) Nevertheless , while he took Glinka and Liszt as his harmonic models , his use of whole tone and octatonic scales do demonstrate his originality . He developed both these compositional devices for the " fantastic " sections of his operas , which depicted magical or supernatural characters and events .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov maintained an interest in harmonic experiments and continued exploring new idioms throughout his career . However , he tempered this interest with an abhorrence of excess and kept his tendency to experiment under constant control . The more radical his harmonies became , the more he attempted to control them with strict rules — applying his " musical conscience " , as he called it . In this sense , he was both a progressive and a conservative composer . The whole tone and octatonic scales were both considered adventurous in the Western classical tradition , and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's use of them made his harmonies seem radical . Conversely , his care about how or when in a composition he used these scales made him seem conservative compared with later composers like Igor Stravinsky , though they were often building on Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's work .
= = = = Operas = = = =
While Rimsky @-@ Korsakov is best known in the West for his orchestral works , his operas are more complex , offering a wider variety of orchestral effects than in his instrumental works and fine vocal writing . Excerpts and suites from them have proved as popular in the West as the purely orchestral works . The best @-@ known of these excerpts is probably " Flight of the Bumblebee " from The Tale of Tsar Saltan , which has often been heard by itself in orchestral programs , and in countless arrangements and transcriptions , most famously in a piano version made by Russian composer Sergei Rachmaninoff . Other selections familiar to listeners in the West are " Dance of the Tumblers " from The Snow Maiden , " Procession of the Nobles " from Mlada , and " Song of the Indian Guest " ( or , less accurately , " Song of India " ) from Sadko , as well as suites from The Golden Cockerel and The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevroniya .
The Operas fall into three categories :
Historical drama : The Maid of Pskov , and its prologue The Noblewoman Vera Sheloga , Mozart and Salieri , The Tsar 's Bride , Pan Voyevoda , Servilya
Folk operas : May Night , Christmas Eve
Fairy tales and legends : The Snow Maiden , Mlada , Sadko , Kashchey the Deathless , The Tale of Tsar Saltan , The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevroniya , The Golden Cockerel
Of this range Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote in 1902 , " In every new work of mine I am trying to do something that is new for me . On the one hand , I am pushed on by the thought that in this way , [ my music ] will retain freshness and interest , but at the same time I am prompted by my pride to think that many facets , devices , moods and styles , if not all , should be within my reach . "
American music critic and journalist Harold C. Schonberg wrote that the operas " open up a delightful new world , the world of the Russian East , the world of supernaturalism and the exotic , the world of Slavic pantheism and vanished races . Genuine poetry suffuses them , and they are scored with brilliance and resource . " According to some critics Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's music in these works lacks dramatic power , a seemingly fatal flaw in an operatic composer . This may have been conscious , as he repeatedly stated in his writing that he felt operas were first and foremost musical works rather than mainly dramatic ones . Ironically , the operas succeed dramatically in most cases by being deliberately non @-@ theatrical .
= = = = Orchestral works = = = =
The purely orchestral works fall into two categories . The best @-@ known ones in the West , and perhaps the finest in overall quality , are mainly programmatic in nature — in other words , the musical content and how it is handled in the piece is determined by the plot or characters in a story , the action in a painting or events reported through another non @-@ musical source . The second category of works are more academic , such as his First and Third Symphonies and his Sinfonietta . In these , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov still employed folk themes but subjected them to abstract rules of musical composition .
Program music came naturally to Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . To him , " even a folk theme has a program of sorts . " He composed the majority of his orchestral works in this genre at two periods of his career — at the beginning , with Sadko and Antar ( also known as his Second Symphony , Op. 9 ) , and in the 1880s , with Scheherezade , Capriccio Espagnol and the Russian Easter Overture . Despite the gap between these two periods , the composer 's overall approach and the way he used his musical themes remained consistent . Both Antar and Scheherezade use a robust " Russian " theme to portray the male progagonists ( the title character in Antar ; the sultan in Scheherezade ) and a more sinuous " Eastern " theme for the female ones ( the peri Gul @-@ Nazar in Antar and the title character in Scheherezade ) .
Where Rimsky @-@ Korsakov changed between these two sets of works was in orchestration . While his pieces were always celebrated for their imaginative use of instrumental forces , the sparser textures of Sadko and Antar pale compared to the luxuriance of the more popular works of the 1880s . While a principle of highlighting " primary hues " of instrumental color remained in place , it was augmented in the later works by a sophisticated cachet of orchestral effects , some gleaned from other composers including Wagner , but many invented by himself . As a result , these works resemble brightly colored mosaics , striking in their own right and often scored with a juxtaposition of pure orchestral groups . The final tutti of Scheherazade is a prime example of this scoring . The theme is assigned to trombones playing in unison , and is accompanied by a combination of string patterns . Meanwhile , another pattern alternates with chromatic scales in the woodwinds and a third pattern of rhythms is played by percussion .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's non @-@ program music , though well @-@ crafted , does not rise to the same level of inspiration as his programmatic works ; he needed fantasy to bring out the best in him . The First Symphony follows the outlines of Schumann 's Fourth extremely closely , and is slighter in its thematic material than his later compositions . The Third Symphony and Sinfonietta each contain a series of variations on less @-@ than @-@ the @-@ best music that can lead to tedium .
= = = = Smaller @-@ scale works = = = =
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov composed dozens of art songs , arrangements of folk songs , chamber and piano music . While the piano music is relatively unimportant , many of the art songs possess a delicate beauty . While they yield in overy lyricism to Tchaikovsky and Rachmaninoff , otherwise they reserve their place in the standard repertory of Russian singers .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov also wrote a body of choral works , both secular and for Russian Orthodox Church service . The latter include settings of portions of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom .
= = = Transitional figure = = =
Critic Vladimir Stasov , who along with Balakirev had founded The Five , wrote in 1882 , " Beginning with Glinka , all the best Russian musicians have been very skeptical of book learning and have never approached it with the servility and the superstitious reverence with which it is approached to this day in many parts of Europe . " This statement was not true for Glinka , who studied Western music theory assiduously with Siegfried Dehn in Berlin before he composed his opera A Life for the Tsar However , it was true for Balakirev , who " opposed academicism with tremendous vigor , " and it was true initially for Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , who had been imbued by Balakirev and Stasov with the same attitude .
One point Stasov omitted purposely , which would have disproved his statement completely , was that at the time he wrote it , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov had been pouring his " book learning " into students at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory for over a decade . Beginning with his three years of self @-@ imposed study , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov had drawn closer to Tchaikovsky and further away from the rest of The Five , while the rest of The Five had drawn back from him and Stasov had branded him a " renegade . " Taruskin writes , " The older he became , the greater was the irony with which Rimsky @-@ Korsakov looked back on his kuchkist days . " When the young Semyon Kruglikov was considering a future in composition , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote the future critic ,
About a talent for composition ... I can say nothing as yet . You have tried your powers too little .... Yes , one can study on one 's own . Sometimes one needs advice , but one must study ... All of us , that is , I myself and Borodin , and Balakirev , and especially Cui and Mussorgsky , did disdain these things . I consider myself lucky that I bethought myself in time and forced myself to work . As for Balakirev , owing to his insufficient technique he writes little ; Borodin , with difficulty ; Cui , carelessly ; and Mussorgsky , sloppily and often incoherently . "
Taruskin points out this statement , which Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote while Borodin and Mussorgsky were still alive , as proof of his estrangement from the rest of The Five and an indication of the kind of teacher he eventually became . By the time he instructed Liadov and Glazunov , " their training hardly differed from [ Tchaikovsky 's ] . An ideal of the strictest professionalism was instilled in them from the beginning . " By the time Borodin died in 1887 , the era of autodidactism for Russian composers had effectively ended . Every Russian who aspired to write classical music attended a conservatory and received the same formal education . " There was no more ' Moscow , ' no ' St. Petersburg . ' " Taruskin writes ; " at last all Russia was one . Moreover , by century 's end , the theory and composition faculties of Rubinstein 's Conservatory were entirely in the hands of representatives of the New Russian School . Viewed against the background of Stasov 's predictions , there could scarcely be any greater irony . "
= = = Students = = =
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov taught theory and composition to 250 students over his 35 @-@ year tenure at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory , " enough to people a whole ' school ' of composers . " This does not include pupils at the two other schools where he taught , including Glazunov , or those he taught privately at his home , such as Igor Stravinsky . Apart from Glazunov and Stravinsky , students who later found fame included Anatoly Lyadov , Alexander Spendiaryan , Sergei Prokofiev , Ottorino Respighi , Witold Maliszewski , Mykola Lysenko , Artur Kapp , and Konstanty Gorski . Other students included the music critic and musicologist Alexander Ossovsky , and the composer Lazare Saminsky .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov felt talented students needed little formal dictated instruction . His teaching method included distinct steps : show the students everything needed in harmony and counterpoint ; direct them in understanding the forms of composition ; give them a year or two of systematic study in the development of technique , exercises in free composition and orchestration ; instill a good knowledge of the piano . Once these were properly completed , studies would be over . He carried this attitude into his conservatory classes . Conductor Nikolai Malko remembered that Rimsky @-@ Korsakov began the first class of the term by saying , " I will speak , and you will listen . Then I will speak less , and you will start to work . And finally I will not speak at all , and you will work . " Malko added that his class followed exactly this pattern . " Rimsky @-@ Korsakov explained everything so clearly and simply that all we had to do was to do our work well . "
= = = Editing the work of The Five = = =
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's editing of works by The Five is significant . It was a practical extension of the collaborative atmosphere of The Five during the 1860s and 1870s , when they heard each other 's compositions in progress and worked on them together , and was an effort to save works that would otherwise either have languished unheard or become lost entirely . This work included the completion of Alexander Borodin 's opera Prince Igor , which Rimsky @-@ Korsakov undertook with the help of Glazunov after Borodin 's death , and the orchestration of passages from César Cui 's William Ratcliff for its first production in 1869 . He also completely orchestrated the opera The Stone Guest by Alexander Dargomyzhsky three times — in 1869 – 70 , 1892 and 1902 . While not a member of The Five himself , Dargomyzhsky was closely associated with the group and shared their musical philosophy .
Musicologist Francis Maes wrote that while Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's efforts are laudable , they are also controversial . It was generally assumed that with Prince Igor , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov edited and orchestrated the existing fragments of the opera while Glazunov composed and added missing parts , including most of the third act and the overture . This was exactly what Rimsky @-@ Korsakov stated in his memoirs . However , both Maes and Richard Taruskin cite an analysis of Borodin 's manuscripts by musicologist Pavel Lamm , which showed that Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and Glazunov discarded nearly 20 percent of Borodin 's score . According to Maes , the result is more a collaborative effort by all three composers than a true representation of Borodin 's intent . Lamm stated that because of the extremely chaotic state of Borodin 's manuscripts , a modern alternative to Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and Glazunov 's edition would be extremely difficult to complete .
More debatable , according to Maes , is Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's editing of Mussorgsky 's works . After Mussorgsky 's death in 1881 , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov revised and completed several of Mussorgsky 's works for publication and performance , helping to spread Mussorgsky 's works throughout Russia and to the West . However Maes , in reviewing Mussorgsky 's scores , wrote that Rimsky @-@ Korsakov allowed his " musical conscience " to dictate his editing , and he changed or removed what he considered musical over @-@ experimentation or poor form . Because of this , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov has been accused of pedantry in " correcting " , among other things , matters of harmony . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov may have foreseen questions over his efforts when he wrote ,
If Mussorgsky 's compositions are destined to live unfaded for fifty years after their author 's death ( when all his works will become the property of any and every publisher ) , such an archeologically accurate edition will always be possible , as the manuscripts went to the Public Library on leaving me . For the present , though , there was need of an edition for performances , for practical artistic purposes , for making his colossal talent known , and not for the mere studying of his personality and artistic sins .
Maes stated that time proved Rimsky @-@ Korsakov correct when it came to posterity 's re @-@ evaluation of Mussorgsky 's work . Mussorgsky 's musical style , once considered unpolished , is now admired for its originality . While Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's arrangement of Night on Bald Mountain is
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the Union , and Seward worked to advance his agenda in the Senate .
The regular session of Congress that began in December 1849 was dominated by the issue of slavery . Senator Clay advanced a series of resolutions , which became known as the Compromise of 1850 , giving victories to both North and South . Seward opposed the pro @-@ slavery elements of the Compromise , and in a speech on the Senate floor on March 11 , 1850 invoked a " higher law than the Constitution " . The speech was widely reprinted , and made Seward the leading anti @-@ slavery advocate in the Senate . President Taylor took a stance sympathetic to the North , but his death in July 1850 caused the accession of the pro @-@ Compromise Fillmore and ended Seward 's influence over patronage . The Compromise passed , and many Seward adherents in federal office in New York were replaced by Fillmore appointees .
Although Clay had hoped the Compromise would be a final settlement on the matter of slavery that could unite the nation , it divided his Whig Party , especially when the 1852 Whig National Convention endorsed it to the anger of liberal northerners like Seward . The major candidates for the presidential nomination were President Fillmore , Senator Daniel Webster , and General Scott . Seward supported Scott , who he hoped like Harrison could unite enough voters behind a military hero to win the election . Scott gained the nomination , and Seward campaigned for him . With the Whigs unable to reconcile over slavery , whereas the Democrats could unite behind the Compromise , the Whigs won only four states , and former New Hampshire senator Franklin Pierce was elected president . Other events , such as the 1852 publication of Uncle Tom 's Cabin and Northern anger over the enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act ( an element of the Compromise ) , widened the divide between North and South .
Seward 's wife Frances was deeply committed to the abolitionist movement . In the 1850s , the Seward family opened their Auburn home as a safehouse to fugitive slaves on the Underground Railroad . Seward 's frequent travel and political work suggest that it was Frances who played the more active role in Auburn abolitionist activities . In the excitement following the rescue and safe transport of fugitive slave William " Jerry " Henry in Syracuse on October 1 , 1851 , Frances wrote to her husband , " two fugitives have gone to Canada — one of them our acquaintance John . " Another time she wrote , " A man by the name of William Johnson will apply to you for assistance to purchase the freedom of his daughter . You will see that I have given him something by his book . I told him I thought you would give him more . "
In January 1854 , Democratic Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas introduced his Kansas – Nebraska Bill . This would permit territories to choose whether to join the Union as free or slave states , and effectively repeal the Missouri Compromise forbidding slavery in new states north of 36 ° 30 ′ North latitude . Seward was determined to defeat what he called " this infamous Nebraska Bill " , and worked to ensure the final version of the bill would be unpalatable to enough senators , North and South , to defeat it . Seward spoke against the bill both on initial consideration in the Senate and when the bill returned after reconciliation with the House . The bill passed into law , but northerners felt they had found a standard around which they could rally . Those in the South defended the new law , arguing that they should have an equal stake through slavery in the territories their blood and money had helped secure .
= = = Second term = = =
The political turmoil engendered by the North @-@ South divide not only split both major parties , but led to the founding of new ones . The American Party ( better known as the Know Nothings ) contained many nativists , and pursued an anti @-@ immigrant agenda . The Know Nothings did not publicly discuss party deliberations ( thus , they knew nothing ) . They disliked Seward , and an uncertain number of Know Nothings sought the Whig nomination to legislative seats . Some made clear their stance by pledging to vote against Seward 's re @-@ election , but others did not . Although the Whigs won a majority in both houses of the state legislature , the extent of their support for Seward as US senator was unclear . When the election was held by the legislature in February 1855 , Seward won a narrow majority in each house . The opposition was scattered , and a Know Nothing party organ denounced two dozen legislators as " traitors " .
The Republican Party had been founded in 1854 , in reaction to the Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act . Its anti @-@ slavery stance was attractive to Seward , but he needed the Whig structure in New York to get re @-@ elected . In September 1855 , the New York Whig and Republican parties held simultaneous conventions that quickly merged into one . Seward was the most prominent figure to join the new party , and was spoken of as a possible presidential candidate in 1856 . Weed , however , did not feel that the new party was strong enough on a national level to secure the presidency , and advised Seward to wait until 1860 . When Seward 's name was mentioned at the 1856 Republican National Convention , a huge ovation broke out . In the 1856 presidential election , the Democratic candidate , former Pennsylvania senator James Buchanan , defeated the Republican , former California senator John C. Frémont , and the Know Nothing candidate , former president Fillmore .
The 1856 campaign played out against the backdrop of " Bleeding Kansas " , the violent efforts of pro- and anti @-@ slavery forces to control the government in Kansas Territory and determine whether it would be admitted as a slave or free state . This violence spilled over into the Senate chamber itself after Republican Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner delivered an incendiary speech against slavery , making personal comments against South Carolina Senator Andrew P. Butler . Sumner had read a draft of the speech to Seward , who had advised him to omit the personal references . Two days after the speech , Butler 's nephew , Congressman Preston Brooks entered the chamber and beat Sumner with a cane , injuring him severely . Although some southerners feared the propaganda value of the incident in the North , most lionized Brooks as a hero . Many northerners were outraged , though some , including Seward , felt that Sumner 's words against Butler had unnecessarily provoked the attack . Some Southern newspapers felt that the Sumner precedent might usefully be applied to Seward ; the Petersburg Intelligencer , a Virginia periodical , suggested that " it will be very well to give Seward a double dose at least every other day " .
In a message to Congress in December 1857 , President Buchanan advocated the admission of Kansas as a slave state under the Lecompton Constitution , passed under dubious circumstances . This split the Democrats : the administration wanted Kansas admitted ; Senator Douglas demanded a fair ratification vote . The Senate debated the matter through much of early 1858 , though few Republicans spoke at first , content to watch the Democrats tear their party to shreds over the issue of slavery . The issue was complicated by the Supreme Court 's ruling the previous year in Dred Scott v. Sandford that neither Congress nor a local government could ban slavery in the territories .
In a speech on March 3 in the Senate , Seward " delighted Republican ears and utterly appalled administration Democrats , especially the Southerners " . Discussing Dred Scott , Seward accused Buchanan and Chief Justice Roger B. Taney of conspiring to gain the result , and threatened to reform the courts to eliminate Southern power . Taney later told a friend that if Seward had been elected in 1860 , he would have refused to administer the oath of office . Buchanan reportedly denied the senator access to the White House . Seward predicted slavery was doomed :
The interest of the white races demands the ultimate emancipation of all men . Whether that consummation shall be allowed to take effect , with needful and wise precautions against sudden change and disaster , or be hurried on by violence , is all that remains for you to decide .
Southerners saw this as a threat , by the man deemed the likely Republican nominee in 1860 , to force change on the South whether it liked it or not . Statehood for Kansas failed for the time being , but Seward 's words were repeatedly cited by Southern senators as the secession crisis grew . Nevertheless , Seward remained on excellent personal terms with individual southerners such as Mississippi 's Jefferson Davis . His dinner parties , where those from both sides of the sectional divide mixed and mingled , were a Washington legend .
With an eye to a presidential bid in 1860 , Seward tried to appear a statesman who could be trusted by both North and South . Seward did not believe the federal government could mandate emancipation but that it would develop by action of the slave states as the nation urbanized and slavery became uneconomical , as it had in New York . Southerners still believed that he was threatening the forced end of slavery . While campaigning for Republicans in the 1858 midterm elections , Seward gave a speech at Rochester that proved divisive and quotable , alleging that the U.S. had two " antagonistic system [ that ] are continually coming into closer contact , and collision results . … It is an irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring forces , and it means that the United States must and will , sooner or later , become entirely either a slave @-@ holding nation , or entirely a free @-@ labor nation . " White southerners saw the " irrepressible conflict " speech as a declaration of war , and Seward 's vehemence ultimately damaged his chances of gaining the presidential nomination .
= = Election of 1860 = =
= = = Candidate for the nomination = = =
In 1859 , Seward was advised by his political supporters that he would be better off avoiding additional controversial statements , and left the country for an eight @-@ month tour of Europe and the Middle East . Seward spent two months in London , meeting with the Prime Minister , Lord Palmerston , and was presented at Court to Queen Victoria . Seward returned to Washington in January 1860 to find controversy : that some southerners blamed him for his rhetoric , which they believed had inspired John Brown to try to start a slave insurrection . Brown was captured and executed ; nevertheless , Mississippi representatives Reuben Davis and Otho Singleton each stated that if Seward or another Radical Republican was elected , he would meet with the resistance of a united South . To rebut such allegations , and to set forth his views in the hope of receiving the nomination , Seward made a major speech in the Senate on February 29 , 1860 , which most praised , though white southerners were offended , and some abolitionists also objected because the senator , in his speech , said that Brown was justly punished . The Republican National Committee ordered 250 @,@ 000 copies in pamphlet form , and eventually twice that many were printed .
Weed sometimes expressed certainty that Seward would be nominated ; at other times he expressed gloom at the thought of the convention fight . He had some reason for doubt , as word from Weed 's agents across the country was mixed . Many in the Midwest did not want the issue of slavery to dominate the campaign , and with Seward as nominee , it inevitably would . The Know Nothing Party was still alive in the Northeast , and was hostile to Seward for his pro @-@ immigrant stances , creating doubts as to whether Seward could win Pennsylvania and New Jersey , where there were many nativists , in the general election . These states were crucial to a Republican nominee faced with a Solid South . Conservative factions in the evolving Republican Party opposed Seward .
= = = Convention = = =
There were no primaries in 1860 , no way to be certain how many delegates a candidate might receive . Nevertheless , going into the 1860 Republican National Convention in May in Chicago , Seward was seen as the overwhelming favorite . Others spoken of for the nomination included Ohio Governor Salmon P. Chase , former Missouri congressman Edward Bates , and former Illinois congressman Abraham Lincoln .
Seward stayed in Auburn during the convention ; Weed was present on his behalf and worked to shore up Seward 's support . He was amply supplied with money : business owners had eagerly given , expecting Seward to be the next president . Weed 's reputation was not entirely positive ; he was believed corrupt by some , and his association both helped and hurt Seward .
Enemies such as publisher and former Seward ally Horace Greeley cast doubts as to Seward 's electability in the battleground states of Illinois , Indiana , Pennsylvania and New Jersey . Lincoln had worked hard to gain a reputation as a moderate in the party and hoped to be seen as a consensus second choice , who might be successful in those critical states , of which the Republicans had to win three to secure the election . Lincoln 's men , led by his friend David Davis , were active on his behalf . As Lincoln had not been seen as a major candidate , his supporters had been able to influence the decision to hold the convention in his home state , and surrounded the New York delegation , pro @-@ Seward , with Lincoln loyalists . They eventually were successful in gaining the support of the delegations from the other battleground states , boosting delegates ' perceptions of Lincoln 's electability . Although Lincoln and Seward shared many views , Lincoln , out of office since 1849 , had not excited opposition as Seward had in the South and among Know Nothings . Lincoln 's views on nativism , which he opposed , were not public .
On the first ballot , Seward had 173 ½ votes to Lincoln 's 102 , with 233 needed to nominate . Pennsylvania shifted its vote to Lincoln on the second ballot , and Seward 's lead was cut to 184 ½ to 181 . On the third , Lincoln had 231 ½ to Seward 's 180 after the roll call , but Ohio changed four votes from Chase to Lincoln , giving the Illinoian the nomination and starting a small stampede ; the nomination was eventually made unanimous . When word reached Seward by telegraph , by the accounts of witnesses , he calmly remarked that Lincoln had some of the attributes needed to be president , and would certainly be elected .
= = = Campaigning for Lincoln = = =
Despite his public nonchalance , Seward was devastated by his convention loss , as were many of his supporters . The New Yorker was the best @-@ known and most popular Republican , and his defeat shocked many in the North , who felt that Lincoln had been nominated through chicanery . Although Seward sent a letter stating Weed was not to blame , Seward 's political manager took the defeat hard . Seward was initially inclined to retire from public life , but received many letters from supporters : distrustful of Lincoln , they urged Seward to remain involved in politics . On his way to Washington to return to Senate duties , he stopped in Albany to confer with Weed , who had gone to Lincoln 's home in Springfield , Illinois to meet with the candidate , and had been very impressed at Lincoln 's political understanding . At the Capitol , Seward received sympathy even from sectional foes such as Jefferson Davis .
Lincoln faced three major opponents . A split in the Democratic Party had led northerners to nominate Senator Douglas , while southerners chose Vice President John C. Breckenridge . The Constitutional Union Party selected former Tennessee senator John Bell . As Lincoln would not even be on the ballot in ten southern states , he needed to win almost every northern state to take the presidency . Douglas was said to be strong in Illinois and Indiana , and if he took those , the election might be thrown into the House of Representatives . Seward was urged to undertake a campaign tour of the Midwest in support of Lincoln and did so for five weeks in September and October , attracting huge crowds . He journeyed by rail and boat as far north as Saint Paul , Minnesota , into the border state of Missouri at St. Louis , and even to Kansas Territory , though it had no electoral votes to cast in the election . When the train passed through Springfield , Seward and Lincoln were introduced , with Lincoln appearing " embarrassed " and Seward " constrained " . In his oratory , Seward spoke of the U.S. as a " tower of freedom " , a Union that might even include Canada , Latin America , and Russian America .
New York was key to the election ; a Lincoln loss there would deadlock the Electoral College . Soon after his return from his Midwest tour , Seward embarked on another , across New York State , speaking to large crowds . At Weed 's urging he went to New York City and gave a patriotic speech before a large crowd on November 3 , only three days before the election . On Election Day , Lincoln carried most Northern states , while Breckenridge took the Deep South , Bell three border states , and Douglas won Missouri — the only state Seward campaigned in that Lincoln did not win . Lincoln was elected .
= = Secession crisis = =
Lincoln 's election had been anticipated in Southern states , and South Carolina and other Deep South states began to call conventions for the purpose of secession . In the North , there was dissent over whether to offer concessions to the South to preserve the Union , and if conciliation failed , whether to allow the South to depart in peace . Seward favored compromise . He had hoped to remain at home until the New Year , but with the deepening crisis left for Washington in time for the new session of Congress in early December .
The usual tradition was for the leading figure of the winning party to be offered the position of Secretary of State , the most senior Cabinet post . Seward was that man and around December 12 , the vice president @-@ elect , Maine Senator Hannibal Hamlin , offered Seward the position on Lincoln 's behalf . At Weed 's advice , Seward was slow to formally accept , doing so on December 28 , 1860 , though well before Inauguration Day , March 4 , 1861 . Lincoln remained in Illinois until mid @-@ February , and he and Seward communicated by letter .
As states in the Deep South prepared to secede in late 1860 , Seward met with important figures from both sides of the sectional divide . Seward introduced a proposed constitutional amendment preventing federal interference with slavery . This was done at Lincoln 's private request ; the president @-@ elect hoped that the amendment , and a change to the Fugitive Slave Act to allow those captured a jury trial , would satisfy both sides . Congressmen introduced many such proposals , and Seward was appointed to a committee of 13 senators to consider them . Lincoln was willing to guarantee the security of slavery in the states that currently had it , but he rejected any proposal that would allow slavery to expand . It was increasingly clear that the deep South was committed to secession ; the Republican hope was to provide compromises to keep the border slave states in the Union . Seward voted against the Crittenden Compromise on December 28 , but quietly continued to seek a compromise that would keep the border states in the Union .
Seward gave a major speech on January 12 , 1861 . By then , he was known to be Lincoln 's choice as Secretary of State , and with Lincoln staying silent , it was widely expected that he would propound the new administration 's plan to save the Union . Accordingly , he spoke to a crowded Senate , where even Jefferson Davis attended despite Mississippi 's secession , and to packed galleries . He urged the preservation of the Union , and supported an amendment such as the one he had introduced , or a constitutional convention , once passions had cooled . He hinted that New Mexico Territory might be a slave state , and urged the construction of two transcontinental railroads , one northern , one southern . He suggested the passage of legislation to bar interstate invasions such as that by John Brown . Although Seward 's speech was widely applauded , it gained a mixed reaction in the border states to which he had tried to appeal . Radical Republicans were not willing to make concessions to the South , and were angered by the speech . Pennsylvania Congressman Thaddeus Stevens , a radical , warned that if Lincoln like Seward ignored the Republican platform and tried to purchase peace through concessions , he would retire , as too old to bear the years of warfare in the Republican Party that would result .
Lincoln applauded Seward 's speech , which he read in Springfield , but refused to approve any compromise that could lead to a further expansion of slavery . Once Lincoln left Springfield on February 11 , he gave speeches , stating in Indianapolis that it would not be coercing a state if the federal government insisted on retaining or retaking property that belonged to it . This came as the United States Army still held Fort Sumter ; the president @-@ elect 's words upset moderate southerners . Virginia Congressman Sherrard Clemens wrote , " Mr. Lincoln , by his speech in the North , has done vast harm . If he will not be guided by Mr. Seward but puts himself in the hands of Mr. Chase and the ultra [ that is , Radical ] Republicans , nothing can save the cause of the Union in the South . "
Lincoln arrived in Washington , without announcement and incognito , early on the morning of February 23 , 1861 . Seward had been advised by General Winfield Scott that there was a plot to assassinate Lincoln in Baltimore when he passed through the city . Senator Seward sent his son Frederick to warn Lincoln in Philadelphia , and the president @-@ elect decided to travel alone but for well @-@ armed bodyguards . Lincoln travelled without incident , and came to regret his decision as he was widely mocked for it . Later that morning , Seward accompanied Lincoln to the White House , where he introduced the Illinoisan to President Buchanan .
Seward and Lincoln differed over two issues in the days before the inauguration : the composition of Lincoln 's cabinet , and his inaugural address . Given a draft of the address , Seward softened it to make it less confrontational toward the South ; Lincoln accepted many of the changes , though he gave it , according to Seward biographer Glyndon G. Van Deusen , " a simplicity and a poetic quality lacking in Seward 's draft " . The differences regarding the Cabinet revolved around the inclusion of Salmon Chase , a radical . Lincoln wanted all elements of the party , as well as representation from outside it ; Seward opposed Chase , as well as Democrats such as Gideon Wells and Montgomery Blair . Seward did not get his way , and gave Lincoln a letter declining the post of Secretary of State . Lincoln felt , as he told his private secretary , John Nicolay , that he could not " afford to let Seward take the first trick " . No reply or acknowledgement was made by Lincoln until after the inaugural ceremonies were over on March 4 , when he asked Seward to remain . Seward did and was both nominated , and confirmed by the Senate , with minimal debate , on March 5 , 1861 .
= = Secretary of State = =
= = = Lincoln administration = = =
= = = = War breaks out = = = =
Lincoln faced the question of what to do about Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor , held by the Army against the will of South Carolinians , who had blockaded it . Major Robert Anderson , in command , had sent word that he would run out of supplies . Seward , backed by most of the Cabinet , recommended to Lincoln that an attempt to resupply Sumter would be provocative to the border states , that Lincoln hoped to keep from seceding . Seward hinted to the commissioners that had come to Washington on behalf of the Confederacy that Sumter would be surrendered . Lincoln was loath to give up Sumter , feeling it would only encourage the South in its insurgency .
With the Sumter issue unresolved , Seward sent Lincoln a memorandum on April 1 , proposing various courses of action , including possibly declaring war on France and Spain if certain conditions were not met , and reinforcing the forts along the Gulf of Mexico . In any event , vigorous policies were needed and the president must either establish them himself or allow a Cabinet member to , with Seward making it clear he was willing to do it . Lincoln drafted a reply indicating that whatever policy was adopted , " I must do it " , though he never sent it , but met with Seward instead , and what passed between them is not known . Seward 's biographers make the point that the note was sent to a Lincoln who had not yet proved himself in office .
Lincoln decided on expeditions to try to relieve Sumter and Florida 's Fort Pickens . Meanwhile , Seward was assuring Justice John Archibald Campbell , the intermediary with the Confederate commissioners that had come to Washington in an attempt to secure recognition , that no hostile action would be taken . Lincoln sent a notification to South Carolina 's governor of the expedition , and on April 12 , Charleston 's batteries began firing on Sumter , beginning the Civil War .
= = = = Diplomacy = = = =
When the war started Seward turned his attention to making sure that foreign powers did not interfere in the conflict . When in April 1861 , the Confederacy announced that it would authorize privateers , Seward sent word to the American representatives abroad that the U.S. would become party to the Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law of 1856 , outlawing such vessels , but Britain required that , if the U.S. were to become a party , the ratification would not require action to be taken against Confederate vessels .
The Palmerston government considered recognizing the Confederacy as an independent nation . Seward was willing to wage war against Britain if it did , and drafted a strong letter for the American Minister in London , Charles Francis Adams , to read to the Foreign Secretary , Lord Russell . Seward submitted it to Lincoln , who , realizing that the Union was in no position to battle both the South and Britain , toned it down considerably , and made it merely a memorandum for Adams 's guidance .
In May 1861 , Britain and France declared the South to be belligerents by international law , and their ships were entitled to the same rights as U.S.-flagged vessels to remain 24 hours in neutral ports . Nevertheless , Seward was pleased that both nations would not meet with Confederate commissioners or recognize the South as a nation . Britain did not challenge the Union blockade of Confederate ports , and Seward wrote that if Britain continued to avoid interfering in the war , he would not be overly sensitive to what wording they used to describe their policies .
In November 1861 , the USS San Jacinto , commanded by Union Captain Charles Wilkes , intercepted the British mail ship RMS Trent and removed two Confederate diplomats , James Mason and John Slidell . They were held in Boston amid jubilation in the North and outrage in Britain . The British minister in Washington , Lord Lyons demanded their release , as the U.S. had no right to stop a British @-@ flagged ship traveling between neutral ports . The British drew up war plans to attack New York and sent reinforcements to Canada . Seward worked to defuse the situation . He persuaded Lyons to postpone delivering an ultimatum , and told Lincoln that the prisoners would have to be released . Lincoln did let them go , reluctantly , on technical grounds . Relations between the U.S. and Britain soon improved ; in April 1862 , Seward and Lyons signed a treaty they had negotiated allowing each nation to inspect the other 's ships for contraband slaves . In November 1862 , with America 's image in Britain improved by the issuance of the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation , the British cabinet decided against recognition of the Confederacy as a nation .
Confederate agents in Britain had arranged for the construction of Confederate ships , most notably the CSS Alabama , which ravaged Union shipping after her construction in 1862 . With two more such vessels under construction the following year , supposedly for French interests , Seward pressed Palmerston not to allow them to leave port , and , nearly complete , they were seized by British officials in October 1863 .
= = = = Involvement in wartime detentions = = = =
From the start of the war until early 1862 , when responsibility was passed to the War Department , Seward was in charge of determining who should be detained without charges or trial . Approximately 800 men and a few women , believed to be Southern sympathizers or spies , were detained , usually at the initiation of local officials . Once Seward was informed , he would often order that the prisoner be transferred to federal authorities . Seward was reported to have boasted to Lord Lyons that " I can touch a bell on my right hand , and order the arrest of a citizen ... and no power on earth , except that of the President , can release them . Can the Queen of England do so much ? "
In September 1861 , Maryland legislators planned to vote to leave the Union . Seward took action against them : his son Frederick , the United States Assistant Secretary of State , reported to his father that the Union men had gone unmolested and the disloyal legislators were in prison . On evidence provided by detective Allen Pinkerton , Seward in 1862 ordered the arrest of Rose Greenhow , a Washington socialite with Confederate sympathies . Greenhow had sent a stream of reports south , and continued even after being placed on house arrest . From Washington 's Old Capitol Prison , the " Rebel Rose " provided newspaper interviews until she was allowed to cross into Confederate territory .
When Seward received allegations that former president Pierce was involved in a plot against the Union , he asked Pierce for an explanation . Pierce indignantly denied it . The matter proved to be a hoax , and the administration was embarrassed . On February 14 , 1862 , Lincoln ordered that responsibility for detentions be transferred to the War Department , ending Seward 's part in them .
= = = = Relationship with Lincoln = = = =
Seward had mixed feelings about the man who had blocked him from the presidency . One story is that when Seward was told that to deny Carl Schurz an office would disappoint him , Seward angrily stated , " Disappointment ! You speak of me of disappointment ! To me , who was justly entitled to the Republican nomination for the presidency , and who had to stand aside and see it given to a little Illinois lawyer ! " Despite his initial reservations about Lincoln 's abilities , he came to admire Lincoln as the president grew more confident in his job . Seward wrote to his wife in June 1861 , " Executive skill and vigor are rare qualities . The President is the best of us , but he needs constant and assiduous cooperation . " According to Goodwin , " Seward would become his most faithful ally in the cabinet ... Seward 's mortification at not having received his party 's nomination never fully abated , but he no longer felt compelled to belittle Lincoln to ease his pain . " Lincoln , a one @-@ term congressman , was inexperienced in Washington ways , and relied on Seward 's advice on protocol and social etiquette .
The two men built a close personal and professional relationship . Lincoln fell into the habit of entrusting Seward with tasks not within the remit of the State Department , for example asking him to examine a treaty with the Delaware Indians . Lincoln would come to Seward 's house and the two lawyers would relax before the fire , chatting . Seward began to feature in the president 's humorous stories . For example , Lincoln would tell of Seward remonstrating with the president , whom he found polishing his boots , " In Washington , we do not blacken our own boots " , with Lincoln 's response , " Indeed , then whose boots do you blacken , Mr. Secretary ? "
Other cabinet members became resentful of Seward , who seemed to be always present when they discussed their departments ' concerns with Lincoln , yet they were never allowed to be there when the two men discussed foreign affairs . Seward announced when cabinet meetings would be ; his colleagues eventually persuaded Lincoln to set a regular date and time for those sessions . Seward 's position on the Emancipation Proclamation when Lincoln read it to his cabinet in July 1862 is uncertain ; Secretary of War Edwin Stanton wrote at the time that Seward opposed it in principle , feeling the slaves should simply be freed as Union armies advanced . Two later accounts indicate that Seward felt the time was not yet to issue it , and Lincoln did wait until after the bloody stalemate at Antietam that ended Confederate General Robert E. Lee 's incursion into the North to issue it . In the interim , Seward cautiously investigated how foreign powers might react to such a proclamation , and learned it would make them less likely to interfere in the conflict .
Seward was not close to Lincoln 's wife Mary , who by some accounts had opposed his appointment as Secretary of State . Mary Lincoln developed such a dislike for Seward that she instructed her coachman to avoid passing by the Seward residence . The Secretary of State enjoyed the company of the younger Lincoln boys , Willie and Tad , presenting them with two cats from his assortment of pets .
Seward accompanied Lincoln to Gettysburg , Pennsylvania in November 1863 , where Lincoln was to deliver a short speech , that would become famous as the Gettysburg Address . The night before the speech , Lincoln met with Seward . There is no surviving evidence that Seward authored any changes : he stated after the address , when asked if had had any hand in it , that only Lincoln could have made that speech . Seward also proposed to Lincoln that he proclaim a day of national thanksgiving , and drafted a proclamation to that effect . Although post @-@ harvest thanksgiving celebrations had long been held , this first formalized Thanksgiving Day as a national observance .
= = = = 1864 election ; Hampton Roads Conference = = = =
It was far from certain that Lincoln would even be nominated in 1864 , let alone re @-@ elected , as the tide of war , though generally favoring the North , washed back and forth . Lincoln sought nomination by the National Union Party , composed of Republicans and War Democrats . No one proved willing to oppose Lincoln , who was nominated . Seward was by then unpopular among many Republicans and opponents sought to prompt his replacement by making Lincoln 's running mate former New York Democratic senator Daniel S. Dickinson ; under the political customs of the time , one state could not hold two positions as prestigious as vice president and Secretary of State . Administration forces turned back Dickinson 's bid , nominating instead Military Governor of Tennessee Andrew Johnson , with whom Seward had served in the Senate . Lincoln was re @-@ elected in November ; Seward sat with Lincoln and the assistant presidential secretary , John Hay , as the returns came in .
In January 1865 , Francis Preston Blair , father of former Lincoln Postmaster General Montgomery Blair , went , with Lincoln 's knowledge , to the Confederate capital of Richmond to propose to Davis that North and South unite to expel the French from their domination of Mexico . Davis appointed commissioners ( Vice President Alexander Stephens , former U.S. Supreme Court justice Campbell , and former Confederate Secretary of State Robert M.T. Hunter ) to negotiate . They met with Lincoln and Seward at the Hampton Roads Conference the following month . Lincoln would settle for nothing short of a cession of resistance to the federal government and an end to slavery ; the Confederates would not even concede that they and the Union were one nation . There was much friendly talk , as most of them had served together in Washington , but no agreement . After the conference broke up , Seward sent a bucket of champagne to the Confederates , conveyed by a black oarsman in a rowboat , and called to the southerners , " keep the champagne , but return the Negro . "
= = = Assassination attempt = = =
John Wilkes Booth had originally planned to kidnap Lincoln , and recruited conspirators , including Lewis Powell . Having found no opportunity to abduct the president , on April 14 , 1865 , Booth assigned Powell to assassinate Seward , with George Atzerodt to kill Vice President Johnson and himself to kill Lincoln , which would slay the three senior members of the Executive Branch . Accordingly , another member of the conspiracy , David Herold , led Powell to the Seward home on horseback and was responsible for holding Powell 's horse while he committed the attack . Seward had been hurt in an accident some days before , and Powell gained entry to the home on the excuse he was delivering medicine to the injured man , but was stopped at the top of the stairs by Frederick Seward , who insisted Powell give him the medicine . Powell instead attempted to fire on Frederick , and beat him over the head with the barrel of his gun when it misfired . Powell burst through the door , threw Fanny Seward ( the secretary 's daughter ) to one side , and jumped on the bed , and stabbed William Seward in the face and neck five times . A soldier assigned to guard and nurse the secretary , Private George F. Robinson , jumped on Powell , forcing him from the bed . Powell fled , stabbing a messenger , Emerick Hansell , as he went , to find that Herold , panicked by the screams from the house , had left with both horses . Seward was at first thought dead , but revived enough to instruct Robinson to send for the police and lock the house until they arrived .
Almost simultaneously with the attack on Seward , Booth had mortally wounded Lincoln at Ford 's Theatre . Atzerodt , however , decided not to go through with the attack on Johnson . When Secretary of War Edwin Stanton and Navy Secretary Gideon Welles hurried to Seward 's home to find out what had happened , they found blood everywhere .
All five men injured that night at the Seward home survived . Powell was captured the next day at the boarding house of Mary Surratt , and was executed on July 7 , 1865 , along with Herold , Atzerodt , and Mrs. Surratt , convicted as conspirators in the Lincoln assassination . They died only weeks after Seward 's wife Frances , who never recovered from the shock of the assassination attempt .
= = = Johnson administration = = =
= = = = Reconstruction and impeachment = = = =
In the first months of the new Johnson administration , Seward did not work much with the president . Seward was at first recovering from his injuries , and Johnson was ill for a time in the summer of 1865 . Seward was likely in accord with Johnson 's relatively gentle terms for the South 's re @-@ entry to the Union , and with his pardon of all Confederates but those of high rank . Radical Republicans such as Stanton and Pennsylvania Representative Thaddeus Stevens proposed that the freed slaves be given the vote , but Seward was content to leave that to the states ( few Northern states gave African @-@ Americans the ballot ) , believing the priority should be reconciling the power @-@ holding white populations of the North and South to each other .
Unlike Lincoln , who had a close rapport with Seward , Johnson kept his own counsel , and generally did not take advantage of Seward 's political advice as Congress prepared to meet in December 1865 . Johnson had issued proclamations allowing for the southern states to reform their state governments and hold elections ; they mostly elected men who had served as prewar or wartime leaders . Seward advised Johnson to state , in his first annual message to Congress , that southern states meet three conditions for readmission to the Union : repeal of secession , repudiation of the war debt incurred by the rebel governments , and ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment . Johnson , hoping to appeal to both Republicans and Democrats , did not take the suggestion . Congress did not seat southerners , but appointed a joint committee of both houses to make recommendations on the issue . Johnson opposed the committee ; Seward was prepared to wait and see .
In early 1866 , Congress and president battled over the extension of the authorization of the Freedmen 's Bureau . Both sides agreed that the bureau should end after the states were re @-@ admitted , the question was whether that would be soon . With Seward 's support , Johnson vetoed the bill . Republicans in Congress were angry with both men , and tried but failed to override Johnson 's veto . Johnson vetoed the Civil Rights Bill , which was to grant citizenship to the freedmen . Seward advised a conciliatory veto message ; Johnson ignored him , telling Congress it had no right to pass bills affecting the South until it seated the region 's congressmen . This time Congress overrode his veto , gaining the necessary two @-@ thirds majority of each house , the first time this had been done on a major piece of legislation in American history .
Johnson hoped the public would elect congressmen who agreed with him in the 1866 midterm elections , and embarked on a trip , dubbed the Swing Around the Circle that summer , giving speeches in a number of cities . Seward was among the officials who went with him . The trip was a disaster for Johnson ; he made a number of ill @-@ considered statements about his opponents that were criticized in the press . The Radical Republicans were strengthened by the results of the elections . The Republican anger against Johnson extended to his Secretary of State — Maine Senator William P. Fessenden said of Johnson , " he began by meaning well , but I fear that Seward 's evil counsels have carried him beyond the reach of salvation . "
In February 1867 , both houses of Congress passed the Tenure of Office Bill , purporting to restrict Johnson in the removal of presidential appointees . When Stanton refused , Seward drafted a veto message for Johnson , questioning the measure 's constitutionality . It was to no avail , Congress promptly overrode the veto . Johnson suspended , then fired Stanton , over Reconstruction policy differences , leading to the president 's impeachment for allegedly violating the Tenure of Office Act . Seward recommended that Johnson hire the renowned attorney , William M. Evarts , and , with Weed , raised funds for the president 's successful defense .
= = = = Mexico = = = =
Mexico was strife @-@ torn in the early 1860s , as it often had been in the fifty years since independence . France , Spain , and Great Britain joined together to intervene in 1861 on the pretext of protecting their nationals , and to secure repayment of debt . Spain and the British soon withdrew , but France remained . Distracted by civil war , Seward could do little to enforce the Monroe Doctrine , and in 1864 , French emperor Napoleon III set his cousin , Archduke Maximilian of Austria on the Mexican throne , with French military support . When this became an issue in the U.S. , Seward used strident language publicly , but was privately conciliatory toward the French .
The Confederates had been supportive of France 's actions . Upon returning to work after the assassination attempt , Seward warned France that the U.S. still wanted the French gone from Mexico . Napoleon feared that the large , battle @-@ tested American army would be used against his troops . Seward remained conciliatory , and in January 1866 , Napoleon agreed to withdraw his troops after a twelve- to eighteen @-@ month period , during which time Maximilian could consolidate his position against the insurgency led by Benito Juárez .
In late 1866 , Napoleon tried to postpone the French departure , but the Americans had large numbers of troops on the north bank of the Rio Grande and Seward held firm . Napoleon suggested a new Mexican government that would exclude both Maximilian and Juárez ; the Americans had recognized Juárez as the legitimate president and were not willing to consider this . In the meantime , Juárez , with the help of American military aid , was advancing through northeast Mexico . The French withdrew in early 1867 , leaving Maximilian , who was soon captured by Juárez 's troops . Although both the U.S. and France urged Juárez against it , the deposed emperor was executed by firing squad on June 19 , 1867 .
= = = = Territorial expansion and Alaska = = = =
Although in speeches Seward had predicted all of North America joining the Union , he had , as a senator , opposed the Gadsden Purchase obtaining land from Mexico , and Buchanan 's attempts to purchase Cuba from Spain . Those stands were likely because the land to be secured might become slave territory . After the Civil War , this was no longer an issue , and Seward became an ardent expansionist . The Union Navy had been hampered due to the lack of overseas bases during the war , and Seward also believed that American trade would be helped by the purchase of overseas territory .
Believing , along with Lincoln , that the U.S. needed a naval base in the Caribbean , in January 1865 , Seward offered to purchase the Danish West Indies ( today the United States Virgin Islands ) . Late that year , Seward sailed for the Caribbean on a naval vessel . Among the ports of call was St. Thomas in the Danish West Indies , where Seward admired the large , easily defended harbor . Another stop was in the Dominican Republic , where he opened talks to obtain Samaná Bay . When Congress reconvened in December 1866 , Seward caused a sensation by entering the chamber of the House of Representatives and sitting down with the administration 's enemy , Congressman Stevens , persuading him to support an appropriation for more money to expedite the purchase of Samaná , and sent his son Frederick to the Dominican Republic to negotiate a treaty . Both attempts fell through ; the Senate , in the dying days of the Johnson administration , failed to ratify a treaty for the purchase of the Danish possessions , while negotiations with the Dominican Republic were not successful .
Seward had been interested in whaling as a senator ; his interest in Russian America was a byproduct of this . In his speech prior to the 1860 convention , he predicted the territory would become part of the U.S. , and when he learned in 1864 that it might be for sale , he pressed the Russians ( then a U.S. ally ) for negotiations . The Russian minister , Baron Eduard de Stoeckl , returned home on leave in 1866 . Fearing that the territory might be overrun by American settlers and lost , he urged his government to sell it . He was given the authority to make the sale and when he returned in March 1867 , negotiated with the Secretary of State . Seward initially offered $ 5 million ; the two men settled on $ 7 million and on March 15 , Seward presented a draft treaty to the Cabinet . Stoeckl 's superiors raised several concerns ; to induce him to waive them , the final purchase price was increased to $ 7 @.@ 2 million . The treaty was signed in the early morning of March 30 , 1867 , and ratified by the Senate on April 10 . Stevens sent the secretary a note of congratulations , predicting that the Alaska purchase would be seen as one of Seward 's greatest accomplishments .
= = 1868 election and retirement = =
Seward hoped that Johnson would be nominated at the 1868 Democratic National Convention , but the delegates chose New York Governor Horatio Seymour . The Republicans chose General Ulysses S. Grant , who had a hostile relationship with Johnson . Seward gave a major speech on
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. Laming taught Field more about the historical hoodening tradition , and together they unearthed an old hooden horse that was stored at Walmer 's Coldblow Farm ; this artefact was later placed on display at Deal Maritime and Local History Museum . In June 1961 Field and his wife then established the first Folkestone International Folklore Festival as a biannual celebration of folk customs ; it continued for 28 years .
Since the end of the Second World War , the hooden horse 's use has been revived in Whitstable , where it is often brought out for the Jack in the Green festival each May , and is owned by a group called the Ancient Order of Hoodeners . Since 1981 , the Tonbridge Mummers and Hoodeners have made use of a horse , incorporating it into a play specially written for the purpose by Doel and Nick Miller . An annual conference of hoodeners was also established ; initially meeting at the Marsh Gate Inn near Herne Bay , it subsequently moved to Simple Simon 's in Canterbury . A member of the St. Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade hoodeners , Ben Jones , established a website devoted to the tradition . At the prompting of local residents , in December 2014 a pub named The Hungry Horse , located on the corner of Haine Road and Nash Road in Broadstairs , was renamed as The Hoodening Horse after the folk custom . Commenting on the Kentish revival of hoodening , Hutton suggested that its success was " due largely " to the desire of many Kentish folk to culturally distinguish themselves from neighbouring London .
= Ohio State Route 357 =
State Route 357 ( SR 357 ) is a 2 @.@ 353 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 3 @.@ 787 km ) north – south state highway in the northern portion of U.S. state of Ohio . Existing entirely on South Bass Island in Lake Erie , the highway begins at its southern terminus of West Shore Boulevard , about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) west of Put @-@ in @-@ Bay . SR 357 then travels northeast to its northern terminus at a dead end at Lake Erie , approximately 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Put @-@ in @-@ Bay .
SR 357 is one of two Ohio state routes on Lake Erie islands . Though this two @-@ lane route travels predominantly east – west , it once extended to the mainland of Ohio via the Catawba Island ferry , which is why it carries a north – south routing .
= = Route description = =
The entirety of SR 357 exists within the confines of South Bass Island in Lake Erie . It is located within Put @-@ in @-@ Bay Township in Ottawa County . In 2012 , between 490 and 590 vehicles travel on the road on average each day . SR 357 begins at West Shore Boulevard , and travels southwestward . The route passes by Oak Point State Park , and becomes part of Bayview Avenue . SR 357 then intersects County Route 163 , which leads to the Put @-@ in @-@ Bay Airport , and the Put @-@ in @-@ Bay – Catawba Island ferry . The route later leaves Put @-@ in @-@ Bay , near Perry 's Victory and International Peace Memorial . SR 357 turns northeast to Columbus Avenue , and later ends at a dead end near the lake , next to a driveway .
= = History = =
The SR 357 designation was created in 1934 . At the time , the highway was routed along the entirety of its present alignment on South Bass Island . However , in 1946 , when SR 53 was extended northerly from Port Clinton to end at its present northern terminus in Catawba Island , SR 357 was simultaneously extended south onto the mainland via the ferry that connects Put @-@ in @-@ Bay with Catawba Island , then south along SR 53 to a new southern terminus at SR 2 east of Port Clinton . By 1969 , all of the 1946 extension of SR 357 was eliminated , with the Put @-@ in @-@ Bay – Catawba Island ferry becoming a connector between the southern end of SR 357 and the northern endpoint of SR 53 , and the mainland portion of SR 357 becoming just SR 53 . By 1973 , the Put @-@ in @-@ Bay – Catawba Island ferry docked on the south side of South Bass Island , ending the direct access to ferry docks and the rest of the state highway system from SR 357 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Ottawa County .
= Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata ( van Eyck ) =
Saint Francis of Assisi Receiving the Stigmata is the name given to two unsigned paintings completed around 1428 – 32 that art historians usually attribute to the Flemish artist , Jan van Eyck . The panels are nearly identical , apart from a considerable difference in size . Both are small paintings : the larger measures 29 @.@ 3 cm x 33 @.@ 4 cm and is in the Sabauda Gallery in Turin , Italy ; the smaller panel is 12 @.@ 7 cm x 14 @.@ 6 cm and in the Philadelphia Museum of Art . The earliest documentary evidence is in the 1470 inventory of Anselme Adornes of Bruges 's will ; he may have owned both panels . From the 19th to mid @-@ 20th centuries , most scholars attributed them either to a pupil or follower of van Eyck 's working from a design by the master .
The paintings show a famous incident from the life of Saint Francis of Assisi , who is shown kneeling by a rock as he receives the stigmata of the crucified Christ on the palms of his hands and soles of his feet . Behind him are rock formations , shown in great detail , and a panoramic landscape that seems to relegate the figures to secondary importance . This treatment of Francis is the first such to appear in northern Renaissance art . The arguments attributing the works to van Eyck are circumstantial and based mainly on the style and quality of the panels . A later , third version is in the Museo del Prado in Madrid , but is weaker and strays significantly in tone and design .
Between 1983 and 1989 the paintings underwent technical examination and were extensively restored and cleaned . Technical analysis of the Philadelphia painting established that the wood panel comes from the same tree as that of two paintings definitively attributed to van Eyck , and that the Italian panel has underdrawings of a quality that it is thought could only have come from him . After nearly 500 years , the paintings were reunited in 1998 in an exhibition at the Philadelphia Museum of Art . Today the consensus is that both were painted by the same hand .
= = Provenance = =
The paintings may have belonged to the Adornes family of Bruges . A copy of a will written in 1470 by Anselme Adornes , a member of one of the leading families in Bruges , was found in 1860 . As he left for pilgrimage to Jerusalem , Adornes bequeathed to his two daughters in convents two paintings he describes as by van Eyck . He described one as " with a portrait of St Francis , made by the hand of Jan van Eyck " , ( " een tavereele daerinne dat Sint @-@ Franssen in portrature van meester Ians handt van Heyck ghemaect staet " ) .
Anselme may have inherited the paintings from his father Pieter or uncle Jakob , who had travelled to Jerusalem on pilgrimage about 50 years earlier , returning to Ghent around 1427 or 1428 . On their return the Adornes brothers funded a replica of Jerusalem 's Church of the Holy Sepulchre built in Bruges , known as the Jerusalem chapel . They may also have commissioned the two St Francis paintings as commemoration of the pilgrimage , in the fashion of the Eyckian The Three Marys at the Tomb – attributed to Jan 's brother Hubert – a painting which may have been commissioned to commemorate a successful pilgrimage . An alternative theory is that they had the small painting prepared as a portable devotional work to bring on pilgrimage . The ownership of private devotional pieces was not uncommon – the often itinerant Philip the Good kept an altarpiece for travelling . Even more intriguing is that Philip had van Eyck paint two identical betrothal portraits of Isabella of Portugal in 1428 – to ensure one survived the trip from Portugal – which may have set a precedent that Bruges art patrons sought to emulate . Anselme Adornes almost certainly brought the smaller painting with him on pilgrimage in 1470 ; it was seen in Italy , particularly in Florence , and widely copied . In the early 1470s Sandro Botticelli , Verrochio , Filippino Lippi and Giovanni Bellini each produced variations of St Francis Receiving the Stigmata that included motifs from van Eyck 's version , especially evident in the rendering of the rocky background .
The paintings fell into obscurity for centuries until 1886 when art historian W. H. J. Weale drew the connection between them and the Adornes will . William à Court , 1st Baron Heytesbury bought the Philadelphia painting sometime between 1824 and 1828 in Lisbon . At that time it was thought to be by Albrecht Dürer , but in 1857 the art historian Gustav Waagen attributed it to van Eyck . Heytesbury sold it to a dealer in November 1894 ; a month later the Philadelphia collector John G. Johnson bought it for £ 700 . In 1917 , he bequeathed his art collection to the City of Philadelphia .
The Turin painting was acquired in 1866 from the mayor of a nearby town . Previously it was owned by a professor living in the province of Alessandria ; he bought it from a former nun in that province . The documentation is sketchy , but suggests the nun possessed it early in the 19th century during the dissolution of convents in the area under Napoleon . That a nun owned the painting three centuries after Adornes purportedly bequeathed a van Eyck St Francis to his daughter in a convent , and that the Adornes family owned property in Alessandria , is suggestive , but no evidence exists to confirm a connection .
The technical investigations Butler conducted during her tenure resulted in worldwide collaborations and three publications . The culmination of the research came in 1998 with an exhibition at the Philadelphia Museum of Art . The exhibition was small , with a handful of paintings and a few manuscript leaves . Only two are definitively attributed to the master , the Annunciation , which came from the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , and Saint Barbara , loaned from Antwerp . Two Saint Christopher 's , one in Philadelphia and the other from the Louvre , are considered to be by workshop members . From Cleveland came a John the Baptist in the Landscape , thought to be by van Eyck followers . The Philadelphia and Turin Saint Francis paintings were both on display , reunited for probably the first time since the 15th century .
= = The panels = =
The small Philadelphia panel is painted with oil on parchment ( vellum ) ; a reconstructed red vermilion border surrounds the image – it is similar to those seen in contemporary illuminated manuscripts . It gives the illusion of the viewer looking through a window into the landscape . The parchment measures 12 @.@ 9 cm × 15 @.@ 2 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in × 6 @.@ 0 in ) ; the image measures 12 @.@ 7 by 14 @.@ 6 cm ( 5 @.@ 0 by 5 @.@ 7 in ) . Underneath are five wood supports ; the parchment is glued to one , and four smaller pieces , added at a later date , frame the image . The parchment is unusually thick and has a thin insoluble layer of primer . The wooden frames were primed in a thick layer of white , which overlaps the parchment in places . The borders were gilded at some time ; technical analysis found particles of gold leaf on the lower border . The Turin panel is painted on two oak panels joined with a band of parchment or cloth , on a ground of chalk and animal glue .
= = = Figures = = =
In both paintings , Saint Francis of Assisi kneels by a rock as he receives the stigmata that were to stay on his body until his death . The composition is tonally similar to Giotto 's 1295 – 1300 Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata , but more grounded in earthly reality . The design is a mostly faithful representation of the original Franciscan texts , but differs in that Francis does not lean forward towards Christ .
Francis has individualized features , to the point that the attention to his face gives it the quality of a portrait such as van Eyck 's c . 1431 Portrait of Cardinal Niccolò Albergati . The head and face are minutely detailed . Francis is in his mid @-@ thirties , wears stubble and has a somewhat jowly face and receding hairline . He is presented as a highly intelligent but perhaps detached and impassive individual . He is given a complex and inscrutable expression ; physiological traits not uncommon in contemporary Flemish painting . He kneels on a bed of flowers , and his heavy robe and folded drapery have a choppy and overflowing feel . His lower limbs seem disconnected , positioned in an anti @-@ naturalistic manner ; giving the impression that he is levitating .
Till @-@ Holger Borchert observes that Francis 's feet are positioned slightly too high above the rest of his body , making them " so bizarrely placed as to look like a foreign body " . Others have taken this as an indication of a less experienced and weaker workshop painter , but Borchert draws a similarity to two works accepted as van Eyck originals . In the " Adoration of the Mystic Lamb of God " panel of the c . 1432 Ghent Altarpiece , the prophets kneel in a similar way with their feet placed awkwardly behind them . The donor in the c . 1435 Madonna of Chancellor Rolin is in a similar pose , although his feet are not visible . While some critics view the positioning of Francis 's feet as a weakness , Joseph Rishel of the Philadelphia Museum of Art argues that the contortion is necessary to show both wounds , and that the unusual positioning adds to the mystical tone of the painting .
The wounds on Francis 's hands and feet are realistically portrayed ; the cuts are not overly deep or dramatic and lack supernatural elements such as beams of light . The representation of Christ in the guise of a Seraph with three pairs of wings , is an unusually fantastical element for van Eyck 's normally reserved sensibility . A number of art historians have addressed this disconnect and noted that Francis looks straight ahead and is unconcerned with the apparition . Holland Cotter described this disconnect as appearing as if Christ 's " mystical vision were somehow aural rather than visual experience , and [ Francis ] was holding himself absolutely still to catch its distant sound " .
Francis 's disciple , secretary and confessor Brother Leo acts as eyewitness . He is dressed in sombre colours and rendered in a more compact manner than Francis ; crouched as if sunk into the pictorial space in the far right of the panel . His form is highly geometric and voluminous . His cord belt curves down to end next to that of Francis , symbolising the continuity between the Order 's founder and his successors . Leo 's posture seems to indicate mourning , although he appears to be resting or asleep .
= = = Landscape = = =
Nature is a key aspect in van Eyck 's works . According to Rishel , elements of his landscapes may appear " magically beautiful but [ are ] in fact quite oblivious to the sacred action in the foreground " . Katherine Luber believes that open vistas and lowered horizons are a hallmark . The Francis paintings seem to be early experiments with landscape ; the painter places rocks in the mid @-@ ground , solving the problem of how to transition from foreground to background ; a similar resolution is found in the lower @-@ right wing of the Ghent Altarpiece .
The browns of the rocks and trees echo those of the robes of the saints . The broad sweep of the mountains and city isolates the figures against the grandeur of nature and bustling human life . Behind the figures a panoramic mountain landscape soars to the sky ; the mid @-@ ground contains a variety of rocks and spikes , including strata of fossiliferous layers . As with the New York Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych , the mountains are capped with snow , which van Eyck may have seen during his visits to Italy and Spain , where he crossed the Alps and Pyrenees .
The paintings contain a number of highly detailed rock formations . Despite the early to mid @-@ 15th century date , the conservator Kenneth Bé observes that , to modern geologists " the details , colors , textures , and morphologies in Van Eyck 's rendering of rocks yield a plethora of scientifically accurate information " . He identifies four distinct rock types . Those in the right foreground are heavily weathered limestone boulders . There are a number of identifiable shell fossils , painted in a dark reddish brown suggesting iron or dark coloured mineral impurities . Behind them is a stratified sedimentary sequence . The mid @-@ ground contains igneous rock , the far distance a pair of jagged peaks .
Specialists from both art history and geology have remarked on the level of observed and precise detail found in the background . The mid @-@ ground contains a boulder with a crescent @-@ shaped form that could only have arisen from the rock face " intersecting the fossils to reveal cross sections of the shells in side profile " , according to Bé . Another boulder has closed loops . The fossilised shells are in a pattern that suggest that some of the boulders have been upturned from their original orientation . The fossils are a type of mollusk similar either to present @-@ day bivalvia or brachiopods .
The landscape shows a fictive Flemish city . As in the diptych in New York , some buildings and landmarks can be identified with Jerusalem . It closely resembles the background of the Rolin panel , which has undergone much deeper attention from scholars , with a number of identifications made with structures in Jerusalem , including the Mosque of Omar , known to van Eyck through second @-@ hand textual and visual descriptions . People and animals populate the city walls , but some are only visible under magnification in the Philadelphia painting . The lake by the city shows a boat whose shadow is reflected in the water . Reflective water surfaces were another typical Eyckian innovation , one he seems to have mastered early , evidenced by the water scenes in the Turin @-@ Milan Hours , and which requires a considerable degree of artistry . Plants consist of tiny foreground flowers , larger mid @-@ ground grasses and background bushes and trees . The small carpet of white flowers in the foreground is reminiscent of those in the Ghent Altarpiece 's central panel ; behind Francis are dwarf palms .
= = = Iconography = = =
The Franciscan Order had a strong following by the 15th century ; its Third Order of Saint Francis attracted women and men to local lay confraternities , such as the Confraternity of the Dry Tree in Bruges to which Anselme Adornes belonged . St Francis was closely associated with pilgrimages , then popular and most often taken to holy sites in Spain and Jerusalem . He was revered for his own pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1219 ; by the 15th century the Franciscans were responsible for maintaining the holy sites in Jerusalem , particularly the Church of the Holy Sepulchre .
St Francis lived austerely , in imitation of Christ . He embraced the natural world , and took vows of poverty , charity and chastity . In 1224 at La Verna , he experienced the mystical vision which van Eyck portrays . Thomas of Celano , author of Francis 's hagiography , describes the vision and stigmatization : " Francis had a vision in which he saw a man like a seraph : he had six wings and was standing above him with his hands outstretched and his feet bound together , and was fixed to a cross . Two wings were lifted above his head , and two were spread ready for flight , and two covered his whole body . When Francis saw this he was utterly amazed . He could not fathom what this vision might mean . " As he meditated , " marks of nails began to appear on his hands and feet ... His hands and feet seemed to be pierced by nails appearing on the inside of his hands and the upper side of his feet … .His right side was scarred as if it had been pierced by a spear , and it often seeped blood . " To the medieval observer , the appearance of the stigmata signifies Francis 's complete absorption in the vision of the seraph .
The Turin and Philadelphia paintings show Francis in profile , kneeling , meditating quietly , facing away from the crucified seraph . Van Eyck eliminated the dramatic pose and rays of light causing the stigmata , which according to Snyder , are generally " essential features of the iconography " . Perhaps the wounds on the soles of the feet were intended to be concealed , because the underdrawing of the Turin painting shows Francis wearing sandals . Some scholars , most notably Panofsky , argued against the attribution to van Eyck on the basis of the somewhat arcane iconography . Others , including James Snyder , view the imagery as typical of van Eyck 's medieval view of mystical and visionary experience .
Van Eyck 's meticulous setting and landscape were another innovation in iconography . Generally La Verna was depicted with sparse detail , whereas here St Francis kneels in a detailed countryside , perhaps a specific spot around La Verna in the Italian Apennines , where striated sandstone is commonly found . The setting is appropriately remote . St Francis appears to stare beyond the vision to the rocks , seemingly unaffected , a common Eyckian device to illustrate a mystical vision . For example , in his Madonna of Chancellor Rolin it is difficult to tell whether the location is Mary 's throne @-@ room or whether she is merely an apparition in Rolin 's chamber – one he seemingly stares past .
Leo , traditionally a sleeping figure smaller than Francis , is here given equal size . Surrounded by barren rocks , he faces away from the seraph , his feet positioned near a small stream , which signifies redemption or salvation , gushing from the rocks . On Francis 's left are symbols of life : plants , a river valley , a cityscape and mountains . Snyder writes that for van Eyck a mystical vision had to be presented with great subtlety , and that in these paintings he captures the event perfectly , because Francis is shown as he is said to have reacted to the vision – kneeling in quiet meditation .
= = = Condition = = =
The panels are in relatively good condition given their age . The Philadelphia version is better preserved ; it has superior tonalities and more prominent colours . In 1906 , Roger Fry gave it a well @-@ documented restoration with overpaint removed . Fry was at the time Curator of Paintings at the Metropolitan Museum and performed restorations despite a formal lack of training ; the St Francis was the second restoration he undertook . He attributed the work to Hubert van Eyck , and thought the Turin version a copy . His removal of a section at the top revealed a red border ; he wrote that van Eyck had " conceived it as a miniature in oil on panel , and that it might indicate a date not very far removed from the drawings of the Turin Book of Hours " ( Milan @-@ Turin Hours ) . In 1926 he recorded : " When it came to me , the panel was considerably larger at the top , and dull opaque sky concealed the join where the extra piece had been added on to satisfy some owner who did not appreciate the compressed composition of the original . The sky had been enlivened ... with a crowd of small white @-@ cloud like forms suggesting the presence of a cohort of angels . " His restoration removed more than 10 centimetres ; before the restoration it measured 24 cm × 16 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in × 6 @.@ 3 in ) , afterwards 12 cm × 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in × 5 @.@ 5 in ) .
Further conservation was undertaken between 1983 and 1989 using a stereo microscope . Restorers removed varnish that had turned brown as well as layers of old fillers – one of which contained the pigment viridian , not available until 1859 . They stripped paint additions from the mountain peaks , Leo 's robe and in the area around Francis 's tonsure . The removal of overpainting revealed an X that had been scratched into the original paint on the upper right stones at some unknown time . According to Butler , the removal of pigment exposed underlying paint in " amazingly good condition " .
The Turin panel has suffered heavy overpainting and cracking along the vertical join . The marbleized reddish @-@ brown paint on its reverse is heavily worn . In the 20th century the panel underwent three restorations and extensive technical analyses . The earliest , in 1952 , removed overpainting and repaired pigment loss to Francis 's tonsure , Leo 's cowl and areas of vegetation between the two figures . Restorers discovered an irretrievably lost inscription on a rock adjacent to the seraph @-@ Christ , and evidence of earlier overpainting of one of Leo 's feet . Continued paint loss and cracking along the join required further restoration in 1970 , when a fixing agent was applied to prevent cracking , and Francis 's tonsure was repainted .
Cracking along the vertical join of the wooden panels was severe enough to warrant a third restoration in 1982 . Raking light revealed that modern varnishes had yellowed , while further overpainting was found . Working under ultraviolet light , paint from earlier restorations was removed , uncovering lost colours and landscape details , including the snow @-@ capped mountains and birds of prey on the upper left . Restorers found clues to sources of confusion in earlier restorations , especially the unusual positioning of Francis 's tonsure and Leo 's feet , which were discovered to be crossed under his body .
= = Attribution = =
Research in the late 19th century lead to what Rishel describes as " one of the thorniest conundrums in the study of Early Netherlandish art " , as efforts were made to establish authorship and date the panels in terms of precedence . The panels are neither signed nor dated , and have proved especially difficult to attribute . Establishing an approximate date of completion is usually one of the most important factor in attributing an old master painting . Dendrochronological analysis of the Philadelphia panel dated its growth rings to between 1225 and 1307 . It was established that the board was cut from the same tree as the wood of two known panels by van Eyck , the Portrait of Baudouin de Lannoy ( c . 1435 ) and Portrait of Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini ( 1438 ) . These have tree @-@ rings that developed between 1205 and 1383 , and 1206 and 1382 , respectively . Examination of the sapwood suggests a felling date of around 1392 . Assuming a typical 10 years of seasoning before use , any of the paintings could have begun from around 1408 onwards . The Turin version is painted on two glued boards , vertical to the image . The rings from board I are dated between 1273 and 1359 , those of board II from 1282 to 1365 .
Based on the perceived " faulty proportions " of the figures , Ludwig von Baldass suggested a date early in van Eyck 's career , around 1425 . He attributes the unusual positioning and anatomy to a young and relatively inexperienced painter , one who was still experimenting . He notes how the landscape and individual elements are similar to Hubert van Eyck 's style , but that the close observation of nature reveals Jan 's hand . Luber suggests a slightly later date of about 1430 , during the period van Eyck finished the Ghent Altarpiece . She bases her supposition on the fact that van Eyck 's employer Philip the Bold sent him to Portugal in the late 1420s ; he would have been unavailable for a commission until his return in 1430 . Furthermore , the landscape details , which correlate to van Eyck 's work of the period , combined with the return from pilgrimage late in the 1420s of the Adornes brothers ( who may have commissioned the two paintings ) , suggest a completion date of about 1430 .
A free copy from some two generations later is in the Prado in Madrid . This is in a vertical format and measures 47 x 36 cm . A large tree is added at the left , and the foreground rocks extended higher . The landscape is somewhat different , and reflects the world landscape style of Joachim Patinir , to whom the painting has been attributed in the past . This was largely because the jagged peaks in the distance have been added to and altered to Patinir 's trademark depiction of the distinctive landscape of Dinant , his hometown . This panel was attributed by Max Jakob Friedländer to a " Master of Hoogstraten " , an anonymous follower of Quentin Massys , and dated around 1510 . The awkwardness of the figures has been rectified , the placement of his feet and knees " made more rational " according to Rishel , but St Francis stares at the apparition . Another copy , placed tentatively in Brussels c . 1500 , is probably a copy of the Turin version .
Noting the similarity of Francis 's pose to the kneeling figure in the " Turin @-@ Milan Hours " miniature of The Agony in the Garden , Borchert , who believes van Eyck 's work as a manuscript illuminator came late in his career , concludes that both were completed after the master had died , perhaps completed by members of the workshop . Unlike Borchert , Luber thinks that The Agony evidences his early experiments with perspective , as he began to resolve the transition between foreground and background , by placing the fence in the mid @-@ ground , a device found in the St Francis through the positioning of the rocks . Luber says the underdrawings in the miniature are similar to those in the St Francis paintings , and stylistically typical of those in van Eyck 's later work , an important factor when considering attribution .
Although the tree @-@ ring analysis of the Philadelphia painting firmly places it in van Eyck 's workshop , the technical evidence fails to prove indisputably whether van Eyck or a workshop member painted it . Until the early 1980s it was thought that the Philadelphia panel was the original and the Turin panel a copy , but x @-@ ray analysis revealed a highly developed and sophisticated design underneath the paint that is accepted as by Jan van Eyck 's hand . Infrared reflectography further disclosed extensive underdrawings beneath the original paint ; the artist even made alterations to the composition after laying down the underdrawings and completing the painting . The underdrawings are typical of van Eyck 's work and similar to those found in the Ghent Altarpiece , thereby , according to Luber , tying the Turin version to van Eyck .
There are three possibilities ; the panels are van Eyck originals ; they were completed by workshop members after his death from one of his underdrawings ; or they were created by a highly talented follower compiling a pastiche of Eyckian motifs . While a majority of specialists have come to believe they are van Eyck originals , there have been significant dissenting voices in the recent past . Opinion in the mid @-@ 20th century generally favoured a van Eyck ; significantly , Erwin Panofsky expressed doubts regarding the attribution .
= = Research = =
Marigene Butler , head conservator at the Philadelphia Museum of Art , oversaw a multi @-@ national research project between 1983 and 1989 . Her team investigated the provenance of the two paintings and relationships between them through technical analyses . At that time both paintings underwent further restorations . They examined the wooden supports , parchment fibres and priming layers of the Philadelphia painting . A sample of paint was taken from the seraph @-@ Christ 's wings ; analysis found particles of pure ultramarine , the most expensive pigment at the time . The team identified red organic lake in the stigmata wounds , and vermilion and lead white on Francis 's cheeks . Infrared reflectography found a base layer of paint overlaid with hatching and fine brush strokes on an additional layer . The greenery was painted with a copper resinate that over time has darkened to brown . The mountains and sky were painted with ultramarine and lead white . Compared to the Turin painting , the Philadelphia version shows little evidence of underdrawing .
Butler found the structure and details of the two paintings to be almost identical . The individual components matched " quite precisely " , but were slightly off register , raising questions as to whether one was copied from the other . The Turin painting has a simpler paint structure than the other , more extensive underdrawing , and finer pigment particles , and the colours differ . The stones in the Philadelphia painting are darker and more orange than the predominantly grey hues of the Turin rocks . The greenery in the Philadelphia version shows more discolouration than in the other . Under magnification the paintings ' brush strokes are near identical , particularly in the rendering of the clouds .
= M @-@ 46 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 46 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan between Muskegon and Port Sanilac , terminating near Lake Michigan and Lake Huron on each end . Except for the north – south segment that corresponds with the US Highway 131 ( US 131 ) freeway between Cedar Springs and Howard City , M @-@ 46 is practically a due east – west surface highway . The road runs through rural sections of the Lower Peninsula connecting several freeways including US 31 , US 131 , US 127 and I @-@ 75 .
The highway was formed by July 1 , 1919 along two discontinuous sections of its current corridor . The gap was filled in by 1927 , but a second break in the routing was created in the 1930s . This second interruption in the corridor was eliminated within a year . The various paths that M @-@ 46 has followed have been straightened over the intervening years , producing the modern corridor by the 1970s . Other changes have been made to the location of the western terminus in Muskegon , but it has remained fixed in its current location since 1984 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 46 is one of three trans @-@ peninsular highways in the Lower Peninsula , starting blocks away from Lake Michigan in Muskegon and running almost to Lake Huron in Port Sanilac . The other two highways that do this are M @-@ 55 ( Manistee – Tawas City ) and M @-@ 72 ( Empire – Harrisville ) . The highway is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like all other state trunkline highways in the state . The department tracks the traffic volumes along all state highway highways as a part of its maintenance responsibilities using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This measurement is a calculation of the traffic level along a segment of roadway for any average day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT figured that lowest traffic levels were the 1 @,@ 855 vehicles used the highway daily near the eastern terminus . The peak traffic volumes were the 30 @,@ 505 vehicles AADT along the section of M @-@ 46 immediately east of the US 31 freeway near Muskegon . The trunkline has been listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) between the western terminus and US 31 , and between Cedar Springs and the M @-@ 53 junction in Sanilac County . The NHS is a network of roadways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = = Muskegon to Saginaw = = =
M @-@ 46 starts at an intersection between Muskegon and Apple avenues near the downtown Muskegon business district . The highway follows Apple Avenue eastward through the edge of the district and through a residential area in Muskegon to an interchange with the US 31 freeway . On the other side of the freeway , Apple Avenue runs farther east , leaving the Muskegon area and passing through the rural woodlands of Muskegon County . Along the way , the road passes the Hall Drain , an artificial reservoir . At Casnovia , M @-@ 37 merges in from the north at a roundabout intersection , and the two highways run concurrently across the county line into Kent County , turning to the southeast . A few miles later in Kent City , M @-@ 46 turns due east again and leaves M @-@ 37 to run independently along 17 Mile Road . The highway runs through more mixed agricultural land to Cedar Springs , where M @-@ 46 turns north along the US 131 freeway .
US 131 / M @-@ 46 runs northwards through the northern Kent and western Montcalm counties for about 16 miles ( 26 km ) near Sand Lake and Pierson . Near Howard City . M @-@ 46 leaves the freeway and turns eastward independently along Howard City – Edmore Road . The highway runs through the north side of Montcalm County connecting the communities of Lakeview and Edmore . Between Six Lakes and Edmore , M @-@ 66 runs along M @-@ 46 , a distance of around 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) . The trunkline passes several small lakes and crosses the Maple River near Vestaburg before crossing into Gratiot County . The highway , now called Monroe Road crosses more farm fields as it approaches Alma . North of downtown , M @-@ 46 intersects the north – south leg of the Alma business loop before meeting the US 127 freeway . East of this freeway interchange , M @-@ 46 picks up the east – west leg of the US 127 business loop for St. Louis . Although similar , the separate business loop follows M @-@ 46 along Monroe Road over the Pine River to Main Street , where it turns south through downtown . M @-@ 46 continues eastward from town through farm fields to Breckenridge . At Meridian Road , the highway follows Gratiot Road into Saginaw County east through Merrill and Hemlock to the Saginaw area . East of Hemlock , M @-@ 46 meets the northern terminus of M @-@ 52 and then the southern terminus of M @-@ 47 in Saginaw Charter Township near its crossing of the Tittabawassee River .
= = = Saginaw to Port Sanilac = = =
As M @-@ 46 enters Saginaw proper , it follows Gratiot Avenue past the Saginaw Country Club . The area around the club is filled with residential subdivisions as the roadway approaches the Saginaw River . M @-@ 46 follows Stephens Street southeasterly and Rust Avenue eastward to cross the river . The highway continues along Rust Avenue to Warren Avenue where it turns north . The highway then follows Holland Avenue , which is the continuation of Gratiot Avenue on the east side of the river . M @-@ 46 passes through an interchange with I @-@ 75 / US 23 and leaves the Saginaw area . The highway continues eastward through rural Saginaw County into the region of the Lower Peninsula known as The Thumb . In Tuscola County , M @-@ 46 passes through the Vassar State Game Area and crosses the Cass River north of Vassar .
The area near the river east to the M @-@ 24 junction is forested . As M @-@ 46 approaches Kingston , farms dominate the landscape again . M @-@ 46 crosses into Sanilac County just west of the M @-@ 53 junction at Van Dyke Road . Between Elmer and Sandusky , M @-@ 19 follows M @-@ 46 for about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) . The highway crosses the Black River near Carsonville . The eastern end of M @-@ 46 is in Port Sanilac , just blocks west of the city 's marina on Lake Huron at an intersection with M @-@ 25 .
= = History = =
M @-@ 46 was designated by July 1 , 1919 on a discontinuous route that ran between Howard City and Saginaw and between rural Tuscola County and Port Sanilac . The highway followed a different routing in place than it does today . The western terminus was in downtown Howard City , rather than north of town . The road ran farther south in Gratiot County so that it went into downtown Alma . By the end of 1927 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) filled in the gap between Saginaw and Tuscola County , and the department extended the western end to Muskegon . M @-@ 46 followed the contemporary US 131 between Cedar Springs and Howard City and the modern routing west to Muskegon ending at US 31 downtown . In the middle of the 1930s , the section north of Howard City was straightened , removing the angled route between Amble and Howard City in favor of a more direct connection to US 131 . The US 131 and M @-@ 37 concurrencies were removed , however , when the section between Kent City and Cedar Springs was removed from the highway system . That gap was eliminated in late 1936 when M @-@ 46 was routed down US 131 to Howard City and along M @-@ 82 to Newaygo . From there , it followed M @-@ 37 south to Casnovia . A new road was opened in early 1937 between Vestaburg and Alma , which was designated as part of M @-@ 46 by the end of the year . The western terminus was extended farther west through Muskegon to the outlet of Muskegon Lake on Lake Michigan as well . The M @-@ 82 concurrency was removed in 1938 , and a more direct routing between Six Lakes and Edmore opened at the same time .
By the end of the 1950s , the routing through Muskegon was altered . Instead of terminating in the park at the outlet of Muskegon Lake into Lake Michigan , M @-@ 46 was routed to follow US 16 to the car ferry docks . The last section of gravel highway was also paved in Newaygo County near the Montcalm County line . The routing of M @-@ 46 between Casnovia and Howard City was altered in 1973 when the US 131 freeway was opened north of Cedar Springs by then @-@ Congressman Gerald R. Ford . M @-@ 46 was restored to the Kent City – Cedar Springs roadway it used in the 1930s and routed concurrently along US 131 again . In the process , M @-@ 47 replaced a section of M @-@ 57 that had been designated along the 17 Mile Road in late 1948 or early 1949 . The last change to M @-@ 46 's routing was made in the early 1980s . The extension through Muskegon to the car ferry docks was reversed , truncating the highway to its current terminus at then @-@ Bus . US 31 in 1984 . The business loop was shifted away from this location in 2007 , leaving M @-@ 46 to terminate at a junction with a city street instead of another state highway .
= = Major intersections = =
= Hall XPTBH =
The Hall XPTBH was a prototype American twin @-@ engined seaplane , submitted to the United States Navy by the Hall Aluminum Aircraft Corporation in response to a 1934 specification for new bomber and scout aircraft . Constructed in an innovative fashion that made extensive use of aluminum , the XPTBH proved successful in flight testing , but failed to win favor with the U.S. Navy . No production contract was awarded , and the single aircraft built served in experimental duties before its destruction in a hurricane during 1938 .
= = Design and development = =
In late 1934 , the U.S. Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics ( BuAer ) issued a specification for new scout bomber and torpedo bomber designs . Eight companies submitted a total of ten designs in response , evenly split between monoplanes and biplanes . The Hall Aluminum Aircraft Company submitted the only seaplane design ; a single prototype was ordered by the Navy for evaluation on June 30 , 1934 . Given the designation XPTBH @-@ 1 , it became the only aircraft to receive three mission @-@ type letters under the U.S. Navy 's designation system used between 1922 and 1962 .
Hall 's choice of the twin @-@ float seaplane configuration was dictated by the Navy 's requirement that the new torpedo @-@ bomber design should be capable of carrying a standard naval torpedo of the type carried by destroyers . As ordered , the XPTBH @-@ 1 was intended to be fitted with Wright R @-@ 1820 " Cyclone " radial engines ; delays in design caused by Hall relocating their production facility , difficulties with the contract , and doubts about the aircraft 's performance potential led to a redesign , the aircraft becoming slightly smaller and the engines being changed to a pair of Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 1830 " Twin Wasp " radials . The changes to the aircraft resulted in it receiving the revised designation XPTBH @-@ 2 .
Utilising Hall 's standard aluminum tubular spar , the fuselage and wing leading edges were covered in aluminum , while the rest of the wing and the control surfaces were fabric @-@ covered . The aircraft was well @-@ armed defensively by 1930s standards , with a powered turret , designed by Hall , mounted in the nose and carrying a single .30 @-@ caliber machine gun . Hand @-@ traversed mountings for a pair of machine guns were fitted in dorsal ( top ) and ventral ( belly ) positions aft . An optically flat glass panel was fitted in the nose below the turret for use by the bombardier ; the aircraft 's offensive weaponry , consisting of a Mark XIII aerial torpedo or , alternatively , up to 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 910 kg ) of bombs , was carried in an internal bomb bay , the twin @-@ float arrangement allowing for a clear release of the weaponry .
= = Operational history = =
Delivered to the Navy on January 30 , 1937 , the aircraft was officially presented to the public at Hall 's Bristol , Pennsylvania factory in April of that year . The aircraft 's early flight testing , starting in February and conducted by test pilot Bill McAvoy , showed that the XPTBH had few faults , with the only significant issue being a lack of roll authority – a reduction of the ability of the ailerons to turn the aircraft – as a result of the surface area of the floats . A modification to increase the area of the rudder solved the issue . The aircraft 's water @-@ handling characteristics were found to be excellent ; the only significant complaints that surfaced during the testing period concerned the XPTBH @-@ 2 's beaching gear , which was found to be extremely difficult to use in anything other than the calmest water .
Although the XPTBH @-@ 2 met most of its design specifications and was rated overall very good in flight testing , it failed to meet the contractual requirements for top speed and attack speed . In addition , the U.S. Navy did not consider a seagoing torpedo @-@ bomber to be an aircraft for which there was an operational requirement ; the fact that as a floatplane the aircraft was restricted to operation from water was also considered a negative , while the aircraft 's " three @-@ in @-@ one " role led it to be viewed as a jack of all trades , purpose @-@ designed aircraft for each role being considered superior . The company , however , blamed Navy politics for the lack of a production order .
Following the conclusion of its test program , the XPTBH @-@ 2 was used for experimental duties at the Naval Torpedo Station in Newport , Rhode Island , participating in trials of aerial torpedoes . Its service at Newport came to an end on September 21 , 1938 , when the XPTBH @-@ 2 was destroyed during the Great New England Hurricane . The XPTBH @-@ 2 was the last aircraft designed by Hall Aluminum ; the company remained in business until 1940 , when it was bought out by Consolidated Aircraft .
= = Specifications ( XPTBH @-@ 2 ) = =
Data from Wegg 1990 , Trimble 2005 , Boyne 2001
General characteristics
Crew : four ( pilot , copilot / navigator / bombardier , flight mechanic / gunner , radio operator / gunner )
Length : 55 ft 11 in ( 17 @.@ 04 m )
Wingspan : 79 ft 4 in ( 24 @.@ 18 m )
Height : 24 ft 1 in ( 7 @.@ 34 m )
Wing area : 828 sq ft ( 76 @.@ 9 m2 )
Airfoil : Clark YM
Empty weight : 11 @,@ 992 lb ( 5 @,@ 439 kg )
Gross weight : 17 @,@ 983 lb ( 8 @,@ 157 kg )
Max takeoff weight : 21 @,@ 414 lb ( 9 @,@ 713 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × Pratt & Whitney XR @-@ 1830 @-@ 60 radial piston engines , 800 hp ( 600 kW ) each
Propellers : 3 @-@ bladed Curtiss constant @-@ speed
Performance
Maximum speed : 182 mph ; 293 km / h ( 158 kn )
Cruise speed : 170 mph ( 148 kn ; 274 km / h )
Range : 2 @,@ 621 mi ; 4 @,@ 219 km ( 2 @,@ 278 nmi )
Combat range : 850 mi ; 1 @,@ 369 km ( 739 nmi ) with torpedo
Service ceiling : 20 @,@ 400 ft ( 6 @,@ 218 m ) at 17 @,@ 983 pounds ( 8 @,@ 157 kg ) mission weight
Time to altitude : 5 @.@ 3 minutes to 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m )
Wing loading : 25 @.@ 8 lb / sq ft ( 126 kg / m2 )
Armament
Guns : 2 x .30 @-@ caliber machine guns in nose turret and dorsal position ; 1 x .30 @-@ cal or .50 @-@ cal machine gun in ventral position
Bombs : One Mark XIII torpedo or up to 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 910 kg ) bombs
= Wild Guns =
Wild Guns is a 1994 space western shooting gallery video game developed by Natsume for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Set in the Wild West with steampunk and sci @-@ fi influences , the story follows Annie and her bounty hunter Clint , seeking revenge for the death of her family . The player controls either Annie or Clint sidestepping and jumping in the foreground while shooting down enemy robots in the background and dodging enemy bullets . These gameplay mechanics combine elements from third @-@ person shooters and light gun games .
Development lasted five months on a small budget with a team of only three core members and two support staff . The team leads had previously worked together on The Ninja Warriors ( 1994 ) for the Super NES , and so chose to develop for that system although more powerful hardware platforms were available . Wild Guns was heavily influenced in its gameplay and artistic design by arcade games such as Dynamite Duke and Blood Bros .. The game 's scenery , characters , and sound design drew ideas from the Western film genre and the science fiction manga Cobra , creating a space western setting .
Wild Guns received positive reviews at its initial release , and in retrospective reviews is considered a cult classic . Critics have praised the gameplay of what has become a niche genre , the cooperative mode , and graphical attention to detail . The game was re @-@ released on the Virtual Console for the Wii in 2010 and Wii U in 2014 . A remaster titled Wild Guns : Reloaded for PlayStation 4 is due for release in late 2016 , featuring classic gameplay with enhancements such as additional characters and stages .
= = Gameplay = =
Wild Guns is a shooting gallery game with an American Wild West setting along with sci @-@ fi and steampunk influences . The gameplay combines elements from third @-@ person shooters and light gun games in a similar fashion to Cabal and Blood Bros .. There are six levels , each with two stages , followed by a mini @-@ boss , and a third stage with a final boss . Single player and cooperative modes are available , as well as target practice allowing two players to compete to achieve the highest score . The story follows a young woman named Annie seeking revenge against the Kid family for abducting and killing her family . She seeks help from renowned space bounty hunter Clint . Although Clint says he doesn 't need Annie 's assistance , she insists , claiming she has a personal vendetta against the Kid family and is a skilled shooter .
The player controls either Clint or Annie in the foreground with the D @-@ pad and must shoot enemies in the background and dodge enemy fire . While holding the fire button down , the D @-@ pad instead makes the gun reticle move . Shooting and moving at the same time is not possible . While the gun is holstered , the player can jump , dive , and roll to evade gunfire . A " Look Out ! " text bubble will appear when one can dodge bullets . Some enemies will throw dynamite sticks at the player , but these can be tossed back . A lasso can be used to temporarily stun enemies .
Both enemies and their bullets can be shot down . Defeating enemies will sometimes reveal item boxes , which can hold precious metals such as gold and silver for extra points , and bombs . Only five bombs can be held at a time , which can be used to clear the screen of enemies . Weapon upgrades may appear after defeating certain enemies . These weapons , such as shotguns and machine guns , will increase the player 's firing speed or damage output . When a player 's bullets hit an enemy , a gauge at the bottom of the screen will gradually fill . Once filled , the player will be awarded with a Vulcan gun , the most powerful weapon in the game which grants invincibility . The gauge will then begin to deplete and the Vulcan gun will disappear once empty .
= = Development = =
Development of Wild Guns began when a small team of Natsume staff was asked to create a game quickly and cheaply while waiting for their next major assignment . The team consisted of three core members : Shunichi Taniguchi for game design and graphics , Toshiyasu Miyabe for programming , and Hiroyuki Iwatsuki for sound . Two other people helped as support staff . Although 32 @-@ bit hardware such as the 3DO was already available , the team chose to develop for the Super NES because the three had worked together previously on The Ninja Warriors for that system and considered it to be viable . Development of Wild Guns lasted approximately five months and was led by Taniguchi .
Wild Guns was heavily influenced by Dynamite Duke and Blood Bros. during development . The space western setting was largely influenced by the space western manga Cobra . The screen shaking and mirage @-@ like effects that occur after explosions were influenced by the film RoboCop 3 . When composing the music for Wild Guns , Hiroyuki Iwatsuki drew upon the influence of a western soundtrack " Best Of " CD that Natsume had provided him . He enjoyed listening to the CD both during and after development . The game 's music was created using PC @-@ 98s , a Roland W @-@ 30 keyboard , and a MIDI sequencer . Some sounds came from the Roland Sound Canvas series .
Originally , the reticle could only move up and down , and lateral movement was done by moving the player side @-@ to @-@ side ; this , however , proved to be cumbersome and was changed . The " Look Out ! " text bubble was added because of difficulty judging bullet distances due to the screen 's artificial 3D depth . Clint and Annie were designed in clothing that was emblematic of the time period , and Annie 's dress was chosen instead of jeans to avoid overlapping with Clint 's design and to enable easier animation . The characters ' names were suggested by the American Natsume offices . Due to the game 's low budget , voice actors were not used ; instead , Taniguchi 's voice was recorded in the office bathroom for Clint .
= = Reception = =
The North American version of Wild Guns was set to be released in the third quarter of 1994 and was reviewed at the time , but the release was unexpectedly delayed until the third quarter of 1995 . Reviewers at Electronic Gaming Monthly cited the cooperative multiplayer mode and challenging levels as the game 's strongest points . They declared it one of the best shooters on the SNES and compared it to the Neo Geo game NAM @-@ 1975 . GamePro praised the game for its intense action , fun cooperative multiplayer mode , colorful graphics , and ability to shoot almost any on @-@ screen object . They remarked that the game is difficult even on easy , but that players are rewarded for perseverance . Nintendo Power found the game to have good graphics and control , and complimented the presence of both male and female playable characters . However , they believed the game was not as challenging as other shooters . A 32X version was reportedly planned for 1996 , but never materialized .
In a retrospective Virtual Console review , IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas commended the gameplay depth and the detailed visual presentation . He acknowledged the difficulty , even on easy , but praised the game as one of the best examples of the niche shooting gallery genre . Mat Allen of Nintendo Life found the game to be an excellent example of what the Virtual Console is for : providing gamers chances to experience quality games that were overlooked in their time . He highlighted the release as providing a cheap option to play a game which has become an expensive collector 's item . Critics and Natsume themselves have acknowledged Wild Guns as a cult classic . Todd Ciolek of GameSetWatch cited Wild Guns as one of the best games in a genre that has become a lost art .
= = = Legacy = = =
A new title called Wild Guns : Reloaded for PlayStation 4 was announced in 2016 . The game was developed by the original team and features classic characters and stages but also enhances the original by adding more playable characters , enemies , stages , and up to 4 @-@ player support .
= Cody Asche =
Cody James Asche ( born June 30 , 1990 ) is an American professional baseball third baseman and left fielder for the Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He is 6 feet 1 inch ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) tall , and weighs 180 pounds ( 82 kg ) . After growing up in O 'Fallon , Missouri , he attended the University of Nebraska , where he played college baseball for the Nebraska Cornhuskers , majored in economics and achieved recognition for both his athletic and academic performance . He was drafted by the Phillies in 2011 . He quickly progressed through the minor league system , briefly dabbling at second base before predominantly sticking at third base and left field . At both positions , minor league scouts regarded his defensive ability as sub @-@ optimal .
The Phillies called him up to the major leagues and he became the team 's starting third baseman in 2014 . Many compare his playing style , particularly his demeanor and work ethic , to that of former Phillies ' teammate Chase Utley . As a hitter , he is better as a contact hitter than a power hitter ; defensively , he has improved , which has drawn accolades from former Phillies manager Ryne Sandberg .
= = Early life = =
Asche was born on June 30 , 1990 in St. Charles , Missouri to Todd and Julie Asche ; he has a brother named Tyler . He grew up playing baseball , which he started playing with his father and brother in the yard around age five , and football , but he quit playing football in his freshman year of high school . He attended Fort Zumwalt West High School in O 'Fallon , Missouri . Playing for the school 's baseball team , he had a .425 batting average across his career and batted .512 in his senior season . He then enrolled at the University of Nebraska , where he played college baseball for the Nebraska Cornhuskers . In 2011 , Asche 's junior year , he had a .327 batting average . His 12 home runs led the Big 12 Conference , while his 56 runs batted in ( RBIs ) placed him second in the conference . He was named a second @-@ team All @-@ American . While at Nebraska , he majored in economics and maintained a grade point average ( GPA ) of 3 @.@ 407 . Because of his strong grades , he earned placement on the Big 12 Conference Commissioner 's Honor Roll , a distinction bestowed upon student @-@ athletes that achieve a GPA of 3 @.@ 0 or greater , for five of his college semesters .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor league career = = =
The Phillies drafted Asche in the fourth round , with the 151st overall selection , of the 2011 MLB draft . In 2011 , the Phillies moved him to second base for his professional debut the Williamsport Crosscutters of the Class A @-@ Short Season New York – Penn League . He struggled there , posting a batting average of just .192 . After the season , he was moved back to third base . In 2012 , he hit .349 with the Clearwater Threshers of the Class A @-@ Advanced Florida State League , and was promoted to the Reading Phillies of the Class AA Eastern League , where he batted .300 . Using his combined stats from all levels during the 2012 season , he led all Phillies minor leaguers with a .324 batting average , and 168 hits ; his efforts earned him two Phillies Minor League Player of the Week selections ( one in May and one in August ) , and a Minor League Player of the Month selection in May . The Phillies assigned Asche to the Peoria Javelinas in the Arizona Fall League after the season for further development , and he played in the league 's all @-@ star game and led the league in doubles with 11 .
Keith Law , a minor league talent evaluator for ESPN , derided Asche as a prospect both offensively and defensively , noting that he likely would not be much of a power hitter and was a questionable defender . Nevertheless , Baseball America rated Asche as the Phillies ' seventh @-@ best prospect after the 2012 season . After the 2012 season , another analyst wrote that Asche had an " average " body for a baseball player , commented that while he had limited power potential , he could be a solid contact hitter because of quick hands and " incredibly sound " hitting mechanics , but was a " terrible " defender with a " fringy arm " . Subsequently , however , he improved defensively to become " passable " . In 2013 , Asche played for the Lehigh Valley IronPigs of the Class AAA International League ( IL ) . He was named to the IL team in the Triple @-@ A All @-@ Star Game . After batting .295 with 15 home runs and 68 RBIs for Lehigh Valley , and being named their Player of the Month for July , the Phillies promoted Asche to the major leagues on July 30 . One writer found it " mildly surprising " that the Phillies called up Asche rather than Maikel Franco , a fellow third base prospect who most thought had far more potential than Asche .
= = = Major league career = = =
= = = = Philadelphia Phillies = = = =
= = = = = 2013 = = = = =
Although Asche was a non @-@ roster invitee to major league spring training , the Phillies called up Asche to give him " an extended look " at the third base position , particularly in comparison to Franco . Upon his call @-@ up , some scouts compared him to Chase Utley , particularly his demeanor . Asche hoped to emulate Utley , noting , " I can only hope someday I can be compared to that guy . " On August 8 , Asche went 3 @-@ for @-@ 5 with a double , a home run and two RBIs . He had a two @-@ run home run to right field in the fourth inning to give the Phillies a nine @-@ run lead . It was the first home run of his big league career . On September 6 , 2013 , Asche hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run homer to lead the Phillies over the first @-@ place Atlanta Braves . Asche concluded the 2013 season with a .235 batting average , 5 home runs , and 22 RBIs at the major league level .
= = = = = 2014 = = = = =
Entering the 2014 season , most writers thought he had earned the starting third baseman 's job . Bill Baer , a writer for ESPN , NBC Sports , and Baseball Prospectus , noted that not only had Asche earned a starting spot , but that his 2013 success helped the development of the team at large . He explained ,
" Last year , the Phillies went into the off @-@ season looking at a weak free agent market for third basemen and no realistic internal options . The Phillies opted to trade for Michael Young , which did not pan out . Considering the way Asche has played in a month @-@ plus , the Phillies don ’ t have to worry about third base at all this off @-@ season . Even better is that Maikel Franco will get a chance to prove himself at the Triple @-@ A level over an entire season . Had Asche not been an option , the Phillies may have gone with another stopgap solution , and that could have motivated the Phillies to rush Franco along faster than necessary " , – Bill Baer
Phillies manager Ryne Sandberg also called Asche the leading candidate for the job , noting that he would be the Phillies first homegrown third baseman since Scott Rolen . Most were optimistic on Asche 's development , though noted he is another left @-@ handed hitter in a lineup dominated by lefties , featuring only one @-@ to @-@ two righties . The Phillies ultimately demoted Franco , and Asche was named the opening day starter at third base .
Asche began the 2014 successfully ; on opening day , he went three @-@ for @-@ four at the plate ( 3 hits in 4 at bats ) , scored four runs , had a double , home run , and two RBIs . However , over the first month of the season , he struggled , which led to frequent replacement in the lineup by either Freddy Galvis or Jayson Nix , particularly against left @-@ handed pitchers . None of the trio produced offensively , which led to suggestions within the media the Phillies should promote Franco . On May 6 , however , he had four hits in four at bats , including a game @-@ tying grand slam in a game against the Toronto Blue Jays , though the Phillies ultimately lost in extra innings . He struggled mightily in the field on May 13 , committing three total errors , two of which occurred in an inning during which the Angels scored four unearned runs . However , after that series , Asche bounced back against the Reds in a three @-@ game series during which he went 7 for 12 with six RBIs and three extra base hits , including a three @-@ run home run . On May 25 , he was placed on the disabled list as a precaution due to a strained left hamstring . As the season progressed , Asche was the regular starter , and ultimately , he described his season as " satisfactory " , with room for improvement , while Crashburn Alley 's Michael Baumann called Asche 's season " encouraging and disappointing at the same time . "
= = = = = 2015 = = = = =
Asche began the 2015 season among the team 's hottest hitters , and a mainstay in the lineup as the team 's starting third baseman . However , in late April , he began working on skills as an outfielder , ostensibly in preparation for the arrival of minor league prospect Maikel Franco , regarded as a stronger defensive third baseman . In fact , the Phillies optioned Asche back to Triple @-@ A on May 12 to accelerate his development as a left fielder , as Franco was hitting very well in the minor leagues , and could be ready for a promotion . Although surprised and disappointed by the move , Asche sought to trust the organization and play wherever it needed him . Ultimately , Asche struggled to find playing time during the remainder of the season , although MLB.com writer Todd Zolecki said that Asche would be given an opportunity in 2016 as the Phillies like his makeup , but the burden will be on him to produce results to justify the playing time , given the amelioration of other options at his positions .
= = Player profile = =
= = = Batting = = =
When Asche reached the major leagues , he was regarded as having decent potential at the plate , perhaps comparable to Mariners ' third baseman Kyle Seager . While he hit for power in the minor leagues , his big league power was expected to be adequate , perhaps averaging 12 – 14 home runs per season . Baseball Prospect Nation reported that he " gets pull happy when he sells out for power and ultimately swings too hard at times . " Like most left @-@ handed hitters , Asche performed better against right @-@ handed pitchers than left @-@ handed pitchers , hitting .238 off the former and .219 off the latter in the major leagues during 2013 . FanGraphs columnist Michael Barr summarized Asche 's offensive potential by writing , " He 's certainly not going to be a world beater , but having double digit home run and speed potential while hitting something in the .275 range is likely the kind of hitter than many of you could use at third base . "
= = = Fielding = = =
Though as a minor league prospect , analysts derided his defensive potential , with one calling him " terrible " , he progressively improved . Late in 2013 , Sandberg commented on his defensive improvement : " I see tremendous progress on his footwork out there , his reads on balls , his quickness , his reacting to the hops and getting the hop he wants . It looks like he 's really worked on his glove play , just using the glove along with his strong accurate arm . It 's a very true ball that he throws over there . It 's got a lot on it . I 've seen a lot of improving developments since I saw him in mid @-@ February . He 's come a long way . "
= = = Playing style = = =
New Phillies ' bench coach Larry Bowa said , " ( Asche ) reminds me of a younger Chase Utley , he gets real mad when he misses a ball , he wants to make every play , he wants to go out and work , you can 't hit enough groundballs to him ... he 's got a great attitude ... that kind of energy can invigorate a ball club . " Marcus Hayes , a writer for the Philadelphia Daily News concurred with Bowa 's comparison of Asche to Utley , calling their similarities " eerie " , and writing , " Already , Asche 's solution to failure is to ignore fatigue ; to work harder ; to improve at all costs . His objective is not necessarily to hit home runs , or to hit a big payday , but , rather , to make sure he can beat out a ground ball in late September . Sound familiar ? " Sal Rende , the hitting coach for the Phillies ' AAA affiliate , noted that Asche also has solid intangibles , including makeup and work ethic , garnering yet another comparison to Utley . For his part , Asche said that while he appreciates the comparison , he wants to be his own player . Asche
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, but little within a given taxon , it is not surprising that many infaunal organisms are specially adapted to life in only the traps of particular species . N. rajah is no exception , and in fact has two mosquito taxa named after it . Culex ( Culiciomyia ) rajah and Toxorhynchites ( Toxorhynchites ) rajah were described by Masuhisa Tsukamoto in 1989 , based on larvae collected in pitchers of N. rajah on Mount Kinabalu three years earlier . The two species were found to live in association with larvae of Culex ( Lophoceraomyia ) jenseni , Uranotaenia ( Pseudoficalbia ) moultoni and an undescribed taxon , Tripteroides ( Rachionotomyia ) sp . No. 2 . Concerning C. rajah , Tsukamoto noted that the " body surface of most larvae are covered in Vorticella @-@ like protozoa " . At present , nothing is known of this species with regards to its adult biology , habitat , or medical importance as a vector of diseases . The same is true for T. rajah ; nothing is known of its biology except that adults are not haematophagous .
Another species , Culex shebbearei , has also been recorded as an infaunal organism of N. rajah in the past . The original 1931 record by F. W. Edwards is based on a collection by H. M. Pendlebury in 1929 from a plant growing on Mount Kinabalu . However , Tsukamoto notes that in light of new information on these species , " it seems more likely to conclude that the species [ C. rajah ] is a new species which has been misidentitied as C. shebbearei for a long time , rather than to think that both C. shebbearei and C. rajah n. sp. are living in pitchers of Nepenthes rajah on Mt . Kinabalu " .
= = = Pests = = =
Not all interactions between Nepenthes and fauna are beneficial to the plant . Nepenthes rajah is sometimes attacked by insects which feed on its leaves and damage substantial portions of the lamina . Also , monkeys and tarsiers are known to occasionally rip pitchers open to feed on their contents .
= = History and popularity = =
See also : Timeline of Nepenthes rajah and its natural hybrids
Due to its size , unusual morphology and striking colouration , N. rajah has always been a very popular and highly sought @-@ after insectivorous plant . However , despite its popularity amongst pitcher plant enthusiasts , N. rajah remains a little @-@ known species outside the field of carnivorous plants . Due to its specialised growing requirements , it is not a suitable candidate for a houseplant and , as such , is only cultivated by a relatively small number of hobbyists and professional growers worldwide . This being the case , N. rajah is nonetheless probably the most famous of all pitcher plants . Its reputation for producing some of the most magnificent pitchers in the genus dates back to the late 19th century .
Nepenthes rajah was first collected by Hugh Low on Mount Kinabalu in 1858 . It was described the following year by Joseph Dalton Hooker , who named it after James Brooke , the first White Rajah of Sarawak . The description was published in The Transactions of the Linnean Society of London :
Nepenthes Rajah , H. f . ( Frutex , 4 @-@ pedalis , Low ) . Foliis maximis 2 @-@ pedalibus , oblongo @-@ lanceolatis petiolo costaque crassissimis , ascidiis giganteis ( cum operculo l @-@ 2 @-@ pedalibus ) ampullaceis ore contracto , stipite folio peltatim affixo , annulo maximo lato everso crebre lamellato , operculo amplissimo ovato @-@ cordato , ascidium totum æquante . — ( Tab . LXXII . )
Hab . — Borneo , north coast , on Kina Balu , alt . 5 @,@ 000 feet ( Low ) . This wonderful plant is certainly one of the most striking vegetable productions hitherto discovered , and , in this respect , is worthy of taking place side by side with the Rafflesia Arnoldii . It hence bears the title of my friend Rajah Brooke , of whose services , in its native place , it may be commemorative among botanists . . . . I have only two specimens of leaves and pitchers , both quite similar , but one twice as large as the other . Of these , the leaf of the larger is 18 inches long , exclusive of the petioles , which is as thick as the thumb and 7 – 8 broad , very coriaceous and glabrous , with indistinct nerves . The stipes of the pitcher is given off below the apex of the leaf , is 20 inches long , and as thick as the finger . The broad ampullaceous pitcher is 6 inches in diameter , and 12 long : it has two fimbriated wings in front , is covered with long rusty hairs above , is wholly studded with glands within , and the broad annulus is everted , and 1 – 1 ½ inch in diameter . Operculum shortly stipitate , 10 inches long and 8 broad .
The inflorescence is hardly in proportion . Male raceme , 30 inches long , of which 20 are occupied by the flowers ; upper part and flowers clothed with short rusty pubescence . Peduncles slender , simple or bifid . Fruiting raceme stout . Peduncles 1 ½ inches long , often bifid . Capsule , ¾ inch long , ⅓ broad , rather turgid , densely covered with rusty tomentum .
Spenser St. John wrote the following account of his encounter with N. rajah on Mount Kinabalu in Life in the Forests of the Far East published in 1862 :
Another steep climb of 800 feet brought us to the Marei Parei spur , to the spot where the ground was covered with the magnificent pitcher @-@ plants , of which we had come in search . This one has been called the Nepenthes Rajah , and is a plant about four feet in length , with broad leaves stretching on every side , having the great pitchers resting on the ground in a circle about it . Their shape and size are remarkable . I will give the measurement of one , to indicate the form : the length along the back nearly fourteen inches ; from the base to the top of the column in front , five inches ; and its lid a foot long by fourteen inches broad , and of an oval shape . Its mouth was surrounded by a plaited pile , which near the column was two inches broad , lessening in its narrowest part to three @-@ quarters of an inch . The plaited pile of the mouth was also undulating in broad waves . Near the stem the pitcher is four inches deep , so that the mouth is situated upon it in a triangular manner . The colour of an old chalice is a deep purple , but that of the others is generally mauve outside , very dark indeed in the lower part , though lighter towards the rim ; the inside is of the same colour , but has a kind of glazed and shiny appearance . The lid is mauve in the centre , shading to green at the edges . The stems of the female flowers we found always a foot shorter than those of the male , and the former were far less numerous than the latter . It is indeed one of the most astonishing productions of nature . [ ... ] The pitchers , as I have before observed , rest on the ground in a circle , and the young plants have cups of the same form as those of the old ones . While the men were cooking their rice , we sat before the tent enjoying our chocolate and observing one of our followers carrying water in a splendid specimen of the Nepenthes Rajah , desired him to bring it to us , and found that it held exactly four pint bottles . It was 19 inches in circumference . We afterwards saw others apparently much larger , and Mr. Low , while wandering in search of flowers , came upon one in which was a drowned rat .
Nepenthes rajah was first collected for the Veitch Nurseries by Frederick William Burbidge in 1878 , during his second trip to Borneo . Shortly after being introduced into cultivation in 1881 , N. rajah proved very popular among wealthy Victorian horticulturalists and became a much sought @-@ after species . A note in The Gardeners ' Chronicle of 1881 mentions the Veitch plant as follows : " N. rajah at present is only a young Rajah , what it will become was lately illustrated in our columns ... " . A year later , young N. rajah plants were displayed at the Royal Horticultural Society 's annual show for the first time . The specimen exhibited at the show by the Veitch Nurseries , the first of this species to be cultivated in Europe , won a first class certificate . In Veitch 's catalogue for 1889 , N. rajah was priced at £ 2.2s per plant . During this time , interest in Nepenthes had reached its peak . The Garden reported that Nepenthes were being propagated by the thousands to keep up with European demand .
However , dwindling interest in Nepenthes at the turn of the century saw the demise of the Veitch Nurseries and consequently the loss of several species and hybrids in cultivation , including N. northiana and N. rajah . By 1905 , the final N. rajah specimens from the Veitch nurseries were gone , as the cultural requirements of the plants proved too difficult to reproduce . The last surviving N. rajah in cultivation at this time was located at the National Botanic Gardens at Glasnevin in Ireland , however this soon perished also . It would be many years before N. rajah was reintroduced into cultivation .
= = = Recent popularity = = =
In recent years there has been renewed interest in Nepenthes worldwide . Much of the plants ' current popularity can probably be attributed to Shigeo Kurata , whose book Nepenthes of Mount Kinabalu ( 1976 ) , which featured the best colour photography of Nepenthes to date , did much to bring attention to these unusual plants .
Not surprisingly , N. rajah is a relatively well known plant in Malaysia , especially its native Sabah . The species is often used to promote Sabah , and specifically Kinabalu National Park , as a tourist destination , and features prominently on postcards from the region . Nepenthes rajah has appeared on the covers of several popular Nepenthes publications , including Nepenthes of Mount Kinabalu ( Kurata , 1976 ) and Nepenthes of Borneo ( Clarke , 1997 ) , both published in Kota Kinabalu , Malaysia . On April 6 , 1996 , Malaysia issued a series of four postage stamps depicting some of its more famous Nepenthes species . Two 30 ¢ stamps , featuring N. macfarlanei and N. sanguinea , as well as two 50 ¢ stamps , depicting N. lowii and N. rajah , were released . The N. rajah stamp has been assigned a unique identification number in two popular stamp numbering systems : Scott # 580 and Yvert # 600 . Curiously , the peltate leaf attachment that is so characteristic of this species is not shown . Nepenthes rajah was featured in the first episode of Kingdom of Plants 3D , a natural history documentary series presented by David Attenborough .
= = Classification = =
Nepenthes rajah is not generally considered to be closely related to any other species , due to its unusual pitcher and leaf morphology . However , several attempts have been made to deduce natural groupings within the Nepenthes genus , which have grouped N. rajah with other species thought to share certain traits with it .
The Nepenthes were first split up in 1873 , when Hooker published his monograph on the genus , titled " Nepenthaceae " . Hooker distinguished N. pervillei from all other taxa based on its seeds , which lack the appendages typical of most Nepenthes . He placed it in the monotypic subgenus Anourosperma . All other species were subsumed in the second subgenus , Eunepenthes .
A second attempt to establish a natural subdivision within the genus was made in 1895 by Günther Beck von Mannagetta und Lerchenau in " Die Gattung Nepenthes " . Beck kept the two subgenera created by Hooker , but divided Eunepenthes into three subgroups : Retiferae , Apruinosae and Pruinosae . Nepenthes rajah formed part of the Apruinosae ( Latin : pl. of apruinosa : not frosted ) .
Nepenthes taxonomy was once again revised in 1908 by John Muirhead Macfarlane in his own monograph , " Nepenthaceae " . Oddly , Macfarlane did not name the groups he distinguished . His revision is not generally considered to be a natural division of the genus .
In 1928 , B. H. Danser published his seminal monograph , " The Nepenthaceae of the Netherlands Indies " , in which he divided Nepenthes into six clades , based on observations of herbarium material . The clades were : the Vulgatae , Montanae , Nobiles , Regiae , Insignes and Urceolatae . Danser placed N. rajah in the Regiae ( Latin : pl. of rēgia : royal ) . The Regiae clade as proposed by Danser is shown in the table to the right .
Most of the species in this clade are large plants with petiolate leaves , an indumentum of coarse reddish @-@ brown hairs , raceme @-@ like inflorescence , and funnel @-@ shaped ( infundibulate ) upper pitchers . All bear a characteristic appendage on the lower surface of the lid near the apex . With the exception of N. lowii , the Regiae all have a mostly flattened or expanded peristome . The majority of species comprising Regiae are endemic to Borneo . Based on current understanding of the genus , Regiae appears to reflect the relationships of its members quite well , although the same cannot be said for the other clades . Despite this , Danser 's classification was undoubtedly a great improvement on previous attempts .
The taxonomical work of Danser ( 1928 ) was revised by Hermann Harms in 1936 . Harms divided Nepenthes into three subgenera : Anurosperma Hooker.f. ( 1873 ) , Eunepenthes Hooker.f. ( 1873 ) and Mesonepenthes Harms ( 1936 ) ( Latin : meso : middle ; " middle " Nepenthes ) . The Nepenthes species found in the subgenera Anurosperma and Mesonepenthes differ from those in the Vulgatae , where Danser had placed them . Harms included N. rajah in the subgenus Eunepenthes together with the great majority of other Nepenthes ; Anurosperma was a monotypic subgenus , while Mesonepenthes contained only three species . He also created an additional clade , the Distillatoriae ( after N. distillatoria ) .
In his 1976 book , Nepenthes of Mount Kinabalu , Shigeo Kurata presented detailed photographs of lid nectar glands and the digestive glands of the trap interior . He divided the latter into the " lower " , " upper " and " middle " parts .
= = = Biochemical analysis = = =
More recently , biochemical analysis has been used as a means to determine cladistical relationships between Nepenthes species . In 1975 , David E. Fairbrothers et al. first suggested a link between chemical properties and certain morphological groupings , based on the theory that morphologically similar plants produce chemical constituents with similar therapeutic effects .
In 2002 , phytochemical screening and analytical chromatography were used to study the presence of phenolic compounds and leucoanthocyanins in several naturally @-@ occurring hybrids and their putative parental species ( including N. rajah ) from Sabah and Sarawak . The research was based on leaf material from nine dry herbarium specimens . Eight spots containing phenolic acids , flavonols , flavones , leucoanthocyanins and ' unknown flavonoid ' 1 and 3 were identified from chromatographic profiles . The distributions of these in the hybrid N. × alisaputrana and its putative parental species N. rajah and N. burbidgeae are shown in the table to the left . A specimen of N. × alisaputrana grown from tissue culture ( in vitro ) was also tested .
Phenolic and ellagic acids were undetected in N. rajah , while concentrations of kaempferol were found to be very weak . Chromatographic patterns of the N. × alisaputrana samples studied showed complementation of its putative parental species .
Myricetin was found to be absent from all studied taxa . This agrees with the findings of previous authors ( R. M. Som in 1988 ; M. Jay and P. Lebreton in 1972 ) and suggests that the absence of a widely distributed compound like myricetin among the Nepenthes examined might provide " additional diagnostic information for these six species " .
Several proteins and nucleotides of N. rajah have been either partially or completely sequenced . These are as follows :
translocated tRNA @-@ Lys ( trnK ) pseudogene ( DQ007139 )
trnK gene & maturase K ( matK ) gene ( AF315879 )
trnK gene & maturase K ( matK ) gene ( AF315880 )
maturase K ( AAK56010 )
maturase K ( AAK56011 )
= = = Related species = = =
In 1998 , a striking new species of Nepenthes was discovered in the Philippines by Andreas Wistuba . Temporarily dubbed N. sp . Palawan 1 , it bears a close resemblance to N. rajah in terms of pitcher and leaf morphology . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] In 2007 , the species was described by Wistuba and Joachim Nerz as N. mantalingajanensis .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Kinabalu = = =
Nepenthes rajah has a very localised distribution , being restricted to Mount Kinabalu and neighbouring Mount Tambuyukon , both located in Kinabalu National Park , Sabah , Malaysian Borneo . Mount Kinabalu is a massive granitic dome structure that is geologically young and formed from the intrusion and uplift of a granitic batholith . At 4095 @.@ 2 m , it is by far the tallest mountain on the island of Borneo and one of the highest peaks in Southeast Asia . The lower slopes of the mountain are mainly composed of sandstone and shale , transformed from marine sand and mud about 35 million years ago . Intrusive ultramafic ( serpentine ) rock was uplifted with the core of the batholith and forms a collar around the mountain . It is on these ultramafic soils that the flora of Mount Kinabalu exhibits the greatest levels of endemicity and many of the area 's rarest species can be found here .
= = = Substrate = = =
Nepenthes rajah seems to grow exclusively on serpentine soils containing high concentrations of nickel and chromium , which are toxic to many plant species . Its tolerance of these , therefore , means that it can grow in an ecological niche where it faces less competition for space and nutrients . The root systems of N. × alisaputrana and N. villosa are also known to be resistant to the heavy metals present in serpentine substrates . These soils are also rich in magnesium and are slightly alkaline as a result . They often form a relatively thin layer over a base of ultramafic rock and are thus known as ultramafic soils . Ultramafic soils are thought to cover approximately 16 % of Kinabalu National Park . These soils have high levels of endemicity in many taxonomic groups , not least the Nepenthes . Four species in the genus , including N. rajah , can only be found within the boundaries of the park .
Nepenthes rajah usually grows in open , grassy clearings on old land slips and flat ridge tops , particularly in areas of seeping ground water , where the soil is loose and permanently moist . Although these sites can receive very high rainfall , excess water drains away quickly , preventing the soil from becoming waterlogged . N. rajah can often be found growing in grassy undergrowth , especially among sedges .
= = = Climate = = =
Nepenthes rajah has an altitudinal distribution of 1500 – 2650 m a.s.l. and is thus considered an ( ultra ) highland or Upper Montane plant . In the upper limit of its range , night @-@ time temperatures may approach freezing and day @-@ time maximums rarely exceed 25 ℃ . Due to the night @-@ time temperature drop , relative air humidity increases significantly , rising from 65 – 75 % to over 95 % . Vegetation at this height is very stunted and slow @-@ growing due to the extreme environmental conditions that prevail . Plants are often subjected to fierce winds and driving rain , as well as exposure to intense direct sunlight . The relatively open vegetation of the upper montane forest also experiences greater fluctuations in temperature and humidity compared with lower altitudes . These changes are largely governed by the extent of cloud cover . In the absence of clouds , temperatures rise rapidly , humidity drops , and light levels may be very high . When cloud cover returns , temperatures and light levels fall , while humidity levels increase . Average annual precipitation in this region is around 3000 mm .
= = Conservation status = =
= = = Endangered species = = =
Nepenthes rajah is classified as Endangered ( EN – B1 + 2e ) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . It is also listed on Schedule I , Part II of the Wildlife Conservation Enactment ( WCE ) 1997 and CITES Appendix I , which prohibits international trade in plants collected from the wild . However , due to its popularity among collectors , many plants have been removed from the wild illegally , even though the species ' distribution lies entirely within the bounds of Kinabalu Park . This led to some populations being severely depleted by over @-@ collection in the 1970s and eventually resulted in the species ' inclusion in CITES Appendix I in 1981 . Together with N. khasiana , it is one of only two species in the genus to feature on this list ; all other Nepenthes species are covered by Appendix II .
This being the case , however , the short @-@ term future of N. rajah seems to be relatively secure and it would perhaps be more accurately classified as Vulnerable ( VU ) or , taking into account protected populations in National Parks , Lower Risk conservation dependent ( LR ( cd ) ) . This agrees with the conservation status of N. rajah according to the World Conservation Monitoring Centre ( WCMC ) , under which it is also considered Vulnerable . Furthermore , the species was originally treated as Vulnerable ( V ) by the IUCN prior to the introduction of the 1994 threat categories .
Although N. rajah has a restricted distribution and is often quoted as a plant in peril , it is not rare in the areas where it does grow and most populations are now off @-@ limits to visitors and lie in remote parts of Kinabalu National Park . Furthermore , N. rajah has a distinctive leaf shape making it difficult to illegally ship abroad even if the pitchers are removed , as an informed customs official should be able to identify it .
The recent advent of artificial tissue culture , or more specifically in vitro , technology in Europe and the United States has meant that plants can be produced in large numbers and sold at relatively low prices ( ~ US $ 20 – $ 30 in the case of N. rajah ) . In vitro propagation refers to production of whole plants from cell cultures derived from explants ( generally seeds ) . This technology has , to a large extent , removed the incentive for collectors to travel to Sabah to collect the plant illegally , and demand for wild @-@ collected plants has fallen considerably in recent years .
Rob Cantley , a prominent conservationist and artificial propagator of Nepenthes plants , assesses the current status of plants in the wild as follows :
This species grows in at least 2 distinct sub @-@ populations , both of which are well protected by Sabah National Parks Authority . One of the populations grows in an area public access to which is strictly prohibited without permit . However , there has been a decline in population of mature individuals in the better known and less patrolled site . This is largely due to damage to habitat and plants by careless visitors rather than organised collection of plants . Nepenthes rajah has become common in cultivation in recent years as a result of the availability of inexpensive clones from tissue culture . I believe that these days commercial collection of this species from the wild is negligible .
This being the case , however , it appears that the genetic variability of cultivated N. rajah plants is very small , as all commercially available tissue @-@ cultured plants are thought to belong to just four clones originating from the Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew in London , England .
However , illegal collection is not the only threat facing plants in the wild . The El Niño climatic phenomenon of 1997 / 98 had a catastrophic effect on the Nepenthes species on Mount Kinabalu . The dry period that followed severely depleted some natural populations . Forest fires broke out in 9 locations in Kinabalu Park , covering a total area of 25 square kilometres and generating large amounts of smog . During the El Niño period , many plants were temporarily transferred to the park nursery to save at least some individuals . These were later replanted in the " Nepenthes Garden " in Mesilau ( see below ) . In spite of this , N. rajah was one of the less affected species and relatively few plants perished as a result . Since then , Ansow Gunsalam has established a nursery close to the Mesilau Lodge at the base of Kinabalu Park to protect the endangered species of that area , including N. rajah .
= = = Restricted distribution = = =
The newly opened Mesilau Nature Resort , which lies near the golf course behind the village of Kundasang , is now the only place where regular visitors can hope to see this species in its natural habitat . Here , several dozen N. rajah plants grow near the top of a steep landslide . Both young and mature plants are present , some with sizable pitchers that may occasionally exceed 40 cm in height ( see image ) . Daily guided tours are organised to the " Nepenthes Garden " where these plants are located . The " Nepenthes rajah Nature Trail " is subject to a fee and operates daily from 9 : 00 am to 4 : 00 pm . Almost all other natural populations of this species occur in remote parts of Kinabalu National Park , which are off @-@ limits to tourists . Visitors to the park can also see N. rajah on display in the nursery adjoining the " Mountain Garden " at Kinabalu Park Headquarters .
Other known localities of wild N. rajah populations include the Marai Parai plateau , Mesilau East River near Mesilau Cave , the Upper Kolopis River , and the eastern slope of Mount Tambuyukon . On Pig Hill , N. rajah grows at 1950 – 2320 m and is sympatric with N. burbidgeae , N. tentaculata , and the natural hybrid N. × alisaputrana .
= = Natural hybrids = =
Nepenthes rajah is known to hybridise with several other species with which it is sympatric . It seems to flower at any time of year and for this reason it hybridises relatively easily . Charles Clarke also notes that " N. rajah , more than any other species , appears to have been successful in having its pollen transported over considerable distances . Consequently , a number of putative N. rajah hybrids exist without the parent plant growing nearby " . However , it appears that the limit as to how far pollen can be transported is approximately 10 km . Hybrids between N. rajah and all other Nepenthes species on Mount Kinabalu have been recorded . Due to the slow @-@ growing nature of N. rajah , few hybrids involving it have been artificially produced yet .
At present , the following natural hybrids are known :
N. burbidgeae × N. rajah [ = N. × alisaputrana J.H.Adam & Wilcock ( 1992 ) ]
N. edwardsiana × N. rajah
N. fusca × N. rajah
N. lowii × N. rajah
N. macrovulgaris × N. rajah
N. rajah × N. stenophylla
N. rajah × N. tentaculata
N. rajah × N. villosa [ = N. × kinabaluensis Sh.Kurata ( 1976 ) nom.nud. ]
The " Mountain Garden " of Kinabalu National Park contains a number of well @-@ grown Nepenthes , including the rare hybrid N. rajah × N. stenophylla . This plant has leaves resembling those of N. stenophylla , but the lid and wings are typical of N. rajah . The peristome is strongly influenced by N. stenophylla and bristles are present at the border of the lid , a unique characteristic of this hybrid . It occurs at an altitude of 1500 – 2600 m .
A single example of N. lowii × N. rajah grows along the Mesilau nature trail .
Two hybrids of N. rajah have been formally described and given specific names : N. × alisaputrana and N. × kinabaluensis . Both are listed on CITES Appendix II and the latter is also considered Endangered ( EN ( D ) ) under current IUCN criteria .
= = = Nepenthes × alisaputrana = = =
Nepenthes × alisaputrana ( originally published as " Nepenthes × alisaputraiana " ) is named in honour of Datuk Lamri Ali , Director of Sabah Parks . It is only known from a few remote localities within Kinabalu National Park where is grows in stunted , open vegetation over serpentine soils at around 2000 m above sea level , often amongst populations of N. burbidgeae . This plant is notable for combining the best characters of both parent species , not least the size of its pitchers , which rival those of N. rajah in volume ( ≤ 35 cm high , ≤ 20 cm wide ) . The other hybrids involving N. rajah do not exhibit such impressive proportions . The pitchers of N. × alisaputrana can be distinguished from those of N. burbidgeae by a broader peristome , larger lid and simply by their sheer size . The hybrid differs from its other parent , N. rajah , by its lid structure , indumentum of short , brown hairs , narrower and more cylindrical peristome , and pitcher colour , which is usually yellow @-@ green with red or brown flecking . For this reason , Phillipps and Lamb ( 1996 ) gave it the common name Leopard pitcher @-@ plant , though this is rarely used . The peristome is green to dark red and striped with purple bands . Leaves are often slightly peltate . The plant climbs well and aerial pitchers are frequently produced . N. × alisaputrana more closely resembles N. rajah than N. burbidgeae , but it is difficult to confuse this plant with either . However , this mistake has previously been made on at least one occasion ; a pitcher illustrated in Insect Eating Plants & How To Grow Them ( Slack , 1986 ) as being N. rajah was in fact N. burbidgeae × N. rajah .
= = = Nepenthes × kinabaluensis = = =
Nepenthes × kinabaluensis is another impressive plant . The pitchers get large also , but do not compare to those of N. rajah or N. × alisaputrana . It is a well @-@ known natural hybrid of what many consider to be the two most spectacular Nepenthes species of Borneo : N. rajah and N. villosa . Nepenthes × kinabaluensis is only found on Mount Kinabalu ( hence the name ) and nearby Mount Tambuyukon , where the two parent species are occur sympatrically . More specifically , plants are known from a footpath near Paka Cave and several places along an unestablished route on a south @-@ east ridge , which lies on the west side of the Upper Kolopis River . The only accessible location from which this hybrid is known is the Kinabalu summit trail , between Layang @-@ Layang and the helipad , where it grows at about 2900 m in a clearing dominated by Dacrydium gibbsiae and Leptospermum recurvum trees . Nepenthes × kinabaluensis has an altitudinal distribution of 2420 to 3030 m . It grows in open areas in cloud forest . This hybrid can be distinguished from N. rajah by the presence of raised ribs that line the inner edge of the peristome and end with elongated teeth . These are more prominent than those found in N. rajah and are clue as to the hybrid 's parentage ( N. villosa has highly developed peristome ribs ) . The peristome is coarse and expanded at the margin ( but not scalloped like that of N. rajah ) , the lid orbiculate or reniformed and almost flat . In general , pitchers are larger than those of N. villosa and the tendril joins the apex about 1 – 2 cm below the leaf tip , a feature which is characteristic of N. rajah . In older plants , the tendril can be almost woody . Nepenthes × kinabaluensis has an indumentum of villous hairs covering the pitchers and leaf margins , which is approximately intermediate between the parents . Lower pitchers have two fringed wings , whereas the upper pitchers usually lack these . The colour of the pitcher varies from yellow to scarlet . Nepenthes × kinabaluensis seems to produce upper pitchers more readily than either of its parents . In all respects N. × kinabaluensis is intermediate between the two parent species and it is easy to distinguish from all other Nepenthes of Borneo . However , it has been confused once before , when the hybrid was labelled as N. rajah in Letts Guide to Carnivorous Plants of the World ( Cheers , 1992 ) .
Nepenthes × kinabaluensis was first collected near Kambarangoh by Lilian Gibbs in 1910 and later mentioned by Macfarlane as " Nepenthes sp . " in 1914 . Although Macfarlane did not formally name the plant , he noted that " [ a ] ll available morphological details suggest that this is a hybrid between N. villosa and N. rajah " . The name N. × kinabaluensis was first published in Shigeo Kurata 's 1976 book , Nepenthes of Mount Kinabalu , but was a nomen nudum at the time as it lacked an adequate description and information on the type specimen . The name was subsequently published validly by Kurata in 1984 .
= = = Hybrid or species ? = = =
Nepenthes × alisaputrana and N. × kinabaluensis are often fertile and thus may breed among themselves . Clive A. Stace writes that we may speak of " stabilised hybrids when they have developed a distributional , morphological or genetic set of characters which is no longer strictly related to that of its parents , ... if the hybrid has become an independent , recognisable , self @-@ producing unit , it is de facto a separate species " . Nepenthes hurrelliana and N. murudensis are two examples of species that have a putative hybrid origin . Nepenthes × alisaputrana and N. × kinabaluensis are sufficiently stabilised that a species status has been discussed . Indeed , N. kinabaluensis was described as a species by Adam & Wilcock in 1996 .
Due to their dioecious nature , a hybrid involving a pair of Nepenthes species can represent one of two possible crosses , depending on which species was the female and which was the male . When the cross is known , the female ( or pod ) parent is usually referred to first , followed by the male ( or pollen ) parent . This is an important distinction , as the hybrid will usually display different morphological features according to the type of cross ; the pod parent is thought to be dominant in most cases and hybrid offspring usually resemble it more than the pollen parent . Most wild plants of N. × kinabaluensis , for example , show a greater affinity to N. rajah than N. villosa and are thus thought to represent the cross N. rajah × N. villosa . However , specimens have been found that seem to be more similar to N. villosa , suggesting that they might be the reverse cross ( see [ 4 ] ) . The same is true for other hybrids involving N. rajah .
= = Cultivation = =
See also : Nepenthes cultivation
Nepenthes rajah has always been considered to be one of the more difficult Nepenthes species to cultivate . However , in recent years , it has become apparent that the plant may not be deserving of its reputation .
= = = Environmental factors = = =
Nepenthes rajah is a montane species or " highlander " , growing at altitudes ranging from 1500 to 2650 m . As such , it requires warm days , with temperatures ranging ( ideally ) from approximately 25 to 30 ℃ , and cool nights , with temperatures of about 10 to 15 ℃ . Here , it is important to note that the temperatures themselves are not vital ( when kept within reasonable limits ) , but rather the temperature drop itself ; N. rajah needs considerably cooler nights , with a drop of 10 ℃ or more being preferable . Failure to observe this requirement will almost certainly doom the plant in the long term or , at best , limit it to being a small , unimpressive specimen .
In addition , like all Nepenthes , this plant needs a fairly humid environment to grow well . Values in the region of 75 % R.H. are generally considered optimal , with increased humidity at night ( ~ 90 % R.H. ) . However , N. rajah does tolerate fluctuations in humidity , especially when young , provided that the air does not become too dry ( below 50 % R.H. ) . Humidity can be easily controlled using an ultrasonic humidifier in conjunction with a humidistat .
In its natural habitat , N. rajah grows in open areas , where it is exposed to direct sunlight – it therefore needs to be provided with a significant amount of light in cultivation as well . To meet this need , many growers have used metal halide lamps in the 500 – 1000 watt range , with considerable success . The plant should be situated a fair distance from the light source , 1 to 2 m is recommended . Depending on location , growers can utilise natural sunlight as a source of illumination . However , this is only recommended for those living in equatorial regions , where light intensity is sufficient to satisfy the needs of the plant . A photoperiod of 12 hours is comparable to that experienced in nature , since Borneo lies on the equator .
= = = Potting and watering = = =
Pure long @-@ fibre Sphagnum moss is an excellent potting medium , though combinations involving any of the following – peat , perlite , vermiculite , sand , lava rock , pumice , Osmunda fibre , orchid bark and horticultural charcoal – may be used with equal success . The potting medium should be well @-@ drained and not too compacted . Moss is useful for moisture retention near the roots . The mix should be thoroughly soaked in water prior to potting the plant .
It has been noted that N. rajah produces a very extensive root system ( for a Nepenthes ) and , for this reason , it is recommended that a wide pot be used to allow for proper development of the root system . This also eliminates the need for frequent re @-@ potting , which can lead to transplant shock and the eventual death of the plant .
Purified water should be used for watering purposes , although ' hard water ' is tolerated . This is done to minimise the build @-@ up of minerals and chemicals in the soil . Water purity greater than 100 p.p.m. of total dissolved solids is often quoted as ideal . A reverse osmosis unit can be used to filter the water or , alternatively , bottled distilled water can be purchased . Watering should be done regularly . However , plants should not be allowed to sit in water , as this may lead to root rot .
= = = Feeding and fertilising = = =
Nepenthes rajah is a carnivorous plant and , as such , supplements nutrients gained from the soil with captured prey ( especially insects ) to alleviate deficiencies in important elements such as nitrogen , phosphorus and potassium . Just as in nature , a cultivated plant 's ' diet ' may include insects and other prey items , although this is not necessary for successful cultivation . Crickets are recommended for their size and low cost . These can be purchased online or at specialist pet stores . They can simply be dropped into the pitchers by hand or placed inside using metal tongs or similar , whether dead or alive .
From trials carried out by a commercial Nepenthes nursery , it appears that micronutrient solutions have " a beneficial effect on plants of improved leaf colouration , with no deleterious effects " as far as can be seen . However , more research is required to verify these results . Actual fertilisers ( containing NPK ) were , on the other hand , found to " cause damage to plants , promote pathogens and have no observable benefits " . Hence , the use of chemical fertilisers is usually not advised .
Nepenthes rajah is a slow growing Nepenthes . Under optimal conditions , N. rajah can reach flowering size within 10 years of seed germination .
= = Common misconceptions = =
Nepenthes rajah has been a well known and highly sought after species for over a century and , as a result , there are many stories woven around this plant . One such example is the famous legend that N. rajah grows exclusively in the spray zones of waterfalls , on ultramafic soils . Although the latter is true , N. rajah is certainly not found solely in the spray zones of waterfalls and this statement seems to have little basis in fact . It is likely this misconception was popularised by Shigeo Kurata 's 1976 book Nepenthes of Mount Kinabalu , in which he states that " N. rajah is rather fond of wet places like swamps or the surroundings of a waterfall " .
This being the case , certain N. rajah plants do in fact grow in the vicinity of waterfalls ( as noted by H. Steiner , 2002 ) " providing quite a humid microclimate " , which may indeed be the source of this particular misconception .
Another myth surrounding this species is that it occasionally catches small monkeys and other large animals in its pitchers . Such tales have persisted for a very long time , but can probably be explained as rodents being mistaken for other species . It is interesting to note that one common name for Nepenthes plants is ' Monkey Cups ' . The name refers to the fact that monkeys have been observed drinking rainwater from these plants .
= = Timeline = =
= = = General = = =
Focus : Rajah Brooke 's Pitcher Plant
Die Karnivoren @-@ Datenbank : Nepenthes rajah ( German )
= = = Images = = =
Photographs of N. rajah in its natural habitat
Images of N. rajah in natural habitat and tissue culture
Borneo Exotics : Nepenthes rajah
= = = Cultivation = = =
N. rajah Cultivation Notes
Further Cultivation Notes
Colorado Carnivorous Plant Society : Nepenthes rajah
Growth of plant in cultivation over several years
Large plants in cultivation
= = = Other = = =
The International Plant Names Index : Nepenthes rajah
Nepenthes rajah entry from Danser 's Monograph
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species : Nepenthes rajah
Video about Nepenthes rajah from The Private Life of Plants
= Northwest Airlines Flight 253 =
Northwest Airlines Flight 253 was an international passenger flight from Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in Haarlemmermeer , Netherlands , to Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport in Romulus , Michigan , United States . The flight was the target of a failed al @-@ Qaeda bombing attempt on Christmas Day , December 25 , 2009 , in which a passenger tried to set off plastic explosives sewn to his underwear . There were 290 people on board the aircraft — an Airbus A330 @-@ 323E operated by Northwest Airlines , which had merged with Delta Air Lines the year before . Had the attempt succeeded , it would have surpassed American Airlines Flight 191 as the deadliest aviation occurrence on U.S. soil and tied Iran Air Flight 655 as the eighth @-@ deadliest of all time . The incident was also the second in 2009 involving an Airbus A330 , after Air France Flight 447 on 1 June . This was also the final accident / incident involving Northwest Airlines as it closed down a month later when it merged with Delta Airlines .
The convicted bomber in the " Christmas Day bombing attempt " was 23 @-@ year @-@ old Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab , a Nigerian who had concealed plastic explosives in his underwear but failed to detonate them properly . A Dutch passenger , Jasper Schuringa , tackled and restrained him and put out the fire with the aid of others . Abdulmutallab was handcuffed while the pilot safely landed the plane . In all , three people were injured : Abdulmutallab , Schuringa , and one other passenger . Upon landing in Detroit , Abdulmutallab was arrested and taken to a hospital for treatment of his burns . On December 28 , 2009 , al @-@ Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula ( AQAP ) claimed responsibility for the attempted bombing . On January 6 , 2010 , a federal grand jury indicted Abdulmutallab on six criminal charges , including attempted use of a weapon of mass destruction and attempted murder .
Reports indicated that the U.S. had received intelligence regarding a powder bomb planned attack by a Yemen @-@ based Nigerian man . While describing security measures taken by U.S. and foreign governments in the immediate aftermath of the attack , U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security , Janet Napolitano , said , " once the incident occurred , the system worked . " She cited " the actions of the passengers and the crew on this flight " to show " why that system is so important . " After heavy criticism , she stated the following day that the system " failed miserably " , this time referring to Abdulmutallab 's boarding the flight with an explosive device . U.S. President Barack Obama called the U.S. ' s failure to prevent the bombing attempt " totally unacceptable " , and ordered an investigation .
On April 6 , 2010 , it was reported that President Obama had authorized the assassination of Anwar al @-@ Awlaki , a Muslim cleric who was accused by the Obama administration of being a Yemen @-@ based al @-@ Qaeda commander behind the plot . Al @-@ Awlaki was killed on September 30 , 2011 .
= = Incident = =
= = = Getting on Flight 253 = = =
On Christmas Eve , December 24 , 2009 , Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old Nigerian , boarded Virgin Nigeria Flight 804 at Accra Airport in Accra , Ghana and arrived at Murtala Muhammed Airport in Lagos , Nigeria . Eight days earlier at the KLM Royal Dutch Airlines office in Accra , Ghana , he had paid $ 2 @,@ 831 in cash for his Lagos @-@ Amsterdam @-@ Detroit round @-@ trip ticket with a January 8 , 2010 return date . Kevin Drum , a political blogger for Mother Jones , said that Ghana and Nigeria are largely cash @-@ based economies , so it would be normal for someone to buy an airplane ticket with cash in those countries .
Abdulmutallab left Lagos on Christmas Eve at 23 : 00 aboard KLM Flight 588 , a Boeing 777 bound for Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam . In Amsterdam , on Christmas Day , Abdulmutallab checked in for Northwest Airlines Flight 253 to Detroit with only carry @-@ on luggage . On March 24 , 2011 , the Associated Press reported that Abdulmutallab chose to attack Detroit because the plane ticket there was the least expensive of tickets to potential US targets , which included Chicago and Houston . Initially , some media rumored that Abdulmutallab tried to fly to Detroit because it was a major hub of the U.S. automotive industry .
= = = = Pre @-@ boarding event = = = =
Kurt and Lori Haskell , an American couple , said that while waiting to board Flight 253 at Schiphol Airport , they saw a " poor @-@ looking African @-@ American teenager around 16 or 17 , " who Kurt Haskell claims was Abdulmutallab , with a second man , who was " sharp @-@ dressed " , possibly of Indian descent , around 50 years old , and who spoke " in an American accent similar to my own . "
According to Lori Haskell , the second man told the ticket agent : " We need to get this man on the plane . He doesn 't have a passport . " The ticket agent said nobody was allowed to board without a passport . The well @-@ dressed man replied : " We do this all the time ; he 's from Sudan . " Lori Haskell said the two men were directed down a corridor , to talk to a manager . " We never saw him again until he tried to blow up our plane , " Lori Haskell said of Abdulmutallab .
Only U.S. citizens are permitted to board international flights to the U.S. without passports , and even then only if the airline confirms their identity and citizenship , said a spokesperson for U.S. Customs and Border Protection ( CBP ) . A CBP official and spokesman confirmed there were not any Sudanese refugees on the plane . The Dutch counter @-@ terror agency said that Abdulmutallab presented a valid Nigerian passport and U.S. entry visa when he boarded Flight 253 .
Haskell suggested authorities should , " Put the video out there to prove I 'm wrong . " Federal agents later said they were trying to identify and find the well @-@ dressed man . U.S. authorities had initially discounted the passenger accounts , but agents later said there was a growing belief that the man played a role in ensuring Abdulmutallab " did not get cold feet " .
= = = Bombing attempt = = =
Flight 253 , a Northwest Airlines Airbus A330 @-@ 323E twinjet , registered N820NW , with 279 passengers , 8 flight attendants , and 3 pilots aboard , left Amsterdam around 08 : 45 local time . The plane was scheduled to arrive in Detroit at 11 : 40 EST , and was painted in Delta Air Lines ' livery , as Northwest was a subsidiary of Delta at the time .
Witnesses reported that as the plane approached Detroit , Abdulmutallab went into the plane 's lavatory for about 20 minutes . After returning to his seat at 19A ( near the fuel tanks and wing , and against the skin of the plane ) , he complained that he had an upset stomach . He was seen pulling a blanket over himself .
About 20 minutes before the plane landed , on its final descent , he secretly ignited a small explosive device consisting of a mix of plastic explosive powder and acid . Abdulmutallab apparently had a packet of the plastic explosive sewn to his underwear , and injected liquid acid from a syringe into the packet to cause a chemical reaction . While there was a small explosion and fire , the device failed to detonate properly . Passengers heard popping noises resembling firecrackers , smelled an odor , and saw the suspect 's pants , leg and the wall of the plane on fire .
There were no air marshals on the flight , but several passengers and crew noticed the explosion . Jasper Schuringa from the Netherlands , a passenger on the other end of the same row , saw Abdulmutallab sitting and shaking . He tackled and overpowered him . Schuringa saw the suspect 's pants were open , and that he was holding a burning object . " I pulled the object from him and tried to extinguish the fire with my hands and threw it away , " said Schuringa , who suffered burns to his hands . Meanwhile , flight attendants extinguished the fire with a fire extinguisher and blankets , and a passenger removed the partially melted , smoking syringe from Abdulmutallab 's hand .
Schuringa grabbed the suspect , and pulled him to the business class area at the front of the plane . A passenger reported that Abdulmutallab , though burned " quite severely " on his leg , seemed " very calm , " and like a " normal individual . " Schuringa stripped off the suspect 's clothes to look for additional weapons , and he and a crew member restrained Abdulmutallab with plastic handcuffs . " He was staring into nothing " and shaking , said Schuringa .
Passengers applauded as Schuringa walked back to his seat . The suspect was isolated from other passengers until after the plane landed . A flight attendant asked Abdulmutallab what he had in his pocket , and the suspect replied : " Explosive device . " When the attack triggered a fire indicator light within the cockpit , the pilot requested rescue and law enforcement . The plane made an emergency landing at Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport in the Downriver Detroit community of Romulus , Michigan , just before 13 : 00 local time .
The Toronto Star reported that the plane 's flight route would have had it over Canadian airspace when the attempted bombing occurred . Representatives of two pilot associations told the Star that Detroit Metro airport would have been the nearest suitable airport at which to attempt an emergency landing .
While the plane suffered relatively little damage , the suspect incurred first and second degree burns to his hands , as well as second @-@ degree burns to his right inner thigh and genitalia . Two other passengers were also injured . When the plane landed , Abdulmutallab was handed over to U.S. Customs and Border Protection ( CBP ) officers , and taken into custody for questioning and treatment of his injuries in a secured room of the burn unit of the University of Michigan Medical Center in Ann Arbor . Schuringa was also taken to the hospital . One other passenger incurred minor injuries .
Immediately after his arrest , Abdulmutallab talked to authorities about the plot for about 50 minutes , without having been informed of his Miranda rights . After emerging from surgery , he was informed of his rights and stopped talking to investigators for several weeks .
Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) agents arrived at the airport after the plane landed . The aircraft was moved to a remote area so authorities could re @-@ screen the plane , the passengers , and the baggage on board . A bomb @-@ defusing robot was first used to board the plane , and the Transportation Security Administration ( TSA ) interviewed all passengers . Another passenger from the flight was placed in handcuffs after a dog alerted officers to his carry @-@ on luggage ; he was searched , and released without charges . For several days following , federal officials denied that this second handcuffing had occurred , they later reversed this position , confirming that a second passenger had been handcuffed .
= = = Analysis of explosives = = =
The substance that the suspect tried to detonate was more than 80 grams ( 2 @.@ 8 oz ) of pentaerythritol tetranitrate ( PETN ) , a crystalline powder that is often the active ingredient of plastic explosives , the high explosive triacetone triperoxide ( TATP ) , and other ingredients . PETN is among the most powerful of explosives , and chemically resembles nitroglycerin . The powder was analyzed by the FBI at Quantico , and an FBI affidavit filed in the Eastern District of Michigan reflected preliminary findings that the device contained PETN . The authorities also found the remains of the syringe . The suspect apparently carried the PETN onto the plane in a 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) -long soft plastic container , possibly a condom , attached to his underwear . Much of the container was lost in the fire . ABC News cited a government test indicating that 50 grams ( 1 @.@ 8 oz ) of PETN can blow a hole in the side of an airliner , and posted photos of the remains of Abdulmutallab 's underwear and explosive packet .
In a public test conducted by the BBC , the test plane 's fuselage remained intact , indicating that the bomb would not have destroyed the aircraft , though it did show window damage that would likely have led to cabin depressurization . This test was undertaken at ground level , with zero pressure differential between the cabin and the surrounding environment . This was claimed to have no effect on the overall result of the test , which aimed to simulate the explosion at 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) . It was not demonstrated what would happen at a typical cruising altitude of between 31 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 400 m ) and 39 @,@ 000 feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) , where the pressure differential would have caused the fuselage to be under a far greater stress than at ground level .
Al @-@ Qaeda member Richard Reid ( the " Shoe Bomber " ) had tried to detonate 50 grams of the same explosives in his shoes during an American Airlines flight on December 22 , 2001 .
= = = Verbally disruptive passenger incident = = =
On December 27 , 2009 , two days after the original incident , the crew of another Flight 253 requested emergency assistance with a Nigerian passenger whom they said had become " verbally disruptive " . The crew questioned the passenger after other passengers expressed concern that he had been in the lavatory for over an hour . It was later determined that the man was a businessman who had fallen ill from food poisoning during the flight , and did not pose any security risk .
= = Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab = =
The suspect in the attempted bombing was Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old Nigerian born into a middle @-@ class family . Abdulmutallab was raised in Kaduna , in Nigeria 's Muslim @-@ dominated north , a place he returned to on his vacations .
In high school at the British International School in Lomé , Togo , Abdulmutallab was known to be a devout Muslim , who frequently discussed Islam with schoolmates . He visited the U.S. for the first time in 2004 .
For the 2004 – 05 academic year , Abdulmutallab studied at the San 'a Institute for the Arabic Language in Sana 'a , Yemen , and attended lectures at Iman University . He began his studies at University College London in September 2005 , where he was president of the school 's Islamic society in 2006 and 2007 , during which time he participated in , along with political discussions , such activities as martial arts and paintballing . During those years , he came to the attention of MI5 , the UK 's domestic counter @-@ intelligence and security agency , for radical links and connections with Islamic extremists . To protect his privacy , they did not pass the information along to American officials .
On June 12 , 2008 , Abdulmutallab applied for and received from the U.S. consulate in London a U.S. multiple @-@ entry visa , valid to June 12 , 2010 , with which he visited Houston , Texas , from August 1 – 17 , 2008 . In May 2009 , Abdulmutallab tried to return to Britain , supposedly for a six @-@ month " life coaching " program at what the British authorities concluded was a fictitious school ; accordingly , his visa application was denied by the United Kingdom Border Agency . His name was placed on a UK Home Office security watch list , which meant he was not permitted to enter the UK , though he could pass through the country in transit and was not permanently banned . The UK did not share the information with other countries .
Abdulmutallab returned to the San 'a Institute to study Arabic from August to September 2009 . " He told me his greatest wish was for sharia and Islam to be the rule of law across the world " , said one of his classmates at the Institute . Abdulmutallab left the Institute after a month , but remained in Yemen .
Earlier , his family had become concerned in August when he called them to say he had dropped the course , but was remaining there . By September , he routinely skipped his classes at the institute and attended lectures at Iman University , which intelligence officials from the United States suspected to have links to terrorism .
The San 'a Institute obtained an exit visa for him at his request , and arranged for a car that took him to the airport on September 21 , 2009 ( the day his student visa expired ) , but the school 's director said , " After that , we never saw him again , and apparently he did not leave Yemen " . In October , Abdulmutallab told his father via text message saying that he did not want to attend business school in Dubai , and wanted instead to study Islamic law and Arabic in Yemen . When his father refused to pay for it , Abdulmutallab said he was " already getting everything for free " . He text @-@ messaged his father , saying " I 've found a new religion , the real Islam " , " You should just forget about me , I 'm never coming back " , and " Forgive me for any wrongdoing , I am no longer your child " . The family was last in contact with their son in October 2009 .
On November 11 , 2009 , British intelligence officials sent the U.S. a message indicating that a man named " Umar Farouk " had spoken to Anwar al @-@ Awlaki , a Muslim spiritual leader supposedly tied to al @-@ Qaeda , pledging to support jihad , but the notice did not mention Abdulmutallab by name .
On November 19 , his father reported to two CIA officers at the U.S. Embassy in Abuja , regarding his son 's " extreme religious views " , and told the embassy that Abdulmutallab might be in Yemen . Acting on the report , the US added Abdulmutallab 's name in November 2009 to its 550 @,@ 000 @-@ name Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment , a database of the U.S. National Counterterrorism Center . It was not added , however , to the FBI 's 400 @,@ 000 @-@ name Terrorist Screening Database , the terror watch list that feeds both the 14 @,@ 000 @-@ name Secondary Screening Selectee list and the U.S. ' s 4 @,@ 000 @-@ name No Fly List . Abdulmutallab 's U.S. visa was not revoked either .
Yemeni officials said that Abdulmutallab left Yemen on December 7 ( flying to Ethiopia , and two days later to Ghana ) . Ghanaian officials said Abdulmutallab was there from December 9 until December 24 , when he flew to Lagos .
Two days after the attack , Abdulmutallab was released from the hospital in which he had been treated for burns sustained during the attempted bombing . He was taken to the Federal Correctional Institution , Milan , a federal prison in York Charter Township , Michigan , near Milan .
= = = Ties to Anwar al @-@ Awlaki = = =
A number of sources reported contacts between Abdulmutallab and Anwar al @-@ Awlaki , the late Muslim lecturer and spiritual leader who the US accused as a senior al @-@ Qaeda talent recruiter and motivator. al @-@ Awlaki , previously an imam in the U.S. , who had moved to Yemen , also had links to three of the 9 / 11 hijackers , the 2005 London subway bombers , a 2006 Toronto terror cell , a 2007 plot to attack Fort Dix , and the 2009 suspected Fort Hood shooter , Nidal Malik Hasan . In 2006 , he was banned from entering the UK ; al @-@ Awlaki repeatedly used a video link for public speeches from 2007 to 2009 .
The Sunday Times reported that Abdulmutallab first met and attended lectures by al @-@ Awlaki in 2005 , when he was in Yemen to study Arabic . He attended a sermon by al @-@ Awlaki at the Finsbury Park Mosque . The two are also " thought to have met " in London , according to The Daily Mail . Fox News reported that Abdulmutallab repeatedly visited Awlaki 's website and blog . CBS News and The Daily Telegraph reported that Abdulmutallab attended a video teleconference talk by al @-@ Awlaki at the East London Mosque . University of Oxford historian and professor of international relations Mark Almond wrote that the suspect was " on American security watch @-@ lists because of his links with ... Al Awlaki " .
CBS News reported that the two had communicated in the months before the bombing attempt , and other sources have said that at a minimum , al @-@ Awlaki was providing spiritual support for Abdulmutallab and the attack . According to federal sources , over the year prior to the attack , Abdulmutallab had repeatedly communicated with al @-@ Awlaki .
Intelligence officials suspected that al @-@ Awlaki may have told Abdulmutallab to go to Yemen for al @-@ Qaeda training . One government source described intercepted " voice @-@ to @-@ voice communication " between the two during the fall of 2009 , saying that al @-@ Awlaki " was in some way involved in facilitating [ Abdulmutallab ] ' s transportation or trip through Yemen . It could be training , a host of things . "
Abdulmutallab reportedly told the FBI that he had trained under al @-@ Awlaki at an al @-@ Qaeda training camp in Yemen .
Yemen 's Deputy Prime Minister for Defense and Security Affairs , Rashad Mohammed al @-@ Alimi , said Yemeni investigators believe the suspect traveled in October to Shabwa , where he may have obtained the explosives and received training . He met with suspected al @-@ Qaida members in a house built by al @-@ Awlaki and used by al @-@ Awlaki to hold religious meetings . " If he went to Shabwa , for sure he would have met Anwar al @-@ Awlaki , " al @-@ Alimi said . Al @-@ Alimi also said he believed al @-@ Awlaki was alive . And Abdul Elah al @-@ Shaya , a Yemeni journalist , said a healthy al @-@ Awlaki called him on December 28 and said that the Yemeni government 's claims as to his death were " lies " . Shaya declined to comment as to whether al @-@ Awlaki had told him about any contacts he may have had with Abdulmutallab . According to Gregory Johnsen , a Yemeni expert at Princeton University , Shaya is generally reliable .
At the end of January 2010 , a Yemeni journalist , Abdulelah Hider Sha ’ ea , said he met with al @-@ Awlaki , who told Sha 'ea that he had met and spoken with Abdulmutallab in Yemen in late 2009 . Al @-@ Awlaki also reportedly called Abdulmutallab one of his students , said that he supported what Abdulmutallab did but did not tell him to do it , and that he was proud of Abdulmutallab . A New York Times journalist who listened to a digital recording of the meeting said that while the tape 's authenticity could not be independently verified , the voice resembled that on other recordings of al @-@ Awlaki .
Al @-@ Awlaki released a tape in March 2010 , in which he said , in part :
To the American people ... nine years after 9 / 11 , nine years of spending , and nine years of beefing up security you are still unsafe even in the holiest and most sacred of days to you , Christmas Day ....
Our brother Umar Farouk has succeeded in breaking through the security systems that have cost the U.S. government alone over 40 billion dollars since 9 / 11 .
Beginning December 18 , 2009 , President Obama authorized attacks on suspected Al @-@ Qaeda bases in Yemen . On April 6 , 2010 , The New York Times reported that President Obama had authorized the targeted killing of al @-@ Awlaki . Al @-@ Qaeda in Yemen released a video in 2010 that showed Abdulmutallab and others training in a desert camp . The tape includes a statement from Abdulmutallab justifying his actions against " the Jews and the Christians and their agents . " Al @-@ Awlaki was killed in a U.S. airstrike in Yemen on September 30 , 2011 .
= = = Al @-@ Qaeda involvement = = =
On December 28 , 2009 , Obama , in his first address after the incident , said that the event " demonstrates that an alert and courageous citizenry are far more resilient than an isolated extremist " . On the same day , Al @-@ Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula ( AQAP ) announced that it was responsible for the attempted bombing . AQAP said that the attack , during " their [ Americans ' ] celebration of the Christmas holidays " , was to " avenge U.S. attacks on the militants in Yemen " .
On January 24 , an audio tape said to be from Osama bin Laden praised the bombing attempt and warned of further attacks against the United States , but did not claim responsibility for it . The short recording , which was broadcast on Al Jazeera television , said : " The message delivered to you through the plane of the heroic warrior Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab was a confirmation of the previous messages sent by the heroes of the September 11 . " An adviser to the U.S. President said he could not confirm whether the voice was that of bin Laden . In the past , the CIA has usually confirmed Al Jazeera reports on tapes attributed to bin Laden .
While in custody , Abdulmutallab told authorities he had been directed by al @-@ Qaeda . He said he had obtained the device in Yemen , and was told to detonate it when the plane was over the United States . Abdulmutallab said he had contacted al @-@ Qaeda through a radical Yemeni imam ( who according to The New York Times on December 26 was not believed to be al @-@ Awlaki ) whom he had reached through the internet .
The New York Times reported on December 25 that a counter @-@ terrorism official had told them Abdulmutallab 's claim of connection with al @-@ Qaeda " may have been aspirational " . But U.S. Representative Jane Harman ( D @-@ Calif . ) , Chairman of the House Homeland Security Subcommittee on Intelligence , Information Sharing , and Terrorism Risk Assessment , said the following day that a federal official briefed lawmakers about " strong suggestions of a Yemen @-@ al Qaeda connection " with the suspect . On January 2 , 2010 , President Obama said that AQAP trained , equipped , and dispatched Abdulmutallab , and vowed retribution .
In reaction to suggestions that the U.S. launch a military offensive against the alleged terrorists ' sanctuary in Yemen , The Washington Post noted that Yemeni forces equipped with U.S. weapons and intelligence had carried out two major raids against AQAP shortly before the bombing attempt , and that the terror group may have lost top leaders in a December 24 , 2009 airstrike .
On March 24 , 2011 , the Associated Press reported that before Abdulmutallab set off on his mission , he visited the home of al @-@ Qaeda manager Fahd al @-@ Quso to discuss the plot and the workings of the bomb . In addition , the AP said that Abdulmutallab targeted Detroit because the plane ticket there was cheaper than the tickets to either Houston or Chicago . This suggests that al @-@ Qaeda in Yemen chose to attack " targets of opportunity , " rather than Osama bin Laden 's preference of " symbolic targets . "
= = Jasper Schuringa = =
Jasper Schuringa , who was en route to Miami , Florida for a vacation , stopped Abdulmutallab from causing too much damage and received burn injuries in the process . In a statement , Schuringa , who was in seat 20J on the flight , said he was able to locate Abdulmutallab , help to extinguish the fire that the explosive had caused , and helped to restrain Abdulmutallab using plastic cuffs . Schuringa lives in Amsterdam , and was born in 19
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based on ' Mobius Trips ' , a short story written by Konkona Sen Sharma 's father . It received mixed reviews from critics , but proved to be a profitable venture at the box @-@ office .
His next production venture was Dedh Ishqiya , a sequel to the 2010 film Ishqiya . Starring Madhuri Dixit , Naseeruddin Shah , Huma Qureshi and Arshad Warsi ; the film was a critical and commercial success with earning ₹ 270 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 1 million ) in India and abroad . In 2015 , Bhardwaj wrote and co @-@ produced Meghna Gulzar 's crime drama Talvar . The film was based on the 2008 Noida double murder case , and starred Irrfan Khan , Konkana Sen Sharma and Neeraj Kabi . Talvar premiered at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival , and was released in India on 2 October 2015 , to positive reviews from critics .
= = = Playback singer = = =
Apart from composing music , Bhardwaj has also lend his voice for various songs for films like Omkara , No Smoking ( 2007 ) , U Me Aur Hum ( 2008 ) , Kaminey , Striker ( 2010 ) , 7 Khoon Maaf , Matru Ki Bijlee Ka Mandola and Haider .
= = Craft and style = =
Bhardwaj 's film are often twisted with portrayal of character 's with grey shades . He also frequently adapts short stories and plays in films . The Blue Umbrella and 7 Khoon Maaf were adapted from Ruskin Bond 's short stories . Maqbool , Omkara and Haider were adaptation 's of William Shakespear 's tragedies . Some of Bhardwaj 's films often takes clue from real @-@ life incidents . The Kashmir conflict was shown in Haider , the Mumbai underworld in Maqbool , and Talvar being based on the 2008 Noida double murder case . Bhardwaj frequently collaborates with writer @-@ lyricist Gulzar and calls him his " father " and " mentor " . Most of the treatment of his film 's are like documentaries . Haider was co @-@ written by journalist @-@ writer Bhasharat Peer , who was an eye witness of the Kashmir conflict . He evolves his script till the filming .
Bhardwaj is influenced by the film @-@ making styles of Satyajit Ray , Ritwik Ghatak , Akira Kurosawa and Krzysztof Kieślowski . Kieslowski 's The Decalogue ( 1989 ) inspired him to become a film @-@ maker . Veteran actor Naseeruddin Shah says : " I think he makes interesting films , even though I haven ’ t liked all his works . But even his poor work is more interesting than a lot of people ’ s so @-@ called good work . ”
= = Awards and nominations = =
In 1996 , Bhardwaj won the Filmfare RD Burman Award for New Music Talent for Maachis . He later won the National Film Award for Best Music Direction for Godmother . He then went on to win two consecutive awards : The Blue Umbrella , which won the National Film Award for Best Children 's Film , and National Film Award – Special Jury Award for Omkara . Bhardwaj got two Filmfare nominations for Kaminey in Best Director and Best Music Director categories . He won his second National Film Award for Best Music Direction , for his production venture Ishqiya . At the 62nd National Film Awards , Bhardwaj won the Best Music Director and Best Screenplay ( Dialogues ) award for Haider . In 2016 , Bhardwaj was awarded with Yash Bharti award by the Government of Uttar Pradesh for his contribution in the field of cinema . He also received the National Film Award for Best Screenplay for writing Talvar . Bhardwaj 's Shakespearean trilogy — Maqbool , Omkara and Haider — was screened as part of an event marking William Shakespear 's 400th death anniversary co @-@ hosted by the British Film Institute in London .
= = Filmography = =
= Rhythm Killers =
Rhythm Killers is a studio album by Jamaican musical duo Sly and Robbie , released in May 1987 by Island Records . After their prolific output in reggae , the duo experimented with electronic sounds and contemporary recording technology , while branching out into international , cross @-@ genre endeavors during the 1980s . For the album , they enlisted record producer and mentor Bill Laswell and recorded with an ensemble of musicians at Quad Recording in New York City . Along with their live instruments , Sly and Robbie used electronic recording equipment such as the Fairlight CMI synthesizer and electronic drums .
A funk and dance album , Rhythm Killers has a dense sound that incorporates contrasting musical elements and disparate styles , including reggae , hip hop , hard rock , worldbeat , and downtown music . Arranged in two side @-@ long gapless suites , the album 's songs are characterized by electronic grooves , striking beats , improvisational rhythms , string synthesizers , and cross @-@ rhythms produced by turntable scratches , African and Latin @-@ influenced percussion , and percussive raps . The album has been noted by music writers for its electronic rhythms , treatment of African @-@ American music elements , and Laswell 's densely layered production .
Rhythm Killers charted in four countries , including the United Kingdom , where it peaked at number 35 . It was promoted with two singles , including the UK hit " Boops ( Here to Go ) " . The album received positive reviews from critics and was ranked in year @-@ end lists by NME magazine and Village Voice critic Robert Christgau , who named it the seventh best record of 1987 . Encouraged by its success , Sly and Robbie continued their digital direction on subsequent albums . Rhythm Killers has since been out of print .
= = Background = =
Amid their prolific reggae output as sessions musicians , solo artists , and production duo , Sly and Robbie — drummer Sly Dunbar and bassist Robbie Shakespeare — opened their own record label Taxi Records and attained a distribution deal with Island Records during the early 1980s . After Island founder and executive Chris Blackwell hired them to work with singer Grace Jones , the duo developed a more sparse , robotic production style with funk and dub influences . This deviated from their past reggae work , as well as the genre 's roots sound and light rhythms . Sly and Robbie recorded primarily at Blackwell 's Compass Point Studios in the Bahamas with state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art equipment , which led to Dunbar 's experimentation with electronic drums and drum machines .
After their work with Black Uhuru and that group 's line @-@ up change , Sly and Robbie pursued more international music endeavors . They branched out into cross @-@ genre experiments with a conceptual , ensemble @-@ oriented approach , while developing a mentorship with record producer Bill Laswell , whom they met through Blackwell and by working on Mick Jagger 's 1985 album She 's the Boss . In 1985 , they collaborated with Laswell on their album Language Barrier , which had guest contributions from Herbie Hancock , Bob Dylan , Afrika Bambaataa , and Manu DiBango . Its recording developed from a track the duo had revisited from their work on the soundtrack to the 1983 film Never Say Never Again . The track had been done with electronic drums at Compass Point Studios , but scrapped as a rhythm track for later use .
A dub album , Language Barrier showcased a musical clash between the duo 's characteristic rhythms and Laswell 's own production style , with African jazz influences , predominant use of the Fairlight CMI sampling synthesizer , and experimentations with tempo and dub techniques . Dunbar was enthused by newer recording technology and , in a 1987 interview for The Sydney Morning Herald , said that he wanted to " be a part of it , not be left out . " Although it had a lukewarm reception from music critics , Language Barrier was Sly and Robbie 's first work to receive international exposure . For their next album , they sought to record a like @-@ minded album to expand their audience .
= = Recording and production = =
After releasing The Sting ( 1986 ) and Electro Reggae ( 1987 ) as members of their Taxi Gang band , Sly and Robbie enlisted Laswell again to work on Rhythm Killers . They recorded the album over a period of three months at Quad Recording in New York City . Before entering the studio , Sly and Robbie originally had planned music and demos to work with , but scrapped them after Chris Blackwell of Island discouraged the idea . Blackwell wanted the duo to come up with original material at the studio , as they had been known to do since their early years in Jamaica .
In an effort to crossover with music listeners outside of reggae 's market , Sly and Robbie heightened their experimentation with other musical sounds , particularly funk and occasional hip hop music . Despite his eclectic output , Laswell himself had started out as a bass player in funk groups , an experience that inspired him to compose his musical arrangements with a rhythmic foundation . Dunbar explained their approach for the album in an interview for Musician at the time , saying that " We 're trying to get new fans . Once they come into the funk , they 're going to have to come into the reggae , because that 's where we 're going to take them . " Sly and Robbie 's direction was also influenced by the supervision of Blackwell who , according to Dunbar , " wanted us to make two tracks , 17 minutes long . So we cut two tracks and extended them , each side consisting of three songs . Non @-@ stop dancing , that 's the idea . "
In the early stage of recording , Sly and Robbie focused primarily on constructing difficult grooves for songs . To record their rhythm tracks , Dunbar worked in the studio alone and cut a drum part without having a melody in mind . He recounted his approach for the album to Musician , saying that " I just played what I felt , working from a sense of ' now I 'll do 103 beats per minute . ' And Robbie would come in the next night and lay a bass part . " Unlike most reggae or funk bassists , Shakespeare approached his playing as a jazz soloist and attempted numerous subtle variations to his riff . He said that his inspiration " comes from God . Sometimes endless ideas just keep coming to me . Sometimes I 'll change the drum pattern to a bass line and Sly will play the bass line on the drums . " Along with live percussion , Dunbar played Simmons drums , and the duo integrated contemporary electronic music technology such as the Fairlight CMI synthesizer in the album 's recording . Dunbar used his recorded live drums to trigger the synthesizer 's sampled drum sounds .
Sly and Robbie worked with an ensemble of musicians , including funk artists Bootsy Collins , Bernie Worrell , and Gary " Mudbone " Cooper , reggae vocalist Shinehead , avant @-@ garde jazz musicians Karl Berger and Henry Threadgill , hip hop artist Rammellzee , turntablist D.S.T. , and guitarist Nicky Skopelitis . Rhythm Killers was produced by Laswell with his band Material , which included Shakespeare , vocalist Bernard Fowler , and percussionist Aïyb Dieng , among others . Sly and Robbie recorded songs in single takes and cut approximately 20 tracks a day with Laswell and engineer Robert Musso , who used reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape recording . Laswell also hired violinist Mark Feldman , who was working at a dinner theater in Connecticut at the time . He had Feldman read charts in the strings section and play syncopated lines , which he found " a little more funky " than the theater . The album was mixed at The Power Station and mastered by Howie Weinberg at Masterdisk in New York City .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Rhythm Killers is characterized as a work of funk music by Musician magazine 's Alan di Perna , while Stereo Review called it a dance album . The album 's songs feature contrasting musical elements . Writer and musicologist Robert Palmer viewed it as an attempt at " an ambitious dance @-@ music synthesis , with funk the stylistic common denominator " , adding that the " funk ethos – less is more , the groove is the tune – underlies all of Mr. Laswell 's work " . Although it is not a reggae album , Rhythm Killers exhibits Sly and Robbie 's Taxi Records production aesthetic , which drew on their cultural connection to Jamaican dance halls and their collective interest in experimental electronic sounds . Dunbar was particularly fascinated with the Syndrum instrument , and Rhythm Killers is one of the last albums to feature live drums by him . Incorporating mechanized beats , rocksteady tempos , and sinuous bass , the aesthetic presaged ragga music and the rise of digital instrumentation in reggae during the 1980s . Similar to Language Barrier , Rhythm Killers has a dense , thudding sound and heavy @-@ handed , humorless tone , but features more recognizable hooks .
The songs on Rhythm Killers are typified by deep bass , striking beats , low @-@ frequency grooves , improvisational rhythms , electronic percussion , disco @-@ era string synthesizers , aggressive guitar riffs , and stylistic influences from reggae , early hip hop , downtown music , hard rock , and worldbeat genres . They are densely layered in a fashion similar to Phil Spector 's Wall of Sound production . Bud Kliment of Trouser Press said they comprise a groove @-@ oriented " song cycle " that is " heavy @-@ bottomed from start to finish " . Similar to the album 's funk instrumentation , the guest rappers have exclamatory , confrontational tones and percussive vocals . The vocals are complemented by improvisatory turntable scratches and both African- and Latin @-@ influenced percussion , which resulted in cross @-@ rhythms during the songs . Carl Matthews of the Baltimore Afro @-@ American observed " a noticeable looseness in the vocals and a sort of P @-@ Funk quality to the rhythm tracks . " Mat Smith from Melody Maker said the enthusiastic music was driven by a " schizophrenic art of noise attack all lashed around a nonstop rhythm that bumps each track nose to tail tight . "
According to the Spin Alternative Record Guide ( 1995 ) , Rhythm Killers " truly broke ground " after the experimentation on Language Barrier and served as " the story of late @-@ 20th @-@ century black music done as symphony . " Music journalist Peter Shapiro noticed " a striking collision of urban sounds " in the album 's music , while Robert Hilburn called it an " unpredictable salute to the liveliness and character of urban pop music in its broadest sense . " Mike Joyce of The Washington Post found it " more punchy and elastic " than Language Barrier and felt " the accent is still on electronic rhythms , but the mood is vibrantly expansive " . Robert Christgau called the album Sly and Robbie 's " Laswellized art @-@ funk statement " . He characterized the duo as a " world pop " rhythm section and said their style is complemented by " a chauvinistic variation on Bill Laswell 's usual international brigade " . John Leland argued that the album is " the continuous synthesis that Laswell promised on Herbie Hancock 's ' Rockit ' " , " extended in both length and scope " , as it features " a knack for unexpected juxtapositions and no respect for artificial boundaries . " According to The Nation , the sounds on the record ranged from Ludwig van Beethoven to Jimi Hendrix .
The album 's songs are arranged into a gapless suite on each side , both of which begin with covers of early 1970s R & B songs . Stereo Review writes that each side is stylistically " derived " from its respective opening track and distinguishes the two side @-@ opening tracks as " anchoring songs [ that ] serve as starting points for uninterrupted improvisations in rhythm that build to multiple climaxes while drawing from wildly disparate musical styles . " " Fire " , a cover of the Ohio Players ' 1974 song of the same name , was reworked as an extended vamp with an uncredited sample of Liquid Liquid 's 1983 song " Cavern " , and lyrics proclaiming " bass " to be " the final frontier " . It features vocals by Shinehead , whose rap begins with a Howard Cosell impersonation , and Bootsy Collins , who advises listeners that " you have one desire and that 's to dance until you drop . " " Boop " is a Jamaican Patois slang term for a man who spends money for the benefit of a younger woman . Both " Fire " and " Boops ( Here to Go ) " touch on popular dancehall topics .
Opening the second side , " Yes , We Can Can " is a cover of the Pointer Sisters 1973 song of the same name , originally written by Allen Toussaint . It eschews the original song 's jazz influence for hip hop elements , gritty dub , and Art of Noise @-@ like grooves . Co @-@ written by Shinehead , " Rhythm Killer " features aggressive percussion , frantic toasting by Shinehead , descending strings , and downtown saxophone phrases by Henry Threadgill . It was featured in the 1988 film Colors . The song 's groove transitions into " Bank Job " , which has a relaxed style , lavish production , and accented electronic rhythms .
= = Release and reception = =
Rhythm Killers was released by Island Records in May 1987 , on CD , LP , and cassette formats . It reached the record charts in the Netherlands , Sweden , and New Zealand , where it reached its highest overall position at number 12 and charted for eight weeks . In the United Kingdom , it spent five weeks on the albums chart , peaking at number 35 . It did not chart in the United States . The album 's lead single , " Boops ( Here to Go ) " , reached number 22 on the US Billboard Dance Club Play Singles . It was a hit in the UK , where it charted for 11 weeks and reached number 12 on the UK Singles Chart . The song was later sampled on Robbie Williams ' 2006 song " Rudebox " . " Fire " , the second single , peaked at number 14 in New Zealand , where it charted for nine weeks . It also peaked at number 60 and charted for four weeks in the UK .
Rhythm Killers was well received by contemporary critics . In a review for The Philadelphia Inquirer , Ken Tucker remarked that having mastered reggae , Sly and Robbie proved they could perform funk music just as well . Steve Hochman from the Los Angeles Times hailed it as one of 1987 's best records from any genre because of how Sly and Robbie drew on the funk 's past 20 years , " from Sly & the Family Stone through George Clinton , along the way throwing in reggae , rap and even a bit of Rossini . " In Rolling Stone , Gavin Edwards called it " a thirty @-@ five @-@ minute dance party full of surprises and strange noises " , writing that it " sounds like the Great Missing DJ Set — albeit one played by live musicians with perfect telepathy . " i @-@ D magazine 's Simon Witter said it was the most entertaining and exceptionally conceived dance album of the year , while Stereo Review called it one of the best dance records in some time because the duo 's creative yet accessible urban dance music showed how to combine the best parts of older music with contemporary recording techniques . In a negative review , Greg Taylor from The Sydney Morning Herald criticized the music as " wallpaper " undermined by a gaudy hip hop production . John Leland of Spin wrote that while Rhythm Killers may be ambitious and successful as a " dialogue on the crosscultural elasticity of the funk " , it lacked vigor as actual funk music and never got beyond its concept and " into the funk " . In The New York Times , Palmer found the musical ideas innovative and its concept " a worthy one " — that " funk is the Rosetta Stone of contemporary dance music " — but he observed an excess of disordered effects and funk @-@ derived sounds on what were otherwise expressive rhythm tracks .
At the end of 1987 , it was named the year 's eighth best album by The Face magazine , and 25th best album by NME , who also named " Boops ( Here to Go ) " the year 's 18th best single . Rockdelux ranked Rhythm Killers 11th best , and " Boops ( Here to Go ) " the sixth best song of 1987 . The album also finished 25th in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics nationwide , published in The Village Voice . Christgau , the poll 's creator and supervisor , named it the seventh best album of the year . Encouraged by the record 's success , Sly and Robbie recorded The Summit ( 1988 ) , an instrumental ragga album with digital riddims that was decried by roots critics , and Silent Assassin ( 1990 ) , a collaboration with several American rappers . The latter album 's fusion of Jamaican dub and American hip hop was a precursor to the rise of dancehall in the US during the early 1990s . Bootsy Collins , who had kept a low profile for much of the 1980s , followed @-@ up his appearance on Rhythm Killers with a comeback album , What 's Bootsy Doin ' ? , in 1988 . Shinehead 's own appearance on the album bolstered his mainstream exposure as he was receiving American radio airplay with his debut single and performing on an international tour . Rhythm Killers was reissued by Island on 4 June 1990 , but eventually became out of print .
In retrospect , culture critic Mark Anthony Neal deemed Rhythm Killers an essential album of 1980s underground funk , while reggae historian Steve Barrow cited it as one of the most engaging projects Sly and Robbie were involved in during the 1980s . In a retrospective article , The State wrote that on albums such as Rhythm Killers , they frequently attempted to broaden the role of their instruments and consequently took bass and drums to " unexplored rhythmic frontiers " . Music journalist Mark Coleman , writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide , said that the album was " so coherent and smooth that you could mistake it for a suite if it wasn 't also so thoroughly down and dirty . " In The Rough Guide to Rock ( 2003 ) , Peter Shapiro cited the album as Laswell 's " best outside production " and one that " fulfilled his fusion / fission concept ... in which some of the finest dance musicians in the world jam on two side @-@ long grooves that imply New Orleans R & B , 70s funk , hip @-@ hop and ragga are all part of the same continuum . " In a mixed review , AllMusic editor Stephen Cook called it " a valiant venture gone awry " and felt that the songs are monotonous and comprising " one tired electronic groove after another " .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks were produced by Bill Laswell and Material .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Arctic tern =
The Arctic tern ( Sterna paradisaea ) is a seabird of the tern family Sternidae . This bird has a circumpolar breeding distribution covering the Arctic and sub @-@ Arctic regions of Europe , Asia , and North America ( as far south as Brittany and Massachusetts ) . The species is strongly migratory , seeing two summers each year as it migrates along a convoluted route from its northern breeding grounds to the Antarctic coast for the southern summer and back again about six months later . Recent studies have shown average annual roundtrip lengths of about 70 @,@ 900 km ( 44 @,@ 100 mi ) for birds nesting in Iceland and Greenland and c . 90 @,@ 000 km ( 56 @,@ 000 mi ) for birds nesting in the Netherlands . These are by far the longest migrations known in the animal kingdom . The Arctic tern flies as well as glides through the air , performing almost all of its tasks in the air . It nests once every one to three years ( depending on its mating cycle ) ; once it has finished nesting it takes to the sky for another long southern migration .
Arctic terns are medium @-@ sized birds . They have a length of 28 – 39 cm ( 11 – 15 in ) and a wingspan of 65 – 75 cm ( 26 – 30 in ) . They are mainly grey and white plumaged , with a red / orangish beak and feet , white forehead , a black nape and crown ( streaked white ) , and white cheeks . The grey mantle is 305 mm , and the scapulae are fringed brown , some tipped white . The upper wing is grey with a white leading edge , and the collar is completely white , as is the rump . The deeply forked tail is whitish , with grey outer webs .
Arctic terns are long @-@ lived birds , with many reaching fifteen to thirty years of age . They eat mainly fish and small marine invertebrates . The species is abundant , with an estimated one million individuals . While the trend in the number of individuals in the species as a whole is not known , exploitation in the past has reduced this bird 's numbers in the southern reaches of its range .
The Arctic tern was known as sea swallow describing their slender shape as they swoop over the water .
= = Eytmology = =
The genus name Sterna is derived from Old English " stearn " , " tern " . The specific paradisaea is from Late Latin paradisus , " paradise " . The Scots names picktarnie , tarrock and their many variants are also believed to be onomatopoeic , derived from the distinctive call . Due to the difficulty in distinguishing the two species , all the informal common names are shared with the common tern .
= = Distribution and migration = =
The Arctic tern has a continuous worldwide circumpolar breeding distribution ; there are no recognized subspecies . It can be found in coastal regions in cooler temperate parts of North America and Eurasia during the northern summer . While wintering during the southern summer , it can be found at sea , reaching the northern edge of the Antarctic ice .
The Arctic tern is famous for its migration ; it flies from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic and back again each year , the shortest distance between these areas being 19 @,@ 000 km ( 12 @,@ 000 mi ) . The long journey ensures that this bird sees two summers per year and more daylight than any other creature on the planet . One example of this bird 's remarkable long @-@ distance flying abilities involves an Arctic tern ringed as an unfledged chick on the Farne Islands , Northumberland , UK , in the northern summer of 1982 , which in October 1982 , just three months from fledging , reached Melbourne , Australia . Assuming a direct route of flight , the distance covered would have been more than 22 @,@ 000 km ( 14 @,@ 000 mi ) . Another example is that of a chick ringed in Labrador , Canada , on 23 July 1928 . It was found in South Africa four months later .
A 2010 study using tracking devices attached to the birds showed that the above examples are not unusual for the species . In fact , it turned out , previous research had seriously underestimated the annual distances travelled by the Arctic tern . Eleven birds that bred in Greenland or Iceland covered 70 @,@ 900 km ( 44 @,@ 100 mi ) on average in a year , with a maximum of 81 @,@ 600 km ( 50 @,@ 700 mi ) . The difference from previous estimates is due to the birds ' taking meandering courses rather than following a straight route as was previously assumed . The birds follow a somewhat convoluted course in order to take advantage of prevailing winds . The average Arctic tern lives about thirty years , and will , based on the above research , travel some 2 @.@ 4 million km ( 1 @.@ 5 million mi ) during its lifetime .
A 2013 tracking study of half a dozen Arctic terns breeding in the Netherlands shows average annual migrations of c . 90 @,@ 000 km ( 56 @,@ 000 mi ) . On their way south , these birds roughly followed the coastlines of Europe and Africa . Having rounded the southern tip of Africa , they then turned east , some flying approximately halfway to Australia before again turning south to eventually reach Wilkes Land in the north @-@ eastern Antarctic . One bird flew several hundred kilometres along the south coast of Australia before turning south for the Antarctic , while one flew along the entire south coast of Australia , passing between Australia and Tasmania . Having reached the Melbourne area , it turned south and flew in an arc to Wilkes Land in the north @-@ east Antarctic , passing the south @-@ western tip of New Zealand 's South Island en route . Once back in the Netherlands , this bird had journeyed c . 91 @,@ 000 km ( 57 @,@ 000 mi ) , the longest migration yet recorded for any animal .
Arctic terns usually migrate sufficiently far offshore that they are rarely seen from land outside the breeding season .
= = Description and taxonomy = =
The Arctic tern is a medium @-@ sized bird around 33 – 36 cm ( 13 – 14 in ) from the tip of its beak to the tip of its tail . The wingspan is 76 – 85 cm ( 30 – 33 in ) . The weight is 86 – 127 g ( 3 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 5 oz ) . The beak is dark red , as are the short legs and webbed feet . Like most terns , the Arctic tern has high aspect ratio wings and a tail with a deep fork .
The adult plumage is grey above , with a black nape and crown and white cheeks . The upperwings are pale grey , with the area near the wingtip being translucent . The tail is white , and the underparts pale grey . Both sexes are similar in appearance . The winter plumage is similar , but the crown is whiter and the bills are darker .
Juveniles differ from adults in their black bill and legs , " scaly " appearing wings , and mantle with dark feather tips , dark carpal wing bar , and short tail streamers . During their first summer , juveniles also have a whiter forecrown .
The species has a variety of calls ; the two most common being the alarm call , made when possible predators ( such as humans or other mammals ) enter the colonies , and the advertising call . The advertising call is social in nature , made when returning to the colony and during aggressive encounters between individuals . It is unique to each individual tern and as such it serves a similar role to the bird song of passerines , identifying individuals . Eight other calls have been described , from begging calls made by females during mating to attack calls made while swooping at intruders .
While the Arctic tern is similar to the common and roseate terns , its colouring , profile , and call are slightly different . Compared to the common tern , it has a longer tail and mono @-@ coloured bill , while the main differences from the roseate are its slightly darker colour and longer wings . The Arctic tern 's call is more nasal and rasping than that of the common , and is easily distinguishable from that of the roseate .
This bird 's closest relatives are a group of South Polar species , the South American ( Sterna hirundinacea ) , Kerguelen ( S. virgata ) , and Antarctic ( S. vittata ) terns . On the wintering grounds , the Arctic tern can be distinguished from these relatives ; the six @-@ month difference in moult is the best clue here , with Arctic terns being in winter plumage during the southern summer . The southern species also do not show darker wingtips in flight .
The immature plumages of Arctic tern were originally described as separate species , Sterna portlandica and Sterna pikei .
= = Reproduction = =
Breeding begins around the third or fourth year . Arctic terns mate for life and , in most cases , return to the same colony each year . Courtship is elaborate , especially in birds nesting for the first time . Courtship begins with a so @-@ called " high flight " , where a female will chase the male to a high altitude and then slowly descend . This display is followed by " fish flights " , where the male will offer fish to the female . Courtship on the ground involves strutting with a raised tail and lowered wings . After this , both birds will usually fly and circle each other .
Both sexes agree on a site for a nest , and both will defend the site . During this time , the male continues to feed the female . Mating occurs shortly after this . Breeding takes place in colonies on coasts , islands and occasionally inland on tundra near water . It often forms mixed flocks with the common tern . It lays from one to three eggs per clutch , most often two .
It is one of the most aggressive terns , fiercely defensive of its nest and young . It will attack humans and large predators , usually striking the top or back of the head . Although it is too small to cause serious injury to an animal of a human 's size , it is still capable of drawing blood , and is capable of repelling many raptorial birds and smaller mammalian predators such as foxes and cats . Other nesting birds , such as alcids , often incidentally benefit from the protection provided by nesting in an area defended by Arctic terns .
The nest is usually a depression in the ground , which may or may not be lined with bits of grass or similar materials . The eggs are mottled and camouflaged . Both sexes share incubation duties . The young hatch after 22 – 27 days and fledge after 21 – 24 days . If the parents are disturbed and flush from the nest frequently the incubation period could be extended to as long as 34 days .
When hatched , the chicks are downy . Neither altricial nor precocial , the chicks begin to move around and explore their surroundings within one to three days after hatching . Usually they do not stray far from the nest . Chicks are brooded by the adults for the first ten days after hatching . Both parents care for hatchlings . Chick diets always include fish , and parents selectively bring larger prey items to chicks than they eat themselves . Males bring more food than females . Feeding by the parents lasts for roughly a month before being weaned off slowly . After fledging , the juveniles learn to feed themselves , including the difficult method of plunge @-@ diving . They will fly south to winter with the help of their parents . National Geographic calculated that during the lifespan of 30 years , an Arctic tern would have migrated over 2 @.@ 4 Million Kilometers , the equivalent of a roundtrip from Earth to the Moon over 3 times .
Arctic terns are long @-@ lived birds that spend considerable time raising only a few young , and are thus said to be K @-@ selected . The bird has life span that was thought be around 20 years , however National Geographic , The University of Alberta & Massachusetts Institute of Technology , concluded in 2010 that more than 50 % of the species will live past their 30th birthday . A study in the Farne Islands estimated an annual survival rate of 82 % .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The diet of the Arctic tern varies depending on location and time , but is usually carnivorous . In most cases , it eats small fish or marine crustaceans . Fish species comprise the most important part of the diet , and account for more of the biomass consumed than any other food . Prey species are immature ( 1 – 2 @-@ year old ) shoaling species such as herring , cod , sandlances , and capelin . Among the marine crustaceans eaten are amphipods , crabs and krill . Sometimes , these birds also eat molluscs , marine worms , or berries , and on their northern breeding grounds , insects .
Arctic terns sometimes dip down to the surface of the water to catch prey close to the surface . They may also chase insects in the air when breeding . It is also thought that Arctic terns may , in spite of their small size , occasionally engage in kleptoparasitism by swooping at birds so as to startle them into releasing their catches . Several species are targeted — conspecifics , other terns ( like the common tern ) , and some auk and grebe species .
While nesting , Arctic terns are vulnerable to predation by cats and other animals . Besides being a competitor for nesting sites , the larger herring gull steals eggs and hatchlings . Camouflaged eggs help prevent this , as do isolated nesting sites . While feeding , skuas , gulls , and other tern species will often harass the birds and steal their food . They often form mixed colonies with other terns , such as common and Sandwich terns .
= = Conservation status = =
Arctic terns are considered threatened or a species of concern in certain states . They are also among the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds applies . The species reduced population in New England in the late nineteenth @-@ century because of hunting for the millinery trade . Exploitation continues today in western Greenland , where the population of the species has been reduced greatly since 1950 .
At the southern part of their range , the Arctic tern has been reducing in numbers . Much of this is due to lack of food . However , most of these birds ' range is extremely remote , with no apparent trend in the species as a whole .
BirdLife International has considered the species to be at lower risk since 1988 , believing that there are approximately one million individuals around the world .
= = Cultural depictions = =
The Arctic tern has appeared on the postage stamps of several countries and dependent territories . The territories include the Åland Islands , Alderney , and Faroe Islands . Countries include Canada , Finland , Iceland , and Cuba .
= 2000 Football League Second Division play @-@ off Final =
The 2000 Football League Second Division play @-@ off final was a football match played at Wembley Stadium on 28 May 2000 , to determine the third and final team to gain promotion from the Second Division to the First Division of The Football League in the 1999 – 2000 season . Gillingham faced Wigan Athletic in one of the last competitive fixtures to be played at the original Wembley Stadium .
The match was Gillingham 's second consecutive appearance in the Second Division play @-@ off final after a defeat to Manchester City in a penalty shoot out the previous season . Wigan had been defeated in the semi @-@ finals the previous season and had never previously reached a play @-@ off final . The teams reached the final by defeating Stoke City and Millwall respectively in the semi @-@ finals .
Gillingham took the lead in the first half of the final , but Wigan equalised to send the game into extra time . During the extra period Wigan took a 2 – 1 lead , but Gillingham scored two goals in the last six minutes through substitutes Steve Butler and Andy Thomson to win 3 – 2 . Gillingham thus gained promotion to the second tier of English football for the first time in the club 's 107 @-@ year history , in what proved to be manager Peter Taylor 's final match in charge .
= = Route to the final = =
Gillingham had finished the 1999 – 2000 Football League season in third place in Division Two , one place ahead of Wigan . Both therefore missed out on the two automatic promotion places and instead took part in the play @-@ offs to determine the third promoted team . On the final day of the league season Gillingham had the opportunity to finish in second place in the table and thereby clinch an automatic promotion place , but a 1 – 0 defeat away to Wrexham meant that Burnley were able to overtake them thanks to their 2 – 1 win over Scunthorpe United . Wigan had looked on course for an automatic promotion place in the first half of the season but the team 's form fell away dramatically after Christmas . Both teams were appearing in the play @-@ offs for a second consecutive season . In the 1998 – 99 season both Wigan and Gillingham had qualified for the play @-@ offs but been defeated in the semi @-@ finals and final respectively by eventual winners Manchester City .
In the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals , Wigan were paired with fifth @-@ placed Millwall and Gillingham with sixth @-@ place finishers Stoke City . Wigan drew 0 – 0 in the first leg against Millwall , but Darren Sheridan 's goal gave them a 1 – 0 win in the second leg and therefore a 1 – 0 aggregate win . Gillingham lost the first leg of their tie 3 – 2 away to Stoke , but overturned the deficit with a 3 – 0 second leg win . Barry Ashby , Iffy Onuora and Paul Smith scored the goals in an emotionally charged match in which Stoke had two players sent off .
= = Match summary = =
The two teams were competing for promotion to the second tier of the English football league system , at the time called the First Division , a level which neither club had ever previously reached . The attendance of 53 @,@ 764 was significantly down on the figure of 76 @,@ 935 registered at the equivalent fixture in the previous season , and there was a significant disparity in the number of tickets sold to the fans of the two clubs , with only around 10 @,@ 000 Wigan fans in attendance compared to over 40 @,@ 000 Gillingham fans . A specific revenue figure for the match was not made public , but half of the gate receipts went to The Football League to distribute amongst its member clubs , with Gillingham and Wigan each receiving twenty @-@ five per cent and no additional television broadcast fee .
Gillingham manager Peter Taylor picked eight of the players who had started the previous season 's playoff final , but made the decision to drop the team 's captain , Paul Smith , from the starting line @-@ up due to personal issues , which led to the player requesting a transfer . Wigan manager John Benson , who was taking charge of the team for the last time before the appointment of a new manager , included five players in the starting line @-@ up who had played at Wembley in the previous season 's Football League Trophy final , but left out captain Carl Bradshaw , as well as first @-@ choice goalkeeper Roy Carroll , who had missed both semi @-@ final matches following an appendix operation .
= = = First half = = =
Wigan started off the stronger team , with Darren Sheridan dominating the midfield play and Andy Liddell causing problems for Gillingham 's defenders . After four minutes Simon Haworth headed for goal , but Gillingham goalkeeper Vince Bartram made a comfortable save . Haworth also hit the crossbar with a long @-@ range shot on goal .
Gillingham took the lead after 35 minutes after Andy Hessenthaler passed to Carl Asaba , whose shot was deflected into his own goal by Wigan defender Pat McGibbon , under pressure from Iffy Onuora . Wigan 's Arjan De Zeeuw attempted to keep the ball out of the goal , but after checking with his assistant referee , referee Rob Styles ruled that the ball had crossed the line and awarded a goal to Gillingham . At half @-@ time the score remained 1 – 0 to Gillingham .
= = = Second half = = =
Wigan again dominated play after the half @-@ time interval and equalised in the 53rd minute . Wigan 's de Zeeuw crossed the ball from a wide position and Simon Haworth flicked it up and then hit a shot from six yards out past Bartram and into the net , to score what The Independent described as " one of Wembley 's great goals " . In the 65th minute , de Zeeuw 's header was cleared off the line by Gillingham 's Nicky Southall , who appeared to be standing behind the goal line . Wigan 's supporters believed that the ball had in fact crossed the line and entered the goal , but the assistant referee ruled otherwise . Gillingham had several chances on goal in the latter stages of the game , but Wigan goalkeeper Derek Stillie prevented any further goalscoring . Shortly before the end of the game Wigan defender Kevin Sharp , who had earlier been cautioned for dissent , was sent off for a foul on Southall , reducing his team to ten men . The match remained deadlocked at 1 – 1 after 90 minutes and therefore went into a 30 @-@ minute period of extra time .
= = = Extra time = = =
In the early stages of extra time , Wigan again looked stronger despite their numerical disadvantage . After approximately nine minutes of the extra period , Gillingham 's Barry Ashby was adjudged to have fouled Darren Sheridan , resulting in a penalty kick for Wigan , which Stuart Barlow scored to give his team a 2 – 1 lead . Gillingham 's Andy Hessenthaler rallied his unsettled team , and in the 114th minute team @-@ mate Steve Butler , who had come on as a substitute a few minutes earlier , headed in a cross from Junior Lewis to level the match once again . Four minutes later another Gillingham substitute , Andy Thomson , beat Stuart Balmer to the ball after a cross from Ty Gooden and scored to give the Kent club the lead with only two minutes remaining . Wigan were unable to score any further goals in the short time remaining , and the match finished 3 – 2 to Gillingham .
= = = Post @-@ match = = =
After the final whistle Gillingham 's temporary captain Adrian Pennock received the winners ' trophy jointly with the team 's usual captain , Paul Smith , who had come on as a substitute . Peter Taylor commented that " These players , especially the ones that were here last year , deserved it . All season they 've shown unbelievable character , and that 's what they have done today . They never know when they are beaten . " John Benson , commenting particularly on the goal which Wigan felt they were denied , said that " You feel cheated , but decisions like that are part of the game " .
In the aftermath of the match Gillingham offered a new contract to manager Peter Taylor , but two weeks after leading the club to victory at Wembley he left to take over as manager of Premier League team Leicester City . Wigan manager John Benson had already announced before the play @-@ off final that he would be leaving his post whatever the result , and he was replaced by Bruce Rioch . As a result of their victory , Gillingham gained promotion to the second tier of English football for the first time in the club 's 107 @-@ year history , and went on to spend five seasons at that level . Wigan finally gained promotion to the second tier of English football in the 2002 – 03 season and achieved further promotion to the Premier League two years later .
= = Match = =
= = = Details = = =
= Toraja =
The Toraja are an ethnic group indigenous to a mountainous region of South Sulawesi , Indonesia . Their population is approximately 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 , of whom 450 @,@ 000 live in the regency of Tana Toraja ( " Land of Toraja " ) . Most of the population is Christian , and others are Muslim or have local animist beliefs known as aluk ( " the way " ) . The Indonesian government has recognized this animist belief as Aluk To Dolo ( " Way of the Ancestors " ) .
The word toraja comes from the Bugis Buginese language term to riaja , meaning " people of the uplands " . The Dutch colonial government named the people Toraja in 1909 . Torajans are renowned for their elaborate funeral rites , burial sites carved into rocky cliffs , massive peaked @-@ roof traditional houses known as tongkonan , and colorful wood carvings . Toraja funeral rites are important social events , usually attended by hundreds of people and lasting for several days .
Before the 20th century , Torajans lived in autonomous villages , where they practised animism and were relatively untouched by the outside world . In the early 1900s , Dutch missionaries first worked to convert Torajan highlanders to Christianity . When the Tana Toraja regency was further opened to the outside world in the 1970s , it became an icon of tourism in Indonesia : it was exploited by tourism developers and studied by anthropologists . By the 1990s , when tourism peaked , Toraja society had changed significantly , from an agrarian model — in which social life and customs were outgrowths of the Aluk To Dolo — to a largely Christian society . Today , tourism and remittances from migrant Torajans have made for major changes in the Toraja highland , giving the Toraja a celebrity status within Indonesia and enhancing Toraja ethnic group pride .
= = Ethnic identity = =
The Torajan people had little notion of themselves as a distinct ethnic group before the 20th century . Before Dutch colonization and Christianization , Torajans , who lived in highland areas , identified with their villages and did not share a broad sense of identity . Although complexes of rituals created linkages between highland villages , there were variations in dialects , differences in social hierarchies , and an array of ritual practices in the Sulawesi highland region . " Toraja " ( from the coastal languages ' to , meaning people ; and riaja , uplands ) was first used as a lowlander expression for highlanders . As a result , " Toraja " initially had more currency with outsiders — such as the Bugis and Makassarese , who constitute a majority of the lowland of Sulawesi — than with insiders . The Dutch missionaries ' presence in the highlands gave rise to the Toraja ethnic consciousness in the Sa 'dan Toraja region , and this shared identity grew with the rise of tourism in the Tana Toraja Regency . Since then , South Sulawesi has four main ethnic groups — the Bugis ( the majority , including shipbuilders and seafarers ) , the Makassarese ( lowland traders and seafarers ) , the Mandarese ( traders and fishermen ) , and the Toraja ( highland rice cultivators ) .
= = History = =
From the 17th century , the Dutch established trade and political control on Sulawesi through the Dutch East Indies Company . Over two centuries , they ignored the mountainous area in the central Sulawesi , where Torajans lived , because access was difficult and it had little productive agricultural land . In the late 19th century , the Dutch became increasingly concerned about the spread of Islam in the south of Sulawesi , especially among the Makassarese and Bugis peoples . The Dutch saw the animist highlanders as potential Christians . In the 1920s , the Reformed Missionary Alliance of the Dutch Reformed Church began missionary work aided by the Dutch colonial government . In addition to introducing Christianity , the Dutch abolished slavery and imposed local taxes . A line was drawn around the Sa 'dan area and called Tana Toraja ( " the land of Toraja " ) . Tana Toraja was first a subdivision of the Luwu kingdom that had claimed the area . In 1946 , the Dutch granted Tana Toraja a regentschap , and it was recognized in 1957 as one of the regencies of Indonesia .
Early Dutch missionaries faced strong opposition among Torajans , especially among the elite , because the abolition of their profitable slave trade had angered them . Some Torajans were forcibly relocated to the lowlands by the Dutch , where they could be more easily controlled . Taxes were kept high , undermining the wealth of the elites . Ultimately , the Dutch influence did not subdue Torajan culture , and only a few Torajans were converted . In 1950 , only 10 % of the population had converted to Christianity .
In the 1930s , Muslim lowlanders attacked the Torajans , resulting in widespread Christian conversion among those who sought to align themselves with the Dutch for political protection and to form a movement against the Bugis and Makassarese Muslims . Between 1951 and 1965 ( following Indonesian independence ) , southern Sulawesi faced a turbulent period as the Darul Islam separatist movement fought for an Islamic state in Sulawesi . The 15 years of guerrilla warfare led to massive conversions to Christianity .
Alignment with the Indonesian government , however , did not guarantee safety for the Torajans . In 1965 , a presidential decree required every Indonesian citizen to belong to one of five officially recognized religions : Islam , Christianity ( Protestantism and Catholicism ) , Hinduism , or Buddhism . The Torajan religious belief ( aluk ) was not legally recognized , and the Torajans raised their voices against the law . To make aluk accord with the law , it had to be accepted as part of one of the official religions . In 1969 , Aluk To Dolo ( " the way of ancestors " ) was legalized as a sect of Agama Hindu Dharma , the official name of Hinduism in Indonesia .
= = Society = =
There are three main types of affiliation in Toraja society : family , class and religion .
= = = Family affiliation = = =
Family is the primary social and political grouping in Torajan society . Each village is one extended family , the seat of which is the tongkonan , a traditional Torajan house . Each tongkonan has a name , which becomes the name of the village . The familial dons maintain village unity . Marriage between distant cousins ( fourth cousins and beyond ) is a common practice that strengthens kinship . Toraja society prohibits marriage between close cousins ( up to and including the third cousin ) — except for nobles , to prevent the dispersal of property . Kinship is actively reciprocal , meaning that the extended family helps each other farm , share buffalo rituals , and pay off debts .
Each person belongs to both the mother 's and the father 's families , the only bilateral family line in Indonesia . Children , therefore , inherit household affiliation from both mother and father , including land and even family debts . Children 's names are given on the basis of kinship , and are usually chosen after dead relatives . Names of aunts , uncles and cousins are commonly referred to in the names of mothers , fathers and siblings .
Before the start of the formal administration of Toraja villages by the Tana Toraja Regency , each Toraja village was autonomous . In a more complex situation , in which one Toraja family could not handle their problems alone , several villages formed a group ; sometimes , villages would unite against other villages . Relationship between families was expressed through blood , marriage , and shared ancestral houses ( tongkonan ) , practically signed by the exchange of water buffalo and pigs on ritual occasions . Such exchanges not only built political and cultural ties between families but defined each person 's place in a social hierarchy : who poured palm wine , who wrapped a corpse and prepared offerings , where each person could or could not sit , what dishes should be used or avoided , and even what piece of meat constituted one 's share .
= = = Class affiliation = = =
In early Toraja society , family relationships were tied closely to social class . There were three strata : nobles , commoners , and slaves ( slavery was abolished in 1909 by the Dutch East Indies government ) . Class was inherited through the mother . It was taboo , therefore , to marry " down " with a woman of lower class . On the other hand , marrying a woman of higher class could improve the status of the next generation . The nobility 's condescending attitude toward the commoners is still maintained today for reasons of family prestige .
Nobles , who were believed to be direct descendants of the descended person from heaven , lived in tongkonans , while commoners lived in less lavish houses ( bamboo shacks called banua ) . Slaves lived in small huts , which had to be built around their owner 's tongkonan . Commoners might marry anyone , but nobles preferred to marry in @-@ family to maintain their status . Sometimes nobles married Bugis or Makassarese nobles . Commoners and slaves were prohibited from having death feasts . Despite close kinship and status inheritance , there was some social mobility , as marriage or change in wealth could affect an individuals status . Wealth was counted by the ownership of water buffaloes .
Slaves in Toraja society were family property . Sometimes Torajans decided to become slaves when they incurred a debt , pledging to work as payment . Slaves could be taken during wars , and slave trading was common . Slaves could buy their freedom , but their children still inherited slave status . Slaves were prohibited from wearing bronze or gold , carving their houses , eating from the same dishes as their owners , or having sex with free women — a crime punishable by death .
= = = Religious affiliation = = =
Toraja 's indigenous belief system is polytheistic animism , called aluk , or " the way " ( sometimes translated as " the law " ) . In the Toraja myth , the ancestors of Torajan people came down from heaven using stairs , which were then used by the Torajans as a communication medium with Puang Matua , the Creator . The cosmos , according to aluk , is divided into the upper world ( heaven ) , the world of man ( earth ) , and the underworld . At first , heaven and earth were married , then there was a darkness , a separation , and finally the light . Animals live in the underworld , which is represented by rectangular space enclosed by pillars , the earth is for mankind , and the heaven world is located above , covered with a saddle @-@ shaped roof . Other Toraja gods include Pong Banggai di Rante ( god of Earth ) , Indo ' Ongon @-@ Ongon ( a goddess who can cause earthquakes ) , Pong Lalondong ( god of death ) , and Indo ' Belo Tumbang ( goddess of medicine ) ; there are many more .
The earthly authority , whose words and actions should be cleaved to both in life ( agriculture ) and death ( funerals ) , is called to minaa ( an aluk priest ) . Aluk is not just a belief system ; it is a combination of law , religion , and habit . Aluk governs social life , agricultural practices , and ancestral rituals . The details of aluk may vary from one village to another . One common law is the requirement that death and life rituals be separated . Torajans believe that performing death rituals might ruin their corpses if combined with life rituals . The two rituals are equally important . During the time of the Dutch missionaries , Christian Torajans were prohibited from attending or performing life rituals , but were allowed to perform death rituals . Consequently , Toraja 's death rituals are still practised today , while life rituals have diminished .
= = Culture = =
= = = Tongkonan = = =
Tongkonan are the traditional Torajan ancestral houses . They stand high on wooden piles , topped with a layered split @-@ bamboo roof shaped in a sweeping curved arc , and they are incised with red , black , and yellow detailed wood carvings on the exterior walls . The word " tongkonan " comes from the Torajan tongkon ( " to sit " ) .
Tongkonan are the center of Torajan social life . The rituals associated with the tongkonan are important expressions of Torajan spiritual life , and therefore all family members are impelled to participate , because symbolically the tongkonan represents links to their ancestors and to living and future kin . According to Torajan myth , the first tongkonan was built in heaven on four poles , with a roof made of Indian cloth . When the first Torajan ancestor descended to earth , he imitated the house and held a large ceremony .
The construction of a tongkonan is laborious work and is usually done with the help of the extended family . There are three types of tongkonan . The tongkonan layuk is the house of the highest authority , used as the " center of government " . The tongkonan pekamberan belongs to the family members who have some authority in local traditions . Ordinary family members reside in the tongkonan batu . The exclusivity to the nobility of the tongkonan is diminishing as many Torajan commoners find lucrative employment in other parts of Indonesia . As they send back money to their families , they enable the construction of larger tongkonan .
Architecture in the style of a tongkonan is still very common . Various administration buildings were built in this style in recent years , e.g. the Kecamatan building in Rantepao .
= = = Wood carvings = = =
To express social and religious concepts , Torajans carve wood , calling it Pa 'ssura ( or " the writing " ) . Wood carvings are therefore Toraja 's cultural manifestation .
Each carving receives a special name , and common motifs are animals and plants that symbolize some virtue . For example , water plants and animals , such as crabs , tadpoles and water weeds , are commonly found to symbolize fertility . In some areas noble elders claim these symbols refer to strength of noble family , but not everyone agrees . The overall meaning of groups of carved motifs on houses remains debated and tourism has further complicated these debates because some feel a uniform explanation must be presented to tourists . The image to the left shows an example of Torajan wood carving , consisting of 15 square panels . The center bottom panel represents buffalo or wealth , a wish for many buffaloes for the family . The center panel represents a knot and a box , a hope that all of the family 's offspring will be happy and live in harmony , like goods kept safe in a box . The top left and top right squares represent an aquatic animal , indicating the need for fast and hard work , just like moving on the surface of water . It also represents the need for a certain skill to produce good results .
Regularity and order are common features in Toraja wood carving ( see table below ) , as well as abstracts and geometrical designs . Nature is frequently used as the basis of Toraja 's ornaments , because nature is full of abstractions and geometries with regularities and ordering . Toraja 's ornaments have been studied in ethnomathematics to reveal their mathematical structure , but Torajans base this art only on approximations . To create an ornament , bamboo sticks are used as a geometrical tool .
= = = Funeral rites = = =
In Toraja society , the funeral ritual is the most elaborate and expensive event . The richer and more powerful the individual , the more expensive is the funeral . In the aluk religion , only nobles have the right to have an extensive death feast . The death feast of a nobleman is usually attended by thousands and lasts for several days . A ceremonial site , called rante , is usually prepared in a large , grassy field where shelters for audiences , rice barns , and other ceremonial funeral structures are specially made by the deceased family . Flute music , funeral chants , songs and poems , and crying and wailing are traditional Toraja expressions of grief with the exceptions of funerals for young children , and poor , low @-@ status adults .
The ceremony is often held weeks , months , or years after the death so that the deceased 's family can raise the significant funds needed to cover funeral expenses . Torajans traditionally believe that death is not a sudden , abrupt event , but a gradual process toward Puya ( the land of souls , or afterlife ) . During the waiting period , the body of the deceased is wrapped in several layers of cloth and kept under the tongkonan . The soul of the deceased is thought to linger around the village until the funeral ceremony is completed , after which it begins its journey to Puya .
Another component of the ritual is the slaughter of water buffalo . The more powerful the person who died , the more buffalo are slaughtered at the death feast . Buffalo carcasses , including their heads , are usually lined up on a field waiting for their owner , who is in the " sleeping stage " . Torajans believe that the deceased will need the buffalo to make the journey and that they will be quicker to arrive at Puya if they have many buffalo . Slaughtering tens of water buffalo and hundreds of pigs using a machete is the climax of the elaborate death feast , with dancing and music and young boys who catch spurting blood in long bamboo tubes . Some of the slaughtered animals are given by guests as " gifts " , which are carefully noted because they will
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on Ebner 's website lists only six publications in anthologies by 2004 , but seventeen are listed from between 2005 and 2008 .
Ebner has additionally written narrative fiction ( novels , short stories , short prose ) , essays and poems . His poetry is written in German and Catalan . Supported by a subsidy for literature from the Austrian government , he went to Andorra in 2007 to write an essay about the country in the Pyrenees . He also translated the novel L 'Absent written by the Catalan author Josep Navarro Santaeulàlia , into German . Ebner 's cultural essays about Catalan culture , such as that of Barcelona and Andorra , have been published by the magazines Literatur und Kritik and Zitig . His first collection of short stories , Lose ( Destinies ) , was published in 2007 . Of its 45 stories , twenty @-@ two had already been printed in newspapers , literary magazines or anthologies . In 2008 , Ebner published two other books of narrative fiction , among them the short novel Hominide .
= = = Style of writing = = =
Ebner 's short stories in particular cover a multitude of topics , which , as critic Julia Rafael states , treat actual and socially relevant problems . She describes the stories included in the anthology Lose as " somewhat imploding " and says that " phantasms , irony and humor have their place , too " . Moreover , Ebner 's metaphors have been described as " passing beyond reality without losing ground " . According to journalist Paul C. Jezek , Ebner 's writing style is characterized by very careful and acerbic wording . Each sentence has a melody ; his short prose especially sounds lyrical . Jezek compares Ebner 's sentences to " Japanese paintings – every word has been chosen with special care " . Austrian writer and critic Wolfgang Ratz made a similar observation , drawing attention to " the accurateness of Ebner 's speech " and " his affinity with formal details " , while singling out the sarcastic stridency of the critical stories .
= = = Awards and accomplishments = = =
In 1982 , Ebner was awarded the Youth Prize for Literature ( Großer Österreichischer Jugendpreis ) for his novella Das Brandmal ( The Stigma ) , which had attracted the attention of Austrian critic and jury member Hans Weigel . Weigel compared Ebner to Austria 's 19th century novella writer Ferdinand von Saar . The novella tells the story of a young community servant who , through his service , becomes acquainted with a seemingly bewildered pensioner ; a Viennese Jew whose bewilderment is a direct consequence of his experiences in a concentration camp during the Third Reich . One year later , the novella was published in several parts in Israel 's German newspaper Israel @-@ Nachrichten . The jury of the Feldkircher Lyrikpreis 2005 pointed out Ebner 's precise language and his " consequent work on wording " . In 2007 , Ebner 's poem , " a paperman and sick " , became one of the Mentioned Poems at the International Poetry Prize Nosside . The jury referred to the " metropolitan tristesse " in the poem which describes a " paperman " whose " meal consists of loneliness " :
In 2008 , Ebner was awarded the Wiener Werkstattpreis for his short story " Der Flügel Last " ( " The Wings ' Burden " ) , which describes a seven @-@ year @-@ old girl who suffers from cancer . Another award @-@ winning essay , " Was blieb vom Weißen Ritter ? " ( " What Remains of the White Knight ? " ) , gives insight into the medieval novel Tirant lo Blanch by Joanot Martorell from Valencia . Ebner intermingled his own reading experience with philological and historical information to create " Was blieb vom Weißen Ritter ? " .
= = Awards and literary prizes = =
2010 Second Prize of the Short Prose Award “ Sprachräume – Schreibwelten ” of the Austrian Writers ' Association
2009 Travel Subsidy by the Austrian Government
2008 Two Subsidies for Literature by the Austrian Government
2008 Wiener Werkstattpreis 2007 , Vienna
2007 Travel Subsidy by the Austrian Government
2007 Premio Internazionale di Poesia Nosside , Mention and publication in the anthology , Reggio Calabria
2005 Feldkircher Lyrikpreis ( 4th )
2004 La Catalana de Lletres 2004 , Mention and publication in the anthology , Barcelona
1988 Erster Österreichischer Jugendpreis ( Youth Prize for Literature ) for the novel Nils
1984 Radio Play Award by the literary magazine Texte ( 3rd )
1982 Erster Österreichischer Jugendpreis ( Youth Prize for Literature ) for the novella Das Brandmal / The Stigma
= = Publications = =
= = = German Books = = =
Dort und anderswo / There and elsewhere ; essays on travels and literature , Wels 2011 , ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 9502828 @-@ 9 @-@ 4
Andorranische Impressionen ; essay , Wieser Verlag , Klagenfurt 2011 , ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 85129 @-@ 934 @-@ 2
wieso der Mückenschwarm dein Augenlicht umtanzt / why the midges dance around your eyes ; poetry , Edition Art Science , St. Wolfgang 2011 , ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 902157 @-@ 88 @-@ 1
Hominide / Hominid ; short novel , FZA Verlag , Vienna 2008 , ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 9502299 @-@ 7 @-@ 4
Auf der Kippe / On the brink ; prose , Arovell Verlag , Gosau 2008 , ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 902547 @-@ 67 @-@ 5
Lose / Destinies ; short stories , Edition Nove , Neckenmarkt 2007 , ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 85251 @-@ 197 @-@ 9
= = = Catalan Books = = =
Vermells / Shades of Red ; poetry , SetzeVents ( Catalan article ) , Urús 2009 , ISBN 978 @-@ 84 @-@ 92555 @-@ 10 @-@ 9
= = = Other publications = = =
" Josep Pla " ; essay about the Catalan writer Josep Pla . In : Zitig ( online magazine ) , Vienna 2008
" Was blieb vom Weißen Ritter ? " ; essay about the medieval novel Tirant lo Blanch . In : Wordshop X - Wiener Werkstattpreis 2007 ( brochure ) , FZA Verlag , Vienna 2008
" Die Stadt und das Meer " ; essay about Barcelona . In : Reisenotizen , FZA Verlag , Vienna 2007 , ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 9502299 @-@ 4 @-@ 3
" Die Freiheit ist eine Funzel " ; essay on freedom and liberty . In : Lichtungen nr . 109 ( ISSN 1012 @-@ 4705 ) , Graz 2007
" Von der Legende zur Modernität " ; essay about Andorra . In : Literatur und Kritik nr . 411 / 412 ( ISSN 0024 @-@ 466x ) , Salzburg 2007
" Die Kunst ist der Anfang " ; essay on translation of literature . In : Literarisches Österreich nr . 1 / 07 ( magazine , ZVR 295943463 ) , Vienna 2007
" Das Reizvolle der Prophezeiung " ; essay on prophecies . In : Sterz nr . 99 ( magazine , GZ 02Z033378M ) , Graz 2006
" Das Gfrett mit der Reform " ; essay about the new German orthography . In : Literarisches Österreich nr . 2 / 04 ( magazine , ZVR 295943463 ) , Vienna 2004
= Battle of Lone Pine =
The Battle of Lone Pine ( also known as the Battle of Kanlı Sırt ) was fought between Australian and Ottoman Empire forces during the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War , between 6 and 10 August 1915 . The battle was part of a diversionary attack to draw Ottoman attention away from the main assaults against Sari Bair , Chunuk Bair and Hill 971 , which became known as the August Offensive . The Australians , initially at brigade strength , managed to capture the main Ottoman trench line from the battalion that was defending the position in the first few hours of the fighting ; however , the fighting continued for the next three days as the Ottomans brought up reinforcements and launched numerous counterattacks in an attempt to recapture the ground they had lost . As the counterattacks intensified the Australians brought up two fresh battalions . Finally , on 9 August the Ottomans called off any further attempts and by 10 August offensive action ceased , leaving the Australians in control of the position . Nevertheless , despite the Australian victory , the wider August Offensive of which the attack had been a part failed and a situation of stalemate developed around Lone Pine which lasted until the end of the campaign in December 1915 when Allied troops were evacuated from the peninsula .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Terrain = = =
The Lone Pine battlefield , named for a solitary Turkish pine that stood there at the start of the fighting , was situated near the centre of the eastern line of the Australian and New Zealand trenches around Anzac Cove on a rise known as " 400 Plateau " that joined " Bolton 's Ridge " to the south with the ridge along the east side of " Monash Valley " to the north . Being towards the southern end of the area around Anzac Cove , the terrain in the Lone Pine region was comparatively gentle and the opposing trenches were separated some distance with a flat no @-@ man 's land intervening . Due to its location relative to the beachhead and the shape of the intervening ground , Lone Pine 's importance lay in the fact that its position provided a commanding view of the Australian and New Zealand rear areas . From the 400 Plateau it was possible to observe as far south as Gaba Tepe and its possession would have afforded the Ottomans the ability to place the approaches to the Second Ridge under fire , preventing the flow of reinforcements and supplies from the beachhead to the forward trenches .
The main part of the Australian position at Lone Pine was centred around a feature known as " The Pimple " , where a salient had developed at the point where the Australians ' position was closest to the Ottoman line . To the east of the salient , opposite The Pimple , the Ottoman line extended from the head of a gully — known as " Owen 's Gulley " by the Australians — south for 400 yards ( 370 m ) towards the neck of Bolton 's Ridge and continued south along a spur called " Sniper 's Ridge " . Because of the salient around The Pimple , the Ottomans had focused on developing the trenches along the flanks of the position more than the centre , and had placed the firing positions in the centre in depth in order to gain the advantage of being able to pour enfilade fire upon any attacking force . At the rear of the Ottoman line , near Owen 's Gully , was a depression called " The Cup " that was not visible from the Australians ' position on The Pimple . Despite overflights of the area by British reconnaissance aircraft in June , the Australians were unaware of The Cup 's existence , and at the time of the attack they believed this area to be flat and to consist of further trench lines . In reality it was actually a reserve area where the Ottomans had established a regimental headquarters and sited a series of bivouacs in terraces and at the time of the attack there were large numbers of reinforcements camped there .
= = = Military situation = = =
Prior to the battle , isolated fighting around Lone Pine had begun early in the Gallipoli campaign . At around 7 : 00 a.m. on the first day of the Australian and New Zealand landings at Anzac Cove , 25 April 1915 , elements of the Australian force had pushed through to Lone Pine in an effort to destroy an Ottoman artillery battery that had been firing down upon the landing beach . Before the Australians could engage the battery , the Ottomans had withdrawn to a ridge to the south @-@ west , which the Australians later dubbed " Third Ridge " ( or " Gun Ridge " ) . Pressing further inland , troops from the 6th Battalion had attempted to reach the ridge , crossing a wide valley ( later known as " Legge Valley " ) , but they were pushed back when an Ottoman regiment , the 27th , had launched a counterattack from the south @-@ east towards Lone Pine at 10 : 00 a.m. , with the objective of retaking the 400 Plateau . Rolling up the 6th Battalion , the Ottomans pushed the Australians back to Pine Ridge , a finger of land that jutted south from Lone Pine towards Gaba Tebe . Taking heavy casualties , the Australians withdrew north to Lone Pine , where they were able to establish a defensive position . As reinforcements were brought up from New Zealand units , in the afternoon a second Ottoman regiment , the 77th , arrived and heavy hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting ensued before the counterattack was blunted . Further fighting around Lone Pine continued throughout the early stages of the campaign , but eventually a stalemate developed in which neither side was able to advance and static trench warfare began .
In early July 1915 , while making plans for an offensive to break the deadlock that had developed around the Gallipoli Peninsula following the initial landings in April , the commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps , Lieutenant General William Birdwood , had determined that an attack at Lone Pine could be used to divert Ottoman attention away from a main attack that would be launched further north around Sari Bair , Chunuk Bair and Hill 971 . The Australian 1st Infantry Brigade was chosen to undertake the attack , and consisted of about 3 @,@ 000 men , under the command of Colonel Nevill Smyth . Along with the 2nd and 3rd Infantry Brigades , the 1st Infantry Brigade was part of the Australian 1st Division . The division 's commander was Brigadier General Harold Walker , a British officer who had replaced Major General William Bridges as temporary commander after Bridges had been killed by a sniper in May . Walker did not like the idea of launching an attack at Lone Pine , let alone a mere diversion , but when General Sir Ian Hamilton , the British commander , insisted the attack proceed , through thorough planning , Walker endeavoured to give his troops the best chance of success possible on such an unfavourable battleground .
The Ottoman forces opposing the Australians at Lone Pine consisted of two battalions from the 47th Regiment , under the command of Tevfik Bey . These battalions amounted to a total of about 1 @,@ 000 men , of which 500 were positioned in the trenches along the front , while another 500 were positioned further back in depth . Sitting further back in divisional reserve , to the north @-@ east on " Mortar Ridge " , was a battalion from the 57th Regiment , which had been relieved from its position on the front line north of Lone Pine by an Arab battalion of the 72nd Regiment . The positions north and south of the Ottoman line at Lone Pine were held by the 125th Regiment at Johnston 's Jolly in the north and the 48th Regiment in the south along Pine Ridge .
= = Battle = =
= = = Preparation = = =
The width of the front of the attack was 160 yards ( 150 m ) and the distance between the two trench lines was about 60 – 100 yards ( 55 – 91 m ) . To reduce the distance to be crossed , the Australians projected a number of tunnels towards the Ottoman trenches from The Pimple . Immediately after the attack , one of these tunnels was to be opened along its length to make a communications trench through which reinforcements could advance without having to cross the exposed ground . Some of the attackers would have to make the advance over open ground from the Australian trench line . To provide some measure of protection for these men , three mines were set by engineers to make craters in which they could seek shelter . The preliminary bombardment was stretched over three days — initially confined to a limited " slow shoot " , building up to a final intense bombardment an hour before the assault — and was successful in cutting much of the barbed wire that the Ottomans had placed in front of their position . The preparation stage of the attack began at 2 : 00 p.m. on 6 August , when the Australians detonated the three mines they had dug in front of the Ottoman lines , in an attempt to create cover for the advancing troops . Two and a half hours later the final heavy preliminary bombardment commenced , with Australian , British and New Zealand artillery batteries firing on the Ottoman trench line , while naval gunfire support from the British cruiser HMS Bacchante provided counter @-@ battery fire on Ottoman artillery positioned along Third Ridge . Retreating into tunnels which had been cut as part of mining operations , the majority of the forward Ottoman troops were able to find shelter from the bombardment that lasted for an hour .
While the artillery prepared the ground for the attack , behind the Australian lines the assault formations moved up towards The Pimple . Smyth sited his brigade headquarters at a position called " Brown 's Dip " , which was about 200 metres ( 220 yd ) south of the firing line . Due to the small front along which the attack was to be launched , the initial assault was to be undertaken in three waves by the 2nd , 3rd and 4th Battalions while the 1st Battalion was to remain back at Brown 's Dip in reserve , ready to be brought up to consolidate any gains or respond in the event of a counterattack . Once the 1st Battalion had taken up its position , the assault battalions moved through them towards the forward line at The Pimple . Once the attack was launched , half the force would go via tunnels that had been dug out into no man 's land , while the other half would simply go " over the top " . By 5 : 00 p.m. all the troops had taken up their positions and as the barrage came to a conclusion , the tunnels were opened and final preparations were made .
Each soldier in the first two waves had been issued a total of 200 rounds of ammunition for his rifle , along with rations for one day , and miscellaneous equipment including a gas mask . The third wave had received the same amount of ammunition , but was also issued entrenching equipment that would be used to construct positions to defend the initial gains against the inevitable Ottoman counterattack . In support , each battalion had four Vickers medium machine @-@ guns , which had been issued with 3 @,@ 500 rounds , and contributed a platoon whose job would be to throw the 1 @,@ 200 grenades that the brigade had been allocated for the attack . A small section of engineers was also allocated to undertake demolitions .
= = = Initial assault = = =
At 5 : 30 p.m. the Australian 1st Infantry Brigade attacked as the first wave of 1 @,@ 800 men threw themselves forward . To their north , the troops of the 2nd Infantry Brigade laid down suppressing fire on the supporting Ottoman troops at Johnston 's Jolly , while the 3rd Infantry and 2nd Light Horse Brigades held the line opposite Sniper 's Ridge . Half the force went via the prepared tunnels and half crossed the exposed ground between the trench lines . Dubbed the " Daisy Patch " , it amounted to a distance of about 100 metres ( 110 yd ) and it was raked with Ottoman artillery and small arms fire . From his headquarters overlooking the fighting , the senior Ottoman commander Esad Pasa , began to co @-@ ordinate the response , passing orders for reinforcements to be brought up and calling down artillery . Casualties among the first wave of attackers were " relatively light " as the defenders in the front line of Ottoman trenches were still sheltering from the preliminary bombardment and had not had time to return to their fire steps after it had been lifted .
When the Australians reached the Ottoman trenches they found them roofed with pine logs with no easy entrance , which had not been identified by aerial reconnaissance during the planning stages . As the Ottoman defenders recovered from the artillery barrage , they began firing at the Australians through specially cut holes at point blank range . As the second and third waves of the attack came up , some of the Australians fired , grenaded and bayoneted from above , while some found their way inside through gaps or by lifting the logs , which were in places as thick as 4 inches ( 10 cm ) by 9 inches ( 23 cm ) . Others ran on past to the open communications and support trenches behind , where they were able to gain access to the trenches ; about 70 Ottoman troops were captured as they attempted to escape and ran into the Australians entering the trenches . Small groups of Australians managed to push through to The Cup where they were stopped by Ottoman troops who were hastily assembled to defend their regimental headquarters . In the ensuing fighting there , almost all of the Australians were killed , while a handful were taken prisoner .
In the Ottoman trenches , the darkness and cramped conditions led to considerable confusion amongst the attackers . Due to concerns of shooting their comrades , the Australians were unable to fire their rifles initially , and the fighting devolved into a melee as the soldiers attacked each other with bayonets and grenades . The first Australians to enter the position were picked off by the defenders , but as the Australians established themselves in strength , they were able to break into the position before the defenders that had been sheltering in the tunnels behind the front line were able to fully respond . Over the space of half an hour the Australians took control of the position and , after ejecting the remaining Ottomans from the main trench , they established a number of defensive positions along the line . These amounted to positions in the communication trenches on the flanks of the captured ground and about seven or eight posts in the centre that were " isolated " but connected by hastily dug saps .
For the Australians , the attack had been successful , as they had gained possession of the main Ottoman line , and after being halted at The Cup they began preparing to defend their gains . Hastily erecting sandbag barriers along the parapet , they settled down to wait for the first counterattack . As they did so , the brigade reserve — the 1st Battalion — was brought up . Due to crowding in the tunnels that had been used for the attack , the reinforcements were sent via the open ground that had been in front of the old Ottoman positions ; despite being behind the recently captured position , the ground was still subjected to heavy Ottoman artillery and machine @-@ gun fire , which was being poured down from positions in overwatch on the flanks . Nevertheless , in company lots , the 1st Battalion moved up and began filling in the gaps between the assault battalions , while engineers from the 2nd Field Company began the task of extending the tunnels from The Pimple towards the new Australian line .
= = = Ottoman counterattacks = = =
Shortly after dark , around 7 : 00 p.m. , the first Ottoman counterattack came after a group from the 1st Battalion , 57th Regiment , under Major Zeki Bey , arrived to reinforce the battalions of the 47th . Attacking with hand grenades , the fighting took place in the complicated maze of the former Ottoman trench system . The close quarters meant that some of the grenades would travel back and forth up to three times before exploding . The Australians held the old Ottoman fire trench and had footholds deeper in Ottoman lines . They blocked the Ottoman communications trenches as best they could , often with the bodies of the dead , to thwart raids . Other bodies were moved to unused communication trenches and saps , and where possible the wounded were evacuated , however , the fighting was so intense , the conditions so cramped and the men so exhausted that in many cases they were left to lie at the bottom of the trench .
Throughout the night of 6 / 7 August , the Ottomans brought up reinforcements from the 5th Division 's 13th Regiment under Ali Riza Bey , which marched from Kojadere , south @-@ east of the position known to the Australians as " Scrubby Knoll " . The 9th Division , under German Colonel Hans Kannengiesser , also received orders to begin moving towards Lone Pine from its position between Helles and Anzac from Esad Pasa . Although the 9th Division was later diverted , after 8 : 00 p.m. the 15th Regiment , from the 5th Division , under the command of Ibrahim Sukru , was committed to the fighting , moving south from its position around the Kurt Dere , near Chunuk Blair .
For the next three days the Ottomans continued to launch incessant and ultimately unsuccessful counterattacks in an effort to recapture the ground they had lost . In total three regiments were dispatched . The Australians also brought up reinforcements , moving up men from two battalions from the 2nd and 3rd Infantry Brigades — the 7th and 12th Battalions — to hold the 1st Brigade 's gains . Throughout 7 August , the fighting devolved into a series of hand grenade duels . To keep up the supply , Australians put about 50 soldiers to work at Anzac Cove manufacturing makeshift grenades out of empty jam tins : over 1 @,@ 000 were sent up to the 1st Infantry Brigade late on 7 August . The fighting continued throughout the night of 7 / 8 August as the 47th Regiment , launched a determined counterattack ; suffering heavy casualties , including the regimental commander , Tewfik Bey , the attack was unsuccessful in retaking the main front @-@ line trenches , but succeeded in regaining some of the ground in the north and also pushed the Australians back a little way from The Cup .
As Ali Riza Bey , the commander of the 13th Regiment , took charge of the Ottoman effort around Lone Pine , the grenading continued into the next day as the Ottomans began to prepare for a large @-@ scale counterattack . Throughout the morning the remaining Australian positions overlooking The Cup were abandoned before the fighting stopped briefly as both the Australians and Ottomans evacuated their wounded and removed the dead from the front @-@ line . By this time the 1st and 2nd Battalions , which had been defending the heavily counterattacked southern flank , had suffered so many casualties that they were withdrawn from the line , with the 7th Battalion moving into their positions late in the afternoon . The 3rd , 4th and 12th Battalions remained holding the north and centre of the Australian line .
Further attacks were mounted by the Ottomans all along the Australian line after 3 : 00 p.m. , but after dark they focused their efforts on the 7th Battalion 's position in the south ; there the Ottomans succeeded in taking part of the Australian line late in the night , and fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting followed until early in the morning of 9 August as the Australians retook these positions . More grenade attacks were launched by Ottoman troops later that morning and as the Australian trenches were brought under fire from the Ottoman positions around Johnston 's Jolly , an attack was launched at the junctions between the Australian battalions . Achieving a break @-@ in in the centre , they reached the 1st Infantry Brigade 's headquarters — which had advanced forward from Brown 's Dip following the initial gains — where the brigade commander , Smyth , joined the defence that eventually drove them back . Around midday the Ottomans put in another attack , but this too was repulsed . The positions on the southern Australian flank continued to be subjected to grenading , so the 5th Battalion was brought up to relieve the 7th . The 2nd Battalion , having received a brief respite , also came forward , replacing the 4th Battalion with the support of a dismounted squadron from the 7th Light Horse Regiment . As the fresh units settled in , the Australians prepared for renewed fighting along the line . In the end , the expected attack never came and finally , late in the afternoon of 9 August , the Ottoman commanders called off further attempts to dislodge the Australians . The next day , the fighting " subsided " as both the Ottomans and the Australians worked to consolidate their positions .
= = Aftermath = =
The fighting was " some of the fiercest " the Australians experienced during the campaign to that point . The ground captured during the battle amounted to a total of about 150 metres ( 160 yd ) across a 300 @-@ metre ( 330 yd ) front . Amidst scenes of considerable devastation , the Australian divisional commander , Walker , believed the result " disastrous " . The higher commanders believed it to have been a tactical success , however , with Hamilton describing it as a " desperate fine feat " . Though a tactical victory for the Australians in terms of the fact that they remained in possession of the ground captured , and had managed to draw off some Ottoman reinforcements , nevertheless the wider repercussions of the attack at Lone Pine weighed heavily on the outcome at Chunuk Bair . Sent north to reinforce Lone Pine , due to the effectiveness of the Australian attack , Kannengiesser 's 9th Division was directed instead to proceed on to Chunuk Bair where , at the time , there was only one Ottoman artillery battery and a covering force of 20 infantrymen . His force arrived in time to seriously delay the New Zealand attack , and ultimately the wider offensive of which the battle was a part failed . Afterwards , a stalemate situation developed on the Gallipoli peninsula although there were brief periods of localised fighting . In September , the troops of the Australian 1st Division who had taken the position at Lone Pine were relieved by the 23rd and 24th Battalions .
Dominated by the heights of Baby 700 , the position was regularly shelled and was subsequently described by one Australian soldier , Trooper Ion Idriess , as " the most dangerous spot " in the Australian lodgement and it ultimately proved a " liability " for the troops tasked with holding it . Opposed by troops from the Ottoman 47th Regiment , for the remaining three months of the campaign , the two Australian battalions would alternate their positions in the front line as the Ottoman and Australians engaged in mining and countermining operations against each other 's positions . The stalemate continued as both the Australians and Ottomans lacked the strength to mount a determined attack and this situation ultimately lasted until the Allied evacuation in December 1915 .
In most sources , Ottoman losses are estimated at between 5 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 , although Kenan Celik from Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University , has placed their losses as high as 7 @,@ 164 , broken down as 1 @,@ 520 killed , 4 @,@ 700 wounded , 760 listed as missing and 134 captured by the Australians . These included the commanding officers of both the 47th and 15th Regiments . Of the Australian force that had launched the attack , almost half became casualties . Australian losses during the battle amounted to 2 @,@ 277 men killed or wounded , out of the total 4 @,@ 600 men committed to the fighting over the course of the battle . These represent some of the highest casualties of the campaign . The toll was particularly heavy amongst the Australian officers ; both the commanding officers of the 2nd and 3rd Battalions were killed leading their troops . After the battle , the dead were so thick on the ground that one Australian , Captain Harold Jacobs of the 1st Battalion , remarked " [ t ] he trench is so full of our dead that the only respect that we could show them was not to tread on their faces , the floor of the trench was just one carpet of them , this in addition to the ones we piled into Turkish dugouts . " Later , over 1 @,@ 000 dead were removed from Australian position to be hastily buried .
Seven Australians were awarded the Victoria Cross for their actions during the fighting at Lone Pine , including four men from the 7th Battalion , which had been rushed forward to help relieve the 1st Brigade at the height of the Ottoman counterattacks . One of the recipients was Corporal William Dunstan , who after the war became the general manager of The Herald newspaper in Melbourne . Another VC recipient was Captain Alfred Shout who had already earned the Military Cross and been Mentioned in Despatches earlier in the Gallipoli campaign . He was mortally wounded at Lone Pine and was later buried at sea . The other VC recipients were Privates Leonard Keysor and John Hamilton , Corporal Alexander Burton and Lieutenants Frederick Tubb and William Symons .
After the war , an Australian military historical mission was sent to Gallipoli , led by Charles Bean . On Bean 's advice the Australian government sought permission from the newly formed Turkish Republic to establish an official war cemetery in the area . In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne was ratified , and through its provisions the Lone Pine cemetery was established in the area , dubbed the Daisy Patch by the Australians . There are a total of 1 @,@ 167 graves in the cemetery and as of 2012 , the identities of 471 bodies interred in the cemetery remain unknown . Also standing within the cemetery 's grounds is the Lone Pine memorial . It is the main Australian and New Zealand memorial at Gallipoli and commemorates all the Australian and some of the New Zealanders who died during the campaign , including those who have no known grave and those buried at sea .
As a result of the battle 's significance to the Australians , Lone Pine is the site of the annual Australian Anzac Day dawn service at Gallipoli . After the service Australian visitors congregate at the memorial to remember all their countrymen who fought and died at Gallipoli . At the New Zealand National World War I Museum , there is an exhibit for the Battle of Lone Pine , and there is also one in the Australian War Memorial . Memorial " Lone Pine " trees have also been planted in Australia , New Zealand and Gallipoli to commemorate the battle and the Gallipoli campaign in general , seeded from specimens taken from Gallipoli . There are also many places in Australia named after the battle .
= Pacific electric ray =
Tetronarce californica also known as the Pacific electric ray is a species of electric ray in the family Torpedinidae , endemic to the coastal waters of the northeastern Pacific Ocean from Baja California to British Columbia . It generally inhabits sandy flats , rocky reefs , and kelp forests from the surface to a depth of 200 m ( 660 ft ) , but has also been known to make forays into the open ocean . Measuring up to 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) long , this species has smooth @-@ rimmed spiracles ( paired respiratory openings behind the eyes ) and a dark gray , slate , or brown dorsal coloration , sometimes with dark spots . Its body form is typical of the genus , with a rounded pectoral fin disc wider than long and a thick tail bearing two dorsal fins of unequal size and a well @-@ developed caudal fin .
Solitary and nocturnal , the Pacific electric ray can generate up to 45 volts of electricity for the purposes of subduing prey or self @-@ defense . It feeds mainly on bony fishes , ambushing them from the substrate during the day and actively hunting for them at night . Reproduction is aplacental viviparous , meaning that the embryos are initially nourished by yolk , later supplemented by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Females bear litters of 17 – 20 pups , probably once every other year . Care should be exercised around the Pacific electric ray , as it has been known to act aggressively if provoked and its electric shock can potentially incapacitate a diver . It and other electric rays are used as model organisms for biomedical research . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species under Least Concern , as it is not fished in any significant numbers .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Pacific electric ray was described by American ichthyologist William Orville Ayres , the first Curator of Ichthyology at the California Academy of Sciences , who named it after the U.S. state where it was first discovered by science . Ayers published his account in 1855 , in the inaugural volume of the Academy 's Proceedings ; no type specimens were designated . In 1861 , Theodore Gill placed this species in his newly created genus Tetronarce , on the basis of its smooth @-@ rimmed spiracles . Later authors have generally regarded Tetronarce as a subgenus of Torpedo . Closely similar electric rays found off Peru , Chile , and Japan may be the same as this species . Other common names used for this ray include California torpedo ray , Pacific torpedo , or simply electric ray or torpedo ray . This species is placed in the genus Tetronarce .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The only electric ray found off western North America , the Pacific electric ray occurs as far south as Sebastian Vizcaino Bay in Baja California , and as far north as the Dixon Entrance in northern British Columbia . It is most common south of Point Conception , California , with the rays north of the Point perhaps representing one or more separate populations .
Off California , the Pacific electric ray is generally encountered at a depth of 3 – 30 m ( 10 – 100 ft ) , while off Baja California it is typically observed at a depth of 100 – 200 m ( 330 – 660 ft ) . It has been reported from as deep as 425 m ( 1 @,@ 394 ft ) . This species prefers temperatures of 10 – 13 ° C ( 50 – 55 ° F ) . It frequents sandy flats , rocky reefs , and kelp forests . However , one individual has been videotaped 17 km ( 11 mi ) west of Point Pinos , Monterey County , California , swimming 10 m ( 33 ft ) below the surface in water 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) deep ; this and other observations suggest that this species makes periodic excursions away from shallow coastal habitats into the epipelagic zone .
= = Description = =
The Pacific electric ray has a soft , flabby body devoid of dermal denticles . It has an oval pectoral fin disc about 1 @.@ 2 times as wide as long , with a nearly straight front margin and a pair of kidney @-@ shaped electric organs visible beneath the skin . The eyes are small and followed by smooth @-@ rimmed spiracles ; the space from the spiracles to the snout tip is about 1 @.@ 8 times the distance between the spiracles . There is a curtain of skin between the nostrils that almost reaches the mouth , which is arched with deep furrows at the corners . The distance between the mouth and the snout tip is about equal to the mouth width , and three times that of the distance between the nostrils . There are 25 – 28 upper tooth rows and 19 – 26 lower tooth rows ; each tooth is tiny and smooth , with a single sharp cusp .
Two dorsal fins are present , with the first more than twice the size of the second and positioned opposite the large pelvic fins . The tail is short and stocky , terminating in a large , triangular caudal fin with a nearly straight trailing margin . This ray is dark gray , slate , or brown above , sometimes with small darker spots that increase in number with age ; the underside is white . Males attain a maximum known length of 0 @.@ 9 m ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) , and females 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) . The maximum recorded weight is 41 kg ( 90 lb ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
With a sizable oily liver and low @-@ density tissues , the Pacific electric ray is almost neutrally buoyant and can hover in the water column with very little effort . Propulsive power is provided by the muscular tail , while the disc is held rigid . Telemetry studies have shown that this species swims primarily at night , when it enters reefs and other habitats with high terrain relief , and spends most of the day in nearby open areas buried in sediment . It is nomadic and solitary , though several individuals may rest within the same area .
Like other members of its family , the Pacific electric ray produces powerful electric shocks for attack and defense . Its paired electric organs are derived from muscle and comprise approximately 15 % of its total weight , consisting of many thousands of jelly @-@ filled " electric plates " stacked hundreds @-@ high into vertical hexagonal columns . These columns function essentially like batteries connected in parallel ; a large adult ray can generate some 45 volts of electricity with a power output of one kilowatt , due to low internal resistance . The electric organs discharge direct current in pulses , each lasting 4 – 5 ms . When attacking prey , in the first few moments the ray normally produces pulses at a rate of 150 – 200 per second , slowing down over time . Over a thousand pulses may be produced in all , depending on how long it takes for the prey to be subdued . The pulse rate increases with water temperature .
Because of its large size and formidable defenses , The Pacific electric ray seldom falls prey to other animals . There is a record of one being fed upon by a killer whale ( Orcinus orca ) off Santa Catalina Island . The Cooper 's nutmeg ( Cancellaria cooperi ) is a specialized parasite of this ray , and possibly other bottom @-@ dwelling fishes such as the Pacific angelshark ( Squatina californica ) . The snail is attracted to the chemicals contained in the ray 's surface mucus ; it makes a small cut on the ventral surface of the ray and uses its proboscis to suck blood . Other known parasites of this species include the copepod Trebius latifurcatus , the fluke Amphibdelloides maccallumi , and the tapeworm Acanthobothrium hispidum .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Pacific electric ray feeds mainly on bony fishes , including anchovies , herring , hake , mackerel , croakers , rockfishes , surfperches , kelp bass , and flatfishes , but will also take cephalopods and invertebrates given the opportunity . Its jaws are highly distensible , allowing it to swallow surprisingly large prey : one female 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) long has been observed ingesting a silver salmon ( Oncorhynchus kisutch ) nearly half her length . During the day , the Pacific electric ray is an ambush predator : when a fish approaches its head , the ray " jumps " forward from its resting place and folds down its disc to envelop it , while delivering strong shocks . Once the fish is subdued , the ray repositions itself to swallow it head @-@ first . The entire process takes about two minutes .
At night , when many diurnal fishes descend from the water column and become inactive a short distance above the bottom , the Pacific electric ray switches to an active hunting strategy . It stalks fish by slowly swimming or simply drifting through the water ; when it closes to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of the prey , it lunges forward and again envelops the prey within its disc while delivering shocks . To better secure the fish within its disc , the ray will make short kicks with its tail that sometimes send it into barrel rolls or somersaults . Finally , the stunned prey is maneuvered to the mouth with ripples of the disc . In one recorded case , a 75 cm ( 30 in ) long female captured and consumed a 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) long jack mackerel ( Trachurus symmetricus ) in under ten seconds . Nighttime seine net sampling at the surface of Monterey Bay has captured Pacific electric rays in surprising numbers , suggesting that they rise upward from the bottom to feed on small fishes .
Though the Pacific electric ray will feed at any hour , it responds to prey much more quickly at night than during the day . Most prey captures occur in darkness or turbid conditions , when its eyes are largely useless . Instead , it relies on electroreception via its ampullae of Lorenzini to locate food . Experiments in the field have shown that it will attack artificially generated electric fields and conductive metal electrodes . Mechanical sensory cues , detected via the lateral line , also play an important role : this species has been observed preferentially attacking faster @-@ moving prey even if a closer food item was available .
= = = Life history = = =
The Pacific electric ray exhibits aplacental viviparity , with the developing embryos at first receiving nourishment from yolk , and later from histotroph ( " uterine milk " , enriched with proteins , fat , and mucus ) produced by the mother and delivered through specialized outgrowths of the uterine lining . Mature females have two functional ovaries and uteruses . Reproduction occurs year @-@ round , with males apparently capable of mating every year and females every other year . The gestation period is unknown . Reported litter sizes range from 17 to 20 ; at least the number of ova , and perhaps also the number of young , increases with the size of the female .
The newborns measure 18 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) long and double their size in the first year of life , adding around 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) to their length . Male grow faster than females but reach a smaller ultimate size . Sexual maturity is attained at a length of 65 cm ( 26 in ) and age of seven years for males , and a length of 73 cm ( 29 in ) and age of nine years for females . The oldest documented individuals are 16 years of age , and extrapolating from growth curves the maximum lifespan of this species may be upwards of 24 years .
= = Human interactions = =
The shock generated by the Pacific electric ray can be enough to knock down an adult human . It should be treated with caution , especially at night when it is active , and has been known to charge at divers with its mouth agape if harassed . It is not known to be responsible for any fatalities , but may have been involved in several unexplained , fatal diving accidents . This species fares poorly in captivity , as it usually refuses to feed when first introduced into an aquarium . Since 2000 , the Aquarium of the Bay and the Monterey Bay Aquarium have had some success keeping Pacific electric rays by offering them moving food .
The Pacific electric ray and its relatives are used as model organisms for biomedical research , because their electric organs contain an abundance of important nervous system proteins such as nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and acetylcholinesterase . In the 1970s and 1980s , acetylcholine receptors from this species and the marbled electric ray ( T. marmorata ) became the first neurotransmitter receptors to be isolated and sequenced , in what is considered to be a landmark success in the field of neurobiology . This led to a number of further advances , one of the most significant being the elucidation of the pathophysiology underlying the disease myasthenia gravis . A small commercial fishery in southern California supplies Pacific electric rays for research purposes ; as of 2005 this fishery may have employed as few as two fishers . Otherwise , this ray has no economic value . It is caught incidentally by commercial trawl and gillnet fisheries , and on hook @-@ and @-@ line by sport anglers . These activities appear to have little impact on its population , leading it to be listed under Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . Fishing for this ray is not managed by the Pacific Fishery Management Council .
= Togo women 's national football team =
The Togo women 's national football team is a FIFA @-@ recognised team that represents Togo in international football competition . Togo have played five FIFA @-@ recognised matches , all in 2006 , and are currently unranked . They have not competed in major regional and international tournaments . While the country has under @-@ 17 and under @-@ 20 national sides , further development of the team and the sport in Togo faces challenges common to African countries , as well as country @-@ specific problems such as the sport 's lack of domestic popularity .
= = Team = =
In 1985 , few countries had women 's national football teams . While the sport 's popularity grew worldwide in the ensuing years , Togo did not compete in their first FIFA @-@ sanctioned match until 2006 , when they played five games . In their first game , on 19 February , Togo beat São Tomé and Príncipe 3 – 0 . The team beat São Tomé and Príncipe again by a score of 6 – 0 on 26 February 2006 in Togo . In its next three games , Togo lost 0 – 9 to Congo , 1 – 3 to Congo and 2 – 5 to Mali . Togo tied the following game 3 – 3 against Côte d 'Ivoire in Dakar . Togo then beat Guinea 4 – 1 on 21 May 2006 . Togo has since played just one match . In 2007 , the team competed at the Tournoi de Cinq Nations held in Ouagadougou . There , Togo lost 0 – 5 to Côte d 'Ivoire before being disqualified for bringing a club team , MBA Lomé , to the competition in violation of tournament rules .
Togo has not participated in most regional and international competitions , including the Women 's World Cup , the 2010 African Women 's Championship , and the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games . The team was expected to participate in the 2010 African Women 's Championships and were scheduled to play against Mali but withdrew before the competition started . As of March 2012 , the team was not ranked by FIFA .
The country has a national under @-@ 17 side and an under @-@ 20 side . The Togo women 's national under @-@ 17 football team was active by 2010 , when they competed in the African Women 's U @-@ 17 Qualifying Tournament . Togo moved past the preliminary round after their opponents , Sierra Leone , withdrew from the tournament . In the first round , Togo was set to play Nigeria but withdrew from the competition . The Togo women 's national under @-@ 20 football team was also active by 2010 , when they competed in the African Women 's U @-@ 20 World Cup qualifying . In the first round , they had a walkover win against the Sierra Leone , but did not participate in rounds two or three .
= = Background and development = =
The development of women 's football in Africa faces several challenges , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women , inequalities and human rights abuses targeting women . Funding also in an impediment . Most support for women 's football in Africa comes from FIFA rather than national football associations . Many quality female footballers leave the continent seeking greater opportunity in northern Europe or the United States .
The national football association , the Fédération Togolaise de Football , was founded in 1960 and became affiliated with FIFA in 1964 . The organisation has fifteen staff members focusing on women 's football . Football is the fourth @-@ most @-@ popular women 's sport in Togo , trailing basketball , handball and volleyball . Football 's popularity is growing , however . The country had 380 registered players in 2006 , up from 180 in 2000 . Women 's football was first organised in the country in 2000 . By 2006 , there were 105 football clubs in Togo , 11 of which were for women only . A national women 's competition was created by 2006 and was still operating in 2009 . While there are no school , university or regional competitions for women 's football , there was an active under @-@ 17 women 's league in 2009 . In 2010 , a women 's football competition involving 50 women 's teams was organised by the German embassy , which provided teams with football kits and footballs .
= T206 Honus Wagner =
The T206 Honus Wagner baseball card depicts the Pittsburgh Pirates ' Honus Wagner , a dead @-@ ball era baseball player who is widely considered to be one of the best players of all time . The card was designed and issued by the American Tobacco Company ( ATC ) from 1909 to 1911 as part of its T206 series . Wagner refused to allow production of his baseball card to continue , either because he did not want children to buy cigarette packs to get his card , or because he wanted more compensation from the ATC . The ATC ended production of the Wagner card and a total of only 50 to 200 cards were ever distributed to the public ( exact number unknown ) , as compared to the " tens or hundreds of thousands " of T206 cards , over three years in sixteen brands of cigarettes , for any other player . In 1933 , the card was first listed at a price value of US $ 50 in Jefferson Burdick 's The American Card Catalog , making it the most expensive baseball card in the world at the time .
The most famous T206 Honus Wagner is the " Gretzky T206 Honus Wagner " card . The card 's odd texture and shape led to speculation that it was altered . The Gretzky T206 Wagner was first sold by Alan Ray to a baseball memorabilia collector named Bill Mastro , who sold the card two years later to Jim Copeland for nearly four times the price he had originally paid . Copeland 's sizable transaction revitalized interest in the sports memorabilia collection market . In 1991 , Copeland sold the card to ice hockey figures Wayne Gretzky and Bruce McNall for $ 451 @,@ 000 . Gretzky resold the card four years later to Wal @-@ Mart and Treat Entertainment for $ 500 @,@ 000 for use as the top prize in a promotional contest .
The next year , a Florida postal worker won the card and auctioned it at Christie 's for $ 640 @,@ 000 to collector Michael Gidwitz . In 2000 , the card was sold via Robert Edward Auctions to card collector Brian Seigel for $ 1 @.@ 27 million . In February 2007 , Seigel sold the card privately to an anonymous collector for $ 2 @.@ 35 million . Less than six months later , the card was sold to another anonymous collector for $ 2 @.@ 8 million . In April 2011 , that anonymous purchaser was revealed to be Ken Kendrick , owner of the Arizona Diamondbacks . These transactions have made the Wagner card the most valuable baseball card in history .
In October 2013 , Bill Mastro pleaded guilty to mail fraud in U.S District Court — and admitted in the process that he had trimmed the Wagner card to sharply increase its value .
Other T206 Wagners , both legitimate and fake , have surfaced in recent years . Some of the real cards have fetched hundreds of thousands of dollars in auctions . One particular T206 Honus Wagner owned by John Cobb and Ray Edwards has attracted media controversy over its authenticity , with many leading hobby experts regarding it as a fake .
= = Background = =
The American Tobacco Company was formed as a result of an 1889 merger of five major cigarette manufacturers : W. Duke & Sons & Company , Allen & Ginter , Goodwin & Company , F. S. Kinney Company and William S. Kimball & Company . Because the company came to monopolize the tobacco industry , ATC did not have to conduct advertising or promotions for its products . Since baseball cards were primarily used as a sales promotion , ATC removed them from its tobacco packs , almost driving the cards into obsolescence . During the presidency of " trust @-@ buster " Theodore Roosevelt , the ATC was subjected to legal action from the government , in hopes of shutting down the monopoly in the industry .
Thereafter , the ATC was back in competition with other tobacco companies , so it reinserted baseball cards into cigarette packs . In 1909 , the company introduced the T206 series – also known as the " white border set " – of baseball cards of 524 players into its cigarette packs . The cards were printed at seven factories in New York , North Carolina , Ohio and Virginia . Two years later , the ATC was broken up into several major companies as part of the United States Supreme Court ruling in United States v. American Tobacco Company , 221 U.S. 106 ( 1911 ) .
= = Physical attributes and production = =
The typical card in the T206 series had a width of 1 7 ⁄ 16 inches ( 3 @.@ 65 cm ) and a height of 2 5 ⁄ 8 inches ( 6 @.@ 67 cm ) . Some cards were awkwardly shaped or irregularly sized , which prompted a belief that many of the cards in the series had been altered at one point or another . In his work Inside T206 : A Collector Guide to the Classic Baseball Card Set , Scot A. Reader wrote that " [ i ] t is not at all uncommon to find T206 examples that have been altered at some point during their near @-@ century of existence . " These discrepancies were taken advantage of by " card doctors " who trimmed corners and dirty edges to improve the appearance of the card . The front of all T206 series cards , including the Wagner card , displayed a lithograph of the player created by a multi @-@ stage printing process in which a number of colors were printed on top of each other to create a lithograph with the appropriate design . The backs of the cards featured the monochromatic colors of the 16 tobacco brands for which the cards were printed . The Wagner cards in particular advertised the Piedmont and Sweet Caporal brands of cigarettes and were produced at Factory 25 in Virginia , as indicated by the factory stamp imprinted on the back of the cards .
= = Wagner 's involvement = =
Starting from January 1909 , the ATC sought authorization from baseball players for inclusion in the T206 series , which would feature 524 major league players , 76 of whom would later be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame . Wagner had been at the top of his game throughout the decade , and was even considered to be the game 's greatest player at the time . He had appeared on advertisements for a number of other products such as chewing gum , gunpowder and soft drinks . Unsurprisingly , the ATC asked for Wagner 's permission to have his picture on a baseball card . According to an October 12 , 1912 , issue of The Sporting News , Wagner did not give his consent to appear on the baseball card . In response to the authorization request letter sent by John Gruber , a Pittsburgh sportswriter hired by the ATC to seek Wagner 's permission , Wagner wrote that he " did not care to have his picture in a package of cigarettes . " He threatened to seek legal action against ATC if they went ahead and created his baseball card .
The reasons for Wagner 's strong negative reaction to the ATC 's request have been the subject of much speculation . The most commonly told account is that Wagner rejected the deal because he did not want young baseball fans to purchase the tobacco packs for his baseball card . Wagner held high respect for many of his fans , most particularly his young fans . His granddaughter , Blair , remarked that " [ h ] e loved children . He wanted to teach kids good sportsmanship . When it came time for that card to come out , it wasn 't that he wasn 't paid . He didn 't want kids to have to buy tobacco to get his card . " However , Wagner chewed tobacco , and he had previously appeared in advertisements for many tobacco products , including a cigar baseball trading card in 1899 and a newspaper ad for Murad cigarettes during the 1909 World Series .
Another explanation surmised is that Wagner did not consent because he felt he was not receiving just compensation from the ATC for his baseball card . Wagner had a history of being a tough negotiator ; he had announced his retirement from baseball in December 1907 , but returned shortly before the start of the 1908 baseball season after receiving a $ 10 @,@ 000 contract , double his salary from the 1907 season . This theory has its flaws , however , since Wagner sent Gruber a check for $ 10 to compensate him for the fee ATC would have paid him if Wagner had given permission to create his baseball card . Michael O 'Keeffe and Teri Thompson , authors of The Card : Collectors , Con Men , and the True Story of History 's Most Desired Baseball Card , asked why Wagner would compensate Gruber for $ 10 , a substantial amount of money at the time ( approximately equal to $ 275 in 2016 ) , if he refused authorization for monetary reasons . The ATC had already produced a number of T206 Honus Wagner baseball cards ; the exact number is unknown , but is speculated to be between 50 and 200 . They stopped production of the card , however , after Wagner denied authorization .
= = Gretzky T206 Honus Wagner = =
In 1991 , National Hockey League player Wayne Gretzky purchased a mint condition 1909 T206 Honus Wagner baseball card , with a Piedmont cigarette brand back , at a Sotheby 's auction . The card became known as the " Gretzky T206 Wagner " to the public . The Professional Sports Authenticator ( PSA ) company graded this card a PSA 8 Near Mint @-@ Mint ( NM @-@ MT ) on their 10 @-@ point scale , the highest grade given to a T206 Honus Wagner card . Bill Hughes was the official grader of the card , working for PSA at the time . Hughes admitted to knowing that the card had been altered when he graded it .
The Gretzky T206 Wagner first came to attention in 1985 , when small @-@ time Hicksville , New York card collector Alan Ray contacted Bob Sevchuk , the owner of a Long Island sports memorabilia store , to arrange a potential $ 25 @,@ 000 deal for his T206 Honus Wagner card . Bill Mastro , a sports memorabilia dealer who later founded Mastro Auctions and became one of the most powerful figures in the industry , heard the news , and immediately jumped on the offer . Mastro , with the financial backing of friend Rob Lifson , sought to improve the offer and had Ray add 50 to 75 of his other T206 series cards , including the rare T206 Eddie Plank , into the deal . Ray , who later stated he " had a money situation " , agreed to Mastro 's terms of the deal .
The circumstances regarding how Ray came in possession of Gretzky T206 Wagner have been shrouded in mystery . He tried to avoid answering any questions regarding the matter but , in a 2001 interview , claimed to have received it from a relative , whose name he did not disclose . Inside the memorabilia community , there was speculation that the card had been cut from a printing sheet during the deal made with Mastro . Mastro has told colleagues in the memorabilia circuit that he purchased the card from a printer , which was not Ray 's profession . Ray personally stated that Mastro might have
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in light of allegations that they were cheating , but Schumacher and Häkkinen 's teams , Benetton and McLaren refused , claiming copyright reasons . After being fined $ 100 @,@ 000 by the FIA , both teams complied eight days after the race . LDRA discovered that McLaren were running a programme that permitted automatic gearshifts but the car was declared legal .
= = = Benetton = = =
Benetton sent an alternative suggestion to the company on 10 May 1994 , accepted by LDRA five days later . Tests on the car were to be carried out on 28 June 1994 , but were cancelled . The tests eventually took place on 6 July 1994 . LDRA found the tests unsatisfactory . Benetton therefore complied with the original request , the source code , on 18 July 1994 . Analysis of the software found that it included launch control , a banned aid . Benetton stated that " it can only be switched on by recompilation of the code . " However LDRA found this to be untrue ; launch control could be switched on by connecting a computer to the gearbox control unit . Benetton conceded that this was possible but this " came as a surprise to them " . To switch the system on , the user is presented with a menu with 10 visible options . " Launch Control " was not visibly listed as an option , however , should the user scroll down to option 13 , launch control could be enabled . Benetton did not make any explanation .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
= Bun Cook =
Frederick Joseph " Bun " Cook ( September 18 , 1903 – March 19 , 1988 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey forward and coach . He was an Allan Cup champion with the Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds in 1924 before embarking on a 13 year professional career . He played for the Saskatoon Crescents in the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) and the New York Rangers and Boston Bruins in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Cook was a member of two Stanley Cup championship teams with the Rangers , in 1928 and 1933 , playing on the " Bread Line " with his brother Bill and Frank Boucher .
Cook turned to coaching in 1937 and spent 19 years in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , with the Providence Reds for six seasons and the remainder with the Cleveland Barons . His 636 wins as a coach is the most in AHL history and he led his teams to the playoffs in all but one season . Cook was named an AHL All @-@ Star coach on six occasions , and led his teams to a record seven Calder Cup championships . He was posthumously inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1995 and to the American Hockey League Hall of Fame in 2007 .
= = Early life = =
Frederick Joseph Cook was born September 18 , 1903 , in Kingston , Ontario . He was part of a large family , and the second of three brothers , following Bill and preceding Alexander ( " Bud " ) . Despite their eight @-@ year difference age , Bun frequently followed Bill to new teams and the pair spent most of their careers playing together . Bun joined Bill in playing senior hockey with the Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds in 1921 , and while Bill had already left the team by that point , Bun was a member of the Greyhounds squad that won the Allan Cup in 1924 as senior champions of Canada . Following the championship , Bun turned professional by signing with the Saskatoon Crescents of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) for the 1924 – 25 season . Bill had already played two years in Saskatoon by that point and housed his younger brother during their shared tenure with the team .
= = Playing career = =
Cook played two seasons in the Western League . He scored 17 goals in 28 games in 1924 – 25 and added eight more in 30 games the following season . The league had run into financial difficulty in its final seasons , and after 1926 , ceased operations . The Montreal Maroons intended to sign both Cook and his brother Bill to join their team for the 1926 – 27 NHL season . While the team 's manager waited in Montreal to meet the brothers , Conn Smythe , manager of the newly formed New York Rangers , travelled to Winnipeg to reach the pair first . Smythe signed both Cook brothers for $ 12 @,@ 000 . The brothers convinced Smythe to sign Frank Boucher , who also played in the WCHL , and the trio to form the " Bread Line " , one of the early NHL 's most prolific scoring lines .
The expansion Rangers made their debut on November 16 , 1926 . Cook assisted on the first goal in franchise history , scored by his brother , and which stood as the only marker in a 1 – 0 victory . During the season , Cook earned his nickname " Bun " from a journalist who claimed he was " quick as a bunny " on the ice . He finished the 1926 – 27 season with 23 points in 44 games then improved to 28 points in 1927 – 28 . Cook led the Rangers with 14 assists on the year . The Rangers finished second in the American Division that season and defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates and Boston Bruins to reach the 1928 Stanley Cup Final against the Maroons . The Bread Line scored every Rangers goal in the series . The second game was notable for having Rangers coach Lester Patrick play goal after regular goaltender Lorne Chabot was injured . New York won that game , 2 – 1 , and went on to capture the franchise 's first Stanley Cup championship .
Cook 's offence declined in 1928 – 29 as he recorded only 18 points . Attempting to defend their championship , the Rangers reached the 1929 Stanley Cup Final , but were defeated by the Montreal Canadiens . The 1929 – 30 season was statistically Cook 's best in professional hockey . He finished tenth in the NHL with 24 goals and totaled 43 points in 44 games . Following a 35 @-@ point season in 1930 – 31 , he was named to the inaugural NHL All @-@ Star Team as the second team left wing . Cook scored 34 points the following season . The Rangers won the American Division title and reached the 1932 Stanley Cup Final but lost the series to the Toronto Maple Leafs .
With 22 goals in 1932 – 33 , Cook finished fourth in the NHL , while his 37 points were seventh best . The Rangers reached the 1933 Stanley Cup Final , and Cook had two opportunities to end the series in the deciding fourth game : He was unable to score on a breakaway late in regulation time , while he and Bill nearly teamed up to end the contest early in overtime . Bill ultimately scored the winning goal in a 1 – 0 victory as the Rangers won their second Stanley Cup championship .
Cook was a consistent scorer the following two seasons as he recorded 33 points in 1933 – 34 and 34 points in 1934 – 35 . However , he missed much of the 1935 – 36 season due to an arthritic condition . Believing he would not recover , the Rangers sold Cook to the Boston Bruins . The transaction broke up the Bread Line , which had been together for nine seasons . He appeared in 40 games for the Bruins in 1936 – 37 , his final NHL season , and recorded nine points .
In 531 career professional games , Cook scored 183 goals and 335 points . He was also an early innovator of the slapshot and of the drop pass . According to Cook : " I had a dream about the drop pass one night and at our next practice , I told Frank and Bill about it . They thought I was crazy , but they decided to humour me . By gosh , it worked ! I 'd cross over from left wing to centre as I moved in on defense . I 'd fake a shot and leave the puck behind and skate away from it , with Frank or Bill picking it up . We got a lot of goals off the crisscross and drop pass . " Ed Sullivan , then of the New York Graphic , praised Cook 's creativity : " When Bun Cook is hot , he is one of the most amazing players in hockey . At such moments , he attempts plays that stagger the imagination . " In 1995 , Cook was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame by the veterans committee . Often overshadowed by his linemates , he was the last member of the Bread Line to gain entry into the Hall , as he followed Bill ( 1952 ) and Frank Boucher ( 1958 ) .
= = Coaching career = =
After retiring from the NHL in 1937 , Cook turned to coaching and became the head coach of the Providence Reds in the International @-@ American Hockey League ( IAHL ; later the American Hockey League , AHL ) . He guided the Reds to a 25 – 16 – 7 record and a first place finish in the Eastern Division , as well as a Calder Cup championship after the Reds defeated the Syracuse Stars . Following the 1938 – 39 season , Cook was named to the IAHL / AHL All @-@ Star team for the first time of four consecutive seasons . In 1942 , Cook served as coach of the Eastern Division team at the first AHL All @-@ Star Game . He coached the Reds for six seasons , until 1942 – 43 . The Reds won three division titles and a second Calder Cup in 1940 . Occasionally pressed into playing duty , Cook also appeared in 37 games for the Reds over that time , and recorded what ultimately was his final professional goal , the game @-@ winner in a 3 – 2 victory over the New Haven Eagles on December 17 , 1942 .
Cook left Providence to become head coach of the Cleveland Barons in 1943 – 44 . The Barons won their division six times in Cook 's first nine seasons as coach . They reached the Calder Cup Final on six occasions in that time and won three championships : in 1944 – 45 , 1947 – 48 and 1950 – 51 . He was considered a favourite to become head coach of the Boston Bruins in 1950 , but never left Cleveland . In 1952 – 53 , Cook coached the Barons to both the regular season championship and the Calder Cup as the Barons defeated the Pittsburgh Hornets by a 1 – 0 score in overtime of the seventh , and deciding , game of the series . Cook coached the Barons to a repeat championship in 1953 – 54 , his seventh Calder Cup victory . With a record of 26 – 31 – 7 , 1955 – 56 season was the first in 13 seasons with the Barons that Cook coached the team to a losing record . Though the team reached the league championship series , the Barons opted to relieve Cook of his position as coach .
Cook spent one season coaching the Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds of the Northern Ontario Hockey League , in 1956 – 57 , then spent three seasons with the Kingston Frontenacs of the Eastern Professional Hockey League until his retirement in 1961 . Cook retired as , and remains , the most successful coach in AHL history . His seven Calder Cups are four more than anyone else , and his 636 career wins is the most in league history . He was inducted into the American Hockey League Hall of Fame in 2007 .
= = Personal life = =
Bill Cook was given a land grant following the First World War , and became a farmer on a half section of land near Lac Vert , Saskatchewan . Bun followed his elder brother to the prairie province and farmed an adjacent half section . Following his career in hockey , Cook ultimately returned to his hometown of Kingston where he died on March 19 , 1988 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Playing career = = =
= = = Coaching career = = =
= Cyclone Fanele =
Cyclone Fanele was the first cyclone of tropical cyclone status to strike western Madagascar since Cyclone Fame one year prior . It formed on January 18 , 2009 in the Mozambique Channel , and rapidly organized as it remained nearly stationary . Fanele ultimately turned toward the southwest Madagascar coastline , reaching peak winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , according to the Réunion Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) . It weakened before moving ashore in Menabe Region southwest of Morondava , and rapidly weakened over land . Fanele briefly re @-@ intensified after reaching open waters , only to become an extratropical cyclone by January 23 .
The cyclone caused heavy damage near where it moved ashore and along its path , resulting in ten deaths . Fanele struck Madagascar just two days after Tropical Storm Eric brushed the northeastern portion of the country . The two storms affected over 50 @,@ 000 people , of which at least 4 @,@ 000 were left homeless . Fanele struck the country during a series of government protests , and consequentially relief efforts were hindered .
= = Meteorological history = =
For several days in the middle of January 2009 , a very weak low @-@ level circulation persisted in the Mozambique Channel , accompanied by intermittent and disorganized convection , or thunderstorms . By January 17 , an area of convection persisted about 510 kilometres ( 320 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Antananarivo , Madagascar . Early on January 18 ; the circulation rapidly consolidated and organized while the thunderstorms developed into tightly @-@ curved rainbands . Environmental conditions favored further development ; an anticyclone formed over the disturbance , an approaching trough provided favorable outflow , and the system benefited from both light wind shear and warm water temperatures . At 0600 UTC on the 18th , the Réunion Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) initiated advisories on Tropical Disturbance 07 , noting its intensification as it drifted southwestward .
Six hours after being declared a tropical disturbance , MFR upgraded it to tropical depression status , and the agency predicted the system would eventually reach peak winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) before moving ashore . Its track was expected to follow that of another tropical cyclone east of Madagascar , which would become Tropical Storm Eric . Late on January 18 , the system briefly became disorganized , only to re @-@ organize and attain tropical storm status on January 19 ; upon doing so , the Malagasy Weather Service named it Fanele . Around the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began issuing advisories on the storm . The agency noted uncertainty in the future track of the storm , due to interaction with Tropical Storm Eric east of Madagascar , and Fanele was located within an area of weak steering currents . Tropical Storm Fanele quickly strengthened , developing an eye feature , and late on January 19 the JTWC estimated sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) ; the agency predicted further strengthening to peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Around that time , Fanele began rapid deepening under very favorable environmental conditions , and the MFR upgraded the storm to tropical cyclone status with winds of 150 km / h ( 95 mph ) . Upon attaining tropical cyclone status , the MFR forecast Fanele would intensify further to peak winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) .
Early on January 20 , Cyclone Fanele began a northeast motion , tracking along the eastern periphery of a ridge located over Mozambique . Later it turned southeastward under the influence of another ridge further to the east . The thunderstorms organized further around the eye , and at 1200 UTC on January 20 the MFR estimated Fanele attained peak winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) about 180 km ( 110 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Morondava along the Madagascar coast . At the same time , its atmospheric pressure was estimated at 927 hPa ( mbar ) , and peak wind gusts were estimated at 261 km / h ( 162 mph ) . The JTWC also assessed peak winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . As it approached the coast , the cyclone became slightly less organized , with weaker convection and a less distinct eye ; the weakening was due to an eyewall replacement cycle . At around 0215 UTC on January 21 , Fanele made landfall on the western Madagascar coastline , to the southwest of Morondava .
Cyclone Fanele weakened quickly over land ; within four hours of moving ashore , its winds decreased to 150 km / h ( 95 mph ) , and its wind field expanded . The eye feature dissipated as the system weakened to tropical storm status , and increased wind shear contributed to further weakening . By January 22 , the poorly defined circulation moved over open waters , by which time its winds weakened to about 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . Upon reaching the ocean , convection began to reform near the circulation , and Fanele re @-@ attained tropical storm status . Cooler waters caused convection diminish near the center , which began the process of extratropical transition . Late on January 22 , the JTWC issued its last advisory on the storm . By January 23 , Fanele completed the transition into an extratropical storm as it accelerated toward the south @-@ southeast . It persisted as a distinct tropical cyclone until later that day .
= = Impact = =
Though the cyclone developed quickly , authorities were prepared for the storm ; earlier in the year , Madagascar 's National Office for Natural Disasters Preparedness implemented a plan for localized storm warning . Officials deployed warnings via radio to citizens in the path of Fanele , as well as to fishermen who were told to avoid leaving port .
Cyclone Fanele made landfall on western Madagascar in Menabe Region , where it destroyed many buildings , flooded large areas , and left thousands of people isolated . In the city of Morondava near the landfall location , the cyclone flooded 80 % of buildings and damaged about half of the houses , leaving 3 @,@ 000 people homeless . Throughout the region , the winds damaged 158 classrooms attended by 9 @,@ 000 children . Further inland , the cyclone damaged bridges and roads , leaving some areas isolated . The outer rainbands of the storm produced heavy rainfall in the northwest portion of the country , resulting in flooding that left about 250 people homeless in Sofia Region . The passages of Cyclones Eric and Fanele affected 54 @,@ 802 people , leaving 4 @,@ 102 without shelter . At least 28 @,@ 000 people were affected directly by Fanele , and the cyclone killed a total of ten people . The cyclone disrupted work to rebuild areas that were affected by Cyclone Ivan in February 2008 .
Cyclone Fanele struck the country during a series of government protests , and consequently the national government provided little response to the storm . Instead , United Nations ( UN ) agencies quickly provided relief to affected citizens . The World Food Programme prepared 87 metric tons ( MT ) of cereal and 13 MT of various types of pulses . Five United Nations Children 's Fund ( UNICEF ) trucks arrived in Morondova on January 25 with various supplies . In the days after the storm , contaminated floodwaters resulted in cases of dysentery . To prevent the spread of disease , UNICEF provided vaccines , de @-@ worming tablets , and water cleaning devices . Within three days of the storm 's landfall , the agency also began distributing health kits and bed nets . As many schools were affected , UNICEF set up temporary classrooms in tents , while workers began fixing and cleaning the damaged buildings . Despite the quick response by the UN , thousands of people were left without aid . The Malagasy Red Cross deployed its volunteers to affected areas , although disrupted transportation services and the political situation hindered relief efforts .
= George Jones ( RAAF officer ) =
Air Marshal Sir George Jones , KBE , CB , DFC ( 18 October 1896 – 24 August 1992 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He rose from private soldier in World War I to air marshal in 1948 , and served as Chief of the Air Staff from 1942 to 1952 , the longest continuous tenure of any RAAF chief . Jones was a surprise appointee to the Air Force ’ s top role , and his achievements in the position were coloured by a divisive relationship during World War II with his nominal subordinate , the head of RAAF Command , Air Vice @-@ Marshal William Bostock .
During World War I , Jones saw action as an infantryman in the Gallipoli Campaign of 1915 , before transferring to the Australian Flying Corps a year later . Originally a mechanic , he undertook flying training in 1917 and was posted to a fighter squadron in France . He achieved seven victories to become an ace , and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross . After a short spell in civilian life following World War I , he joined the newly formed RAAF in 1921 , and rose steadily through training and personnel commands prior to World War II .
Jones did not actively seek the position of Chief of the Air Staff before being appointed in 1942 , and his conflict with Bostock — with whom he had been friends for 20 years — was partly the result of a divided command structure , which neither man had any direct role in shaping . After World War II , Jones had overall responsibility for transforming what was then the world 's fourth largest air force into a peacetime service that was also able to meet overseas commitments in Malaya and Korea . Following his retirement from the RAAF , he continued to serve in the aircraft industry and later ran unsuccessfully for political office . He was knighted in 1953 .
= = Early life = =
George Jones was born on 18 October 1896 near Rushworth , a rural community in Victoria . The date appearing on his birth certificate was the day of registration , 22 November . His father , a miner , had died in an accident three months before the birth , leaving his family in poverty . The youngest of ten children , Jones was brought up in a strict Methodist household and for his entire life rarely touched alcohol . He attended Rushworth State School , and completed his education at the age of 14 with a Certificate of Merit .
Following his schooling , Jones took an apprenticeship as a carpenter before moving to Melbourne , where he became a motor mechanic . He worked in several garages before commencing a part @-@ time course in fitting and turning at the Working Men 's College of Melbourne . His college studies were curtailed by the outbreak of World War I , by which time he had accumulated three years part @-@ time military service , firstly in cadets and later in a militia unit , the 29th Light Horse Regiment .
= = World War I = =
In May 1915 Jones joined the Australian Imperial Force , embarking for Egypt in August with the 9th Light Horse Regiment . He landed at Gallipoli the following month and served there until the end of the campaign in December . His experiences at Gallipoli , especially witnessing the death by enemy fire of one of his friends , affected him deeply and he suffered from headaches and nightmares for years afterwards . After briefly transferring to the Imperial Camel Corps , Jones applied to join the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) in October 1916 , taking a drop in rank from corporal to private to do so .
Jones became an air mechanic in No. 1 Squadron AFC ( known as No. 67 Squadron Royal Flying Corps by the British ) , before being accepted for flying training in England . He gained his wings on 22 November 1917 and was posted to No. 4 Squadron AFC ( also known as No. 71 Squadron RFC ) as a second lieutenant in January the following year . Flying Sopwith Camels and Snipes on the Western Front , Jones finished the war a captain and an ace , with seven aerial victories from 150 patrols . He was badly injured by a bullet wound and petrol burns in combat with a German fighter in March 1918 , and did not return to his unit for three months . On 29 October 1918 he achieved two kills in one engagement , at Tournai , in what is frequently described as " one of the greatest air battles of the war " . Amid a confrontation involving over 75 Allied and German fighters , Jones led his patrol of three Snipes in a dive on ten Fokkers , destroying a brace of enemy aircraft in the attack . He was decorated with the Distinguished Flying Cross for displaying " the greatest daring and ability in aerial fighting " ; the award was promulgated in the London Gazette on 5 April 1919 .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
Jones remained with the Australian Flying Corps until June 1919 , as part of the British Occupation forces in Germany . After returning to Australia he worked as a turner in Melbourne . He married Muriel Cronan , a clerk who also played piano professionally , on 15 November 1919 . They had met prior to the war and kept in touch throughout Jones ' overseas postings . The couple 's first child , Ronald , arrived on 2 October 1920 . A second son , Ian , would be born on 26 June 1934 . Jones was described by family members as being a somewhat distant husband and father , dedicated to his career and rarely given to obvious displays of emotion .
Encouraged by a fellow No. 4 Squadron veteran , Harry Cobby , Jones applied to join the new Australian Air Force on 22 March 1921 ( the prefix " Royal " was added that August ) . His rank was flying officer , one below the equivalent of his AFC rank of captain . Another Australian pilot joining the fledgling Air Force was William ( Bill ) Bostock , a lieutenant in World War I. The pair became firm friends , Bostock acting as something of a mentor to the younger officer . Jones was promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 July 1923 . Nicknamed " Jonah " , he was also known as " Yellow Jones " in his early days with the RAAF , not through any perceived lack of moral fibre but as a result of the lingering effects on his skin of jaundice , contracted while a soldier at Gallipoli .
Posted to RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , Jones was put in charge of the Motor Transport Repair Section and made acting ( later permanent ) Officer Commanding Workshops . He was highly regarded for his technical and administrative ability but rated only " average " in command and dealing with personnel . In 1926 he took up flight instruction and within a year had been graded a 1A Flying Instructor . He was promoted to squadron leader on 31 March 1927 and given command of Flying Squadron at No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) . Jones spent two years in Britain from 1928 , attending the Royal Air Force Staff College , Andover , and graduating top of his class at the RAF 's Central Flying School . He later recalled of this posting , " The social life was new to me , as was the etiquette ... I learned as fast as I could , but I have no doubt that I unwittingly committed many a social blunder . " As the RAAF 's senior officer in the UK , Jones had expected to be invited to accompany the airship R101 on its maiden flight to India . Instead another Australian officer was nominated to make the trip , and Jones avoided the disaster which followed .
Returning to Australia in October 1930 , Jones was made Chief Flying Instructor at Point Cook and Officer Commanding No. 1 FTS . He became Director of Training at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne , in November 1931 . On 2 April 1932 , he was taking off from Mascot , New South Wales , in a de Havilland Moth when he struck the perimeter fence and crashed , resulting in major damage to the aircraft and injuries to himself and his passenger . His performance in the early 1930s was highly regarded by his superiors , regularly being assessed as " above average " or " exceptional " . From late 1934 to early 1935 , he collaborated with the Director of Equipment , George Mackinolty , on an investigation into the state of aircraft production in Australia to highlight shortfalls in local defence in the face of possible future conflict with Japan . Though the report was reviewed enthusiastically by the Air Member for Personnel , Bill Anderson , it apparently went no further in the chain of command and thus was effectively ignored . In January 1936 , Jones was promoted to wing commander and appointed Director of Personnel Services .
= = World War II = =
= = = Rise to Chief of the Air Staff = = =
Shortly after the outbreak of World War II , on 1 December 1939 , Jones was raised to temporary group captain . In March 1940 , he returned to the position of Director of Training and assumed responsibility for Australia 's part in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) , establishing many schools , acquiring hundreds of aircraft , and overseeing the training of thousands of airman . The RAAF 's Central Flying School was reformed in April 1940 to meet the vital requirement for additional flying instructors , whose numbers would grow from 16 in the first year of the war to 3 @,@ 600 by 1945 . His performance in this role led to Jones being promoted to acting air commodore on 21 February 1941 , and appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1942 New Year Honours for " diligence , devotion to duty and perseverance of outstanding merit " .
On 5 May 1942 , Jones was appointed Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) , the RAAF 's senior position . He was considered an unlikely choice , a contemporary newspaper describing him as " the darkest of dark horses " . Jones was still only a substantive wing commander and acting air commodore when he succeeded to the role , leapfrogging several more senior officers including his friend Bill Bostock , now an air vice @-@ marshal and Deputy Chief of the Air Staff . Bostock , thought to be " among the Air Force 's best brains " at the time , was believed by himself ( and Jones ) to be the leading candidate for the position . The suggestion even arose that Jones ' selection was a mistake , based on the government 's reading of an organisation chart that implied he was the RAAF 's most senior officer after Bostock , when in fact he was ranked six places below .
Other potential appointees had included Air Marshal Richard Williams and Air Vice @-@ Marshal Peter Drummond . Williams , however , had been out of favour since his dismissal from the position of CAS in the wake of the Ellington Report criticising RAAF flying safety in 1939 , while Drummond was not released from his position as Deputy Air Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief RAF Middle East . Bostock was first choice of the incumbent CAS , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett , but the latter 's ill @-@ concealed contempt for John Curtin 's Federal Labor government helped ensure that his preference was ignored . Although he admitted to being " stunned " by the decision , Jones himself had the ambition and a reasonable expectation of becoming CAS at some point in his career ; it simply happened " much sooner than I anticipated " . Jones had proved his organisational abilities directing EATS , and believed that this was a significant factor in his appointment . His working class origin has also been cited as contributing to his suitability to a Labor government .
= = = Divided command = = =
Passed over as CAS , Bostock subsequently became Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) RAAF Command , which placed him in charge of Australian air operations in the Pacific . Jones ' role , in contrast , was primarily administrative , that of " raising , training and maintaining " the service . Though the CAS was de jure head of the RAAF , Jones ' new rank of air vice @-@ marshal was the same as Bostock 's . In the words of Air Force historian Alan Stephens , " Jones was the head of his service , but he was neither unambiguously its senior officer , nor presiding over a unified command ... The system of divided command ... was not an ideal arrangement , but with men of goodwill it could have worked . Regrettably Bostock and Jones were not of that mind ... "
Friction between the two senior officers over the command structure rapidly deteriorated into a state of " complete obduracy " , and remained so until the end of the war . As a direct report to the USAAF 's Lieutenant @-@ General George Kenney , commander of Allied Air Forces in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , Bostock was able to ignore many directives from Jones , his nominal superior in the RAAF . The CAS nevertheless continued to assert his authority over Bostock 's supplies of manpower and equipment .
In March 1943 Jones proposed that he take over responsibility for air operations in defence of the Australian mainland but General Douglas MacArthur , Supreme Commander SWPA , refused to countenance it . The next month , with the support of the Australian Air Board , Jones tried to remove Bostock from RAAF Command and replace him with Air Commodore Joe Hewitt , AOC No. 9 Operational Group ( No. 9 OG ) . Bostock appealed to Kenney , who advised Jones that he was opposed to any such change of command and threatened to escalate the matter to the Australian government . MacArthur subsequently told Prime Minister Curtin that Hewitt " was not an adequate replacement " for Bostock , and the matter was dropped . Six months later Jones would sack Hewitt over morale issues in No. 9 OG raised during the offensive on Rabaul ; Kenney called Hewitt ’ s removal " bad news " .
Jones himself came under threat of transfer or subordination in April 1943 when the Federal government began moves to unite the Air Force 's command by creating an overarching Air Officer Commanding RAAF position that would have effectively replaced Jones as CAS and also been senior to Bostock . Air Marshal Drummond was again approached but once more the British Air Ministry refused to release him , having selected him for an Air Council post . Macarthur rejected two other RAF candidates , and the plan was held over . In the King 's Birthday Honours that June , Jones was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath .
By June 1944 the Jones – Bostock conflict and the anomalous division of administrative and operational responsibilities again led the Australian government to consider the appointment of a new commander senior to both officers . Air Marshal Sir Keith Park , the New Zealand @-@ born AOC of No. 11 Group RAF during the Battle of Britain , was sought for the position but negotiations were broken off when MacArthur advised that it was too late to make such a change and that the problem had now gone " quiet " . That it was far from over was apparent in a series of cables exchanged between the two air vice @-@ marshals in January 1945 . Jones sent a signal to Bostock complaining of the latter ’ s " insubordinate tone " and " repeated attempts to usurp authority of this Headquarters " . Bostock replied that as AOC RAAF Command he was " responsible to Commander , Allied Air Forces , and not , repeat not , subordinate to you " , and that he would " continue to take the strongest exception to your unwarranted and uninformed interference " . Despite such acrimony , the command structure remained unchanged for the rest of the war .
Responsible as CAS for building up Australia 's air combat assets , in 1943 Jones had given an assurance to the Australian government that he could maintain a force of 73 squadrons , despite Kenney 's prediction that even the RAAF 's then @-@ currently approved strength of 45 squadrons was beyond its capacity . In the event , by the end of the war Jones had expanded the RAAF to 70 squadrons in the Pacific and Europe , including several heavy bomber units . One of his most controversial decisions of the war was during the invasion of Tarakan in May 1945 when he grounded Australian B @-@ 24 Liberator squadrons scheduled to take part in the attack , due to their crews having exceeded their monthly quota of flying hours . Bostock was not consulted , and said that he would have thankfully " fallen through a crack in the boards on the deck " as he watched the attacking formations from a U.S. warship , minus the expected RAAF aircraft . Kenney sympathised with him ; he once commented in his diary that " Jones and Bostock ... fight each other harder than the Japs " .
= = = The " Morotai Mutiny " = = =
Towards the end of the war Jones intervened in the so @-@ called " Morotai Mutiny " , when senior pilots in the Australian First Tactical Air Force ( No. 1 TAF ) proffered their resignations rather than carry on attacking what they saw as unimportant targets . Jones personally interviewed all but one of the officers involved , later declaring , " I believed them all to be sincere in what they were stating and what they had attempted to do ... Yes , sincerely held beliefs , no matter how ill @-@ founded , coupled possibly with a rather exaggerated sense of national duty . "
Kenney also insisted on speaking to the pilots himself , overriding Jones ' protestations that it was an internal RAAF matter , and threatened to appear on behalf of the pilots should they be court @-@ martialled . Jones sacked the Air Officer Commanding No. 1 TAF , his former No. 4 Squadron comrade Harry Cobby , along with two of Cobby 's staff . In what may have been a reaction to Kenney 's threat , Jones insisted that the subsequent inquiry before Justice John Vincent Barry focus not only on the attempted resignations but on reports of alcohol trafficking on Morotai . While no action was taken against the pilots over the mutiny directly , two of the RAAF 's best @-@ known aces , Group Captain Clive Caldwell and Wing Commander Bobby Gibbes , were court @-@ martialled for their involvement in the alcohol racket and reduced in rank . Although Barry did not find it a significant factor , the Jones – Bostock conflict was also blamed for contributing to the poor morale that precipitated the " mutiny " . One of the other participants , Wing Commander Kenneth Ranger , told the inquiry : " I deplore the fighting and wrangling between them which is common knowledge throughout the Air Force . Every week there are instances of it . "
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = The " Interim Air Force " = = =
Along with Bostock , Jones represented the RAAF at the Japanese surrender aboard USS Missouri in September 1945 . With Jones ' concurrence , Bostock and other senior commanders were summarily retired in 1946 , in Bostock 's case for " inability to work in harmony with certain other high ranking RAAF officers " . The CAS oversaw planning for the demobilisation of thousands of RAAF personnel and the creation of a peacetime service , known as the " Interim Air Force " . When he was eventually promoted air marshal in 1948 the RAAF was made up of approximately 8 @,@ 000 staff , compared to 175 @,@ 000 — the world 's fourth largest air force — he had commanded in 1945 as air vice @-@ marshal . Believing that wastage was reaching a critical point , Jones proposed recruiting women into a new service to replace the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force that had been disbanded in September 1946 . Blocked initially by the Labor government of the day , it came into being in 1950 as the Women 's Royal Australian Air Force , following the election of Robert Menzies ' Liberal Party in December 1949 .
Concurrently with demobilisation , Jones shaped the RAAF 's " Plan D " , adopted in 1947 . It outlined the service ’ s post @-@ war organisation and requirements , which included 16 squadrons flying technologically advanced aircraft . This basic structure remained in place for the next 20 years . In 1949 , Jones visited the UK with a team of advisors and recommended the English Electric Canberra jet to replace the RAAF 's Avro Lincoln piston @-@ engined bombers . Entering service in 1953 , the Canberras ultimately equipped three Squadrons , operating with distinction in the Vietnam War and continuing to fly until 1982 . Other enduring types purchased under Jones ' tenure as CAS included the CAC Sabre , P @-@ 2 Neptune and CAC Winjeel . He still enjoyed flying and made an effort to pilot each new type as it entered service , including the de Havilland Vampire jet , but his irregular turns in the cockpit meant that his skills were generally found wanting .
= = = Overseas commitments and retirement from RAAF = = =
When Australia committed forces to the Malayan Emergency in April 1950 , Jones grouped the requisite RAAF assets under one overarching organisation , No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing , to ensure they would operate with some autonomy rather than be dispersed throughout other Allied services as had been the case in World War II , when Australian units and personnel based in Britain had been absorbed by the RAF . He also proposed that the officer commanding all Commonwealth air force units should be from the RAAF ; this was agreed by the British Air Ministry , and the position later gave valuable experience to two future Chiefs of the Air Staff , Air Vice @-@ Marshals Frederick Scherger and Val Hancock . Jones allocated No. 77 Squadron , then based in Japan as part of British Commonwealth Occupation Force , to the United Nations Command when the Korean War broke out . Prime Minister Menzies rang Jones at home on Saturday , 1 July 1950 , requesting a squadron and the unit went into action the following day .
Almost immediately that Menzies ' Liberal Party replaced the Chifley Labor government at the end of 1949 , it had begun to investigate possible replacements ( largely from the RAF ) for the incumbent CAS , eventually deciding on Air Marshal ( later Air Chief Marshal ) Sir Donald Hardman . Jones was informed of his retirement , which he claimed to have been expecting , in December 1951 . In a farewell speech at the Australia Club in Melbourne , attended by Menzies , Jones said that organising EATS and expanding the Air Force in the South West Pacific had been his greatest achievements . His official exit from RAAF was on 22 February 1952 . The Prime Minister sent him a letter thanking him for his " valuable contribution " , which would " long be remembered " .
= = Later life = =
Following his departure from the Air Force in 1952 , Jones became Director of Coordination with the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation ( CAC ) and member of the board of Ansett Transport Industries . In the 1953 New Year Honours , he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his military service . He retired from the CAC directorship in 1957 but remained on the Ansett board until the early 1970s . Jones pursued a political career in parallel to his aviation industry work , unsuccessfully standing for Liberal Party pre @-@ selection in the seat of Flinders in 1952 . In 1958 , he left the Liberals in favour of the Labor Party , contesting the seat of Henty in 1961 . He switched parties as his views were too leftist for the Liberals , declaring " They got rather nasty with me and wouldn 't give me a fair go , so I resigned and joined the Labor Party " . He pursued an energetic campaign in Henty , but lost to his Liberal opponent by fewer than 3 @,@ 000 primary votes .
Jones also evinced an interest in unidentified flying objects , having first encountered unexplained aerial phenomena at Warrnambool , Victoria , in 1930 . He reported witnessing another UFO in October 1957 , but admitted that he was " loath to talk about it publicly lest people should think I was either an incompetent witness or getting a little screwy in the head " . In the mid @-@ 1960s he patronised the Commonwealth Aerial Phenomena Investigation Organisation and joined the Victorian UFO Research Society . Jones published his autobiography , From Private to Air Marshal , in 1988 . He was Australia 's last surviving World War I ace when he died in Melbourne on 24 August 1992 , at the age of 95 .
= = Legacy = =
Jones ' ten years as CAS constituted the longest continuous term of any RAAF chief . Despite his longevity in the position , he is still primarily known for two events early in his tenure , the surprise circumstance of his appointment , and his feud with Bill Bostock that lasted until the end of World War II . The conflict between its two senior officers has been labelled " disastrous " for the RAAF , one that " diminished its standing " in the eyes of its Allies . Jones claimed in his autobiography that he had never intrigued for the role of CAS and would have worked loyally for Bostock if the latter had been appointed .
Beyond these controversies , Jones significantly influenced the Air Force 's development during and after the war . He was honoured for his work running the Empire Air Training Scheme in 1940 – 42 and has received credit as CAS for building up the RAAF 's strength to 70 squadrons by 1945 . After the war he played a personal part in improving education within the service , including the establishment of RAAF College , along similar lines to Royal Military College , Duntroon , and the Royal Australian Naval College , as well as the RAAF Staff College . One of his last directions as CAS was the formation of RAAF Museum at Point Cook , where it is still based .
Jones encouraged local industry to design and build trainers for the RAAF and produce more sophisticated combat aircraft under licence from overseas manufacturers . This led to the Winjeel basic trainer and Australian industry co @-@ partnership in production of the CAC Sabre and Canberra jets ; such local participation has continued to figure in major RAAF aircraft acquisitions .
He refused to update the command structure of the Air Force from one based on region to one of function , something his successor , Air Marshal Hardman , would accomplish , and has been criticised for a systemic resistance to change . Jones was described in David Horner 's The Commanders as " a steady , sincere but colourless leader " , while Alan Stephens found him " a good and decent man , who had overcome considerable personal hardship in his youth to achieve exceptional professional success " but " neither an inspiring leader , nor a notable thinker " . Nevertheless , his Plan D for the RAAF 's post @-@ war organisation remained the service 's blueprint until the early 1970s .
= River Oaks , Houston =
River Oaks is a residential community located in the center of Houston , Texas , United States . Located within the 610 Loop and between Downtown and Uptown , the community spans 1 @,@ 100 acres ( 450 ha ) . Established in the 1920s by brothers William and Michael Hogg , the community became a well @-@ publicized national model for community planning . River Oaks is the wealthiest and most expensive community in Texas and among the top ten in the United States . Real estate values in the community range from $ 1 million to over $ 20 million . River Oaks was also named the most expensive neighborhood in Houston in 2013 . The community is home to River Oaks Country Club , which includes a golf course designed by architect Donald Ross .
= = History = =
William and Michael Hogg , the sons of former Texas Governor Jim Hogg , and attorney Hugh Potter established River Oaks in the 1920s . Potter obtained an option to purchase 200 acres ( 81 ha ) around the River Oaks Country Club in 1923 , and in the following year William Hogg established the Country Club Estates in order to support the development of the community . The two brothers promoted the sale of lots in the subdivision for $ 2 @,@ 200 apiece in 1928 . The brothers , along with sister Ima Hogg , oversaw the construction of Bayou Bend , a stately southern @-@ style home on the banks of Buffalo Bayou .
The development plans ensured that River Oaks 's parks and esplanades were planted with oaks , shrubs , azaleas and other flowers . Every detail of the development was planned to establish a well @-@ integrated community . Advertised as a " distinguished experiment in fine living , " River Oaks became a national model for community planning . River Oaks ' planning standards , residential architecture , and landscape design were publicized during the 1920s and 1930s in national newspapers , real estate media and design journals . Deed restrictions at the time restricted home prices to over $ 7 @,@ 000 and specified architectural styles , with a gentlemen 's agreement excluding blacks , Jews , and other minorities . Homes along Kirby Drive were restricted to American Colonial or English Tudor style architecture .
During the 1920s , River Oaks was so effectively organized , planned and restricted that it became the most expensive neighborhood in Houston . The City of Houston annexed the community in 1927 , adding 3 @,@ 465 acres ( 1 @,@ 402 ha ) of land to the city limits . Bus service to Downtown Houston opened during the same year . After World War II , as Houston experienced its greatest growth , River Oaks became a haven for the wealthy of the city .
River Oaks has been the subject matter of scholarly studies , primarily because its significant contributions to Houston 's history and development as an elite suburban community . The community was the site of the 1972 murder of Dr. John Hill ( later described in Thomas Thompson 's novel , Blood and Money ) . River Oaks was the home of Jeff Skilling before he began serving a 25 @-@ year prison sentence for his involvement in the Enron scandal .
The River Oaks Garden Club Forum of Civics , located in Upper Kirby , is listed in the National Register of Historic Places as the " Forum of Civics " on October 13 , 1988 . Formerly a county schoolhouse , the building is currently the administrative center for the River Oaks Garden Club .
In 2011 Bloomberg Businessweek ranked River Oaks as the seventh most expensive housing blocks in the United States .
= = Geography = =
Located within the 610 Loop and between Downtown and Uptown , River Oaks spans 1 @,@ 100 acres ( 450 ha ) . The community is located in a region bounded on the north by Buffalo Bayou , on the east by South Shepherd Drive , on the west by Willowick Road , and on the south by Westheimer Road . River Oaks is located northeast of Uptown , north of the Upper Kirby district , west of Neartown , and is near to the freeway system and many major thoroughfares such as Westheimer Road , Kirby Drive and San Felipe Street .
River Oaks Boulevard , a road that runs through the center of the community , is lined on both sides by mansions and estates located away from the street . The two square mile ( 5 @.@ 2 m2 ) area of the subdivision comprises approximately 1 @,@ 600 homes , mostly detached single family homes . In 1990 , the Houston Chronicle said that " [ t ] he grandest streets are probably River Oaks Boulevard and Lazy Lane . Some of the houses are monstrosities , but many show taste and grace and also have lovely gardens . "
= = Demographics = =
River Oaks is within the Houston Super Neighborhood # 23 Afton Oaks / River Oaks , a division of the City of Houston that includes River Oaks and some surrounding subdivisions . In 2000 the neighborhood had 14 @,@ 313 residents ; 12 @,@ 273 of them ( 85 @.@ 7 % ) were White , 1 @,@ 160 ( 8 @.@ 1 % ) were Hispanic , 390 ( 2 @.@ 7 % ) were Asian , 247 ( 1 @.@ 7 % ) were Black , 18 were Native American , 13 were Native Hawaiian , and 23 were Others . 189 people were of two or more races .
According to the United States census in 2000 , of the 12 @,@ 088 residents over 18 years of age , 10 @,@ 390 ( 86 @.@ 0 % ) were White , 945 ( 7 @.@ 8 % ) were Hispanic , 353 ( 2 @
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